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Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273

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The effects of dykes and faults on groundwater flow


in an arid land: the Red Sea Hills, Sudan
Mohamed Babikera, Agust Gudmundssonb,*
a
Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Centre, Edvard Griegsv. 3A, N-5059 Bergen, Norway
b
Department of Structural Geology and Geodynamics, Geoscience Centre, University of Göttingen,
Goldschmidtstrasse 3, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
Received 20 November 2002; revised 31 March 2004; accepted 16 April 2004

Abstract
In this study the focus is on a part of the Red Sea Hills of Sudan, an area which suffers from a severe shortage of groundwater.
This shortage is partly because the precipitation in this area is very small, from a maximum of only 164 mm year21 to a minimum
of 36 mm year21. Partly, however, the shortage is related to the generally low permeability of the (mostly Precambrian but partly
Phanerozoic) bedrock. The bedrock is, however, dissected by numerous lineaments, mostly faults and basaltic dykes, some of
which transport groundwater to the surface in springs and wells. We made field studies of 107 dykes, complemented by Landsat
ETM and SPOT image studies of 1419 lineaments interpreted as dykes. Additionally, we made image studies of 1707 lineaments
interpreted as faults, fractures and shear zones many of which meet with the dykes at nearly right angles. Many of the dykes are of
dense, low-permeability basalt and range in thickness up to 14 m and in length up to several kilometres. The dominant dyke strike
is NNW, roughly parallel with the coast of the Red Sea and perpendicular to the topographic slope and the trends of many of the
lineaments interpreted as faults. Using the field and image data, as well as a new digital elevation model of the study area, we
propose a conceptual model to explain the relationship between faults, dykes and groundwater in the area. In this model the NNW-
trending dykes, particularly the long and thick low-permeability dykes, act as barriers for much of the topography-driven
groundwater flow. The groundwater collected by these dykes is transported along their margins towards the topographic
depressions occupied by the (comparatively) high-permeability E – W trending fault zones. Because these fault zones trend
parallel with the inferred hydraulic gradient in the area the faults also tend to collect groundwater. In terms of the model
groundwater is thus driven along both dykes and faults to their near-orthogonal intersections. These intersections normally have
relatively high fracture-related permeability, along which groundwater is transported towards the surface. This model thus
predicts that water wells and springs would be expected at dyke – fault intersections, which is in agreement with the available data
indicating that the majority of the springs occur at such intersections.
q 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Dykes; Faults; Lineaments; Groundwater; Arid land; Red Sea Hills; Sudan

1. Introduction
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49-551-397930; fax: þ 49-551-
399700.
E-mail addresses: agust.gudmundsson@gwdg.de (A. Recently, many areas in the arid parts of Africa
Gudmundsson), mohamed.babiker@nersc.no (M. Babiker). have witnessed acute shortages of water supply.
0022-1694/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2004.04.018
M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273 257

