BPT10379 PDF

I
COLLEGE
TECHNICAL
PHYSICS
R O B E R T L. WEBER
M A R S H W. W H I T E
K E N N E T H V. M A N N I N G
All of The Pennsylvania State College
F I R S T E D I T I O N
F I F T H I M P R E S S I O N
New York and London

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
1947
W ''*
C O L L E G E T E C H N I C A L PHYSICS
COPYRIGHT, 1947, BY THE

M C G R A W - H I L L BOOK COMPANY, INC.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
All rights reserved. This booh, or parts

• thereof, may not be reproduced in any
jorm without permission oj the publishers.
- LOSI')'
T H E MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORX, P A .

Preface
This book presents the basic ideas of physics for students of science
and engineering at the college level. The topics deemed essential for
a first-year course are carefully developed in a conventional order,
whereas much material of lesser importance is omitted. T h e purpose
of this book is to help students acquire an exact knowledge of basic
physical principles a n d the ability to apply these principles with
confidence and facility in the solution of technical problems by the
scientific method.
Solved numerical examples are presented to clarify each principle
discussed. Units are generally included with the numerics and are
treated as algebraic quantities. T h e proper use of significant figures is
strictly adhered to throughout the book in accord with the conven-
tions stated in the Appendix.
In general, the British engineering system of units has been stressed
in order to use the units most familiar to students and to prepare for
the use of these units in their later work. The metric systems are
employed where necessary as a basis for other units commonly met
in science.
A summary of the main topics appears at the end of each chapter.
Definitions, defining equations, units, laws, and principles are con-
cisely restated and arranged to encourage the student to use the
summaries for quick and systematic reviews.
Each chapter includes a list of discussion questions designed to
utilize the reasoning ability rather than merely the memory of the
student.
Although algebra and trigonometry are freely used, an attempt
has been made to minimize the mathematical difficulties encountered
by beginning students. For the benefit of those who need to familiarize
themselves with the trigonometric functions of angles, a brief discus-
sion is included in the Appendix. T h e calculus concepts are avoided
by the use of increment notation when necessary.
Suggestions are m a d e in the Appendix for a systematic plan to
be followed in the solution of physical problems. Statistical evidence
has been obtained showing that by faithfully following these sugges-
tions a student can increase the facility with which he solves physical
VI PREFACE
problems. Included also in the Appendix is a brief discussion of the

construction of graphs and the interpretation of data by graphical
means.
Some of the material of this book has been adapted from our
earlier book, Practical Physics.
We acknowledge with special gratitude the help of our colleagues,
particularly Prof. David C. Dimcan in his Careful criticism of the
entire manuscript. Professor Guy E. Grantham of Cornell University
and Prof. Duane Roller of Wabash College offered helpful suggestions
about certain chapters that resulted in improvements throughout the
book. Dr. Gordon L. Walls of the Bausch & Lomb Optical Co. pro-
vided much valuable information on the eye a n d 'on color, and
C h a p . 46 is largely his.
We are grateful to Prof. Francis W . Sears, to Prof. Arthur J .
"Dempster, and to the following companies for their kindness in pro-
viding illustrations: Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Bell Telephone
Laboratories, T h e Blakiston Co., Central Scientific Co., Chrysler
Corp., Eastman Kodak Co., General Electric Co., General Radio Co.,
Hoskins Manufacturing Co., Kollsman Instrument Division, Leeds &
Northrup Co., Polaroid Corp., Westinghouse Electric Corp., and
Weston Electrical Instrument Corp.
Criticisms of and suggestions about this text will be cordially wel-
comed by the authors.
THE AUTHORS.
STATE COLLEGE, P A . ,
January, 1947.
Contents
Preface v
1. The Fields and Uses of Physics; Measurement 1
2. Vectors; Forces at a Point 13
3. Velocity and Acceleration 31
4. Force and Motion 41
5. Projectile Motion 55
6. Friction 65
7. Work and Power 75
8. Energy 87
9. Torque 97
10. Rotation of Rigid Bodies r 109
11. Momentum 123
12. Uniform Circular Motion 137
13. Vibratory Motion 149
14. Elastic Properties of Solids 163
15. Liquids at Rest , 173
16. Fluids in Motion 187
17. Properties of Gases 201
18. Molecular Theory of Matter 213
19. Temperature Measurement; Thermal Expansion 227
20. Heat Quantities 247
21. Heat Transfer 263
22. Thermodynamics 275
23. Meteorology 293
24. Wave Motion ".. . 307
25. Sound Waves 325
26. Acoustics 343
•27. Magnetism 361
28. Electricity at Rest 373
29. The Electric Current 389
30. Electric Circuits 401
31. Magnetic Effects of Electric Currents 417
Vll
viii CONTENTS
32. Electric Instruments '. 429

33. Electrical Measurements 443
34. Chemical Effects of Electric Current 457
35. Electric Energy and Power 471
36. The Magnetic Circuit 485
37. Electromagnetic Induction , 497
38. Generators and Motors '. 515
39. Condensers 527
40. Alternating Currents 539
41. Electronics : 551
42. Light and Illumination 563
43. Reflection of Light 583
44. Refraction of Light; Thin Lenses 601
45. The Eye and Optical Instruments -. .. . 627
46. Color 647
47. Dispersion; Spectra 663
48. Interference of Light; Diffraction 679
49. Polariaed Light 695
50. Twentieth-century Physics 711
APPENDIX
I The Solution of Physical Problems , .' 729
II Significant Figures in Measurements and Computations. 730
III Fundamentals of Trigonometry 732
IV Graphs 734-
V Tables 738
1. Consistent Systems of Units for Newton's Second
Law 738
2. Saturated Water Vapor 739
3. Natural Sines and Cosines 740
4. Natural Tangents and Cotangents 742
5. Logarithms , 744
Index 747
COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Carola Spaeth Hauschka has made the por-
trait drawings of the Nobel piize winners
which appear as chapter headpieces in this
book.
The portraits are arranged in the order of the

dates of the awards.
In the brief biographical note that accom-

panies each portrait the basis of the award is
cited. I n giving the positions held by each
physicist, the general plan is to mention the
position held at the time of the award and,
sometimes, the institution with which his later
career is most generally associated.
WILHELM
CONRAD
RONTGEN
1845 to 1923
BORN Iivj LENNEP, RHENISH PRUSSIA. PROFESSOR AT WtJRZBURG AND

MUNICH. AWARDED THE I9OI NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSICS FOR HIS
DISCOVERY OF X-RAYS.
The Fields and Uses of Physics Measurement
This is a scientific age. Our material prosperity, the conveniences of

life, and often life itself rest upon the development of our science.
Although the practical fruits of science are not to be despised, its true
significance is more subtle. The study of science has profoundly in-
fluenced the way men think. Science has created gadgets, but it has
also given man confidence in his intellectual supremacy over nature
and has provided the method of approach to all problems requiring a
2 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
conclusion from observed facts. T h e science of physics, which provides
the tools for the chemist, geologist, engineer, and astronomer, has also
originated the scientific method.
A science is a body of organized knowledge. The steps in the origin
a n d development of a science are: observation, recording, analysis,
prediction, and verification. Accurate observation under controlled
conditions is the first step in understanding nature. Records provide
for the transmission of knowledge and aid its continued growth.
Analysis proceeds from conjecture of the causes or relationships of
certain observations, and, when the hypotheses have been tested,
erects a theory that relates a large number of phenomena. T h e theory
usually predicts certain as yet unsuspected phenomena or relation-
ships. T h e verification of these predictions by experiment supports the
theory and may lead to formulation of a law or principle of very wide
applicability such as the conservation of energy principle. Failure to
obtain experimental verification of predictions may not overthrow a
theory, but causes its modification and often enriches it. T h e principal
aspects of the scientific method are selective ajialysis, accurate
measurement, and mathematical treatment. These techniques
originated and received their fullest development in the field of
physics. Other fields of knowledge, by common consent, are con-
sidered scientific to just the extent that their ideas are subject to
analysis, measurement, and mathematical treatment.
T o understand one's environment today and to be able to adapt
oneself to it demands some appreciation of the scientific attitude. As
consumers of the products of a scientific age, we want to understand
the foundations of our industrial science, to keep informed of current
discoveries, to be able profitably to use new developments, to recog-
nize reliable information and true scientific progress,-^ and to avoid
quackery.
An appreciation of the nature of science is best acquired from the
study of a representative portion of it. This is true of any.other branch
of knowledge. One would not attain an appreciation of literature or
music or art merely from reading history or criticism without making
a firsthand study of exemplary works in these various fields. For the
same reasons it is necessary to turn to the study of some one of the
specific sciences. It seems desirable to choose the science which has
participated most fully in the formation of the attitude and viewpoint
T H E F I E L D S AND USES OF P H Y S I C S 3
of the scientific age, and' which is today influencing scientific thought
most profoundly, namely, physics.
Occasional discoveries of important phenomena were made by
primitive man. T h e Babylonians and Egyptians possessed surprisingly
refined methods of measuring time, distance, and weight. But these
observations and inventions did not lead to statements of general
principles. The observations were largely isolated and unrelated.
Science, in contrast, is systematic and cumulative. M u c h of our science
has its roots in Greek thought. But the Greeks were preoccupied with
the question of why things moved and behaved in a certain manner
and their answers were based on speculation not experimentation.
T h e modern approach to nature-is to ask the more modest question,
how things move, and to seek the answer in experiment. Not until the
sixteenth century did m a n adopt the scientific method of studying his
environment. Great progress was made then and in the succeeding
centuries technological development has become increasingly rapid.
T h e rise of all the natural sciences has been almost simultaneous.
Until as recently as about a hundred years ago the content of all the
physical sciences including physics, astronomy, chemistry, and
engineering, resided in a study called natural philosophy. This entire
body of knowledge was so small that it was possible for a capable m a n
to be an authority in all these fields and to contribute to the progress
in each.
I n the nineteenth century an avalanche in the development of
natural philosophy led to specialization. James Watt's invention,
which m a d e the steam engine practical (1769), gave importance to
the field of applied physics or engineering. This field received further
impetus with the applications of the electrical discoveries of Faraday
and Ampere and the invention of the internal combustion engine.
With the atomic theory of matter placed on an experimental basis by
J o h n Dalton (1808), chemistry developed as a separate science.
Astronomy, while using the tools and ideas of physics, became a
specialized field. Physics retained in its field the subjects that were
left from what had been natural philosophy.
Physics is usually defined as the science of matter and energy. This
science .deals with the laws of mechanics, heat, sound, electricity, and
light, which have been applied in numerous combinations to build our
machine age.
Mechanics is the oldest and basic branch of physics. This portion of
the subject deals with such ideas as inertia, motion, force, and energy.
Of especial interest are the laws dealing with the effects of forces upon
the form and motion of objects, since these principles apply to all
devices and structures such as machines, buildings, a n d bridges.
Mechanics includes the properties and laws of both solids and
liquids.
T h e subject of heat includes the principles of temperature measure-
ment, the eflfects of temperature on the properties of materials, heat
flow, and thermodynamics—the transformation of heat into work.
These studies are of importance in foundries, welding plants, and
pattern and machine shops, where expansion and shrinkage and heat
treating are important. I n furnaces and steel mills, temperature
measurement and control and the flow of heat are essential matters
for the engineer to understand.
T h e study of sound is of importance not only in music and speech
b u t also in communications and industry. T h e acoustical and com-
munications engineer is concerned with the generation, transmission,
a n d absorption of sound. An understanding of scientific principles in
sound is of importance to the radio engineer. T h e industrial engineer
is greatly concerned with the effects of sound in producing fatigue in
production personnel.
Electricity and magnetism are fields of physics which are of peculiar
importance in the rapid development of technology in power distribu-
tion, lighting, communications, and the many electronic devices
which provide conveniences, entertainment, and tools for investiga-'
tion in other fields. An understanding of the sources, effects, measure-
ments, and uses of electricity and magnetism is valuable to the worker
in that it enables him to use more effectively the manifold electrical
devices now so vital to our efficiency a n d comfort.
Optics is the portion of physics that includes the study of the nature
a n d propagation of light, the laws of reflection, a n d the bending or
refraction that occurs in the transmission of light through prisms and
lenses. Of importance also are; the separation of white light into its
constituent colors, the nature and types of spectra, interference,
diffraction, and polarization phenomena. Photometry involves the
measurement of luminous intensities of light* sources and of the
illumination of surfaces, so useful in industry and in everyday life.
T H E F I E L D S AND USES OF P H Y S I C S 5
A fascinating portion of physics is known as modern physics. This
includes electronics, -atomic and subatomic phenomena, photo-
electricity, x-rays, radioactivity, the transmutations of matter and
energy, relativity, and the phenomena associated with electron tubes
and the electric waves of modern radio. T h e breaking u p of atoms
gives promise of providing a practical source of energy. M a n y of the
devices that are commonplace today are applications of one or more
of these branches of modern physics. Radio, long-distance telephony,
sound amplification, and television are a few of the many develop-
ments made possible by the use of electron tubes. Photoelectricity
makes possible television, transmission of pictures by wire or radio,
talking motion pictures, a n d many devices for the control of ma-
chinery. Examination of welds and castings by x-rays to locate hidden
flaws is standard procedure in many industries. T h e practical appli-
cation of the developments of physics continues at an ever increasing
rate.
Practical applications of physics are not all m a d e by those labeled
as physicists, for the majority of those who apply the principles of
physics are called engineers. In fact most of the branches of engineering
are closely allied with one or more sections of physics: civil engineer-
ing applies the principles of mechanics; mechanical engineering
utilizes the laws of mechanics and heat; electrical engineering is based
on the fundamentals of electricity; acoustical engineering and optical
engineering are the industrial applications of the physics of sound and
light. T h e alliance between engineering and physics is so close that a
thorough knowledge a n d understanding of physical principles is
essential for progress in engineering.
O n e of the tools common to physics and engineering is mathe-
matics. Principles are expressed quantitatively and most usefully
in the language of mathematics. I n development and application,
careful measurement is essential. If we are to make effective use of
the principles and measurements of physical science, we must have a
workable knowledge of mathematics. Physics and mathematics are
thus basic to all science and engineering.
MEASUREMENT
Engineering design, manufacture, and commerce today no longer
rest on guesswork. Cut-and-try methods have given way to measure-
b COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
ment, so that the stone cut in the quarry slips neatly into its prepared
place in a building under construction hundreds of miles away. A new
spark plug or a piston ring can be purchased in Philadelphia to fit a
car made in Detroit. Cooperative planning and the manufacture of
interchangeable parts became possible only when people quit guessing
and learned to measure.
The Measuring Process. Measuring anything means comparing
it with some standard to see how many times as big it is. T h e process is
simplified by using as few standards as possible. These few must be
carefully devised and kept. T h e standard with which other things are
compared is called a unit. So also are its multiples and submultiples,
which may be of more convenient size. T h e numerical ratio of the
thing measured to the unit with which it is compared is called the
numerical measure, or magnitude, of the thing measured.
Some measurements are direct, that is, they are m a d e by comparing
the quantity to be measured directly with the unit of that kind, as
when we find the length of a table by placing a yard or meter scale
beside it. But most measurements are indirect. For example, to measure
the speed of a plane we measure the distance it travels and the time
required, and, by calculation, w e find the number of units that
represents its speed.
Fundamental Quantities. Surprising as it may seem, only three
kinds of fundamental quantities are necessary in mechanics. T h e
choice of these three fundamental quantities is arbitrary. T h e three
customarily chosen, for use in physics are length, mass, and time. I n
engineering a diff'erent choice is commonly made, namely length,
force, and time.
Fundamental and D e r i v e d Units. For each of the three funda-
mental quantities we must arbitrarily select a suitable unit. T h e choice"
of these fundamental units is dictated by convenience and ease of dupli-
cation. M a n y other units are based on these three. For example, a
unit of length multiplied by itself serves as a unit of area. A unit area
multiplied by unit length becomes a unit of volume. A unit of length
divided by a unit of time represents a unit of speed. Any unit that is
formed by multiplying or dividing fundamental units is called a
derived unit.
Length. T o specify a distance we must use some unit of length.
T h e unit commonly employed for scientific use and accepted as an
T H E F I E L D S AND USES OF P H Y S I C S h
international standard is the meter. The meter is defined as the dis-
tance between two lines on a certain bar of platinum-iridium when
the temperature of the bar is that of melting ice (0°C). T h e prototype
meter is kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
at Sevres, France. I n order that it could be reproduced if destroyed, it
was intended by the designers that this length should be one ten-
millionth of the distance from a pole of the earth
to the equator, measured along a great circle, b u t
this ideal was not quite realized.
O n e one-hundredth of the meter is called the
centimeter (0.01 m ) , a unit of length that we shall
often employ. Other decimal fractions of the
meter are the decimeter (0.1 m) and the millimeter
(0.001 m ) . For large distances the kilometer (1000
m) is employed.
Units of length popularly used in English-
speaking countries are the yard and its multiples
Fio. 1.—A sec-
and submultiples. T h e British or Imperial yard tion of the standard
has its legal definition as the distance between two meter bar showing
lines on a bronze bar, kept at the office of the the markings at one
end.
Exchequer in London, when its temperature is
62°F. Other common units of length are the mile (1760 yd), the foot
{Yz yd), and the inch (>^6 yd)-
I n the United States the yard is legally defined in terms of the
meter: 1 yd = ^^^^/i'dzi m. This leads to the simple approximate
relation 1 in. = 2.54 cm.
'Mass. T h e mass of an object is a measure of the amount of
material in it as evidenced by its inertia. (Inertia is the measure of
resistance to change of motion.)
T h e fundamental unit of mass is the kilogram, the mass of the
kilogram prototype—a block made of the same platinum-iridium
alloy as the meter prototype and also kept at Sevres. T h e unit of mass
chiefly employed in physics is the gram, which is defined as one one-
thousandth of the mass of the kilogram prototype. These units were
originally chosen with the object of making the gram equal to the
mass of 1 c m ' of water at 4°C, b u t this equality was not realized
exactly. Fractions and multiples of the gram in common use are
named as follows: milligram (0.001 gm), centigram (0.01 gm).
decigram (0.1 gm), kilogram (1000 gm), and the metric ton (1000 kg
or 1,000,000 gm).
I n the United States the pound, a unit of mass, is legally defined in
terms of the kilogram: 1 kg = 2.2046 lb, so that 1 lb equals approxi-
mately 454 gm.
Weight. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) pointed out that besides
having inertia all material objects have the ability to attract all other
objects. As a result of this universal
gravitation everything on or near
the surface of the earth is attracted
toward the earth with a force we
call weight.
T h e force with which the
earth pulls on a mass of 1 lb under
standard conditions is called the
weight of 1 lb or the pound of
force. This force is one of the
basic units in common usage.
Time. T h e f u n d a m e n t a l
unit of time is the mean solar
second. This is defined as 1/86,400
( N O T E : 86,400 = 24 X 60 X 60)
FIG. 2.—The national standard of of the mean solar day, which is
mass. Kilogram No. 20, a cylinder 39 the average, throughout a year,
mm in diameter and 39 mm high, with of the time between successive
slightly rounded edges, made of an alloy
containing 90 per cent platinum and 10transits of the sun across the
meridian at any place. Thus, the
per cent iridium. It was furnished by the
International Bureau of Weights and time it takes for the earth to turn
Measures in pursuance of the metric
treaty of 1875. once on its axis, with respect to
the sun, serves as the basis for the
unit of time. A properly regulated watch or clock, a pendulum of
suitable length, or an oscillating quartz crystal is the working standard
for measuring time.
Systems of Units. A complete set of units, both fundamental and
derived, for all kinds of quantities is called a system of units. Several
such systems have been devised and are commonly used. Eacli is
named in terms of the three Jundamental units upon which it is based.
.The system most widely used in the United States is based upon
THE FIELDS AND USES OF PHYSICS 9
the foot as a unit of length, the pound as a unit offeree, and the second
as a unit of time. From the initials of these three units this system is
called the Jps system. Except in the field of electricity, this system is
largely used in engineering practice.
T h e system largely used in scientific work throughout the world is
based upon the centimeter as a unit of length, the gram as a unit of
mass, and the second as a unit of time. From the initials it is called
the cgs system. Because of the decimal nature of this system conversions
within the system are relatively simple as compared with the fps
system. Unfortunately, many of the derived units in the cgs system are
inconveniently small.
A third system is based upon the meter as a unit of length, the
kilogram as a unit of mass, and the second as a unit of time. This
system is called the mks system. I t has the advantage that, particularly
in electricity, derived units are of convenient size.
Conversion between systems of units can be made by use of a very
few conversion factors. Ideally only three such factors are necessary,
one for each of the fundamental quantities. Some conversion factors
are given in Table I.
TABLE L EQUIVALENTS OF CERTAIN UNITS
. 1 meter = 39.37 inches (exactly)
1 liter = 1.057 liquid quarts
^, " 1 kilogram = 2.205 pounds, avoirdupois
1 inch = 2.540 centimeters
1 1 pound, avoirdupois = 453.6 grams
Example: Change 115 in. to centimeters.
115 in. = 115 in. (2.54 cm/in.) = 292 cm
If all units are inserted into an equation, they can be handled as

