Abbott, L. J., Parker, S. & Peter, G. F.

(2012), ‘Internal audit assistance and external audit timeliness’,

Auditing: A Journal of Practice & Theory, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 3–20.
Adetoso, J. A., Oladejo, K. S. & Akesinro, A. S. (2013), ‘Effectiveness of internal auditor in
controlling fraud and other financial irregularities in private universities in South- West, Nigeria’,
Research Journal of Finance and Accounting, Vol. 4, No. 13, pp. 106–10.
Adit, T. S. (2003), ‘Economic analysis of corruption: a survey. The Economic Journal, Vol. 113, No.
491, pp. 632–55.
Ahmad, H. N., Othman, R., Othman, R. & Jusoff, K. (2009), ‘The effectiveness of internal audit in
Malaysian public sector’, Journal of Modern Accounting and Auditing, Vol. 5, No. 9, pp. 53–62.
Albrecht, W. S., Howe, K. R., Schueler, D. R. & Stocks, K. D. (1988), Evaluating the Effectiveness
of Internal Audit Departments, Altamonte Springs, FL: Institute of Internal Auditors.
Ali, A. Md., Gloeck, J. D., Ali, A., Ahmi, A. & Sahdan, M. H. (2007), ‘Internal audit in the state
and local governments of Malaysia’, Southern African Journal of Accountability and
Al-Twaijry, A. A. M., Brierley, J. A. & Gwillian, D. R. (2003), ‘The development of internal audit
in Saudi Arabia: An institutional theory perspective’, Critical Perspectives on Accounting, Vol. 14,
pp. 507–31.
Alzeban, A. & Gwilliam, D. (2014), ‘Factors affecting the internal audit effectiveness: a survey of
the Saudi public sector’, Journal of International Accounting, Auditing and Taxation, Vol. 23, pp.
74–86.
Anderson, D., Francis, J. R. & Stokes, D. J. (1993), ‘Auditing, directorships and the demand for
monitoring’, Journal of Accounting and Public Policy, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 353–75.
Arena, M., Arnaboldi, M. & Azzone, G. (2006), ‘Internal audit in Italian organizations: a multiple
case study’, Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 275–92.
Arena, M. & Azzone, G. (2007), ‘Internal audit departments: adoption and characteristics in Italian
companies’, International Journal of Auditing, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 91–114.
Arena, M. & Azzone, G. (2009), ‘Identifying organizational drivers of internal audit effectiveness’,
International Journal of Auditing, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 43–60.
Arena, M. & Sarens, G. (2015), ‘Editorial: Internal auditing: creating stepping stones for the future’,
International Journal of Auditing, Vol. 19, pp. 131–3.
Aryeetey, E. & Kanbur, R. (2008), The Economy of Ghana: Analytical Perspectives on Stability,
Growth & Poverty, Oxford Accra, Ghana: James Currey Woeli Publishing Services.
Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (2008), Report to the Nation: Occupational Fraud and
Abuse, Austin, TX: ACFE.
Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (2010), Report to the Nation on Occupational Fraud and
Abuse. Global Fraud Study: Together Reducing Fraud Worldwide, Austin, TX: ACFE.
Auditor-Generalˈs Report (2011), Report of the Auditor-General on the Public Accounts of Ghana
for the year ended 31 December, 2011, Accra, Ghana: Ghana Government.