One of these is the study area, the Red Sea Hills of the influences on the location of (potential and actual) water
Sudan. The reasons for these shortages are partly an resources, wells and springs. In this connection we
inadequate amount of rain during the last decades and made detailed observations and measurements of dykes
overutilisation of groundwater from alluvial aquifers. and related fractures in the field. Third, to develop a
Partly, however, the shortage is due to changes in the conceptual model of groundwater flow in the study area.
sites and distribution of the populations of the areas. Here the focus is on the different effects that dykes and
These factors are directly related to the question as to faults can have on the general groundwater transport as
whether or not the available water sources in these well as the location of springs and water wells.
areas can support present and future demands.
In several developing countries, there is an
increasing need to provide safe drinking water for 2. Geological and hydrogeological background
the vast population living in bedrock terrains. This
need has contributed to the development of efficient The study area lies in the southern part of the Red
and economic methods for groundwater exploration Sea Hills, Sudan, between 188300 and 19860 N latitude
and quality evaluation. Of these methods, integrated and 368400 E and 378220 longitude (Fig. 1). In
geological and remote sensing methods have proved physiographic terms the area can be divided into
particularly successful. three subareas: the coastal plain, the Red Sea Hills,
Bedrocks with low primary permeability cover and the western slope. The coastal plain comprises the
large parts of the Red Sea area. Parts of the bedrock 20– 50 km wide strip of low land striking parallel to
may, however, have moderate to good secondary the Red Sea. The Red Sea Hills is a range of north –
permeability on account of faults, fractures and dykes. south trending mountains that rise steeply from the
Faults, fractures and dykes may play a very important coastal plain and extend to both Egypt and Eritrea.
role in groundwater recharge and flow in bedrock Most of these hills rise to 1000 m above the sea level;
terrains. In detail, however, the effects of these some even higher, to over 2000 m. The third subarea
structures on the bedrock permeability depend on is the western slope. This subarea comprises the areas
their distribution, orientation and density. It follows west of the Red Sea Hills, where the landscape
that in order to evaluate the permeability of areas such changes from the steep hills to the gently sloping,
as those associated with the Red Sea, we must make open landscape towards the river Nile.
detailed studies of dykes, faults and other lineaments. The location of the research area and its physio-
Mapping of lineaments using remote sensing data graphic characteristics leads to its receiving precipi-
has been an integral part of many groundwater tation at different times during the year from that of
exploration programmes in bedrock terrain. Many the rest of Sudan. Thus, in the study area two
workers have investigated lineament data with respect contrasting rainfall zones exist within a relatively
to their groundwater potential, several with an small area. The zone west of the Red Sea Hills
emphasis on arid or semi-arid hard rock areas experiences maximum rainfall during the summer,
(Krishnamurthy et al., 1996; Koch and Mather, while the zone east of the Hills receives its maximum
1997; Sander et al., 1997; Smith et al., 1997; Drury rainfall during the winter. Summit areas such as
et al., 2001). Few such studies, however, have Erkowit (Fig. 1) experience winter as well as the
combined detailed field observation with the remote summer rainfall maxima. The mechanisms that
sensing analysis. govern rainfall in summer and winter are quite
This paper has three principle aims. First, to describe different. For the winter rain, which is brought by
the general trend and attitude of the lineaments northeast and southeast winds, the rain source is
(fractures and dykes) of the Red Sea Hills area with a evaporation in the Red Sea. Rain falls as the winds
view of improving our knowledge of their general rise over the mountains (orographic rain). Summer
geometry and structure. The lineaments were mapped rain is brought by southwesterly monsoon winds
from landsat ETM and SPOT panchromatic images. which originate from the Gulf of Guinea. Rain falls
Second, to investigate the spatial and geometrical either as the winds rise over the mountains or as a
relation between the fractures and dykes, and their result of thermal convection. The amount of rainfall
258 M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273

Fig. 1. Maps show of the study area. (A) Sudan map showing the location of the study area. (B) Study area map where the main towns (Sinkat,
Gebeit and Erkowit) main roads, railway and main seasonal streams (khors) are indicated.

received in the area is very small; the highest mean (AMN Fig. 2), partly an ophiolite fragment, whereas
(arithmetic average) annual is not more than 164 mm in the south the N-trending Barka Surture Zone (BA),
while the lowest mean annual is as low as 36 mm of serpentinite, separates the Haya area from the Tokar
(El Tom, 1975, 1991; Musa, 1990). area. The NW-trending Oko Shear Zone (Abdelsalam,
Geologically, the Red Sea Hills are dominated by a 1994) affects the northwest part of the Haya area
Precambrian crystalline basement complex overlain (Fig. 2), while the ENE-trending Khor Ashat Shear
by a variety of Phanerozoic (cover) rocks, from Zone (AS Fig. 2) divides the Haya area itself into
Tertiary to Holocene in age. Studies in Northeast southern and northern parts (Kroner et al., 1991).
Africa and Western Arabia show that the geology of During the dry seasons in the study area, there are no
the Red Sea Hills, as a part of the Arabian – Nubian natural surface water resources such as rivers or lakes.
Shield, can be interpreted in terms of a general plate- Hence, the surface hydrology of the area comprises
tectonic model of the volcano-tectonic evolution of mainly surface runoff and drainage during the wet
the Red Sea (Coleman, 1993; Shackleton, 1994; Stern, seasons with the exception of some small springs found
1994). However, the detailed tectonic evolution of the in the mountain areas. Groundwater is thus the only
Red Sea Hills is still poorly known. permanent water resource in the area. The groundwater
As for Northeast Sudan, Reischmann and Kroner resources, however, vary in location, yield and quality,
(1994) divide the Nubian –Arabian Shield into five and are highly dependent on rainfall.
intra-oceanic and island arc areas, separated by suture Groundwater occurs mainly in alluvial deposits
zones and fault zones (Fig. 2). These five areas, from and bedrock formations. Of these, the aquifers in the
north to south, are those of Gerf, Gabgaba, Gebeit, alluvial sediments of the seasonal streams, known as
Haya and Tokar. The study area is located within that ‘khors or wadies’, are those in most common use. The
of Haya (Fig. 2). groundwater potential of the bedrock is, however,
The Haya area, primarily formed as an island arc, is largely unknown.
located in the western part of the Red Sea Hills. In the Groundwater in the alluvial aquifers along the khors
north, the Haya area is separated from the Gebeit area is by far the most commonly used water source in
by the NE-trending Amur Nakasib Shear Zone the Red Sea Hills. This source is distributed all over
M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273 259

