6.l7 Intrinsic-Extrinsic PDF

Effective Mass
• The electrons in a crystal are not free, but instead interact with
the periodic potential of the lattice.
• In applying the usual equations of electrodynamics to charge
carriers in a solid, we must use altered values of particle mass.
We named it Effective Mass.
1
P.Ravindran, PHY02E Semiconductor Physics, 30 January 2013: Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors
Effective Mass – an example
Find the (E,k) relationship for a free electron and relate it to the
electron mass. E
k
The electron momentum is: p  mv  h k
1 2 1 p2 h 2 2
E  mv   k
2 2 m 2m
h2
m 2
d 2E h 2 d E

dk 2
m dk 2
Effective Mass
Most energy bands are close to parabolic at their minima (for
conduction bands) or maxima (for valence bands).
EC
h2
m* 
d 2E
dk 2
EV
Remember that in GaAs:
• The effective mass of an electron in a band with a given (E,k)
relationship is given by
E
L 
X
m ()  m ( X
* *
or L)
1.43eV
k
3
Effective Mass
• At k=0, the (E,k) relationship near the minimum is usually
parabolic:
h2 2
E (k )  *
k  Eg
2m
2
d
In a parabolic band, E2 is constant. So, effective mass is
constant. dk
In most semiconductors the effective mass is a tensor quantity.
h2
m ij
*
d 2 Eij
dkij2
Effective Mass
d 2E
EV
2
0 m*  0
dk h2
m* 
d 2E
2
d E dk 2
EC 2
0 m 0
*
dk
Table: Effective mass values for Ge, Si and GaAs.
Effective mass Ge Si GaAs
*
m n
0.55m0 1.1m0 0.067 m0
*
m p
0.37 m0 0.56 m0 0.48m0
† m0 is the free electron rest mass.

Crystalline structure of Si
• Si N=14 4 bonds, IV-th column of the periodic table

undoped or intrinsic semiconductor
real 3D
simplified 2D
► Diamond lattice, lattice constant a=0.543 nm

► Each atom has 4 nearest neighbor
6
Intrinsic Semiconductor
k B  1.38 10 23 JK -1

a) Energy level diagrams showing the excitation of an electron from the valence band to
the conduction band. The resultant free electron can freely move under the
application of electric field.
b) Equal electron & hole concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor created by the
thermal excitation of electrons across the band gap
 For T > 0K, some VB electrons get enough thermal energy to be excited (through
Eg) up to the CB.
 Consequently, the semiconductor material will have some electrons in the

previously empty CB and some unoccupied states in the previously full VB
Semiconductors: Doping
– When silicon is doped with phosphorous, it becomes a n-type
semiconductor, in which an electrical current is carried by
negatively charged electrons
– When silicon is doped with boron, it becomes a p-type
semiconductor, in which an electrical current is carried by
positively charged holes
9
Holes
C
Energy band
Eg Model
Vacancy Bond
Model
Donors and acceptors
At 0K, the donor energy
level is filled with electrons
and too little thermical
energy is needed in order to
excite these electrons up to
the CB. So, between 50-
100K, electrons are virtually
“donated” to the CB.
Likewise, acceptor levels can be

thermically settled with VB
electrons, by there generating
holes.
Donor and Acceptor levels with temperature
Extrinsic Semiconductors (n-type)
Extrinsic semiconductor (p-type)
13
Charge Carriers in doped Semiconductors
Extrinsic Material
• Doping: the process to create carriers in semiconductors by purposely introducing impurities
into the crystal
- There are two types of doped semiconductors, n-type and p-type.
• Extrinsic semiconductors: the materials that have a characteristic of n0  p0  ni when they are
doped
• n-type semiconductors:
- A “donor” impurity from column V (P, As, Sb; donor) introduces an donor energy level (Ed) near the
bottom of CB Ec( within the band gap)
- At 50K, all of the electrons in Ed (filled with electrons at 0K) are “donated” to CB
- n0  ni , p0  (e-: majority carrier, h+: minority carrier)
n-type semiconductor
Energy Band Model
Charge Carriers in Semiconductors
Extrinsic Material (continued)
• p-type semiconductor (e-: minority carrier, h+:majority carrier):
- An “acceptor” impurity from column III (B, Al, Ga, In; acceptor) introduces an acceptor energy level (Ea) near the
top of VB Ev( within the band gap)
- At 50K, all of the energy states in Ea (empty at 0K) “accept” electrons from the VB, leaving behind holes in the VB.
- p  n , n 
0 i 0
p-type
Energy Band Model
• Bond Model:
- An As atom (column V; 5 valence electrons) in Si lattice has 4
valence electrons to complete the covalent bonds with the 4
neighboring Si atoms, plus one extra electron; the fifth
valence electron is loosely bound to As atom  A small
amount of thermal E enables this extra electron to
overcome its Coulombic binding to the impurity atom 
extra electron is donated to the lattice
- The column III impurity B has only 3 valence electrons to

contribute to the covalent bonding, leaving one bond
incomplete (hole)  With a small amount of thermal E, this
incomplete bond is transferred to other atoms as the
bonding electrons exchange positions (electron hopping)
Bond Model
5 valance dopant: donor (As, P, Sb)
conduction band
valance band
• Electron: majority carrier