24
Auditor-Generalˈs Report (2012), Report of the Auditor-General on the Public Accounts of Ghana
for the year ended 31 December 2012, Accra, Ghana: Ghana Government.
Auditor-Generalˈs Report (2013), Report of the Auditor-General on the Public Accounts of Ghana
for the year ended 31 December, 2013, Accra, Ghana: Ghana Government.
Auditor-Generalˈs Report (2014), Report of the Auditor-General on the Public Accounts of Ghana
for the year ended 31 December 2014, Accra, Ghana: Ghana Government.
Ayee, J. (2002), ‘Political and social consequence of corruption’, in Corruption and Development in
Africa, Proceedings of a Seminar Organized by the Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences with
Friedrich Ebert Foundation.
Bentler, P. M. & Bonett, D. G. (1980), ‘Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of
covariance structures’, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 88, No. 3, pp. 588–606.
Blue Ribbon Committee (1999), Report and Recommendations of the Blue Ribbon Committee on
Improving the Effectiveness of Corporate Audit Committees, New York: New York Exchange.
Böhm, F., Bollen, L. H. & Hassink, H. F. (2013), ‘Spotlight on the design of European audit
committees: a comparative descriptive study’, International Journal of Auditing, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp.
138–61.
Borner, S., Brunetti, A. & Weder, B. (1994), Political Credibility and Economic Development, New
York: St. Martinˈs Press.
Brierley, J. A., El-Nafabi, H. M. & Gwilliam, D. (2001), ‘The problems of establishing internal audit
in the Sudanese public sector’, International of Journal Auditing, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 73–87.
Brierley, J. A., El-Nafabi, H. & Gwilliam, D. (2003), ‘An examination of internal audit in the
Sudanese public sector’, Research in Accounting in Emerging Economies, Vol. 5, pp. 177–195.
Burnaby, P., Howe, M. & Muehlmann, B. W. (2009), ‘Detecting fraud in the organization: an internal
audit perspective’, Journal of Forensic & Investigative Accounting, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 195–233.
Byrne, B. M. (2013), Structural Equation Modeling with LISREL, PRELIS, and SIMPLIS: Basic
Concepts, Applications, and Programming. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Campante, F. R. & Ferreira, F. H. G. (2004), ‘Inefficient lobbying, populism and oligarchy’, Journal
of Public Economics, Vol. 91, No. 5/6, pp. 993–1021.
Campos, J. E., Lien, D. & Pradhan, S. (1999) ‘The impact of corruption on investment: predictability
matters’, World Development, Vol. 27, No. 6, pp. 1059–67.
Campos, J. E. & Syquia, J. L. (2005), ‘Managing the politics of reform: overhauling the legal
infrastructure of public procurement in the Philippines’, World Bank Working Paper no. 70,
Washington, DC: World Bank.
Carcello, J. V., Hermanson, D. R. & Raghunandan, K. (2005), ‘Factors associated with US public
companies’ investment in internal auditing’, Accounting Horizons, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 69–84.
Carey, P., Craswell, A. & Simnett, R. (2000), ‘The association between the external audit fee and
external auditors reliance on the work’, Working Paper, Monash University.

25
CDD (2000), The Ghana Governance and Corruption Survey: Evidence from Households, Enterprises
and Public Officials. Accra: CDD.
Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy (CIPFA) (2003), Code of practice for internal
audit in local government in the United Kingdom, Consultative Draft, London: CIPFA.
Chen, G. & Li, S. (2010), ‘Corruption, income distribution and income gap in China’, Economic
Science, Vol. 2, pp. 55–68 (in Chinese).
Church, B. K., McMillan, J. J. & Schneider, A (2001), ‘Factors affecting internal auditors’
consideration of fraudulent financial reporting during analytical proceduresˈ, Auditing: A Journal of
Practice & Theory, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 65–80.
Coltman, T., Devinney, T.M., Midgley, D. F. & Venaik, S. (2008) ‘Formative versus reflective
measurement models: two applications of formative measurement’, Journal of Business Research,
Vol. 61, No. 12, pp. 1250–62.
de Graaf, G. (2007), ‘Causes of corruption: towards a contextual theory of corruption’, Public
Administration Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 1/2, pp. 39–86.
Diamantopoulos, A., Reifler, P. & Roth, K. P. (2008), ‘Advancing formative measurement models’,
Journal of Business Research, Vol. 61, No. 12, pp. 1203–18.
Dittenhofer, M. (2001), ‘Internal auditing effectiveness: an expansion of present methods’,
Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol. 16, pp. 443–50.
DˈOnza, G., Selim, G. M., Melville, R. & Allegrini, M. (2015), ‘A study on internal auditor
perceptions of the function ability to add value’, International Journal of Auditing, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp.
182–194.
Dubois, D., Dumontier, P. & Frésard, L. (2010), ‘Conflicts of interests in the financial analysis
industry: why did Europeans get MAD?’, Working paper, University of Neuchâtel.
Enu-Kwesi, F. (2014), ‘Combating corruption in Ghana and Africa: the role of stakeholders’, Oguaa
Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 7, pp. 77–99.
Fosu, A. & Aryeetey, E. (2008), ‘Economic growth in Ghana: 1960–2000’, in E. Aryeetey & R.
Kanbur (eds.), The Economy of Ghana: Analytical Perspectives on Stability, Growth, and Poverty,
Accra, Ghana: Woeli Publishing, pp. 68–94.
Goodwin, J. (2004), ‘A comparison of internal audit in the private and public sectors’, Managerial
Auditing Journal, Vol. 19, pp. 640–50
Goodwin, J. & Kent, P. (2004), ‘Factors affecting the voluntary use of internal audit’, Working paper,
Queensland University of Technology.
Goodwin, J. & Teck, Y. Y. (2001), ‘Two factors affecting internal audit independence and objectivity:
evidence from Singapore’, International Journal of Auditing, Vol. 5, pp. 107–25.
Gramling, A. A., Maletta, M. J., Schneider, A. & Church, B. K. (2004), ‘The role of the internal audit
function in corporate governance: a synthesis of the extant internal auditing literature and directions
for future research’, Journal of Accounting Literature, Vol. 23, pp. 194–244.