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Arabian–Nubian shield (shaded), showing major structures in and around the study area. Abbreviation for the
ophiolites and/or suture and shear zones are: AF, Afif; Al, Allagi; AM, Al Amar; AMN, Amur-Nakasib; AS, Khor Ashat; BA, Baraka; BU, Bir
Umq; HAM, Hamisana; NAB, Nabitah; ONSH, Onib-Sol Hamed; OSZ, Oko Shear Zone and YA, Yanbu. Box outline indicates the research
area. Modified from Kroner et al. (1987), Kroner et al. (1991) and Reichsmann and Kroner (1994).

the area, but it is often rapidly exhausted by over- along) khor beds, but a few ones are on the plains.
utilisation and suffers not only form general evapor- Excavated wells are usually lined with stones or dry
ation but also from erratic recharging. The various masonry. Some wells have a superstructure though
groundwater resources have different properties. In most are open at the khor bed level. The character-
arid regions such as the Red Sea Hills, the khors and istics of the wells (depth, water amount and quality)
wadis are dry for several months of the year. However, vary considerably within the same khor.
during rainy seasons most of these khors carry surface Dykes are very common in the study area. They
water (runoff) for a short time. Part of this flow can act either as good conductors of, or as barriers to,
infiltrates into the khor bed so that a subsurface groundwater flow depending on the intensity of
reservoir or an alluvium aquifer is established. fracturing associated with the dykes. Whether the
Khor deposits comprise material with a grain size dykes act as water barriers or conductors, their
ranging from clay particles to gravel and boulders. structures, locations and orientations with respect to
Because of the ever-shifting sediments in the khors, the groundwater flow are very important.
the composition of the deposits in the khor beds is
very heterogeneous. To evaluate the khor bed as an
aquifer, the extent, thickness, and location of silt and 3. Dyke structures and trends
clay layers must be known because these layers
obstruct recharge and reduce storage volume. The The regional dyke swarms of the Red Sea Hills
khor beds thus form mainly unconfined aquifers. have been known for some time (Whiteman, 1971;
The main water supply in the study area comes Vail and Hughes, 1977; AbuFatima, 1992), but no
from excavated wells (hand dug) supplemented by a recent systematic studies have been published on their
few drilled wells. Wells are located mainly in (or/and structural and geometrical aspects or their influence
260 M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273

on groundwater flow. Data from Landsat ETM and in the area but most of these are located south of the
SPOT images are used for a general overview of the NNW-trending dykes. The change in dyke trend
strike and length distributions of the dykes. In occurs across the Khor Ashat Shear Zone and west
addition, their main field characteristics are described, and southwest of the town of Sinkat (Figs. 2 and 3).
focusing on dyke attitude, thickness and structure. The dyke strike, as measured in the field (Fig. 4),
The field results are then compared with the results generally coincides with the trend of lineaments as
obtained from the images. Emphasis is on those measured from the images. The field measurements,
geometrical aspects that are important for ground- however, indicate a somewhat more northerly dyke
water flow, including dyke strike and thickness trend. The field measurements, however, are much
distributions, as well as dyke lithology. fewer (107) than the image measurements (1419).
Most dykes are extension fractures as indicated by
3.1. Strike the present field observation and supported by studies
worldwide (Gudmundsson and Marinoni, 1999;
Fig. 3 indicates the geographical distribution of Gudmundsson, 2002). We can thus safely assume
lineaments, interpreted as dykes, in the research area. the dyke trends, in general, to be perpendicular to the
Fig. 4 shows that NNW-trending dykes dominate. direction of the minimum compressive principal stress
In addition there are a number of ENE-trending dykes s3 at the time of dyke emplacement. During dyke

Fig. 3. Map showing the geographical distribution of 1419 dykes in the research area. Mapped from SPOT panchromatic and Landsat ETM
images. Location of the town Sinkat Gebeit, Erkowit and Summit are indicated.
M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273 261

Fig. 4. Rose diagram of (A) dyke strike as mapped from the images (1419 dykes) and (B) dyke strike as measured in the field (107 dykes).
The circles show percentages.