algebraic quantities and, when they are handled in this manner, the
correct final unit is obtained. This method has an added advantage in
that it frequently calls attention to a factor that has been forgotten.
Example: Convert 165 lb to kilograms.
" 5 lb = 2 ^ 2 ^ ^ ^ = 74.8 kg
Example: Express 50 mi/hr in feet per second.

^„ . . (50 mi/hr) (5280 ft/mi) ^, , ,
50 mi/hr = ^^ ~~—jr-^—- = Ti ft/sec
: . ~ 3600 sec/hr '
lO COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Significant Figures. I n physics we deal almost exclusively with
measured quantities. T h e accuracy of any measurement is always
limited and hence the number that expresses the magnitude should be
written with the number of digits that properly expresses the accuracy
of the measurement. These figures and only these are significant. When
computations are m a d e with numbers obtained experimentally the
number of digits retained in the result is determined by the number of
significant figures in the original data. Approximate rules for deter-
mining the number of significant figures are given in Appendix I I .
I n examples we shall not retain more digits than are significant in the
result. When there is doubt as to the number of significant figures
we shall overscore the last significant digit: thus 38,400 ft. Here there are
three significant digits 3, 8, and 4. The zeros are present merely to
locate the decimal point.
SUMMARY
Measurement means comparing a thing with a standard to see how
many times as big it is. ^
"Three fundamental quantities are necessary in mechanics. These are
commonly chosen as length, mass, and time or as length, force, and time.
For each fundamental quantity there is an arbitrarily chosen
fundamental unit. Other units based on the fundamental units are called
derived units.
In the United States our units are defined in terms of the metric
standards.
A complete set of units both fundamental and derived is called a
system of units. Systems of units are named from the fundamental units
used as basic for the system as fps, cgs, or mks. Only a few conversion
factors are needed to convert all derived units from one system to
another.
In measured and computed quantities significarit figures only
should be retained.
QUESTIONS
1. By what steps is a science developed?
2. What is meant by the scientific method?
3. What value may the study of physics have in chciracter formation? in the
attitude toward all problems of life?
4. What is meant when a .procedure is criticized as being not scientific?
THE FIELDS AND USES OF PHYSICS II
5. D o all sciences make use of experimentation?

6. Give several informative definitions of physics. W h a t tendency is observed
as to the branching of this science?
7. W h a t have mathematics, astronomy, physics, a n d chemistry in common that
leads to their being called sciences?
8. Comment on the statement attributed to Lord Kelvin (1883):
" I often say that when you can measure w h a t you are speaking about, and express
it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when
you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre a n d unsatisfactory
kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely, in your thoughts,
advanced to the stage of science, whatever the matter m a y b e . "
9. W h a t do you consider the most important characteristics of a standard unit?
10. Give examples of things t h a t can be measured and some that cannot.
11. W h y is it necessary to specify the temperature a t which comparisons with t h e
standard meter b a r are to be made?
12. Suggest several ways in which primary standards of length a n d mass might
be defined in order that, if destroyed, they could be reproduced without loss of
accuracy. '
13. Show that it is possible to shift from British to metric units on a screw-cutting
lathe by the introduction of a gear ratio of 127 to 50 teeth.
PROBLEMS
1. Express your height in meters and your weight in kilograms.
2. A shaft is to be turned to a diameter of J | in. Express this in decimal form in
inches and in centimeters. Ans. 0.625 in.; 1.59 cm
3 . T h e Washington National M o n u m e n t is stated by the M o n u m e n t Society to
be 555 ft, 5J^ in. in height. C o m m e n t on the significant figures in this measurement.
Express this height in meters.
4. In short-distance running the 440-yd dash is used. H o w m a n y meters is this?
Ans. 402 m
5. Convert 1.00 lb to grams; 2.94 m to feet and inches; 1 day to seconds.
6. If an industrial process uses 500 tons of iron ore each hour, how m a n y pounds
are used per day? per minute? Ans. 24,000,000 l b / d a y ; 16,700 I b / m i n
7. Express 30 m i / h r in feet per second.
8. A thin circular sheet of iron has a diameter of 14 cm. Find its area. If a square
meter of the material has a mass of 0.30 k g / m ' , find the mass of the sheet.
Ans. 150 cm^; 4.5 gm
9. Express properly to three significant figures the volume in cubic meters of
1.001b. of water.
10. A replica meter bar is guaranteed to be accurate within 0.0025%. Express
this uncertainty (a) in millimeters, {b) in inches. Ans. 0.025 m m ; 9.8 X 10~* in.
11. Calculate the volumetric displacement of an 8-cylinder car which has cylinders
of bore 7.50 cm and a stroke of 10.4 cm.
12. A cubic centimeter of water weighs approximately one gram. H o w many

kilograms of water would fill a cylindrical cistern 25.4 in. in diameter and 30.0 in.
high? Ans. 249 kg
13. T h e mass of a hydrogen a t o m is 1.673 X 10~^* gm. Calculate the number of
atoms in (a) one gram of hydrogen, (b) in one ounce.
14. T h e mass of an electron is 9.11 X 10~^* gm. H o w m a n y electrons would be
required to make (a) one gram, {b) one ton? Ans. 1.10 X 1 0 " ; 1.00 X 10^'
15. Density in cgs units is expressed in grams per cubic centimeter and in mks
units in kilograms per cubic meter. Convert a density of 7.85 gm/cm^ to mks units.
16. Convert a speed of 27 m i / h r to (a) feet per second, (i) kilometers per minute,
(c) centimeters per second. Ans. 40 ft/sec; 0.72 k m / m i n ; 1.2 X 10^ cm/sec
17. T h e Empire State Building is 1245 ft high. W h a t is its height in (a) meters,
(i) miles, (c) inches, (d) millimeters?
18. Calculate the decimal equivalent of a distance of one kilometer expressed in
miles. Ans. 0.622 m i / k m
19. (a) H o w m a n y seconds are there in a year? (b) H o w m a n y months in 3.5
X 10^2 sec?
20. H o w many cubic centimeters are there in one cubic foot?
Ans. 28,320 c m V f t '
21. Calculate the n u m b e r of milliliters in a fluid ounce, if 16 fluid ounces are
equivalent to one pint.
22. Calculate the n u m b e r of quarts in one liter. Ans. 1.057
23. T h e average weight of a baby at birth is 7.25 lb. Express this in kilograms.
24. W h a t volume of copper will have a mass of 4.0 kg, if the density of copper is
8.9 g m / c m ' ? Ans. 450 cm^
2 5 . T h e density of a l u m i n u m is 2.7 g m / c m ' . Express this density in pounds per
cubic foot.
26. T h e speed v of radio waves is equal to the product of the wavelength X
and the frequency / . If B = 3.00 X 10* m/sec, find the wavelength of a radio
wave from a transmitter broadcasting on a frequency of 760 kilocycles/sec. Express
the wavelength (a) in meters and (b) in feet. Ans. 395 m ; 129 ft
27. W h a t is the distance from Philadelphia to New York, 90 mi, expressed in
kilometers?
28. A contestant ran a 100-meter dash in 10.6 sec. W h a t was his speed (a) in
feet per second and (b) in miles per hour? Ans. 31 ft/sec; 21 m i / h r
29. (a) Express 30° in radians, (b) Express 0.60 radian in degrees and minutes
(see page 111).
30. T h e Cleveland Terminal Tower Building, 708 ft tall, is observed by a m a n /
1.5 mi away. W h a t is the angle between the ground and his line of sight to the top /
of the building? ^n^. 5.12° /'
31. A ship receives radio signals from two radio transmitters A and B, 160 mi
.j ', • apart, A being located due north of B. T h e direction finder shows that transmitter A
; * is 30° north of west, v.'hile transmitter B is due west. H o w far is the ship from each
' , ' transmitter?
PIETER
ZEEMAN
1865 to I 943
BORN IN ZONNEMAIRE, HOLLAND. LECTURER AT LEYDEN UNIVER-