26
Gwilliam, D. & El-Nafabi, H. (2002), ‘The possibility of transition to public sector modern auditing
techniques and procedures found in developing countries: the case of Sudan’, Accounting Research,
Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 161–96.
Gyimah-Boadi, E. & Jeffries, R. (2000), ‘The political economy of reform’, in E. Aryeetey, J.
Harrigan & M. Nissanke (eds.), Economic Reforms in Ghana: The Miracle and the Mirage, Oxford:
James Currey, pp. 32–50.
Halbouni, S. S. (2015), ‘The role of auditors in preventing, detecting, and reporting fraud: the case of
the United Arab Emirates (UAE)’, International Journal of Auditing, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 117–30.
Hamilton, A. (2013), ‘Small is beautiful, at least in high income democracies: the distribution of
policy making responsibility, electoral accountability, and incentives for rent extraction’, Policy
Research Working Paper WPS 6305, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Hamilton, A. & Hudson, J. (2014), ‘Bribery and identification: evidence from Sudan’, University of
Bath Working Paper.
Heyneman, S. P., Anderson, K. H. & Nuraliyeva, N. (2008), ‘The cost of corruption in higher
education’, Comparative Education Review, Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 1–25.
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J. & Mullen, M. R. (2008), ‘Structural equation modelling: guidelines for
determining model fit. electron’, Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp.
53–60.
Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) (1999), Definition of Internal Auditing. Altamonte Springs, FL:
IIA.
IIA (2002a), Standards for the Professional Practice of Internal Auditing, Altamonte Springs, FL:
Institute of Internal Auditors.
IIA (2002b), ‘Survey results: CAE reporting relationships’, GAIN Flash Survey, June 4,
www.gain2.org/caereportsum. htm
IIA (2003a), ‘Audit committees: are you in compliance?’ Tone at the Top, No. 17, pp. 1–3.
IIA (2003b), ‘Survey results: impact of Sarbanes-Oxley Act on internal audit’, GAIN Flash Survey,
February 25, www. gain2.org/soasum.htm
IIA (2010), The IIAˈs 2010 Global Internal Audit Survey, Altamonte Springs, FL: Institute of Internal
Auditors.
IIA (2011), Imperatives for change: the IIA Global Internal Audit Survey in Action. Altamonte
Springs, FL: Institute of Internal Auditors Research Foundation.
Integrated Annual Report (IAR) (2014), Annual Report Gold Fields
https://www.goldfields.co.za/reports/annual_ report_2014/integrated/pdf/full.pdf (accessed on 13
February 2016).
Johnson, S., Kaufmann, D. & Shleifer A. (1997), ‘The unofficial economy in transition’, Brookings
Papers on Economic Activity, No. 2, pp. 159–239.
Jöreskog, K. (1977), ‘Factor analysis by least-squares and maximum-likelihood methods’, in K.
Enslein, A. Ralston &