• Hole: minority carrier n-type semiconductor
16
3 valance dopant: acceptor (B, Ga, In)
conduction band
valance band
• Electron: minority carrier

• Hole: majority carrier p-type semiconductor
17
n-Type Semiconductor
a) Donor level in an n-type semiconductor.

b) The ionization of donor impurities creates an increased electron
concentration distribution.
p-Type Semiconductor
a) Acceptor level in an p-type semiconductor.

b) The ionization of acceptor impurities creates an increased hole
concentration distribution
Intrinsic & Extrinsic Materials
• Intrinsic material: A perfect material with no impurities.
Eg
n  p  ni  exp(  )
2k BT
n,p & ni are the electron, hole, & intrinsic concentrations respectively. Eg is
the gap energy, T is temperature.
• Extrinsic material: donor or acceptor type semiconductors.
pn  ni
2
• Majority carriers: electrons in n-type or holes in p-type.

• Minority carriers: holes in n-type or electrons in p-type.
• The operation of semiconductor devices is essentially based on the injection
and extraction of minority carriers.
Calculation of carrier concentration
FD statistics:
1
f (W ) 
 W  WF 
1  exp 
 kT  electrons
possible energy occupation concentrations

states probability
holes
 Wv
n   g c (W ) f (W ) dW
Wc
p  g (W ) 1  f (W ) dW
0
v
21
Temperature Effects
 As the crystal temperature rises, the crystal expands and the gap
energy gets lower.
 By submitting to pressure, the crystal is compressed and the gap
energy rises.
Varshni T 2
Eg (T )  Eg (0) 
Equation T 
Bandgaps of silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide
S.M.Sze, “Physics of Semiconductor Devices”, 2nd Edition, John

Wiley&Sons, 1981
dopant in a rather simple way
* In the case where the dopant is a DONOR t

a core with a net POSITIVE charge
 The donor is thus essentially similar

energy of the surplus electron can b
IONIZATION ENERGY of the hydroge
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
n  p  ni
• THE IO
Doping of Semic (SUBJE
Si:As
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
• A similar argument to that
+ above may also be•BY
FOR A
mad
INC
the pseudo hydrogen atom e - consists of a POSITIVE
THE DIE
 Donor impurities – provide extra electrons

to conduction * This gives a SIMILAR estimate for the binding
A GROUP V DOPANT IN A SILICON LATTICE
CAN BE VIEWED AS A PSEUDO HYDROGEN ATOM!
(type n)
 Acceptor impurities – provide exceeding • A GROUP I

BE VIEWED
holes to conduction Si:B
• IN THIS CA
(type p) B NEGATIVEL
e+
* The ACTUAL donor and acceptor binding ene

reasonably WELL with these SIMPLE estimat
P.Ravindran, PHY02E Semiconductor Physics, 30 January 2013: Intrinsic and ExtrinsicENERGY

BINDING semiconductors
FOR DONORS (eV)
Concept of Fermi-Dirac distribution function
Distribution of electrons over a range of allowed energy levels

at thermal equilibrium is given by :
f(E) = 1
1 + e(E – EF) / kT
K – Boltzman’s constant = 8.62 x 10-5 eV / K= 1.38 x 10 -23 J / K
f(E) gives the probability of findiing a electron in a particular energy E.

6.l7 Intrinsic-Extrinsic PDF

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6.l7 Intrinsic-Extrinsic PDF

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Effective Mass

In most semiconductors the effective mass is a tensor quantity.

† m0 is the free electron rest mass.

• Si N=14 4 bonds, IV-th column of the periodic table

► Diamond lattice, lattice constant a=0.543 nm

k B  1.38 10 23 JK -1

 Consequently, the semiconductor material will have some electrons in the

Likewise, acceptor levels can be

Extrinsic semiconductor (p-type)

- n0  ni , p0  (e-: majority carrier, h+: minority carrier)

- The column III impurity B has only 3 valence electrons to

• Electron: majority carrier

• Electron: minority carrier

a) Donor level in an n-type semiconductor.

a) Acceptor level in an p-type semiconductor.

• Majority carriers: electrons in n-type or holes in p-type.

possible energy occupation concentrations

Bandgaps of silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide

S.M.Sze, “Physics of Semiconductor Devices”, 2nd Edition, John

* In the case where the dopant is a DONOR t

 The donor is thus essentially similar

Doping of Semic (SUBJE

 Donor impurities – provide extra electrons

 Acceptor impurities – provide exceeding • A GROUP I

* The ACTUAL donor and acceptor binding ene

P.Ravindran, PHY02E Semiconductor Physics, 30 January 2013: Intrinsic and ExtrinsicENERGY

Distribution of electrons over a range of allowed energy levels

K – Boltzman’s constant = 8.62 x 10-5 eV / K= 1.38 x 10 -23 J / K

f(E) gives the probability of findiing a electron in a particular energy E.

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