SITY, LATER DIRECTOR OF THE PHYSICAL INSTITUTE. SHARED THE
1 9 0 2 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS WITH LORENTZ FOR THEIR WORK
ON THE RELATION BETWEEN LIGHT AND MAGNETISM.
Vectors; Forces at a Point
Tlie most elementary kind of measxirement is simple counting, the

result of which is expressed by a number: 3, 10, etc. I n most measure-
ments it is necessary to specify the unit in terms of which the com-
parison is made: 3 ft, 10 sec, etc. T h e units are a significant part of the
statement of a physical measurement. Generally only quantities
expressed in similar units can be compared. While 10,001 is nearly
equal to 10,000, it would be meaningless to compare 10,001 dollars
with 10,000 doughnuts.
13
14 COLLEGE T E C H N I C A L PHYSICS
A number and a unit are sufficient to specify many physical quan-
tities. Such quantities add by ordinary arithmetic:
3 sec + 5 sec = 8 sec.
For the complete specification of certain other quantities, it is neces-

sary that a direction also be stated. Such quantities add geometrically
by a process that is more involved than arithmetic addition, but is not
difficult.
Scalar and Vector Quantities. Of the quantities encountered in
physics, some such as distance, volume, or time can be completely
^ specified by a number and the appro-
I priate unit: 3 ft, 7 in^, 1 hr. These are
IV* called scalar quantities. Other quantities,
i"^'' 7 such as velocity and acceleration, require
that the direction also be specified: 30
''\i9 m i / h r north, 32 ft/sec^ vertically down.
^''- —^—'—' •'•^ These are called vector quantities.
FIG. 1.—Motion along OA Let an object initially at 0, Fig. 1, be
and AB results in a displace- moved 4 ft east to A, and then-3 ft north
to B. The final position of the object is
distant OB from the starting point 0, even though it did not travel the
p a t h OB. The displacement of the body is its direction and distance
from the origin 0. Displacement is a vector quantity.
Vectors. A vector quantity is conveniently represented by a
vector, which is a line segment whose length indicates to scale the
magnitude of the vector quantity and whose direction (shown by an
arrowhead) specifies the direction of the vector quantity. I n Fig. 1
the eastward displacement of the body is represented by vector OA, its
northward displacement by AB. T h e resultant displacement from the
starting point is represented by vector OB. >
T h e displacement OB is equivalent to the displacement OA plus
the displacement AB. Thus it is apparent that vectors follow a special
law of geometrical addition. For while it is not true that 4 + 3 = 5,
it is true that OA + AB = OB, where the arrows signify the vector
nature of the quantities and their addition.
A vector combines \vith another vector by geometrical addition to
VECTORS; FORCES AT A POINT 15
form a resultant vector which represents the combined effect of

the quantities represented by the original vectors.
I n Fig. 1, the vector AB is at right angles to the vector OA. T h e
resultant of these two vectors is the vector OJS drawn from the origin
0 to 5 ' t h e head of the second vector, closing the right triangle
OAB. From the Pythagorean theorem, (OA)^ + (AB)^ = (OB)^ or
42 _j_ 32 _ ((55)2 ^jjfj Qj^ — 5 units. T h e direction of the resultant
vector OB may be specified by the angle 6 which it makes with OA.
Since sin d = AB/OB = 0.60, 6 = 37°. The resultant OB therefore
represents a displacement of 5 ft from 0 in the direction 37°N
of E.
A vector multiplied by a scalar quantity is a vector in the same
direction as the original vector.
When two or more vectors are given, their sum or resultant may
be found in a variety of ways. We shall describe three useful methods:
the parallelogram method, the polygon method, and the method of
components.
T h e P a r a l l e l o g r a m M e t h o d . I n the parallelogram method of
addition, the vectors M and JV are brought to a common origin 0 in a
parallelogram constructed as in Fig. 2.
T h e resultant is the diagonal drawn from /" ^^-^^T
the common origin of M and N. M/ 3^^"^'^^ /
With a ruler we can measure the /\e ^^-^^ I80-T%^
resultant R in the units chosen for M and ^ / - ^ " ^ , \^ , / ^ / V
JV, arid the angle cj) can be measured with ^
n-., . ' , . , . . FIG. 2.—Paralleloffram method
a protractor. This graphic solution is df adding vectors.
always possible b u t its accuracy is limited
by the accuracy with which the drawing can be made and measured.
T h e addition of several vectors by repeated application of the paral-
lelogram construction is a possible procedure, but it becomes tedious
if many vectors must be added.
An analytical method for determining the resultant R of any two
vector quantities M and jV makes use of the law of cosines and the
law of sines from trigonometry. T o compute the magnitude of the
resultant we use the law of cosines, which when applied to Fig. 2 gives
i?2 = Af2 + JV2 + 2MM cos e (1)
i6 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
The direction of R can be determined by use of the law of sines.

Applying the law of sines to Fig. 2 gives
• ' sin (^ sin (180° - 6)
R (2)
M
from which we can determine the angle cj)-
/V
R
AA •-,/V M Af- ^y Af
N :.Y
N
{a) (*) {c) W W (/)

FIG. 3,—^The resultant of two vectors depends upon the angle between them.
The resultant of two forces may be greater or less in magnitude

than either of them, depending on the angle between them. In Fig.
3a, two vectors M and JV of 2 and 3 units, respectively, are shown
separately. In h where the vectors are in the same direction their
resultant is merely their sum. As the angle between the vectors
increases, the resultant becomes less, as shown in c, d, and e. At /
the resultant is (numerically) the difference between the vectors.
A ' • " A
{a) • _ (A)
FIG. 4.—Addition of two vectors by analytical method.
Example: Add vectors of 8.0 units arid 5.0 units making an angle of 60° with
each other.
Using a convenient scale, draw vectors A and B (Fig. 4a), making an angle of 60,"
with each other from a common origin O. Complete the parallelogram with A and
B as sides and draw the diagonal from 0, placing an arrowhead at the end of R. On
the scale selected, R represents a resultant of 11 units at an angle of 20° with A, the
8-unit vector.
VECTORS; FORCES AT A POINT
17
The resultant may be determined analytically from the cosine law
R'' = A^ + B^ + 2AB cos 60°
= 64 + 25 + 2(8.0)(5.0) (0.50) = 130
i? = 11 units.
The angle <l> may be determined from the sine law
R C
sin 120° sin <j)
sin <p sin 1 2 0 ° •• X 0.87 = 0.38
R 11
hence
Angle (j> = 22'
P o l y g o p M e t h o d . T h e parallelogram method just described

can be used to find the resultant of any set of vectors, but it becomes
cumbersome when there are more than two. Another graphical
method called the polygon method is more useful for several vectors. In
Fig. 4a we found the resultant by completing the
parallelogram, but we can get the same result by
moving vector B parallel to itself until it coincides
with C (Fig. 4b). We then have the tail of vector B
placed at the head of vector A. The vector sum or
resultant is the vector R that closes the triangle,
drawn from the origin 0 to the head of vector B.
This process rriay be extended to the addition of
more than two vectors.. T h e addition of vectors A, FIG. 5.—Poly-
B, C, and D to give the resultant R should be clear gon m e t h o d of
vector addition.
from Fig. 5. Notice that the vectors to be added A = 6 mi, west;
follow one another head to tail, like arrows indicat- 5 = 4 mi, north-
ing a trail. T h e only place where we may have two west; C = 8 mi,
arrow points touching is where the head of the north; Z) = 3 mi,
east.
resultant arrow R joins the head of the last vector
that was added, D. T h e vectors can be drawn in any order without
changing the result.
Components of a Vector. In Fig. 1 the two vectors OA and AB
taken together are equivalent to the single vector OB, called their
resultant. Conversely, given the single vector OB, we may replace it
by the two equivalent vectors OA and AB. This process is called the
resolution of a vector into its components. T h e components of a vector are
those vectors which when added together give the original vector.
i8 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
A given vector may have any number of components. In Fig. 6a, R
has been resolved into five components. In Fig. 66 vector R has been
resolved into two components. The most useful choice of components
is usually that in which the components, X and T of Fig. 6c, are at
r^J (c)
FIG. 6.—Components of a vector.
right angles to each other. If 6 is the angle between vectors X and R,
then
^ = i? cos 0 (3)
r = i? sin 0 (4)
Consider the vector AB (Fig. 7), which makes an angle of 45°
with the horizontal. To obtain a set of components of AB, one of
which shall be horizontal, draw a horizontal line through the tail of
the vector AB. Now from the head of AB draw
CB perpendicular to the horizorital line. We see
that the vector AB can be considered as the
resultant of the vectors AC and CB. The values
of the. horizontal and vertical components are
A AB cos 45° and AB sin 45°. The directions of
FIG. 7.—Vertical the arrowheads are important, for we are now
and horizontal compo- considering that AC has been added to CB to
nents of a vector.
give the resultant AB; .therefore the arrows
must follow head to tail along AC and CB, so that AB can properly
be considered as a resultant drawn from the tail of the first arrow AC
to the head of the last arrow CB. This resolution into components now
allows us to discard the vector AB in our problem and ke'ep only the
two components AC and CB. These two taken together are in every
way equivalent to the single vector AB.
VECTORS; FORCES A T A POINT
19
What is the advantage of having two vectors to deal with where
there was one before? T h e advantage Hes in the fact that several
vectors making various odd angles with each other can be replaced
by two sets of vectors making angles of either 90 or 0° with one
another. Each of these two groups of vectors can then be summed up
algebraically, thus reducing the problem to one of two vectors at
right angles.
Component Method of Adding Vectors. To add a number of
vectors A, B, C, and D (Fig. 8) by the method of components, we
proceed as follows. Place the vectors at the origin on a set o^rectangu-
/
y
(a) (b) (c)

FIG. 8.—Addition of vectors by the method of components.
lar coordinates (Fig., 8 i ) . Next resolve each vector into x- andjy-com-
ponents by drawing a perpendicular from the vector head to the
proper axis.
Add all the components along the x-axis (il^, Bx-, Cx, etc.) the sum
being called 2 X . Similarly add the components along thej'-axis to
obtain 2 r .
^ S Z = i?, Âx + Bx + Cx + Dx
IJT = Ry = Ay -\- By -\- Cy -\- Dy
Some of the components are negative (for example, Dx and Ay)

since each points along its axis in the direction that is conventionally
called negative.
T h e ' resultant R (Fig. 8c) is obtained from Rx and Ry by the
Pythagorean theorem
i?2 = ( 2 ^ ) 2 ^ (27)2
while the angle 6 which R makes with the A:-axis, measured counter-
clockwise, is given by
tan 6 = 2 r or sm a = R
Example: Find the sum of the following vectors, 3.00 units directed east, 12.00
units directed 40°N of E and 7.00 units
directed 60°S of W (Fig. 9).
a = 40° and /3 = 240°

sin a = 0.643 cos a = 0.766
sinjS = -0.866 cos/? = -0.500
S Z = 3.00 + 12.0(0.766) + 7.00(-0.5Q0)
= 8.70
S r = 0 + 12.0(0.643) + 7.00(-0.866)
= 1.65
7^2 = 8.702 + 1652 = 784
R = 8.86
1.65
tan 6 e = 10° 45'
8.70
Note that a vector has no component at right

FIG 9.—Example of component angles to itself: the 3-unit vector has no
method of addition. ^-component. Note, too, that the sign of a
component may be determined either by
the sign of a trigonometric function or by inspection of the diagram.
Equi^rbrium. The state in which there is no change in the motion

of a b o / / is called equilibrium. The body may be at rest or it may be
movin ^ with uniform speed in a straight line. In either situation the
body'IS in equilibrium.
Many of the problems of the design engineer involve various
forces acting upon or within a structure or machine that do not
produce change in motion. His problem resolves itself into the deter-
mination of the forces necessary to produce equilibrium in the device.
First Condition for Equilibrium. When several forces act at
the same point they are said to be concurrent. A body is in equilibrium
under the action of a set of concurrentforces if the vector sum of the forces is zero.
A parachute descending with uniform speed is in equilibrium
under the action of two forces—the resistance of the air and the com-
bined weight of the parachute and its load—which exactly balance
each other. These two forces are in llie same (vertical) straight Hue,
but their directions are opposite and their sum is zero.
Forces aclin<'- in tlie same direction can be added ariihnieticall\'
to find the \ a l u e of their rcsuUant, which is the single force whose
effect isecjuix-alcnt to their combined action. In order to determine the
resultant of two forces that do not act in the same straight hnc, ii is
FIG. 10.—.\n example of equilibrium.
secessary to make use of \'ecior addition. Thus the pre\'ious study of

i^cctors and \'ector Cjuantities is essential to the solution of pi'oblems
invoking forces in equilibrium.
fr Tfie se\'cral forces may be added by the use of any of the methods
')reviously clescribetL When the vectors arc added by the polygon
, method the \-ector sum is zer(j if die length of the arrow representing
^ • | h e resultant is zero. But this can occur only if the head of the last
r'"'"""""""""'"""'"""'~~"
in the first part of Fig. 11. T h e vector sum is zero if the vector diagram is a
closed polygon. T h e polygon method is especially useful when there are
three concurrent forces.
£QU/UBR/UM? YES
EQUILIBRIUM?
FIG. 11.
m
Example: An object weighing 100 lb and suspended by a rope A (Fig. 12) is
pulled aside by the horizontal rope B and
held so that rope A makes an angle of 30°
with the vertical. Find the tension in ropes
A and B.
We know that the junction 0 is in
equilibrium under the action of these forces,
hence their resultant must be zero. There-
fore, the vectors representing the three
forces can be combined to form a closed
triangle, as shown at the right in Fig. 12.
lOOIb In constructing the vector diagram each
FIG. 12.- -Finding a force by the poly-
vector is drawn parallel to the force that it
gon method.
represents.
In solving the vector triangle it is seen that
Jog = tan 30° = 0.58

so that Fi = (100 lb)(0.58) = 58 lb. To get Fa we can put
100 1b
= COS 3 0 ° 0.866
Therefore,
1001b
= 116 1b
0.866
That is, in order to hold the system in the position of Fig. 12, one must pull on the
horizontal rope with a force of 58 lb. The tension in rope A is then 116 lb. The tension
in the segment of rope directly supporting the weight is, of course, just 100 lb.
If the resultant of several forces is not zero, the body acted upon is
not in equilibrium but it can be placed in a condition of equilibrium
by adding a single force equal in magnitude to the resultant b u t
opposite in direction. This force is called the equilibrant. In Fig. 5, the
equilibrant of the four forces A, B, C, and Z) is a force equal in magni-
tude to R but opposite in direction. If this force were combined with
the original four forces, the polygon would be closed.
S.OIB SOIB
FIG. 13.—Finding a resultant by the method of components.
Example: By the method of components find the resultant and the equilibrant
of a 5.0-lb horizontal force and a 10-lb force making an angle of 45° with the hori-
zontal (Fig. 13).
The horizontal and vertical components of the 10-lb force are, respectively,
10 lb X cos 45° = 7.1 lb and 10 lb X sin 45° = 7.1 lb. The horizontal component
of the 5.0-lb force is 5.0 lb, and its vertical component is zero. There are three forces:
one vertical and two horizontal. Since the two horizontal forces are in the same
direction, they may be added as ordinary numbers, giving a total horizontal force of
5.0 lb -|- 7.1 lb = 12.1 lb. The problem is now reduced to the sinaple one of adding
two forces at right angles, giving the resultant
R = VTJ^+lzT^ lb = 14.0 lb
The angle 6, which R makes with the horizontal, has a tangent 7.1/12.1 = 0.59, so
that e = 30°.
The equilibrant is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to R. Hence it is a

force of 14.0 lb at an angle of 210°.
When the component method of adding vectors is used, the condi-
tion that the vector sum shall be zero is satisfied if each set of com-
ponents adds to zero separately. T h a t is
XF, = 0 (5)
and
2/^. = 0 . (6)
These equations can be used for any set of forces, b u t the method is
particularly useful when there are more than three forces.
Example: An object weighing 100 lb and suspended by a rope A (Fig. 12) is
pulled aside by the horizontal rope B and held so that rope A makes an angle of 30°
with the vertical. Find the tension in ropes
A and B.
We have previously solved this problem
by the straightforward method of adding
the vectors to form a closed figure. That
method is quite appropriate to such simple
cases but, for the sak'e of illustration let us
now solve the problem again by the more
general method of components. In Fig. 14
/^
are shown the same forces, separated for
greater convenience of resolution. The
horizontal and vertical components of the
100-lb force are, respectively, 0 and 100 lb
down. The horizontal and vertical com-
ponents of Fi are, respectively, Fi (to the
right) and 0. In finding the components of
Fa, we do not yet know the numerical value
of F2, but, whatever it is, the horizontal
FIG. 14.—Component method of solv' and vertical components will certainly be
ing the problem of Fig. 9. F2 sin 30° to the left and F2 cos 30° up. We
now have four forces, two vertical and two
horizontal, whose vector sum must be zero to ensure equilibrium. In order that the
resultant may be zero the sum of the horizontal components and the sum of the
vertical components must each be equal to zero. Therefore,
Fi — F2 sin 30° = 0 (horizontal)