emplacement, the minimum principal compressive that it can be classified as microgabbro. Most dykes
stress was therefore mostly trending ENE –WSW, a are fresh and non-deformed. Some dykes, however,
conclusion based on both the field and the image data. which are regarded as the oldest in the area, are
deformed, foliated and altered to greenschist or lower
3.2. Structure and lithology amphibolite facies. These dykes are referred to as syn-
tectonic (AbuFatima, 1992); some are mafic, while
The dyke geometries in the study area are generally others are felsic. The group of old and non-deformed,
similar to those reported from many other continental fresh dykes was mostly injected in the period from
and oceanic areas (Halls and Fahrig, 1987; Parker 600 to 700 Ma. The texture of these old basic dykes
et al., 1990; Baer and Heimann, 1995; Gudmundsson ranges from aphyric to microgabbro (dolerite), while
and Marinoni, 1999; Klausen, 1999; Ernst et al., the texture of the intermediate dykes is from andesite
2001). Some dykes are inclined, but the great majority to microdiorite (AbuFatima, 1992).
are subvertical (Fig. 5). Many dykes are with parallel The swarm of young dykes was mostly formed at
edges and essentially straight in subvertical and 130– 140 Ma (AbuFatima, 1992). These dykes, gen-
subhorizontal sections, whereas other dykes are erally very fresh, are mostly basaltic to intermediate
more irregular in shape (Fig. 5). Where two dyke (andesitic) in composition. Dykes from this young
segments overlap, they normally become thinner, as is group generate the large ridges in the area (Fig. 5A).
commonly observed (Halls and Fahrig, 1987; Parker As is common in other areas (Halls and Fahrig,
et al., 1990; Baer and Heimann, 1995; Gudmundsson 1987; Parker et al., 1990; Baer and Heimann, 1995;
and Marinoni, 1999; Gudmundsson, 2002). Many Gudmundsson and Marinoni, 1999; Klausen, 1999;
dykes form slight topographical depressions, other Marinoni and Gudmundsson, 2000; Ernst et al., 2001)
dykes form topographic highs, some of them generat- many dykes in the research area are offset and either
ing major ridges (Fig. 5A). underlapping or overlapping, in vertical and horizon-
Although the dyke rock is mostly fine-grained tal sections. Many dykes contain well-developed sets
basalt, in some dykes the rock is so coarse-grained of columnar (cooling) joints that are independent of
262 M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273

Fig. 5. Field photographs of subvertical dykes with (A) irregular edges and (B) parallel edges. In (A) the dyke extends to the top of the outcrop
and forms a ridge. View south, the vegetation is concentrated along the dyke. In (B) the dyke acts as groundwater conductor and gives rise to
a spring.

the host-rock joint systems. Some joints from the host minimum of 0.08 m (8 cm) to a maximum of 14 m,
rock, however, cut through the dykes (Fig. 5B), but with an arithmetic average thickness of around
many of these joints are partly, or entirely, exfoliation 2.7 m. Even greater thicknesses have been reported
fractures, that is, near-surface features. from this area; for example AbuFatima (1992)
mentions a dyke as thick as 30 m. The thickness
3.3. Length and thickness distribution of the present dykes is similar to that
observed in many regional dyke swarms. The
Dyke length was measured from the Landsat and thickness-size distribution clearly follows a statistical
SPOT images. The lengths of 1419 lineaments, all law with a negative exponent, as is common in dyke
recognised as dykes, range from 68 to 8956 m, with an swarms (Gudmundsson et al., 1999; Klausen, 1999;
arithmetic average length of 664 m. The length-size Annen et al., 2001).
distributions of dyke segments follow roughly a log- The variation in dyke thickness in relation to dyke
normal curve, as is common in many geological strike indicates that only the NNW-trending dykes
populations (Krumbein and Graybill, 1965). reach thicknesses in excess of 4 m. This relationship is
Some 107 dyke thicknesses were measured in the partly because north– northwest is the most common
field. The dyke thickness ranges from a measured trend of dykes measured in the field. Partly, however,
M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273 263