27
H. S. Wilf (eds.), Statistical Methods for Digital Computers, New York: Wiley, pp. 125–53.
Jöreskog, K. & Sörbom, D. (1996), LISREL 8: Userˈs Reference Guide. Chicago, IL: Scientific
Software International Inc.
Jöreskog, K. & Sörbom, D. (2001), The Student Edition of LISREL
8.51 for Windows [Computer Software]. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International, Inc.
Kaufmann, D. (2003), ‘Governance Crossroads’, in P. Cornelius,
K. Schwab & M. E. Porter (eds.), Global Competitiveness Report 2002–2003. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Kaufmann, D. (2005), ‘Myths and realities of governance and corruption’, in M. E. Porter, K. Schwab
& A. Lopez-Claros (eds.), The Global Competitiveness Report 2005–2006. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, pp. 81–98.
Kaufmann, D. & Kraay, A. (2002), ‘Growth without governance’, Economia, Vol. 3, pp. 169–229.
Kaufmann, D. & Vicente, P. C. (2005), ‘Legal corruption’, World Bank Institute, Governance and
Anti-Corruption, Working Paper.
Keefer, P. & Knack, S. (1997), ‘Why donˈt poor countries catch up? A cross-national test of an
institutional explanation’, Economic Enquiry, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 590–602.
Li, Z., Folmer, H. & Xue, J. (2013), ‘Environmental knowledge and perceived health risk among the
residents of the Jinchuan mining area, China’, Working paper.
Li, Z., Folmer, H. & Xue, J. (2014), ‘To what extent does air pollution affect happiness? The case of
the Jinchuan mining area’, Ecological Economics, Vol. 99, pp. 88–99.
Liu, J. & Lin, B. (2012), ‘Government auditing and corruption control: evidence from Chinaˈs
provincial panel data’, China Journal of Accounting Research, Vol. 5, pp. 163–86.
MacRae, E. & Van Gils, D. (2014), Nine Elements Required for Internal Audit Effectiveness in the
Public Sector, Altamonte Springs, FL, p. 8.
Martin, C. L. & Lavine, M. K. (2000), ‘Outsourcing the internal audit function’, The CPA Journal,
Vol. 70, No. 2, pp. 58–59.
Mauro, P. (1995), ‘Corruption and growth’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 110, No. 3, pp.
681–712.
Mauro, P. (1998), ‘Corruption and the composition of government expenditure’, Journal of Public
Economics, Vol. 69, No. 2, pp. 263–79.
Mednick, R. (1997), ‘Chairˈs corner’, The CPA Letter, June 10.
Mihret, D. G. & Yismaw, A. W. (2007), ‘Internal audit effectiveness: an Ethiopian public sector case
study’, Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol. 22, No. 5, pp. 470–84.
Mulugeta, S. (2008), ‘Internal audit: reporting relationship in Ethiopian public enterprises’,
Dissertation, Ethiopia: Addis Ababa University.
Myint, U. (2000), ‘Corruption: causes, consequences and cures’,

28
Asia-Pacific Development Journal, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 33–58.
Nagy, A. L. & Cenker, W. J. (2002), ‘An assessment of the newly defined internal audit function’,
Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 130–7.
New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) (2003), Amendment No. 1 to Corporate Governance Rule Filing.
New York: NYSE.
Obeid, O. (2010), Evaluating the effectiveness of internal audit in Sudan. In Internal audit conference
Khartoum, Sudan, 15–17 February 2010.
Oud, J. H. L. & Folmer, H. (2008), ‘A structural equation approach to models with spatial
dependence’, Geographical Analysis, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 152–66.
Pring, C. (2015), People and Corruption: Africa Survey 2015, Berlin: Transparency International.
Ransan, T. H. (1955), ‘Effectiveness of internal auditing’, paper presented at the 14th Annual
Conference of the IFA.
Richards, L. A. (2002), ‘Remarks at the 2002 Internal Auditor Division Annual Conference’,
available at: http://www.sec. gov/news/speech/spch591.htm (accessed on 8 March 2013). Ridley, A.
J. (2001), ‘The inderutilized internal auditor’, IIA Issues and Answers. Available from:
http://www.theiia.org/ ecm/guide-ia.cfm?doc_id=347 (accessed on 23 February2015).
Ritternberg, I. E., Moore, W. & Covaleski, M. (1999), ‘The outsouring phenomenon’, The Internal
Auditor, Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 42–46.
Rose-Ackerman, S. (1978), Corruption: A Study in Political Economy, New York: Academic Press.
Sawyer, L. B. (1988), Sawyerˈs Internal Auditing, Altamonte Springs, FL: Institute of Internal
Auditors.
Sawyer, L. B. & Dittenhofer, M. A. (1996), Sawyerˈs Internal Auditing: The Practice of Modern
Internal Auditing. 4th edn, Altamonte Springs, FL: The Institute of Internal Auditors.
Schneider, A. (1984), ‘Modeling external auditors’ evaluations of internal auditing’, Journal of
Accounting Research, Vol. 22, pp. 657–78.
Schyf, D. (2000), ‘Obstacles in establishing and operating a public sector internal auditing function
in a developing country: the South African experience’, Meditari Accountancy Research, Vol. 8, pp.
145–81.
Senior, I. (2006), ‘Corruption – the worldˈs Big C’, IEA Research Paper No. 61, available at:
http://ssrn.com/abstract=918474. Spraakman, G. (1997), ‘Transaction cost economics: a theory of
internal audit’, Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol. 17, No. 7,
pp. 323–30.
Stern, G. M. (1994), ‘15 ways internal auditing departments are adding value’, Internal Auditor,
Vol. 51, No. 2, pp. 30–3.
Strauss, K. (2009), ‘Accumulation and dispossession: lifting the veil on the subprime mortgage
crisis’, Antipode, Vol. 41, No. 1, pp. 10–14.