F2 cos 30° - 100 lb = 0 (vertical)
If we solve the second equation, we find that F2 = 116 lb, as in the previous solu-
tion. By substituting this value in the first equation, we obtain Fj = 58 lb, as before.
VECTORS; F O R C E S AT A POINT 25
Example: A load of 100 lb is hung from the middle of a rope, which is stretched
between two walls 30.0 ft apart (Fig. 15). Under the load the rope sags 4.0 ft in the
middle. Find the tension in sections A and B.
The mid-point of the rope is in equilibrium under the action of the three forces
exerted on it by sections A and B of the rope and the 100-lb weight. A vector diagram
of the forces appears in Fig. 16. The horizontal and vertical components of the 100-lb
force are, respectively, 0 and 100 lb downward. The horizontal and vertical com-
ponents of iî are, respectively, ^1 cos d to the left, and ^1 sin d upward. Similarly, the
horizontal and vertical components of Pi are, respectively, Fi cos Q to the right, and
Fi, sin Q upward. In order that the resultant shall be zero the sum of the horizontal
components and the sum of the vertical components must each be equal to zero.
/0018
FIG. 15.—Finding the tension of a stretched rope.
FIG. 16.—Horizontal^<d vertical con>ponents of the icxfCKSvx a stretched rope.
Therefore,
F^ cos 0 - Fi cos 9 = 0 (horizontal) (7)
Fx sin e + F2 sin e - 100 lb = 0 (vertical) (8)
Since these two equations involve three unknown quantities Fi, Fa, and ^, we cannot
solve them completely without more information.
An inspection of Fig. 15 shows that the angle Q' of that figure is identical with the
angle d of Fig. 16. Thus the value of sin d can be determined from the dimensions
shown in Fig. 15
. „, 4.0 ft
VlS.O^-f 4.02 ft = v ^ 4 T f t = 15.5 ft

and
4.0 ft
= 0.26
15.5 ft
F r o m Eq. (7), Fi = F2. Substituting in Eq. (8),
F i sin 0 + Fi sin 9 - 100 lb = 0

2Fi sin 9 = 100 lb
2Fi(0.26) = 100 lb
100 1b
^ ' = 2(0-:2-6) = l^lb
and
190 1b
Two things should be noticed about the problem just solved:

(1) that the value of a function of an angle in the vector diagram was
needed in order to carry out the solution; (2) that the value of that
function was determined from the geometry of the original problem.
Example: Calculate the force needed to hold a 1000-lb car on an inclined plane
that makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal, if the force is to be parallel to the
incline.
(a) (b) • .
FIG. 17.—Finding the forces acting upon a body on an incline.
T h e forces on the car include (see Fig. 17) its weight W, the force B parallel to the
incline, and the force A exerted on the car by the inclined plane itself. T h e last force
mentioned is perpendicular to the plane if there is no friction.
Since the car is in equilibrium u n d e r the action of the three forces A, B, and W, a
closed triangle can be formed with vectors representing them, as in Fig. 176. In the
vector diagram, B/W = sin 6', so that B = W sin 6'. T h e angle 6', however, is equal
to angle 9 in Fig. 17a (Can you prove this?), and we may write B = W sin 9. Since 6
is 30° and W = 1000 lb,
B = (1000 lb) sin 30° = (1000 ]b)(0.500) = 500 lb
T h e value of A, the perpendicular force exerted by the plane, can be found by

observing that A/W = cos 9' = cos 9, from which
A^ PKcos 30° = (1000 lb)(0.866) = 866 lb

FORCES AT A POINT 27
It should be noticed that W can be resolved into two components that are,
respectively, parallel and perpendicular to the incline. These components are equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction to B and A, respectively.
SUMMARY
Quantities whose measurement is specified by magnitude and
direction are called vector quantities. Those which have only magnitude
are called scalar quantities.
A vector quantity is represented graphically by a line called a
vector drawn to represent its direction and its magnitude on some
convenient scale.
T h e resultant of two or more vectors is the single vector that would
produce the same result.
T h e rectangular components of a vector are its projections on a set of
right-angle axes, for example, the horizontal and vertical axes.
Vectors are conveniently added graphically by placing them
" h e a d to tail" and drawing the resultant from the origin to the head
of the last vector, closing the polygon.
The component method of adding vectors is to resolve each into its
rectangular components, which are then added algebraically and the
resultant found.
A body is in equilibrium when there is no change in its motion.
When a body is in equilibrium, the vector sum of all the forces
acting on it is zero. This is known as the first condition Jor equilibrium.
When a body is in equilibrium, the vector diagram is a closed polygon,
or the sums of the rectangular components of all the forces must each
equal zero: liFx = 0 and 'LFy = 0.
QUESTIONS
1. W h a t items must be stated to specify a vector quantity completely?
2. Are vectors necessary, or is the concept of a vector merely a convenience in
expressing physical quantities?
3. Describe an experiment t h a t demonstrates the physical meaning of the terms
component, resultant, and equilibrant.
4. W h y does an airplane pilot prefer to take off and land into the wind?
5. W h e n telephone wires are covered with ice, is there more danger of their
breaking when they are taut or when they sag?
6. Can a moving body be in equilibrium?
7. Is the earth in equilibrium?
8. Can an ice boat be m a d e to sail faster than 20 m i / h r in a 20 m i / h r wind?
Explain. W h a t limits the speed attainable with the ice boat?
PROBLEMS
1. A boat sails 20 mi due east and then sails 12 mi southeast. How far is it from
its starting point, and in what direction is it from that point?
2. A ship is sailing 20°N of E at the rate of 14 mi/hr. How fast is it going north-
ward and how fast eastward? Ans. 4,8 mi/hr; 13 mi/hr
3. If a ship is sailing 21°E of N at the rate of 15.0 mi/hr, what are its conaponent
speeds, northward and eastwaird?
4. If a wind is blowing 17.5 ft/sec and crosses the direction of artillery fire at an
angle of 38°, what are its component speeds along, and directly across, the direction
of fire? Ans. 13.8 ft/sec; 10.8 ft/sec
5. A boy is pulling his sled along level ground, his pull on the rope being 12.0 lb.
What are the vertical and horizontal components of the force if the rope makes an
angle of 21° with the ground?
6. Add the following displacements by the component method: 10 ft directed
northeast, 15 ft directed south, and 25 ft directed 30°W of S.
Ans. 30 ft, 10.4°WofS
7. A boat travels 10 mi/hr in still water. If it is headed 60°S of W in a current
that moves it 10 mi/hr due east, what is the resultant velocity of the boat?
8. An airplane is flying at 150 mi/hr on a north-to-south course according to
the compass. A cross wind of 30 mi/hr is blowing south 47° west and carries the air-
plane west of its course. What are the actual speed and course of the airplane?
^«j. 172 mi/hr; 7.3°W of S
9. A weight is suspended by two wires, each inclined 22° with the horizontal.
If the greatest straight pull which either wire could sustain is 450 lb, how large a
weight could the two support as specified?
10. A boy weighing 80 lb sits in a swing, which is pulled to one side by a hori-
zontal force of 60 lb. What is the tension on the swing rope? Ans. 100 lb
11. The angle between the rafters of a roof is 120°. What thrust is produced along
the rafters when a 1200-lb weight is hung from the peak?
12. A rope 100 ft long is stretched between a tree and a car. A man pulls with a
force of 100 lb at right angles to and at the middle point of the rope, and moves this
point 5.0 ft. Assuming no stretching of the rope, what is the tension in the rope?
Ans. 500 lb
13. What is the angle between two equal forces whose resultant is equal to one-
half of one of the forces?
14. Two forces of 24 tons and 11- tons, respectively, are applied to an object at a
common point and have an included angle of 60°. Calculate the magnitude of their
resultant and the angle it makes with the 24-ton force. Ans. 31 tons; 18°
15. Two forces are of such magnitude that their resu'tant may vary from 20 lb to
10 lb. Find these forces and their resultant when the angle between them is 90°.
16. Along a certain mountain road the grade is such that the road rises lO.OO ft
in every 100 ft of horizontal distance. How much force, neglecting friction, wpuld be
required to pull a load of 2000 lb up this grade, the force being applied parallel to
the road and the load being moved with constant speed? Ans. 198 lb
V,E G T O R S ; FORGES AT A POINT 29
17. An iron sphere weighing 100 lb rests in a V-shaped trough whose sides form
an angle of 60°. What is the normal force exerted by the sphere on each side of the
trough?
FIG. 18.
18. A 20-lb picture is suspended from the wall by a single cord attached at two
corners of the frame and hung over a pin. What is the tension in the cord if the angle
between the two halves of the cord is 60°? What is the tension if the angle is increased
to 90°? Ans. 12 lb; 14 lb
19. Four 100-lb weights are suspended from a beam (Fig. 19). In which cord is
the tension least? greatest? What is the tension in D?
FIG. 19.
20. A tightrope walker weighing 150 lb performs on a horizontal wire 15 ft long

capable of withstanding 3000 lb. If the wire does not stretch aiid its supports are
rigid, how far below the level of the supports must the wire be allowed to sag at the
middle if the performer is to be supported with a factor of safety of 3 when at the
center? Ans. 6.7 in.
21. A person who is 35 ft due east of you runs due north at 16 ft/sec. At what angle
north of east would you throw a ball at 60 ft/sec ground speed in order to hit hirn?
22. A point is moving with a speed of 3.0 ft/sec along the diagonal of a square
that is itself moving in the direction of one of its edges at the rate of 4.0 ft/sec. Find
the resultant speed of the point. Ans. 6.6 ft/sec
23. As a flag is hoisted up the mast at 15 ft/sec, a ship goes south at 22 ft/sec, and
the tide moves east at 4 ft/sec. What is the velocity of the flag relative to the earth?
24. A motor boat that has a speed of 12 mi/hr in still water crosses from the east
to the west bank of a river 1.0 mi wide. The river flows from north to south, the speed
of the current being 4.0 mi/hr. The boat crosses with its keel pointing due east,
(a) What is the speed of the boat with reference to its starting point? (b) How long
does it take for the boat to reach the west bank? (c) How far south of its starting
point will it land? Ans. 13 mi/hr; 5.0 min; 0.33 mi
25. A 120-lb weight is supported by a cord attached to a hook in a vertical wall
at point A, Fig. 20. The cord is displaced by the length of the horizontal strut BC
6.00 ft long. Assuming cord and strut to have negligible weights, (a) draw a vector
diagram representing the forces acting at C. (b) Wliat is the horizontal force exerted
by the wall on the strut at B? (c) What is the force exerted on the hook in the direction
AC?
FIG. 20.
26. The beam of a wall crane 7.5 ft long is held at right angles to the wall by
a tie that is attached to the wall 6.0 ft above the foot of the beam. If the load lifted
is 3.0 tons, find the tension in the tie and the compressional force in the beam. Neglect
the weight of the beam. Ans. 4.8 tons; 3.8 tons
27. A load of 50 lb is suspended from the ceiling by a cord 8.0 ft long. A second
cord is tied to the first 2.0 ft above the load and a pull is exerted by this attached cord
always making an angle of 30° above the horizontal. When the tension in the second
cord becomes 20 lb it is tied fast, (a) Find the tension in the first cord, above, and below
the knot, (b) What angle does the first cord make with the horizontal?
7)
i ^**
ANTOON
LORENTZ
1853 to 1928
BORN IN ARNHEM, HOLLAND. PROFESSOR AT LEYDEN. IN I 9 0 Q

LORENTZ SHARED THE NOBEL PRIZE FOR I'KYSIGS W I T H HIS PUPIL
ZEEMAN, FOR THEIR INVESTIGATIONS OF THE EFFECTS OF MAG-
NETISM ON THE PHENOMENA OF RADIATION-
3. Velocity and Acceleration