the relation may indicate that the crustal dilation due Isayev and Razvalyayev, 1977; Ahmed, 1982; Dixon
to dykes is greatest in a direction perpendicular to the et al., 1987; Makris and Rihm, 1991; Chorowicz et al.,
NNW-trend, that is, in the ENE – WSW direction. 1994; Acocella and Korme, 2002), but few have
Many, perhaps most, of these NNW-trending dykes studied their influences on the groundwater flow
belong to the group of young dykes, emplaced at (Koch and Mather, 1997; Drury et al., 2001). This part
130 –140 Ma (AbuFatima, 1992). These dykes, which of the present study focuses on lineaments interpreted
generate many of the ridges in the area, may give rise as shear zones, faults and fractures (Fig. 6) with a
to a regional crustal dilation of as much as 30% view of indicating their structures and their influences
(AbuFatima, 1992). on groundwater flow. Data from Landsat ETM and
SPOT images and geological maps were used to
obtain a general overview of the strike (Fig. 7) and
4. Faults and fractures length (Fig. 8) distributions of the lineaments. In
addition, we provide a general description of the main
Several workers have studied the lineaments of the shear zones and faults (Fig. 9), emphasising their
Red Sea Hills in relation to the rift system (Vail, 1972; attitude and structure.

Fig. 6. Map showing the geographical distribution of 1707 lineaments, interpreted as shear zones, faults and fractures, in the study area. Mapped
from SPOT panchromatic and Landsat ETM images. Locations of the towns Sinkat, Gebeit, Erkowit and summit are indicated.
264 M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273

4.1. Strike

Fig. 6 shows the geographical distribution of


lineaments interpreted as shear zones, faults and
fractures, in the study area. All lineaments interpreted
as dykes are omitted from this part of the study. The
general trend and distribution of these lineaments
(Fig. 7) shows that NNW-trending lineaments domi-
nate. In addition there is a significant group of NNE-
trending lineaments.

4.2. Structure

The main lineaments in the study area are mostly


faults and old shear zones The study area is largely
dominated by a complex interaction between wide-
spread systems of ductile shearing and NNE –ENE
trending faults in addition to a NW-directed thrust-
ing. These tectonic elements seems to control the
Fig. 7. Rose diagram of the lineament strike as mapped from the
images. Total number is 1707, the circles show percentages. pattern of most of the dry stream valleys and khors in
the area.

Fig. 8. Length-size distribution of the 1707 lineaments (segments), mapped from the images. The length-size distribution follows roughly a power law.
M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273 265

Fig. 9. Map showing the geographical distribution of the main lineaments longer than 3000 m and dykes longer than 2000 m in the study area.
The map indicates the geographical relation between the main dykes and lineaments. Locations of the towns Sinkat, Gebeit, Erkowit and
Summit are indicated.

The Haya area is delineated to the north by development. However, minor sinistral offsets along
the Nakasib Shear Zone (Fig. 2) which marks a khor Gebeit El Ashraf (Figs. 1 and 9) indicate a phase
NE-trending suture zone (Abdelsalam and Stern, 1993; of NW-trending strike slip movement which post-dates
Wipfler, 1996). The Nakasib Shear Zone is affected by the Oko Shear and possibly represent a reactivated
the younger N –S to NW trending brittle –ductile Oko pattern of the same events (AbuFatima, 1992).
Shear Zone (Almond and Ahmed, 1987; Abdelsalam, An outstanding structural feature trending N – S,
1994). The Oko Shear Zone (Fig. 9) is represented in referred to as the Sinkat lineament, traverses most of
the study area by a group of NW-trending sinistral the Haya area, as well as the entire study area, cuts
strike-slip faults. all structures and units with no apparent displace-
The latest events in the Haya area are represented by ment and has an unclear relationship with the Oko
faults that are associated with dykes. These faults have Shear (AbuFatima, 1992). This lineament was
dominantly N –S, WNW and E –W trends. Reactiva- interpreted as a regional crustal extensional element
tion of these faults during later tectonic events has induced by tectonics uplift associated with Red
obscured their sense of displacement and hampered the Sea Rift System (Isayev and Razvalyayev, 1977;
recognition of mutual relationships and sequences of AbuFatima, 1992).
266 M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273

4.3. Length

Generally, the length of a lineament traced from


satellite images and aerial photographs depends on the
image resolution and the photograph scale. In this
study, Landsat ETM with 15 m resolution and SPOT
with 10 m resolution were used. The length of the
1707 lineaments ranges from 46 to 59,825 m. The
arithmetic average length is 1223 m. The length-size
distribution (Fig. 8) is roughly a power law.

