Chapter 4:

Transmission
Line Parameters

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 ECE 476
POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Chapter 4
Transmission Line Parameters

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 Contents
• Reactive Compensation
• Balance Three Phase - circuits
• Power in 3- Phase Circuits
• Advantages of Balanced Three-Phase versus
Single-Phase Systems

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 Transmission Line – Design Consideration

An overhead transmission line consists of

conductors, insulators, support structures,
and, in most cases, shield wires.
1. CONDUCTORS

•Aluminum has replaced copper as the most common conductor

metal for overhead transmission.

•Aluminum has a lower cost and lighter weight. Also, the

supply of aluminum is abundant, whereas that of copper is
limited. (tensile strength, better electrical capacity / weight)

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 Transmission Line – Conductor

One of the most common conductor types is aluminum conductor, steel

reinforced (ACSR), which consists of layers of aluminum strands
surrounding a central core of steel strands (Figure 4.1).

Stranded conductors (adding successive layers) are also easier to handle and
more flexible than solid conductors, especially in larger sizes. The use of
steel strands gives ACSR conductors a high strength-to-weight ratio

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 Transmission Line – Conductor

• Conductor types include the all-aluminum conductor (AAC), all-

aluminumalloy conductor (AAAC), aluminum conductor alloy-
reinforced (ACAR), and aluminum-clad steel conductor (Alumoweld).

• Higher-temperature conductors capable of operation in excess of

150 degrees include the aluminum conductor steel supported (ACSS)

• Emerging technologies use composite materials, including the

aluminum conductor carbon reinforced (ACFR), whose core is a
resinmatrix composite containing carbon fiber, and the aluminum
conductor composite reinforced (ACCR), whose core is an aluminum-
matrix containing aluminum fibers.

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 Transmission Line – Conductor

Transmission lines often have more than one conductor per phase; these
conductors are called a bundle.
The 765-kV line in Figure 4.2 has four conductors per phase, and the 345-kV
double-circuit line in Figure 4.3 has two conductors per phase.

Bundle conductors have a lower electric field strength at the conductor

surfaces, thereby controlling corona. They also have a smaller series
reactance.
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 Transmission Line – Insulators

Insulators for transmission lines above 69

kV are typically suspension-type
insulators, that consist of a string of discs
constructed of porcelain, toughened glass,
or polymer. The standard disc (Figure 4.4)
has a 10-in. (0.254-m) diameter, 534
-in. (0.146-m) spacing between centers of
adjacent discs, and a mechanical strength
of 7500 kg.

The number of insulator discs in a string increases

with line voltage. Other types of discs include larger
units with higher mechanical strength and fog
insulators for use in contaminated areas.
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Transmission Line – Insulators

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 Transmission Line – Support Structure

Transmission lines employ a

variety of support
structures. Figure shows a
self supporting, lattice steel
tower typically used for
500- and 765-kV lines.

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 Transmission Line – Support Structure

Double-circuit 345-kV lines

usually have self-supporting
steel towers with the phases
arranged either in a
triangular configuration to
reduce tower height or in a
vertical configuration to
reduce tower width

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 Transmission Line – Support Structure

Wood frame configurations

are commonly used for
voltages of 345 kV as
shown in figure below.

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 Transmission Line – Shield wires

•Shield wires located above the phase conductors protect the

phase conductors against lightning.

•The number and location of the shield wires are selected so

that almost all lightning strokes terminate on the shield wires
rather than on the phase conductors.

•Shield wires are grounded to the tower. As such, when

lightning strikes a shield wire, it flows harmlessly to ground,
provided the tower impedance and tower footing resistance
are small.

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Transmission Line – Shield wires

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Transmission Line – Resistance

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 Transmission Line – Resistance

Resistivity depends on the conductor metal. Resistivity

of conductor metals is listed in Table 4.3. As shown, hard-
drawn aluminum, which has 61% of the conductivity of the
international standard, has a resistivity at 20 degree of 17.00
Ω-cmil/ft.

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Onwards slides are
from V.K. Mehta
Chapter 8

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Transmission Line Support

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Transmission Line Support - wooden

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Transmission Line Support – wooden

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Transmission Line Support

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Transmission Line Support

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Transmission Line Support – RCC

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Transmission Line Support – RCC

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 Transmission Line – Insulators

The overhead line conductors should be supported on the poles or

towers in such a way that currents from conductors do not flow to
earth through supports i.e., line conductors must be properly insulated
from supports. This is achieved by securing line conductors to
supports with the help of insulators. The insulators provide necessary
insulation between line conductors and supports and thus prevent any
leakage current from conductors to earth

The most commonly used material for insulators of

overhead line is porcelain but glass, steatite and special
composition materials are also used to a limited extent.

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 Transmission Line – Insulators Properties

(i) High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor

load, wind load etc.