As we observe objects around us one of the mo^t noticeable properties
is their motion. Some motions appear to be vC^Y simple, others very
complicated. Motion can be dangerous if it is ei'Tâtic and uncontrolled
as we observe it in a flooded river, a hurricane, or a runaway auto-
mobile, but controlled motion is an exceedingly useful tool.
A study of the motions of objects is necess^^T if we are to under-
stand their behavior and learn to control theiW- Since most motions
31
are very complex, it is necessary to begin with the simplest of cases.
I t is surprising what complicated motions can be analyzed and
represented in terms of a few elementary types, when these simple
types of motion are thoroughly understood.
Speed and Velocity. The simplest kind of motion that an
object can have is a uniform motion in a straight line. In every second
the body moves t h e same distance in the same direction as it did in
each other second. Every part of the body moves in exactly the same
way. An object moving in this manner is moving with constant
velocity. Constant velocity implies not only constant speed b u t unchanging
direction as well.
T h e speed of a moving body is the distance it moves per unit of
time. If the speed is uniform the object moves equal distances in each
successive unit of time. Whether or not the speed is constant, the
average speed is the distance the body moves divided by the time
required for the motion.
T h e defining equation is
s
where s is the distance traversed, v the average speed, and t the time.
This may be put in the form
s = vt (1)
If the speed is constant, its value is, of course, identical with the
average speed.
If, for example, an automobile travels 200. mi in 4 hr, its average
speed is 50 m i / h r . I n 6 hr it would travel 300 mi.
T h e concept of speed does not involve the idea of direction. A body
moving with constant speed may move in a straight line, or in a circle
or in any one of an infinite variety of paths so long-as^the distance
moved in any unit of time is the same as that moved-' in any other
equal unit of time.
Constant velocity is a particular case of constant speed. Not only does
the distance traveled in unit time remain the same but the direction
as well does not change. An automobile that travels for 1 hr at a
constant velocity of 20 m i / h r north, reaches a place 20 mi north of its
first position. If, on the other hand, it travels around a race track for
1 hr at a constant speed of 20 mi/hr, it may traverse the same distance
VELOCITY AND A C C E L E R A T I O N 33
without getting anywhere. At one instant its velocity may be 20 m i / h r

east; at another, 20 m i / h r south.
T h e statement, " A n automobile is moving with a velocity of
20 m i / h r , " is incorrect by virtue of incompleteness, since the direction
of motion must be stated in order to specify a velocity. For this reason
one should always use the word speed when he does not wish to state
the direction of motion, or when the direction is changing.
Accelerated Motion. Objects seldom move with constant
velocity. I n almost all cases the velocity of a n object is continually
changing in magnitude or in direction or in both. Motion in which
the velocity is changing is called accelerated motion, a n d the rate at
which the velocity changes is called the acceleration.
T h e velocity of a body may be changed by changing the speed or
by changing the direction or by changing both speed and direction.
If the direction of the acceleration is parallel to the direction of motion,
only the speed changes, while, if the acceleration is at right angles
to the direction of motion, only the direction changes. Acceleration
in any other direction produces changes in both speed and direction.
For the present we shall confine our attention to the simplest type
of accelerated motion, called uniformly accelerated motion, in which the
direction is always the same and parallel to the direction of the
original motion and the speed changes at a constant rate. T h e
acceleration in this case is equal to the rate of change of speed, since
there is no change in direction. T h e acceleration is called positive
if the speed is increased, negative if the speed is decreased. Negative
acceleration is sometimes called deceleration.
Example: An automobile accelerates at a constant rate from'15 mi/hr to 45 mi/hr
in 10 sec while traveling in a straight line. What is the acceleration?
The acceleration, or the rate of change of speed in this case, is the change in
speed divided by the time in which it took place, or
45 mi/hr — 15 mi/hr 30 mi/hr
" = YolTc = 10 sec = ^-^ '"'Z^'" P^'" ^^
indicating that the speed increases 3.0 mi/hr during each second. Since
30 mi/hr = 44 ft/sec,
the acceleration can be written also as
44 ft/sec ^^ ^
a = —77; = 4.4 ft per sec^
10 sec ^
This means simply that the speed increases 4.4 ft/sec during each second, or 4.4 ft/sec^.
Using algebraic symbols to represent acceleration a, initial speed
V\, final speed v^, and time t, the defining equation for acceleration is
written
Vi — Vi
Multiplying both sides of this equation by t gives

v% — vx = at. (3)
\vhich expresses the fact that the change in speed is equal to the rate of
change in speed multiplied by the time during which it is changing.
T h e distance traveled during any time is given by the equation
s = vt
b u t the average speed v must be obtained from the initial and final
speeds, î and vi. Since the speed changes at a uniform rate, the
average speed v is equal to the average of the initial and final speeds, or
V = — 2 — (2)
Example: How far does the automobile of the previous example move while it is
increasing its speed?
v= K(15 + 45) mi/hr = 30 mi/hr = 44 ft/sec
and
J = 44 ft/sec X 10 sec = 440 ft
Three equations for uniformly accelerated motion have been

considered:
s = m , (1)
V = ^ — (2)
J'2 — v\ =• at (3)
By combining these, two other useful equations can be obtained.

Eliminating vi and £i, we obtain
. s = vit + Yzat^ (4)
If we eliminate v and t from Eqs. (1) to (3), we obtain
las = Vi^ ,^ vi^ ' (5)
Of these five equations, Eq. (1) is true for all types of motion; the
remaining four equations hold only for uniformly accelerated linear
V E L O C I T Y AND A C C E L E R A T I O N 35
motion. In the solution of a given problem that equation should be
used in which the quantity to be determined is the only one not known.
Example: A truck starting from rest acquires a speed of 30 mi/hr in 20 sec. What
is the acceleration? How far does the truck travel?
Vl == 0
30 m i / h r X 5280 ft/mi
»2 == 30 m i / h r = = 44 ft/sec
3600 sec/hr
t == 20 sec
Using Eq. (3)
Vi - Vl
a=
t
44 ft/sec — 0
a - = 2.2 ft/sec2
20 sec
Using Eq. (4)
s = 0+ 14(2.2 ft/sec2)(20 sec)2 = 440 ft

or using Eq. (1)
»i + "2 0 + 44 ft/sec ^ „„ -„ „
s = vt = ^ t = —^—2"^ X 20 sec = 440 ft
Example: A train traveling with a speed of 60 mi/hr is brought to an emergency

stop in 2000 ft. What is the acceleration and the time required to stop?
Vl 60 m i / h r = 88 ft/sec
=
1)2 0 =
s — 2000 ft
Using Eq. (5)
2as = z'z^ — Vi^
2fl(2000 ft) = 0 - (88 ft/sec)2
- ( 8 8 ft/sec) 2 ,
a = 2(2000 ft) ~ ^••' "^^^^
Using Eq. 3
»2 — Vl
t =
a
0 - 8 8 ft/sec
t = — . n c^7—9 = 46 sec
— 1.9 ft/sec^
Freely Falling Bodies; Acceleration D u e to Gravity. T h e

most common example of uniformly accelerated motion is the motion
of a body falling freely, that is, a body which is falling under the action
of its weight alone. If a stone is dropped, it falls to the earth. If air
resistance is negligible, the.stone is uniformly accelerated.
T h e acceleration of freely falling bodies is so important and so
frequently used that it is customary to represent it b y the special
symbol g. At sea level and 45° latitude g has a value of 32.17 ft/sec^,
or 980.6 cm/sec^. For our purposes it is sufficiently accurate to use
g = ?>2 ft/sec2 or 980 cm/sec^.
T h e value of g is not quite the same at all places on the earth.
Since the weight of a body depends upon its distance from the center
of the earth, the acceleration of a freely falling body also depends upon
this distance. At a given latitude the value is greater a t aea level t h a n
at higher altitude. At sea level the value is greater near the poles than
at the equator. Locally there may be small variations because of
irregularities in the layers of rock beneath the surface. Such local
variations are the basis of one type of prospecting for oil.
Since a freely falling body is uniformly accelerated, the five
equations already developed for that type of motion may be applied
when air resistance is neglected.
Example: A body starting from rest falls freely. What is its speed at the end of
1.0 sec?
a = 32 ft/sec''
/ V S 1-1 = 0
sec ft/sec ft t = 1.0 sec
(7 ® 0 0 Using Eq. (3)
I m 1,32 L
Vi = Vi + at 0 + (32 ft/sec2)(1.0 sec) = 32 ft/sec
Example: When starting from rest, how far does a body
2 @ ,64 64
fall during the first second?
»i = 0
a = 32 ft/sec^
t = \S) sec
96 144 From Eq. (4)
s = vxt-\- Hat^ = 0 + J^(32 ft/sec2)(1.0 sec)^ = 16 ft
Table I and Fig. 1 show the speed at the end

of time / a n d the distance fallen during time t for
a body that starts from rest.
4 © I2S 256 TABLE I
Time t, Speed, ft/sec, at Distance, ft.
sec end of time t fallen in time t
FIG. 1.—Position 1 32 16
and speed of a body
2 64 64
falling freely from
rest after successive 3 96 144
intervals of time. 4 128 256
. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 37
When, instead of falling from rest, an object is thrown with initial
speed vi, the first term of Eq. (4) is no longer zero. If it is thrown down-
ward, both vi and a have the same direction a n d hence are given the
same algebraic sign. If, however, the object is thrown upward, vi is
directed upward while a is directed downward, a n d thus the latter
must be considered as negative.
Example; A body is thrown upward with an initial speed of 40 ft/sec. Find the
distance traveled during the first second, the speed at the end of the first second, and
the greatest elevation reached by the object.
»i = 40 ft/sec
a = -32ft/sec2
t = 1.0 sec
From Eq. (4)
s = vit+ }iaf^ = (40 ft/sec) X (1.0 sec) + K ( - 3 2 ft/sec^) X (1.0 sec)^ = 24 ft
From Eq. (3),
B2 = D, + a< = 40 ft/sec + ( - 3 2 ft/sec^) X (1.0 sec) = 8.0 ft/sec
At the highest point the object stops and hence

1/2 = 0
From Eq. (5)

2as = V'j} — vi^
2 ( - 3 2 ft/sec2)j = 0 - (40 ft/sec)^
_ - ( 4 0 ft/sec)^ _
' ~ 2 ( - 3 2 ft/sec2) ~ ^^ "
This is the greatest elevation reached by the object.
Terminal Speed. I n the preceding discussion we have assumed

that there is no air resistance. In the actual motion of every falling
body this is far from true. T h e frictional resistance of the air depends
upon the speed of the moving object. T h e resistance is quite small for
the first one or two seconds but as the speed of fall increases the
resistance becomes large enough to reduce appreciably the net down-
ward force on the body and the acceleration decreases. After some
time of uninterrupted fall, the body is moving so rapidly that the drag
of the air is as great as the weight of the body, so that there is no
acceleration. The body has then reached its terminal speed, a speed that
it cannot exceed in falling from rest.
Very small objects, such as dust particles and water droplets, and
objects of very low density and large surface, such as feathers, have
very low terminal speeds; hence they fall only small distances before
losing most of their acceleration. T h e effect of the air can be shown
by an experiment in which a coin and a feather are enclosed in a long
tube. When the tube filled with air is inverted, the coin falls much
faster than the feather. If the air is pumped out and the tube again
inverted, the coin and feather fall together.
A man jumping from a plane reaches a terminal speed of about
120 m i / h r if he delays opening his parachute. When the parachute is
opened, the terminal speed is reduced because of the increased air
resistance to about 14 m i / h r , which is about equal to the speed gained
in jumping from a height of 7 ft. A large parachute encounters more
air resistance than a small one and hence causes slower descent. A
plane in a vertical dive without the use of its motor can attain a speed
of about 400 m i / h r .
SUMMARY
A statement of velocity must specify the direction as well as the
speed, for example, 25 m i / h r east, 30 ft/sec southwest.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
The equations of uniformly accelerated motion for the particular
case in which the direction of motion remains fixed and the speed
changes uniformly are
s = m (1)
u- ^^ 2+ /*^^ (2)
Vi — Vl
a = (3)
t
s = Vlt + }iat^ (4)
2as = v,^- Vl' (5)
A freely falling body is one that is acted on by no forces of appre-
ciable magnitude other than ita weight.
The acceleration of a freely falling body at sea level and 45° lat-
titude is 32.17 ft/sec^ or 980.6 crn/sec^.
The terminal speed of a falling object is the vertical speed at which
the force of air resistance is just sufficient to balance its weight.
VELOCITY AND A C C E L E R A T I O N 39
QUESTIONS
1. Cite some examples of (a) uniform motion, (b) uniformly accelerated motion,
(c) nonuniformly accelerated motion.
2. If we call the upward direction positive, what sign should be given to the
"velocity and acceleration of a ball (a) just after it is thrown vertically upward, (b) at
the highest point of its path, (c) when it is falling?
3. Can a body have a velocity without an acceleration? Can it have an accelera-
tion with zero velocity? Give examples.
4. If a body falls from a great height, can its speed reach a maxinaum value and
thereafter decrease? Explain.
5. A body is thrown vertically upward. If air resistance is considered, is the time
during which the body rises longer or is it shorter than the time during which it falls?
6. Is it ever possible for an object to have an acceleration without its speed
changing?
7. Can you identify any motion that occurs in nature in which an object has a
velocity (not zero) but has zero acceleration? One in which the acceleration is nearly
constant? One in which the acceleration varies from point to point in the motion?
PROBLEMS
1. When a batter struck a ball, its velocity changed from 150 ft/sec west to
150 ft/sec east. What was (a) the change in speed? (b) the change in velocity?
2. A train starts from rest and at the end of 90 sec has a speed of 45 mi/hr. What
is its acceleration? Ans. 0.73 ft/sec^
3. A car changes its speed from 20 mi/hr to 30 mi/hr in 5.0 sec. Express the
acceleration in miles per hour per second, feet per minute per second, and feet per
second per second.
4. The initial speed of a car having excellent brakes was 30 mi/hr (44 ft/sec).
When the brakes were applied it stopped in 2.0 sec. Find the acceleration and the
stopping distance. Ans. —22 ft/sec^; 44 ft
5. An automobile starts from rest and accelerates 2.0 m/sec^. How far will it
travel during the third second?
6. An automobile has a speed of 60 mi/hr. When the brakes are applied it slows
to 15 mi/hr in 4.0 sec. What is the acceleration? How far does it travel during the
4 sec? Ans. - 1 6 ft/sec^; 220 ft
7. A train has a speed of 60 ft/sec at a given instant and 12.0 sec later its speed
is 42 ft/sec. What is its acceleration, assuming it to be constant? After how long a
time will the train come to rest? How far will it travel after the first instant mentioned?
8. How high will a body rise that is projected vertically upward with a speed
of 100 ft/sec? How long will it take for the body to reach its maximum height?
Ans. 156 ft; 3.1 sec
9. A stone is thrown vertically upward with an initial speed of 96 ft/sec. (a)
How long does it continue to rise? (b) How high does it rise?
10. How high will a body rise if it is projected vertically upward with a speed of
1540 cm/sec? How long will it rise? Ans. 1210 cm; 1.6 sec
11. What vertical speed will cause a ball to rise just 16 ft? 64 ft?
12. A baseball is thrown downward from the top of a cliff 500 ft high with an
initial speed of 100 ft/sec. (a) What will be the speed after 3.00 sec? (b) After how long
a time will the ball reach the ground? Ans. 196 ft/sec; 3.26 sec
13. A stone is thrown \>ertically downward from the top of a tower 100 m high
with an initial speed of 30 m/sec. What is its speed at the end of 2.0 sec? How long a
time is required to reach the ground? With what speed does it strike the ground?
14. A stone is thrown vertically upward with a speed of 160 ft/sec. How high will
it rise and when will it return to the ground? Ans. 400 ft; 10 sec
15. A stone is thrown from the ground to the top of a flagpole. It returns to the
ground after 5.0 sec. How high is the pole?
16. A balloon which is ascending at the rate 12 m/sec is 80 m above the ground
when a stone is dropped. How long a time is required for the stone to reach the
ground? Ans. 5.4 sec
17. From a balloon, which is ascending at the rate of 32 ft/sec, a stone is dropped
and reaches the ground in 16.0 sec. How high was the balloon when the stone was
dropped?
18. A stone is dropped from a high altitude and 3.00 sec later another is projected
downward with a speed of 150 ft/sec. When and where will the second overtake the
first? Ans. 5.70 sec; 520 ft
19. A bullet is shot vertically upward with a speed of 320 ft/sec and 4.0 sec later a
second bullet is shot upward with a speed of 190 ft/sec. Will they ever meet? If so,
where?
20. An elevator is ascending with an acceleration of 4.0 ft/sec^. At the instant its
upward speed is 8.0 ft/sec a bolt drops from the top of the cage 9.0 ft from the floor.
Find the time until the bolt strikes the floor and the distance it has fallen.
- . Ans. 0.71 sec; 2.3 ft
HENRI
ANTOINE
BECQ.UEREL
1852 to 1908
BORN IN PARIS. PROFESSOR AT THE PARIS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL.