5. Hydrogeological effects of dykes and faults


Fig. 10. Schematic infrastructure of a large-scale strike slip fault.
Fault slip occurs mostly along the core, which consist primarily of
Fig. 9 shows the geographical distribution of the breccia and other cataclastic rocks. The damage zone contains
main lineaments that are longer than 3000 m and numerous faults and fracture. For a major fault zones, the core
dykes that are longer than 2000 m. The lineaments are thickness is up to several tens of metres and the damage-zone
distributed throughout the study area, but the dykes thickness up to several hundred metres. From Gudmundsson et al.
(2001).
are more concentrated in some parts than in others,
e.g. in khor Goweb, khor Gebeit El Ashraf, southwest
of the town of Sinkat and around khor Ashet (Fig. 9). A major fault zone consists of two main hydro-
A good example of spatial relationship between the geological structures namely a core and a damage
dykes and the lineaments occurs at khor Goweb zone (Bruhn and Parry, 1994; Caine et al., 1995;
(Fig. 9), where the khor Goweb Lineament is Evans et al., 1997; Gudmundsson et al., 2001)
intersected by several dykes. The NW and E – W (Fig. 10). The core, consisting mainly of breccia and
dykes coincide in trend with the lineaments (Figs. 4 other cataclastic rocks, has a low overall permeability
and 7), indicating that both developed by the same during iterseismic periods. By contrast, the fault
tectonic events related to the Red Sea Rift. damage zone, consisting mainly of fractures of
For understanding the regional flow of groundwater, various sizes, has a permeability that is normally
it is necessary to know the general permeability much greater than that of the core.
structure of the fault zones in the region. This follows Based on experience from other areas (Hickman
because the general hydromechanical structure of a fault et al., 1995; Faybishenko et al., 2000; Gudmundsson,
zone, in relation to that of the host rock, determines 2000; Evans et al., 2001), the faults and shear zones
whether the fault zone acts as a conduit that transports most likely to conduct groundwater in our research
groundwater, or as a barrier to groundwater flow. The area are those that have been most recently active.
effect of a fault zone on groundwater flow can be These would be most of the main lineaments which
complex. For example a part of a fault zone may act as a were active during the opening of Red Sea, e.g. the
low-permeability barrier to flow, while other parts acts faults of Sinkat Khor Goweb and Khor Gebeit El
high-permeability conductors for flow. Also, those parts Asraf (Fig. 9).
of an active fault zone that are highly conductive just When a fault becomes active, its permeability
prior to and during periods of seismogenic faulting may normally increases enormously (Gudmundsson,
act as barriers during the greater part of the interseismic 2000). These changes lead to variation in groundwater
period (Gudmundsson, 2000). However, the interplay table, stream flow and yield of springs (Muirwood and
between permeability, fluid overpressure and fault slip King, 1993; Rojstaczer et al., 1995; Roeloffs, 1998;
are still not well understood. It follows that despite Grecksch et al., 1992). These changes can be
significant progress in the past years numerical models explained by different mechanisms, including dila-
on fluid transport in fractured rocks have still a limited tancy (Nur, 1974), seismic pumping (Sibson et al.,
predictive power. 1975), coseismic strain (Muirwood and King, 1993),
M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273 267

and an increase in permeability in near-surface rocks on the groundwater flow is normally small. By
(Rojstaczer et al., 1995). contrast, if a high-permeability fault trends in the
A fault zone can act as an important conduit, rather same direction as the hydraulic gradient, the fault will
than as a barrier for groundwater flow, if the following normally have great effects on the flow (Phillips,
conditions are met. First, the permeability of the fault 1991; Gudmundsson, 2000).
zone must be higher than that of the host rock. Second, The hydraulic gradient and the general slopes in the
the trend of the fault zone must be such as to maximise study area were investigated by generating a digital
its effect on the groundwater flow, preferably parallel elevation model. For a general overview, digitised
to the hydraulic gradient. The first condition implies maps were used, whereas for detailed investigation we
that the fault zone must be active in the sense of used a model generated from stereo pairs of SPOT
concentrating tensile and shear stresses. These images. Fig. 11 shows the main lineaments (faults and
stresses will sustain high permeability by creating shear zones) and dykes overlaid on the digital elevation
new fractures and opening old ones inside, and in the model of the study area. There are steep slopes in the
surrounding area of, the fault zone. Recent studies eastern part where many lineaments are subparallel to
show that active or potentially active faults largely the hydraulic gradient (e.g. the khor Goweb Lineament,
control groundwater in bedrock (Barton et al., 1995; the khor Ashet Shear Zone, and others smaller
Mayer and Sharp, 1998; Gudmundsson, 2000; Gud- elements). The rest of the area slopes gently to the
mundsson et al., 2001). As regards the second west and southwest. In the north, the Sinkat lineament
condition, the effect of a high-permeability fault on trends in the same direction as the hydraulic gradient of
the groundwater flow increases as the angle between khor Adeit. It is likely that many of these lineaments act
the fault and the hydraulic gradient decreases as groundwater conductors, especially where their
(Phillips, 1991). For example, if a fault trends at a trends are parallel or subparallel to the hydraulic
right angle to the general hydraulic gradient, its effect gradient. Our main evidence for this suggestion is that