(ii) High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to

avoid leakage currents to earth.

(iii) High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that

dielectric strength is high.

(iv) The insulator material should be non-porous, free from

impurities and cracks otherwise the permittivity will be lowered.

(v) High ratio of puncture strength to flashover.

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Type of Insulators

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Type of Insulators

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Type of Insulators

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Type of Insulators

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Advantages of Suspension type Insulators

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Potential Distribution Over Suspension Insulator String
A string of suspension insulators consists of a number of porcelain discs
connected in series through metallic links. Fig. 8.10 (i) shows 3-disc
string of suspension insulators. The porcelain portion of each disc is in
between two metal links.

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Potential Distribution Over Suspension Insulator String
Each disc forms a capacitor C as shown in Fig. 8.10 (ii). This is known as
mutual capacitance or self-capacitance. If there were mutual capacitance
alone, then charging current would have been the same through all the
discs and consequently voltage across each unit would have been the
same i.e., V/3 as shown in Fig. 8.10 (ii).

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 Potential Distribution Over Suspension Insulator String
However, in actual practice, capacitance also exists between metal fitting
of each disc and tower or earth. This is known as shunt capacitance C1.
Due to shunt capacitance, charging current is not the same through all the
discs of the string [See Fig. 8.10 (iii)]. Therefore, voltage across each disc
will be different. Obviously, the disc nearest to the line conductor will
have the maximum* voltage. Thus referring to Fig.
8.10 (iii), V3 will be much more than V2 or V1.

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Potential Distribution Over Suspension Insulator String

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 Potential Distribution Over Suspension Insulator String
– Conclusions
The following points may be noted regarding the potential distribution
over a string of suspension insulators :
(i) The voltage impressed on a string of suspension insulators does not
distribute itself uniformly across the individual discs due to the presence of
shunt capacitance.
(ii) The disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it. As
we move towards the cross-arm, the voltage across each disc goes on
decreasing.
(iii) The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum electrical stress
and is likely to be punctured. Therefore, means must be provided to
equalise the potential across each unit.
(iv) If the voltage impressed across the string were d.c., then voltage across
each unit would be the same. It is because insulator capacitances are
ineffective for d.c.

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 String Efficiency
As stated above, the voltage applied across the string of suspension
insulators is not uniformly distributed across various units or discs.
The disc nearest to the conductor has much higher potential than the
other discs. This unequal potential distribution is undesirable and is
usually expressed in terms of string efficiency

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String Efficiency – Important Points

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String Efficiency – Important Points

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String Efficiency – Important Points

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String Efficiency – Important Points

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 String Efficiency – Conclusions

The following points may be noted from the above mathematical analysis :

(i)If K = 0·2 (Say), then from exp, we get, V2 = 1·2 V1 and V3 = 1·64 V1. This
clearly shows that disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it; the
voltage across other discs decreasing progressively as the cross-arm in approached.

(ii) The greater the value of K (= C1/C), the more non-uniform is the potential
across the discs and lesser is the string efficiency.

(iii) The inequality in voltage distribution increases with the increase of number of
discs in the string. Therefore, shorter string has more efficiency than the larger one 48
 Methods of Improving String Efficiency

• potential distribution in a string of suspension insulators is not

uniform. The maximum voltage appears across the insulator
nearest to the line conductor and decreases progressively as
the crossarm is approached.

• If the insulation of the highest stressed insulator (i.e. nearest

to conductor) breaks down or flash over takes place, the
breakdown of other units will take place in succession.

• This requires to equalize the potential across the various units

of the string i.e. to improve the string efficiency Various
methods are used for it

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Methods of Improving String Efficiency

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 Methods of Improving String Efficiency
2. By grading the insulators. In this method,
insulators of different dimensions are so chosen that
each has a different capacitance. The insulators are
capacitance graded i.e. they are
assembled in the string in such a way that the top
unit has the minimum capacitance, increasing
progressively as the bottom unit (i.e., nearest to
conductor) is reached.

Since voltage is inversely proportional to

capacitance, this method tends to equalise the
potential distribution across the units in the string.

This method has the disadvantage that a large

number of different-sized insulators are required.
However, good results can be obtained by using
standard insulators for most of the string and larger
units for that near to the line
conductor
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 Methods of Improving String Efficiency
3. By using guard rings. The potential across each
unit in a string can be equalised by using a guard
ring which is a metal ring electrically connected to
the conductor and surrounding the bottom insulator
as shown in the Fig. 8.13.

The guard ring introduces capacitance between

metal fittings and the line conductor. The guard ring
is contoured in such a way that shunt capacitance
currents i1, i2 etc. are equal to metal fitting line
capacitance currents i′1, i′2 etc.

The result is that same charging current I flows

through each unit of string. Consequently, there will
be uniform potential distribution across the units.