AWARDED, WITH THE CURIES, THE I 9O3 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS
FOR HIS DISCOVERY OF SPONTANEOUS RADIOACTIVITY.
Force and Motion
In our discussion of motion we have not raised a question as to why

there may be a change in motion. When a body is at rest we assume
from our common experience that it will remain at rest unless some-
thing is done to change that state. We walk without fear beside a tall
building or in front of a standing locomotive because we know from
experience that it will not suddenly move. A heavy box on the floor
41
will. Stay in place unless it is pushed or pulled. We must exert a force

upon it to change its motion, that is, to give it an acceleration.
Everyone accepts the fact that no body can be set into motion
without having a force act upon it. It is not quite so easy to accept the
equally true fact that a body in motion cannot change its motion
unless a force acts on it. We seldom if ever observe a body that has no
force acting on it. T h e box resting on the floor has more than one
force acting on it, b u t they do not produce a change in motion. A
rather large force must be exerted to start the box moving, a n d it stops
quickly when the force is removed. If the box is mounted on wheels, a
smaller force is required to start it, and it continues to move longer.
If more care is taken to reduce the resistance (friction) of the floor to
the motion, it becomes easier to start the box, and it continues to move
more readily. We are finally lead to the conclusion that if the resist-
ance of the floor could be entirely removed any horizontal force could
start the box moving and once started it would continue to move
indefinitely unless a force were exerted to stop it. T h e property of a
body by virtue of which a force is required to change its motion is
called inertia.
T h e Law of Inertia: Newton's First Law. T h e conclusion
which has been reached regarding the need of a force to change the
motion of a body was stated by Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). There
is no change in the motion of a body unless a resultant force is acting upon it. If
the body is at rest, it will continue at rest. If it is in motion, it will
continue in motion with constant speed in a straight line unless there
is a net force acting. This law of inertia is usually called Newton's first
law of motion. It is the purely negative statement that no acceleration
will occur without a force to cause that chainge.
Force and Acceleration: Newton's Second Law. Whenever a net
(unbalance'd) force acts on a body it produces* an acceleration in the direction
of the force, an acceleration that is directly proportional to the force and in-
versely proportional to the mass of the body.
If successively greater forces are applied to a given body, corre-
spondingly greater accelerations are produced. A given force applied
in turn to several different bodies will produce accelerations inversely
proportional tq the masses of the- bodies.
According to the second law, the following proportions may be
written
a ccf
FORCE AND MOTION 43
and
1
a oc —
m
These proportions may be combined as
/
a oz —
m
and written as an equation
/ = kma (1)
I n Eq. (1) any unit of force, any unit of mass, and any unit of
acceleration can be used provided the proper value is assigned to the
constant k. In general a different value of k would have to be assigned
for each combination chosen. For simplicity, it is customary to use
a system of units for which k has a value of
one. We have defined a unit of mass, the gram, f=IDYN£
a n d a imit of acceleration in the same system 171=2 GM
as the centimeter per second per second. From

Eq. (1), we can define a unit of force so that it a=JC/i^<S£C^
will have a value of unity when m is 1 gm and Fin 1 r =
a is 1 cm/sec^. This unit of force, the dyne, is the
net force that will give to a mass of 1 gm an acceleration of 1 cm/sec^.
When this system of units (or others defined in a similar manner) is used
in Eq. {I) k takes the value unity and the equation becomes
J = ma (2)
Equation (2) is not a general equation. It can be used only when
a carefully chosen, consistent set of units is employed. While there are
several such systems, ^ we shall use Eq. (2) in this book only for the
system defined above, that is, when the force is in dynes, the mass in
grams, and the acceleration in centimeters per second per second.
E x a m p l e : A net force of 500 dynes is applied to an object with a mass of 175 gm.
W h a t acceleration is produced?
F r o m Eq. (2)
J = ma
f 500 dynes 500 gm cm/sec^ „ „^ ,
a = — = .^. = T^r; = 2.86 cm/sec2
m 175 gm 175 gm
T N O T E : F r o m Eq. (2) 1 dyne = 1 ^ ^ ^ ' l
' Several systems of units that are consistent for use in Eq. (2) are tabulated in the
appendix, Table 1.
Weight and Acceleration. When a body falls freely, the only

force acting on it is its weight. This net force produces the acceleration
g observed in freely falling bodies. If we substitute this force and
acceleration in Eq. (1), we obtain
W = kmg
If another net force F is applied to the same body, a different accelera-
tion a will be produced.
F^ _a
W~ g
F = —a (3)
g
This new equation does not contain mass explicitly but gives the
relationship between two forces F and W and their corresponding
a=g=32F7/S£C^
yy=iLB F'-JIB
iV=3ZLB
*•
F=nB
a=Jf7/S£C'
W
FIG. 2. F'
accelerations. Any units of force can be used so long as F and W are

expressed in the same units in any one problem. Likewise a and g must be
in the same units. We shall use Eq. (3) for all work in the British
system of units where the force F is expressed in pounds and the
weight W is also in pounds.
Example; A net force of 5.0 lb acts upon a body that weighs'20 lb. What accelera-
tion is produced?
From Eq. (3)
F = —a
g
Fg 5.0 lb X 32 ft/sec' = 8.0 ft/sec^
" = !/ = 20 1b
Procedure in the Solution of Problems. In applying the
second law of motion to the solution of practical problems much
difficulty can be avoided by following a definite procedure. In .solving
any problem involving force and motion, the following steps are
recommended:
FORCE AND MOTION 45
1. Make a sketch showing the conditions of the problem. Indicate
on it dimensions or other data given in the problem,
2. Select for consideration the one body whose motion is to be studied.
Construct a vector force diagram, entirely separate from the sketch
showing the objects and their spatial relations. O n this force diagram,
represent by vectors acting at a point all the forces acting on the body
that has been selected. If any forces are unknown, represent them also
as vectors and label them unknown quantities.
3. From the vector diagram, find the resultant force acting on the
body. This is the F of Eq. (3) or t h e / of Eq. (2).
4. Find the unknown acceleration or force from the relation
W
F = — a ( o r / = ma). If the problem asks for a distance, velocity, or
time, apply the equations of accelerated motion (Chap. 3) as required.
Example: A 100-lb block rests at the top of a smooth plane whose length is
200 in. and height 50 in. How long will it take for the block to slide to the bottom of
the plane when released?
F
FIG. 3.—Inclined plane.
As indicated in Fig. 3, the forces acting on the block are the weight W
downward, and the force JV of the plane against the block, this force being perpendicu-
lar to the plane. The resultant (unbalanced) force is F, parallel to the plane. The
force triangle and the space triangle representing the inclined plane are geometrically
similar. The ratios of corresponding sides in these similar triangles give the equation
50 in.
W 200 in.
^ ^ = 1001b X2fo = 25 1b
From Eq. (3)
F^ _ 25 1b
X 32 ft/sec2 = 8.0 ft/sec^
W^ ~ 100 lb
The time of descent is determined from s = }>4at^ since the block starts from rest.
X 200 in.
2.0 sec
(12 in./ft) (8.0 ft/sec^)
Example: A 60.0-lb block rests on a smooth plane inclined at an angle of 20° with
the horizontal (Fig. 4). The block is pulled up the plane with a force of 30.0 lb,
parallel to the plane. What is its acceleration?
Here three forces are acting on the block. Its weight W is 60 lb downward. The
force of the plane on the block is a thrust JV normal to the plane. There is a pull P
^30 lb
FIG. 4.—^Determination of unbalanced force acting on block.

parallel to the plane. Addition of these vectors by the polygon rule shows an un-
balanced force F acting on the block parallel to the plane.
The weight of the block may be resolved into components of 60.0 lb X cos 20°
normal to the plane and 60.0 lb X sin 20° parallel to the plane. The normal com-
ponent is balanced by the force jV". Hence the unbalanced force F parallel to the
plane and directed up the plane is
F = 30.0 lb - 60.0 lb X sin 20° = 30.0 lb - 60.0 X 0.342 lb = (30.0 - 20.5) lb
= 9.5 lb
From Eq. (3)
Fg 9.5 lb
X 32 ft/sec2 = 5.1 ft/sec^
W 60 1b
Note that if the angle were 30°, the component of the weight down the plane
would be equal to the force up the plane
and there would be no unbalanced force
a=eff/sec^ acting on the block. Hence it would not be
accelerated. If the angle were greater than
30°, the block would be accelerated down the
W=l60lb
plane.
Example: A 160-lb man is in an elevator
(Fig. 5) which is accelerated upward 8.0
r- 40 lb ft/sec^. Whaf force does the floor of the
elevator exert on him?
FIG. 5.—Ân example oif Newton's If the elevator were Stationary, the man
second and third laws. would be in equilibrium and the floor would
exert a force of 160 lb upward. To accelerate
the man upward requires an additional force. The additional force is calculated
from Eq. (3)
W (160 1b)(8.0ft/sec2)
F = = 40 lb
32 ft/sec 2
FORCE AND MOTION 47
The total force is F = 160 lb + 40 lb = 200 lb, exerted upward on the man by the
elevator floor.
Example: A 2.0-ton elevator is supported by a cable that can safely support
6400 lb. What is the shortest distance in which the elevator can be brought to a stop
when it is descending with a speed of 4.0 ft/sec?
The maximum net force acting on the elevator (Fig. 6) is
6400 lb - 4000 lb = 2400 lb, upward.
From Eq. (3) the acceleration produced is
Fg (2400 l b ) ( - 3 2 ft/sec^)
= - 1 9 ft/sec"
^ 4000 lb
The time required to stop the elevator is
»2 vi 0 - 4.0 ft/sec
t = 0.21 sec
a - 1 9 ft/sec 2
In this time the elevator will have covered a distance
/(4.0 0)\
^(4.0 ft/sec + 0)
s = it (0.21 sec) = 0.42 ft
64001b
64001b
If > , ^ ,,
2400lb=F
40001b
40001b
FIG. 6.—Finding unbal- FIG. 7.—A prob-

anced force from vector addi- lem requiring ap-
tion of forces. p l i c a t i o n of t h e
equations of motion
to two bodies.
Example: Two bodies having masses m\ = 30 gm and m^ = 40 gm are attached
to the ends of a string and suspended from a pulley as shown in Fig. 7. Find the
accelerations of the bodies and the tension in the string.
We assume the string has negligible mass. We first consider the system as a whole,
with the line along the string as a single "direction." Then the net force is
/ = m2g — m-ig = {rrii — mi)g = (40 gm — 30 gm) X 980 cm/sec^ = 9800 dynes
Since both bodies must be accelerated, the total mass to be considered is

t.
m = mi +OT2= 30 gm + 40 gm = 70 gm
or
/ 9800 dynes -„ , ,
a = - = --, • = 140 cm/sec2
m 70 gm
To find the tension T in the string we consider one of the bodies alone. The forces on
m2 are: T upward and m2g downward. The net force m^g — T downward is sufficient
to produce the acceleration found above.
m2g — T = m^fl
40 gm X 980 cm/sec^ - 7" = 40 gm X 140 cm/sec^
r = 40 gm (980 cm/sec2 - 140 cm/sec^) = 35,000 gm cm/sec^ = 35,000 dynes
The same result will be obtained if the forces on mi alone are considered.
Reacting Forces: Newton's Third Law. For every acting Jorce

there is a reacting Jorce that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
Here the term acting force means the force that one body exerts on a
second body, while reacting Jorce means the force that the second body
exerts on the first. There can be no force unless two bodies are in-
volved. It should be remembered that acting and reacting forces
though equal in magnitude a n d opposite in direction, can never
neutralize each other for they always act on different objects. I n order
for two forces to neutralize each other, they must &.QX on the same
object.
When a baseball b a t strikes a ball it exerts a force on the ball
while the two are in contact. During the same time the ball exerts a
force of the same magnitude b u t opposite in direction on the bat. A
freely falling body is accelerated by the net force with which the earth
attracts the body. T h e earth in turn is accelerated by the opposite
reacting force the body exerts on the earth. Because of the great mass
of the earth this acceleration is too small to be observed. I n throwing
a light object one has the feeling that he cannot p u f much effort into
the throw for he cannot exert any more force on the object thrown
than that object exerts in reaction against his hand-. This reacting
force is proportional to the mass of the object ( / e x ?«) and to the
acceleration (/oc a). T h e thrower's arm must be accelerated along
with the object thrown, hence the larger part of the effort exerted in
throwing a light object is. expended in "throwing" one's arm.
When one steps from a ^mall boat to the shore, he observes that
F O R C E AND MOTION 49
the boat is pushed away as he steps. T h e force he exerts on the boat is