Fig. 11. Map shows the main lineaments (faults and shear zones) and dykes overlaid on the digital elevation model of the study area. The digital
elevation model is generated from digitised maps.
268 M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273

in steep slope areas where the lineaments are parallel or It follows that groundwater is driven east, towards the
subparallel to the hydraulic gradient springs are Red Sea.
observed, e.g. at Erkowit khor Goweb and khor Ashet If a high-permeability fault runs subparallel or
(Fig. 11). Where the slopes are gentle and the parallel to the general groundwater flow (the hydrau-
lineaments are parallel or subparallel to the hydraulic lic gradient), groundwater tends to flow into the fault,
gradient there are deep wells such as at khor Adeit along particularly in its upstream part and out of the fault in
Sinkat lineament near the town of Gebeit (Fig. 11). its downstream part (Phillips, 1991; Gudmundsson,
As indicated earlier, dykes can be either barriers or 2000). However, if, as in the case of the present
conductors for groundwater flow. How the dykes act research area, there are transverse barriers (such as
depends on their trends in relation to the hydraulic dykes) dissecting the fault zone, water may be
gradient and the density of the fracture systems in the expelled up along those intersections.
dykes. For example, in the khor Goweb area (Fig. 11), In other areas, e.g. in the Erkowit area (Fig. 11),
many of the dykes appear to act as barriers to there are many dykes acting as groundwater con-
groundwater flow along the khor Goweb Lineament. ductors. This is indicated by wells located in dykes,
A closer study, however, indicates that these trans- concentration of vegetations along dykes (Fig. 5A),
verse dykes act both as groundwater barriers and as and the occurrence of springs at dykes (Fig. 5B).
conductors. The main evidence for this is as follows.
Many springs are observed along khor Goweb at
the inferred intersections between dykes and high- 6. Conceptual model of groundwater flow
permeability faults. We infer that the general
hydraulic gradient follows the topography so that it The conceptual model that we propose for ground-
trends subparallel with the main faults in the area, water flow in the research area (Fig. 12) is based on
but subperpendicular to the main dykes (Fig. 11). the proposed effect of dykes and major faults

Fig. 12. Schematic presentation of the conceptual model of groundwater flow in the research area. The model is based on the proposed effects of
dykes, major faults and their intersections on the groundwater flow, in relation to the location of springs and water wells.
M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273 269

and associated minor fractures on the flow. The major Our conceptual groundwater flow model includes
faults and dykes are crosscut by numerous minor also the effects of the intersections between dykes and
fractures. The minor fractures contribute to the main faults (Fig. 12). The faults trend parallel or
permeability associated with the dykes, faults and subparallel to the hydraulic gradient whereas the
their intersections. In addition the minor fractures dykes are at right angles to the hydraulic gradient. In
contribute to groundwater storage in the area. this case, the dykes and faults affect the groundwater
The major faults act as water conductors and flow in two basic ways. First, much groundwater is
transport groundwater to the discharge area. The faults conducted along the high-permeability faults which,
also act as water resources, particularly for wells that on meeting with the low-permeability, transverse
are located along the faults. This effect of the faults on dykes, is partly transported to the surface as springs.
the groundwater flow depends on fault trend in relation Second, many of the dykes are thick and can be
to the hydraulic gradient and the steepness of the slope. traced for long distances (some are 8 km in length and
A good example of these effects is the Sinkat linea- 14 m in thickness). Because the dykes are transverse
ment. Fig. 13 shows a three-dimensional view of the to the general hydraulic gradient in the area,
Sinkat lineament based on the digital elevation model groundwater is driven to them not only along high-
of the study area. The lineament trends north –south permeability fault zones but also regionally. It follows
and parallel to the hydraulic gradient (Fig. 11). The that those thick and long dykes that are of low
elevation changes from around 900 m in the south to permeability may collect groundwater from large
650 m in the north. Many wells are located along the areas. This means that the groundwater driven to low-
Sinkat Lineament; they are the main water sources for permeability dykes is forced to accumulate at the
the towns of Sinkat and Gebeit. dykes and flow along their margins. Generally