29
Sutton, S. G. (1993), ‘Toward an understanding of the factors affecting the quality of the audit
process’, Decision Sciences, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 88–105.
Svensson, J. (2005), ‘Eight questions about corruption’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 19,
No. 3, pp. 19–42.
Tabachnick, B. & Fidell, L. (2007), Using Multivariate Statistics, 5th edn, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Tang, J., Folmer, H. & Xue, J. (2013), ‘Estimation of awareness and perception of water scarcity
among farmers in the Guanzhong plain, China, by means of a structural equation model’, Journal of
Environmental Management, Vol. 126, pp. 55–62.
Thomas, C. W. & Clements, C. E. (2002), ‘The internal auditorˈs role in the detection and prevention
of fraud: a post SAS No. 82 analysis’, Internal Auditing, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 3–13.
Unegbu, A. O. & Kida, M. I. (2011), ‘Effectiveness of internal audit as instrument of improving
public sector management’, Journal of Emerging Trends in Economics and Management Sciences,
Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 304–9.
Ussahawanitchakit, A. & Intakhan, A. (2011), ‘Audit professionalism, audit independence and audit
effectiveness of CPAs in Thailand’, International Journal of Business Research, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp.
1–11.
Van Gansberghe, C. N. (2005), ‘Internal auditing in the public sector: a consultative forum in Nairobi,
Kenya, shores up best practices for government audit professionals in developing nations’, Internal
Auditor, Vol. 62, No. 4, pp. 69–73.
Vicente, P. C. (2005), ‘Essays on corruption and the natural resource curse’, Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Chicago.
Wallace, W. and Kreutzfeldt, R. (1991), ‘Distinctive characteristics of entities with an internal audit
department and the association of the quality of such departments with errors’, Contemporary
Accounting Research, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 485–512.
Wei, S.-J. (1997), ‘How taxing is corruption on international investors?’, National Bureau of
Economic Research Working Paper 6030.
White, A. W. (1976), ‘The essentials for the effective internal audit department’, Internal Auditor,
April, pp. 30–3.
Wolderupheal, G. (1998), ‘Ethiopia – looking to the future’,
Internal Auditor, February, pp. 16–18.
World Bank (1997), Helping Developing Countries Combat Corruption: The Role of the World Bank,
New York, Oxford University Press.
World Bank (2004), Mainstreaming Anticorruption Activities in World Bank Assistance: A Review
of Progress since 1997, Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank (2005a), Doing Business in 2005: Removing Obstacles to Growth, Washington, DC:
World Bank.

30
World Bank (2005b), Ethiopia: A Country Status Report on Health and Poverty, Washington, DC:
World Bank.
World Bank (2013), Doing Business Report 2013, Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank (2014), Doing Business Report 2014, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Wu, J. P. & Yao, L. F. (2008), ‘Corruption and the departure in the composition of public
expenditure’, China Soft Science, Vol. 5, pp. 8–14 (in Chinese).
Znoj, H. (2009), ‘Deep corruption in Indonesia: Discourses, practices, histories’, in M. Nuijten and
G. Anders (eds.), Corruption and the Secret of Law: A Legal Anthropological Perspective, Aldershot:
Ashgate, pp. 53–74.

31