responsible for its motion; while the force of reaction, exerted by the
boat on him, is responsible for his motion toward the shore. T h e two
forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, while the
accelerations which they produce (in boat and passenger, respec-
tively) are inversely proportional to the masses of the objects on
which they act. Thus a large boat will experience only a small
acceleration when one steps from it to shore.
A book lying on a table is attracted by the earth. At the same time
it attracts the earth, so that they would be accelerated toward each
other if the table were not between them. Hence, each exerts a force
on the table, and, in reaction, the table exerts an outward force on
each of them keeping them apart. It is interesting to note that the
table exerts outward forces on the book and the earth by virtue of
being slightly compressed by the pair of inward forces, which they
exert on it.
Universal Gravitation, In addition to the three laws of motion,
Newton formulated a law of great importance in mechanics, the law
of universal gravitation. Every particle in the universe attracts every other
particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the- masses
of the two particles and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. This relation may be expressed symbolically by the
equation.
F = ^ (4)
where F'ls the force of attraction, m^ and m^, are the respective masses
of the two particles, s is the distance between them, and G is a constant
called the gravitational constant. The value of G depends upon the
system of units used in Eq. (4). If force is expressed in dynes, mass in
grams, and distance in centimeters, G has the value 6.664 X 10""*
c m V g m sec^.
Newton checked his law of gravitation by calculation upon the
orbit of the moon. With the approximate data at his disposal he still
found reasonable agreement between his computations and observa-
tions. Careful measurement of the force of attraction between small
bodies has established the validity of the law of universal gravitation
and led to the determination of the value of G given above.
Example: Two lead balls whose masses are 5200 gm and 250 gm are placed with
their centers 50.0 cm apart. With what force do they attract each other?
From Eq. (4)
F^G"^
F
F = (6.664 X 10-8 cmVgm seci") ^^^^^^^^î ^"^ = 3.46 X lO-^dyne
SUMMARY
The relation between forces and the motions produced by them
was described by Newton in three laws of motion. They are
1. A body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion continues
to move at constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by an
external unbalanced force.
2. An unbalanced force acting on a body produces an acceleration
in the direction of the net force, an acceleration that is directly pro-
portional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the
body.
3. For every acting force there is a reacting force equal in magni-
tude but opposite in direction.
The relation expressed in Newton's second law may be written in
equation form as
/ = kma
where/, m, and a can be in any units, provided that the proper value
is assigned to k
or
f = ma
where one can use only those consistent sets of units in which one of the
units is defined in such a manner as to make A; = 1. One such con-
sistent set is / in dynes, m in grams, and a in centimei'êrs per second
per second.
The djne is defined as the force that will impart to a 1-gm mass an
acceleration of -1 cm/sec^. -
W
In the equation F = —a any units can be used as long as the
force F and weight W are in the same units and a and g are also in the
same units.
F O R C E AND MOTION 5I
T h e law of universal gravitation expresses the fact that every particle

attracts every other particle with a force directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them. In equation form
s'
QUESTIONS
1. Why does a loaded coal truck start more slowly than an empty truck?
2. Consider an object on a frictionless plane.
a. If the mass is 1 gm and the force 1 dyne, the acceleration is
b. If the mass is 1 gm and the force 5 dynes, the acceleration is
c. If the mass is 5 gm and the force 10 dynes, the acceleration is
d. If the weight is 32 lb and the force 1 lb, the acceleration is
e. If the weight is 320 lb and the force 20 lb, the acceleration is .
/ . If the weight is 500 lb and the force 10 lb, the acceleration is .
g. If the mass is 10.0 gm and the force 9800 dynes, the acceleration is
3. An automobile, starting from rest, increases its speed uniformly until it
reaches a speed of 40 mi/hr. After a time the machine is brought to rest again. Is the
force required to stop the car necessarily equal to the force that brought it up to the
stated speed? Explain.
4. Which is greater, the attraction of the earth for a pound of lead, or the attrac-
tion of the pound of lead for the earth?
5. Why is one less likely to be injured when jumping from an elevation if he
lands in sand rather than upon a stone pavement?
6. If an elevator supported by a cable is stopped quickly, it may oscillate up
and down. Explain. •
7. Does the seat on a roller coaster always support exactly the weight of the
passenger? Explain.
8. Suppose an aviator is in his plane, the plane being at rest on the ground. Point
out how one or more of Newton's laws of motion are illustrated by (or can be applied
to) the man.
9. Apply Newton's laws of motion to an aviator in steady flight. Apply them
when he is falling from his plane both before and after his parachute opens.
10. What experiences are responsible for our first ideas about the nature of force?
Are they adequate as a means of defining force?
11. State some commonly recognized effects of force on material bodies, giving
an example of each.
12. By what different effects may the magnitudes of forces be compared? Of these,
which is the only one suitable in defining an absolute standard of force? Why?
13. If acting and reacting forces are "equal and opposite," why can they never
balance or cancel?
14. In view of Newton's third law of motion, what is an unbalanced force?
15. In view of Newton's third law of motion, explain how a body can be set in
motion.
16. As a body is taken fi'om the equator toward the north pole, what will be the
effect on its weight? on its mass?
17. The distance of sea level from the center of the earth is 3963.34 mi at the
equator and decreases to 3949.99 mi at the poles. Suggest an experiment by which
this information about the shape of the earth might be obtained. In view of it, what is.
meant by vertical? by horizontal? What basis is there for the statement sometimes made
that the Mississippi River flows uphill?
18. How would the weight of a body en route from the earth to the moon vary?
How would its weight vary while being carried to the center of the earth? Would its
mass change?
PROBLEMS
1. A 160-lb object is subjected to a constant force of 50 lb. How much time will
be required for it to acquire a speed of 80 ft/sec?
2. What force will impart a speed of 40 ft/sec to a 640-lb body in 5.0 sec?
Ans. 160 lb
3. A 500-lb projectile acquires a speed of 2000 ft/sec while traversing a cannon
barrel 16.0 ft long. Find the average acceleration and accelerating force.
4. A rifle bullet (mass 10 gm) acquires a speed of 400 m/sec in traversing a
barrel 50 cm long. Find the average acceleration and accelerating force.
Ans. 1.6 X 10' cm/sec^; 1.6 X lO^ dynes
5. A car starts from rest and is uniformly accelerated at 2.0 ft/sec^. In how many
seconds will it attain a speed of 30 mi/hr?
6. A 2000-lb car moves with a speed of 30 mi/hr. What constant retarding force
will bring the car to a stop in 10 sec? Ans. 270 lb
7. With what steady force .must a 3.0-ton boat be pulled toward the dock in
order to move the boat through the water 10 ft in 5.0 sec, starting from rest, if
friction is neglected?
8. A rifle bullet (mass 10 gm) acquires a speed of 750 m/sec in a rifle barrel
50 cm long. What is the average force exerted on the bullet? Ans. 56 X 10'' dynes
9. In towing a 5.00-ton trailer along a level road, what horizontal force must be
exerted on it to produce an acceleration of 4.00 ft/sec^, if friction exerts a backward
drag of 450 lb oa the trailer?
10. A 160-lb object is subjected to a constant force of 30,1b. How much time will
be required for it to acquire a speed of 48 ft/sec? ' Ans. 8.0 sec
11. On an ordinary road surface the frictional force on a 3000-lb car when the
brakes are applied may be as high as 1500 lb., What time will be required to stop the
car with this force from a speed of 30; mi/hr (44 ft/sec)?
12. A 100-ton car is moving at a speed of 40 mi/hr. A force of 1.0 ton opposes the
motion. Find the time required to bring the car to rest and the distance it will travel
in stopping. ' " Ans. 3.0 min;'1.0 mi
13. A 3200-lb automobile is being towed along a level road by a rope that will
withstand a pull of 1000 lb. If the towrope is parallel to the road bed, what is the
FORCE AND MOTION 53
greatest acceleration that can be imparted to the car assuming that it requires a force
of 200 lb to overcome frictional resistance?
14. A 1000-gm block on a smooth table is connected to a 500-gm piece of lead
by a light cord that passes over a small pulley at the end of the table, (a) What is the
acceleration of the system? (b) What is the tension in the cord?
Ans. 'ill cm/sec2; 3.28 X lO^* dynes
15. What force, applied parallel to the plane, is necessary to move a 100-gm
obiect up a frictionless plane with a uniform acceleration of 20 cm/sec^, if the plane
makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal?
16. What force, applied parallel to the plane, is necessary so that a 100-lb object
will slide down a frictionless plane with an acceleration of 8.0 ft/sec^, if the plane
makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal? Ans. 25 lb, up the plane
17. Compare the accelerations of two bodies, both starting from rest at the top
of a plane, inclined at an angle of 30° with the horizontal, if one body falls vertically
and the other slides without friction down the plane.
18. A light frictionless pulley carries a light cord to which is attached at one end
a 48-lb weight and at the other a 64-lb weight. The weights are suddenly released.
Find the acceleration and the tension in the cord. Ans. 4.6 ft/sec^; 55 lb
19. An 8.0-lb mass and a 10-lb mass are attached to the ends of a light cord,
which passes over a frictionless pulley. What is the acceleration of the system?
20. A 200-lb man stands in an elevator. What force does the floor exert on him
when the elevator is (a) stationary; (i) accelerating upward 16.0 ft/sec^; (c) moving
upward at constant speed; (rf) moving upward but decelerating at 12.0 ft/sec^?
Ans. 200 lb; 300 lb; 200 lb; 125 lb
21. A spring balance fastened to the roof of a moving elevator car indicates 75 lb
as the weight of a 100-lb body, ia) What is the acceleration of the elevator? (Give
direction as well as magnitude.) {h) Can one determine from these data the direction
in which the elevator is moving?
22. An elevator, which with its load weisjhs 8.0 tons, is descending with a speed
of 900 ft/min. If the load on the cables must not exceed 14 tons, what is the shortest
distance in which the elevator can be stopped? Ans. 4.7 ft
23. (a) What force pulling on a 5000-lb elevator is necessary to move it vertically
upward against a frictional force of 300 lb with an acceleration of 12.0 ft/sec^?
(6) What would be the apparent weight of a 10.0-lb body hung on a spring balance
on this moving elevator?
24. A 1.50-ton automobile crashed into a wall at a speed of 10.0 mi/hr. The car
moved 5.00 inches before being brought to rest. What was the average force exerted
on the wall by the car? Ans. 24,300 lb
25. Two forces of 30.0 and 40.0 lb act on an object of 100-lb mass at angles of 30°
and 75°, respectively. What is the horizontal component of the acceleration which
they impart to the body?
26. A 100-ton car is moving with a speed of 40.0 mi/hr. A constant force of 2000 lb
opposes its motion. Find (a) the time required to bring the car to rest, (*) the distance
it will travel in stopping. Ans. (a) 184 sec; (6) 5380 ft
27. What pull must a locomotive exert on a 5000-ton train in order to attain a
speed of 20 m i / h r in 6.0 min? Assume uniform acceleration and consider 25 per cent
of the force applied is used in overcoming friction.
28. An object of mass 8.00 kg is pulled up an inclined plane, making an angle of
30 with the horizontal by a cord which passes over a pulley at the top of the plane
and is fastened to a 10.0 kg mass. Neglecting friction, find the acceleration and ten-
sional force in the string. Ans. 327 cm/sec^; 6.67 kg
29. An object having a mass of 100 gm is on a frictionless plane inclined at an
angle of 30° with the horizontal. H o w much force must be applied parallel to the
incline to make the body move u p the plane with a uniform acceleration of 30
cm/sec*?
30. Two objects of mass 500 gm each are fastened together by a cord and sus-
pended over a frictionless pulley at the top of a double-inclined plane. O n e side of
the plane makes an angle of 45° with the horizontal, the other side makes a n angle
of 30°, so that there is an angle of 105° at the top of the plane where the pulley is
attached. Calculate the acceleration of the system and the force in the cord.
Ans. 102 cm/sec^; 2.96 X 10^ dynes
31. A 2.00 kg body rests on a plane which makes an angle of 20° with the hori-
zontal. An object of mass 500 gm is attached to the body by a cord which passes over
a pulley at the upper end of the plane. Find the acceleration of the system. Neglect
friction.
32. Two blocks are suspended by a string which passes over a light pulley. T h e
blocks weigh 94.0 and 98.0 lb, respectively, and are initially each 12 ft above the
floor. What time is required for one of the blocks to reach the floor? W h a t is the force
in the string? Ans. 6.0 sec; 96 lb
33. What will be the force in a cord which passes over a light pulley a n d to the
ends of which are attached loads of 500 and 520 gm, respectively? H o w far will the
cord move during the fifth second after being started from rest?
34. A sled, which with its load weighs 160 lbs, is started into motion by a boy who
exerts a constant horizontal force of 28.2 lb for a period of 3.00 sec. T h e friction on
the horizontal surface causes a retarding force of 3.2 lb. Find the distance the sled
travels after the boy stops pushing. Ans. 176 ft
35. A 100-lb box slides down a frictionless skid inclined at an angle of 60° to the
horizontal. Find (a) the accelerating force, (b) the time required to travel the first
20 ft, (c) the time required to travel the next 20 ft,
36. A 150-lb body starting from rest slides down a frictionless inclined plane.
During the third second after starting from rest it moves 12.25 m. W h a t is the in-
clination of the plane? Ans. 30°
37. Calculate the mass M of the earth from the attraction GMm/r'^ which it
exerts on a mass m at its surface. T h e m e a n radius of the earth is 3960 miles.
PIERRE
CURIE
1859 to 1906
BORN IN PARIS. PROFESSOR AT THE MUNICIPAL SCHOOL OF INDUS-