Fig. 13. Three-dimensional view of Sinkat Lineament, based on the digital elevation model generated from a stereo-pair of SPOT images. View
south, the towns Sinakt and Gebeit and some water wells are indicated.
270 M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273

Fig. 14. Three-dimensional view of khor Goweb lineament based on the digital elevation model generated from a stereo-pair of SPOT images.
View west, some dykes and springs are indicated.

the water collected at the low-permeability dykes in Sea rifting to the old Precambrian structural pattern
this way would tend to flow along the west margins of and weaknesses (Garson and Krs, 1976; Isayev and
the dykes towards the nearby fault zones. Thus, in Razvalyayev, 1977; Ahmed, 1982; Dixon et al., 1987;
both cases the dyke and fault interaction leads to the Makris and Rihm, 1991). The Precambrian tectonic
groundwater being accumulated at the fault – dyke grain and the Red Sea Rift structures show a general
intersections where, according to this model, springs conformity in trend and similarity in pattern. In fact,
are most likely to occur. the Precambrian fractures may have been subjected to
Fig. 14 shows a three-dimensional view of khor many tectonic phases since post-Cretaceous times
Goweb Lineament based on the digital elevation model (Whiteman, 1971; Ahmed, 1982). If so, it is easy to
of the study area. The trend of the lineament is west–east understand that the rift tectonics associated with the
parallel to the hydraulic gradient and the slope is from Red Sea were largely accommodated by the weak pre-
west to east. The dykes trend north–south, and they existing Precambrian structures.
intersect the lineament at right angles. Many springs are The NS, NW and NNW-trending lineaments appear to
observed along the intersections of the dykes and the coincide roughly with the general trend of the Red Sea.
lineament in accordance with the model prediction. The NW–NS trending lineaments (Fig. 7) are perpen-
dicular to the current direction of minimum principal
compressive stress, as determined from fault-plane
7. Discussion solutions (Fairhead and Girdler, 1970; Dixon et al.,
1987). They are, therefore, related to extension tectonics.
When interpreting the trends of the lineaments in As to the NE and E – W trending lineaments
the study area in relation to the tectonic setting of the (Fig. 7), there is an increased seismic activity along
whole region (the Nubian Arabian shield), many the axis of the central Red Sea near 19.798N and
workers relate the structures generated during the Red 38.828E (Fairhead and Girdler, 1970; Dixon et al.,
M. Babiker, A. Gudmundsson / Journal of Hydrology 297 (2004) 256–273 271

1987) an area which lies at the same latitude as the the Nubian Arabian Shield, which covers all the
study area. Fault-plane solutions in this part of the Red countries around the Red Sea, has the same tectonic
Sea suggest a strike-slip motion along N538E striking setting as the Red Sea Hills, with dykes covering large
vertical faults, which are perpendicular to the rift axis areas (Eyal and Eyal, 1987; Koopmans, 1988). These
(Fairhead and Girdler, 1970). Thus, at least some of dykes may collect groundwater and transport it to the
the NE and E– W lineaments may be transverse strike- surface at intersections with faults. At this stage this
slip faults which divide the rift into several northerly model is rather schematic and general. It can,
to northeasterly trending segments (Dixon et al., however, be improved by detailed studies of the
1987). The effects of active, or recently active, faults faults system and dykes in these areas. Such studies, in
on groundwater are well documented and studied combination with data on wells, springs, slopes and
(Gudmundsson, 2000). other lineaments, may lead to a general quantitative
The trends of faults and dykes in the study area groundwater model for the entire Red Sea area.
affect the groundwater flow only in relation to the
local hydraulic gradient and their cross-cutting
relationships. For example, in the western part of
Acknowledgements
the area, west of the town of Sinkat (Fig. 9), there is a
swarm of dykes that trend north – south and at right
We thank the Research Council of Norway (NFR)
angles to the hydraulic gradient. These dykes do not
for financial support (thorough grants to MB), the
intersect any faults and appear to have little influence
Sinkat UNDP project for logistic support in the field in
on the groundwater flow. By contrast, in eastern part
Sudan, and the referees of Journal of Hydrology for
of the area at khor Goweb and in the Erkowit area
(Fig. 9), the dykes with the same trend meet with helpful review comments.
faults and have great influence on groundwater flow.
The effect of the hydraulic gradient is seen in the
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