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 Transmission Line losses – Corona loss / effect

Corona is a phenomenon associated with all transmission

lines. Under certain conditions, the localized electric field
near energized components and conductors can produce a
tiny electric discharge or corona, that causes the
surrounding air molecules to ionize, or undergo a slight
localized change of electric charge.

The phenomenon of ionisation of surrounding air around

the conductor due to which luminous glow with hissing
noise is rise is known as the corona effect.

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 Transmission Line losses – Corona loss / effect

Air acts as a dielectric medium between the transmission lines. In other

words, it is an insulator between the current carrying conductors.

If the voltage induces between the conductor is of alternating nature then

the charging current flows between the conductors. The electric field
intensity also increases because of the charging current.

At low intensity level of the electric field say less than 30kV, the current
induces between the conductor is neglected.

But at higher voltage level > 30kV (critical disruptive voltage) the air
between the conductors becomes charge and they start conducting,
conductors are surrounded by a faint violet glow called corona.

The sparking can occurs between the conductors till the complete
breakdown of the insulation properties of conductors takes place.
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 Transmission Line losses – Corona loss / effect

The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound, production

of ozone, power loss and radio interference. The higher the voltage is
raised, the larger and higher the luminous envelope becomes, and greater
are the sound, the power loss and the radio noise.
If the applied voltage is increased to breakdown value, a flash-over will
occur between the conductors due to the breakdown of air insulation.

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 Transmission Line losses – Corona loss / effect

Utility companies try to reduce the amount of corona

because in addition to the low levels of noise that
result, corona is a power loss, and in extreme cases, it
can damage system components over time.
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Factors affecting Corona loss / effect

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Theory of Corona Formation

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Corona loss – Important terms – Critical Disruptive
Voltage

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Corona loss – Important terms – Critical Disruptive
Voltage

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Corona loss – Important terms – Critical Disruptive
Voltage

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Corona loss – Important terms – Critical Disruptive
Voltage – Example

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Corona loss – Important terms – Critical Disruptive
Voltage – Example

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Corona loss – Important terms – Visual Critical Voltage

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Corona loss – Important terms – Power Loss

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 Sag in Overhead Transmission Lines (1)
Sag in overhead Transmission line conductor refers to the
difference in level between the point of support and the
lowest point on the conductor.

As shown in the figure above, a Transmission line is supported at

two points A and B of two different Transmission Towers. It is
assumed that points A and B are at the same level from the
ground. Therefore as per our definition of Sag, difference in
level of point A or B and lowest point O represents the Sag.

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 Sag in Overhead Transmission Lines (2)

Overhead power lines (transmission and distribution lines) are

suspended on pole/tower supports. Suspended conductors are
subjected to mechanical tension which must be under safe value.
Excess mechanical tension may break the conductor.

Therefore, a conductor between two supports must not be fully

stretched and allowed to have a dip or sag..

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 Sag in Overhead Transmission Lines (3)
 Keeping the desired sag in overhead power lines is an
important consideration. If the amount of sag is very low, the
conductor is exposed to a higher mechanical tension which may
break the conductor.

 If the amount of sag is very high, the conductor may swing at

higher amplitudes due to the wind and may contact with
alongside conductors.

 Lower sag means tight conductor and higher tension. Higher

sag means loose conductor and lower tension.

 Therefore, a suitable value of sag is calculated so that the

conductor remains in safe tension limit keeping the sag
minimum.
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 Sag in Overhead Transmission Lines (4)

(i) When the conductor is suspended between two supports at the same
level, it takes the shape of catenary (similar to parabola). However, if the
sag is very small compared with the span, then sag-span curve Is exactly
like a parabola

(ii) The tension at any point on the conductor acts tangentially. Thus
tension TO at the lowest point O acts horizontally as shown in Fig. above
The horizontal component of tension is constant throughout the length of
the wire.

(iv) The tension at supports is approximately equal to the horizontal tension

acting at any point on the wire. Thus if T is the tension at the support B, then
T = To.
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 Calculation of Sag (1)

In an overhead line, the sag should be so adjusted that tension in

the conductors is within safe limits.

The tension is governed by conductor weight, effects of wind,

ice loading and temperature variations.

It is a standard practice to keep conductor tension less than 50%

of its ultimate tensile strength i.e., minimum factor of safety in
respect of conductor tension should be 2.

We shall now calculate sag and tension of a conductor when (i)

supports are at equal levels and (ii) supports are at unequal
levels.

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Calculation of Sag (2)

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Calculation of Sag (2)

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Calculation of Sag (2)

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Calculation of Sag (3)

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Calculation of Sag (4)

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Calculation of Sag (5)

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Calculation of Sag – Examples

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Calculation of Sag (5)

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Calculation of Sag (5)

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