The kidney is the major excretory and osmoregulatory organ of mammals and has the following

functions:

Removal of metabolic waste products

Regulation of the water content of body fluids

Regulation of the pH of body fluids

Regulation of the chemical composition of body fluids by removal of substances which are in excess
of immediate requirements.

The kidney has a rich blood supply and regulates the blood composition at a steady state. It
therefore contributes to homeostasis. This ensures that the composition of the tissue fluid is
maintained at an optimum level for the cells bathed by it and enables the cells to function efficiently
at all times. The kidneys receive blood from the aorta via the renal arteries, and the renal veins
return blood to the posterior vena cava. The unit of structure and function of the kidney is the
nephron and its associated blood supply. Each nephron is composed of six regions, each having its
own particular structure and function.

The renal corpuscle consists of Bowman's capsule and glomerular capillaries, responsible for
ultrafiltration. The glomerulus is a network of capillaries that invaginate into Bowman's capsule. It is
lined by endothelial cells and supported by a basement membrane and covered by the visceral layer
of Bowman's capsule. The Bowman’s capsule forms the distended end of the renal tubule. It
contains a visceral layer of epithelial cells (podocytes) that is reflected at the vascular stalk of the
glomerulus to become continuous with the parietal layer.

The proximal convoluted tubule is the longest and widest part of the nephron and carries filtrate
from the renal capsule to the loop of Henle. It is composed of a single layer of cuboidal epithelial
cells with extensive microvilli forming a brush border on the inside surface of the tubule. At the
opposite ends of the cells their outer membranes rest on the basement membrane and are folded
inwards to form a series of basal channels. These increase the surface area of the cells. The cells of
the proximal convoluted tubules have numerous mitochondria concentrated near the basement
membrane where they provide ATP for membrane bound carrier molecules involved in active
transport. Over 80% of the glomerulus filtrate is selectively reabsorbed here, including all the
glucose, amino acids, vitamins, hormones and about 80% of the NaCl and water.

The function of the loop of Henle is to conserve water. The longer the loop, the more concentrated
the urine that can be produced. The loop of Henle, together with the capillaries of the vasa recta and
collecting duct, creates and maintains an osmotic gradient in the medulla which extends from the
cortex to the tips of the pyramids. Water leaves the nephron by osmosis in response to this gradient,
which makes the fluid inside the nephron become urine. There are 3 regions of the loop f Henle,
each with their own function:

The descending limb which has thin walls

The thin ascending limb which has thin walls

The thick ascending limb which has thick walls

The descending limb is highly permeable to water and permeable to most solutes. Its function is to
allow substances to diffuse easily through its walls. Both parts of the ascending limb are almost
totally impermeable to water. The cells in the thick part can actively reabsorb sodium, chlorine
potassium and other ions from the tubule. Normally water would follow by osmosis the movement
of these ions into the cells, but this cannot occur because the cells are impermeable to water as
stated. The fluid in the ascending limb therefore becomes very dilute by the time it reaches the
distal convoluted tubule.

In the last two regions of the nephron ( distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct), fine tuning of
the body fluid is achieved. The cells of the distal convoluted tubule have a similar structure to those
of the proximal tubule, with microvilli lining the inner surface to increase the surface area for
reabsorption, and numerous mitochondria to supply energy for active transport. The collecting duct
carries fluid from the outer region of the medulla, next to the cortex, to the pyramids. As fluid moves
down the collecting duct, the tissue fluid in the medulla surrounding the duct gets more and more
concentrated. Water therefore leaves the collecting duct by osmosis.

In conclusion, the basic unit of the kidney is the nephron. The nephrons various structures work
together to maintain the blood composition at a steady state. It does this by excreting excess and
waste products as urine. The renal corpuscle is responsible for ultrafiltration which produces the
fluid which subsequent structures act on. The proximal convoluted tubule is involved in the bulk
reabsorption of substances into the blood. The loop of Henle deals with the reabsorption of water.
The distal and convoluted tubule deal with the fine control of the precise amounts of water and salts
reabsorbed. The fluid produces here is called urine.