TRIAL PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. PIERRE AND MARIE CURIE SHARED
THE 1 9 0 3 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS WITH HENRI BECQUEREL FOR
THEIR WORK ON THE PHENOMENA OF THE RADIATION DISCOVERED
BY BECQUEREL.
5. Projectile Motion
T h e science of the motion of projectiles is called ballistics. I n the study
of ballistics we consider the paths followed by the flying objects, the
forces required to start them on their flight, and the forces set up when
they strike their targets. I n designing guns, either large or small, these
factors must be considered. The problem of aiming a small rifle is
simple and can be solved by adjustment of the sights, but the task of
55
directing the fire of long-range artillery involves extensive calculation
considering many factors. We shall consider some of the simpler
aspects of the motion of projectiles.
Projectile Motion., T h e simplest type of motion of a projectile
is that in which it is given an initial velocity and then allowed to move
under the influence of gravity alone. The motion is one of constant
D/STANCE /N FEET acceleration but differs from that
SO WO discussed in Chap. 2 in that the
direction of the acceleration is
seldom the same as the direction
of the initial velocity. Hence the
velocity is continually changing in
both magnitude and direction.
It is convenient in studying
such projectile motion to consider
it as made up of two components,
/ 2 one verticcil and the other hori-
TIME IN SECONDS zontal. Since the gravitational force
FIG. 1.—Path of a stone thrown hori' is vertically downward, it produces
zontally with a speed of 50 ft/sec. an acceleration only in that direc-
tion, leaving the horizontal component of the velocity unchanged if air
resistance is neglected. T h e complex motion of the projectile reduces
to two simple motions, constant horizontal velocity and uniformly
accelerated vertical motion.
Suppose we ask ourselves how a stone will move if it is thrown
horizontally at a speed of 50 ft/sec. Neglecting air resistance, the stone
will travel with a constant horizontal speed of 50 ft/sec until it strikes
something. At the same time it will execute the uniformly accelerated
motion of an object falling freely from rest; that is, beginning with a
vertical speed of zero, it will acquire downward speed at the rate of
32 ft/sec in each second. It will fall 16 ft during the first second, 48 ft
during the next, 80 ft during the third, and so on, just as if it had no
horizontal motion. Its progress during the first three seconds is
illustrated in Fig. 1. At ^ the stone has no vertical speed; at B (after
1 sec) its vertical speed is 32 ft/sec; at C, 64 ft/sec; and at Z), 96 ft/sec.
T h e curved line ABCD in Fig. Tis the path that the stone follows,
and the arrows at A, B, C, and D represent the velocities at those
places. Note that the horizontal arrows are all the same length,
PROJECTILE MOTION 57
indicating-the constant horizontal speed, while the vertical arrows

increase in length to indicate the increasing vertical speed. T h e
vertical arrow at C is twice as long as that at B while that at D is three
times as long. T h e resultant velocity of the projectile is at each point
tangent to the curve ABCD. It is constantly changing both in magni-
tude and direction.
T h e curve shown in Fig. 1 is called a parabola. As has been indi-
cated, it is traced by the motion of a projectile that executes simul-
taneously a uniform motion (horizontal) and a uni-
formly accelerated motion (vertical). ^*
No matter what may be the initial direction of
motion of the projectile, its motion can be broken
up into horizontal and vertical parts that are inde-
pendent of each other. Suppose a stone is thrown
with a speed and direction such as is represented by
the vector OA in Fig. 2. An object that had the ^ ^h ^
simultaneous vertical and horizontal speeds repre- Gompo-
sented by OC and OB would follow exactly the
same path along the direction OA. I n discussing the motion of the
stone, one may use either the whole speed in the direction OA or the
horizontal and vertical parts of the motion may be used. T h e latter
viewpoint simplifies the problem.
If we represent the initial velocity in the direction OA by v, the
horizontal component by v^, and the vertical component by v^,
Vh = V cos d (1)
v-v = V sin 6 (2)
I n projectile motion one frequently wishes to determine the height to

which the projectile rises, the time of flight, and the horizontal range.
T h e first two may be obtained by the use of Eqs. (5) and (3) of Chap.
3, while the range is determined by multiplying Vh by the time of
flight.
Example: A projectile is thrown with a speed of 100 ft/sec in a direction 30° above
the horizontal. Find the height to which it rises, the time of flight, and the horizontal
range.
». = z; sin e = (100 ft/sec)(sin 30°) = 50.0 ft/sec
VK = vcosO = (100 ft/sec)(cos 30°) = 86.6 ft/sec
Using Eq. (5), Chap. 3, as applied to the vertical motion

V2'' Vi^ = las; Di = 50.0 ft/sec; Vi 0; a = — 32ft/sec2
0 - (50 ft/sec)2 = 2 ( - 3 2 ft/sec^)j
_ 2500 ftVsec^ _ -in f
^ ~ 64 ft/sec2 "
The time required to reach the highest point is, from Eq. (3), Chap. 3,
Vi — Vi = at
0 - 5 0 ft/sec = ( - 3 2 ft/sec^)/
50 ft/sec
t = 32 ft/sec 2 1.6 sec
Assuming that the surface above which the projectile moves is horizontal, an
equal time will be required for the projectile to return to the surface. Hence the time
t' elapsed before the projectile strikes the surface is
t' = 2t = 2X 1.6 sec = 3.2 sec
During all this time the projectile travels horizontally with a uniform speed of 86.6
ft/sec. The horizontal range if is therefore
R = vnt' = (86.6 ft/sec)(3.2 sec) = 280 ft
If the surface above which the projectile moves is not level, the time of flight will
be increased or decreased depending upon whether the striking point is below or above
the firing point. The range is correspondingly increased or decreased.
87 FT 173 FT 260 FT
I SEC 2 SEC 3 SEC
FIG. 3.—Path of a projectile fired at an angle of 30° above the horizontal with an
initial speed of 100 ft/sec. Air resistance is neglected. The projectile strikes with a
speed equal to the initial speed and a t an angle of 30° above the horizontal.
The motion of any projectile, neglecting air resistance, may be •'

treated in this .same manner no matter vvdiat may be the initial speed *
and angle of projection. .The initial velocity is resolved into vertical
and horizontal components and the two are considered separately.
In Fig.'3 we note that the path may be found by considering a
uniform motion in the initial direction OC and finding the distance
the projectile has fallen from this path at each instant. I n 1 sec under
the action of gravity, the projectile falls 16 ft; hence at the end of
1 sec it is 16 ft below ^ ; in 2 sec it falls 64 ft, and hence is 64 ft below
B, and so on.
Range and Angle of Elevation. T h e range of a projectile
depends upon the angle at which it is fired as well as upon the initial
speed. If the angle is small, the horizontal velocity is relatively high
but the time of flight is so short that the range is small. O n the other
hand if the angle of projection is very large, the time of flight is long
but the horizontal velocity is small. I n the absence of air resistance
the maximum horizontal range is attained when the angle of elevation
is 45°.
I n aiming a gun allowance must always be made for the distance
that the projectile falls while it is in flight. If a gun were aimed by
sighting through the barrel, the bullet would always hit below the
point at which it was directed. T h e allowance is made by means of
the sights. At short ranges the amount of fall is slight for a high-speed
bullet, and no change in adjustment is ordinarily made. Long-range
rifles have adjustable sights so constructed that the marksman can
make allowance for the greater fall in the longer distances by so
changing the rear sight that the muzzle of the gun is properly elevated.
Air Resistance. So far in the discussion of the motion of projec-
tiles the resistance of the air has been neglected. However, for high-
speed projectiles this resistance is no small factor. It introduces a force
which opposes the motion, a force which varies both in magnitude
and in direction and hence produces variable acceleration in addition
to the constant acceleration we have assumed previously. This
resistance reduces the height of flight, the range of the projectile, and
the speed of the projectile when it strikes its target. An example of
such influence is shown in Fig. 4. T h e dotted curve is the path that the
projectile would follow if there were no air resistance, while the solid
line shows an actual path.
Complete analysis of the motion of a projectile subject to air
resistance is beyond the scope of the discussion b u t some of the factors
to be considered may be .mentioned. T h e retarding force depends
upon the speed of the projectile. For low speeds air resistance is quite
6o COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
small, but as the speed becomes greater the resistance increases very
rapidly. T h e air resistance also depends upon the height to which the
projectile rises, for at high elevations where the air is less dense the
resistance is small. Long-range guns shoot the projectile at such an
angle that a considerable part of the path is in the high atmosphere
where air resistance is small. T h u s the angle at which the gun must be
fired to attain maximum range may be considerably greater t h a n the
45° necessary when air resistance is negligible. T h e optimum angle
depends upon the size, shape, and speed of the projectile.
During the First World W a r a gun was developed by the German
Army with a range of 75 mi. T h e initial speed of the projectile was
almost 1 mi/sec at an angle of 50° with the horizontal. T h e shell
reached a maximum height of about 27 mi and more than two-thirds
FIG. 4.—Path of a projectile. The dotted curve represents the path that would be
followed if there were no air resistance, while the solid line is an actual path. The
maximum height, range, and striking speed are decreased, while the striking angle
is increased.
of the path was above 13 mi. At such altitude the air resistance is so
small that the path is essentially the same as that for no friction. T h e
striking speed of the shell was less than half the initial speed.
In determining the direction and angle of fire of a large gun many
factors must be considered if the firing is to be accurate. Among these
factors are wind, barometric pressure, temperature, rotation of the
earth, shape of the shell, and the number of times the gun has been
fired.
Self-propelled Projectiles. A true projectile is an object that is
given an initial velocity and then allowed to proceed under the action
of gravity and air resistance. However, other objects, such as rockets,
move in m u c h the same m a n n e r as projectiles except that they do not
depend upon an initial impulse alone but rather upon the force
provided by a fuel carried along with them. As the fuel burns the
expanding gas is forced out at the rear of the projectile. As a result
thei;e is a force of reaction on the projectile itself, which produces an
PROJECTILE MOTION 6l
acceleration. The initial speed of the rocket may be quite low since
it is continually accelerated along its path. Eventually the speed of the
rocket may be greater than that of the free projectile in the corre-
sponding part of its path.
If the fuel of the rocket is such as to supply its own oxygen, there is
no dependence upon the air for combustion or propulsion. Such rockets
operate effectively at extremely high altitudes where there is very
little air. With a suitable fuel supply and proper controls a rocket
could navigate beyond the atmosphere. For such flights, of course,
wings and rudders would be entirely useless since there would be no
air to exert forces on them.
A spectacular example of the true rocket is the German V-2
weapon of the Second World War. This remarkable missile had a
length of 46 ft; a diameter of 5 ft, 5 in.; and a total weight loaded of
27,300 lb. As a propulsive fuel, it used 1220 gal of liquid oxygen and
an equal amount of alcohol. T h e warhead consisted of 1800 lb of
T N T . Five thousand such rockets were produced.
I n flight these rockets had an average range of 215 mi. T h e range
was controlled by shutting off the fuel supply at a prearranged proper
moment in its trajectory. T h e whole flight required 380 sec with the
fuel active only 70 sec. T h e missile reached an altitude of 70 mi,
h a d a top speed of 3600 m i / h r (1 mi/sec) and a terminal speed of
1800 m i / h r .
Air friction is a very important factor in such high-speed bodies.
T h e heating produced was sometimes sufficient to cause the missile
to explode. For this cause and others 60 per cent of the early rockets
and 30 per cent of the later ones exploded in the air. When they
reached the ground and exploded a crater 36 ft across and 10 ft deep
was produced.
J e t propulsion differs from rocket propulsion in that air is neces-
sary to supply oxygen for combustion. Such engines therefore can
operate only in the atmosphere. T h e propulsive force, as with the
rocket, is the reaction set u p when the hot gases are expelled from
the engine.
SUMMARY
A projectile is an object which is given an initial velocity and which
is then allowed to move under the action of gravity.
In projectile motion the vertical and horizontal motions m a y be

treated separately. If air resistance is neglected, the horizontal motion
is uniform while the vertical motion is uniformly accelerated.
The range of a projectile depends upon its initial speed and the
angle of projection. If air resistance is negligible, m a x i m u m range is
attained with an angle of 45°.
Air resistance decreases the speed, the m a x i m u m height, and the
range of a projectile.
Self-propelled projectiles depend upon fuel carried within thco
projectiles rather t h a n upon a n initial impulse. Their initial speeds are
usually small, b u t they m a y reach m u c h higher final speeds than
ordinary projectiles.
QUESTIONS
1. Why is the rear sight of a long-range rifle adjustable?
2. Show clearly how the concepts expressed in Newton's laws of motion ap'ply
to the motion of a projectile.
3. How does air friction affect the path of a projectile?
4. Describe the effect that an increase in the angle of elevation has on the range
of a projectile for various angles of elevation.
5. Air resistance being neglected, a projectile follows a parabolic path. How is
the path of the center of mass affected if the projectile explodes in mid-air?
6. Derive an equation for the speed of a projectile t seconds after it is fired with
velocity v at an angle of elevation B.
7. A dart in a blowgun is aimed directly at a monkey in a tree. Just as the dart
leaves the gun the monkey falls from the tree. Will a hit be made?tWhy?
8. A man stands in the center of a flatcar moving with a uniform speed of
40 mi/hr. He throws a baseball into the air with a speed of 40 mi/hr. Compare the
path of the ball as viewed by the man with that as viewed by an observer on the
ground for the following cases: {a) ball thrown vertically upward, {b) ball thrown
forward horizontally, and (c) ball thrown backward horizontally.
9. Justify the statement, that the speeds of a projectile at any two points at the
same elevation are the same.
10. Discuss the factors that would aff"ect the acceleration of the V-2 rocket as it
rises during the 70 sec that the fuel burns.
. PROBLEMS
1. A rifle is fired in a direction 40° above the horizontal. The speed of the bullet
is 1200 ft/sec. What are the horizontal, and vertical components of the velocity?
2. A ball is thrown frqm the roof of a building with a speed of 20 ft/feec at an
angle of 15° below the horizontal. Eind the vertical and horizontal components of
• the velocity. ^"^- 5-2 ft/sec; 19 ft/sec
3. A projectile is fired with a speed of 600 m/sec at an angle of 20° below the
horizontal. Find the vertical and horizontal components of the velocity.
4. A body is projected with a speed of 800 ft/sec in a direction 40° above the
horizontal. Find the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity.
Ans. 612 ft/sec; 512 ft/sec
5. A ball is thrown horizontally from the roof of a tall building with a speed of
19.6 m/sec. Find the position and velocity of the ball after 4.0 sec.
6. A stone is thrown horizontally from the top of a tower with a speed of 50.0
ft/sec. Find its velocity and position at the end of 3.0 sec.
Ans. 108 ft/sec; 62° below horizontal; 144 ft below, 150 ft horizontally from starting
point
7. A projectile is fired horizontally from the top of a building 225 ft high with a
speed of 550 ft/sec. What is the time of flight? What horizontal distance does it travel?
8. A ball is thrown horizontally from the top of the Washington Monument,
555 ft high. What is the time of fall? If its initial speed is 50 ft/sec, how far from the
base does it fall, assuming the ground to be level? Ans. 5.9 sec; 290 ft
9. A bomb is dropped from an airplane traveling horizontally with a speed of
2t0 mi/hr (308 ft/sec), (a) If the airplane is 2000 ft above the ground, what will be
the horizontal distance traversed by the bomb (neglecting air friction)? (b) Where
will the airplane be when the bomb reaches the ground, if its course is not changed?
10. A bomb is dropped from an airplane traveling horizontally with a speed of
300 mi/hr. If the airplane is 10,000 ft above the ground, how far from the target must
the bomb be released? Neglect air friction. Ans. 2.09 mi
11. A ball is thrown from the top of an 80-ft tower. It starts with a speed of
96 ft/sec in a direction 30° above the horizontal. Neglecting air resistance, find the
ball's horizontal distance from the starting point and its vertical distance above the
ground 2.0 sec after it is thrown.
12. A ball is thrown from the top of a 400-ft tower with a speed of 80 ft/sec in a
direction 30° below the horizontal. Neglecting air resistance, find the horizontal
distance of the ball from the tower and its vertical distance above the ground 3.0 sec
after it is thrown. Ans. 2T0 ft; 140 ft
13. Find the horizontal range of a shell fired from a cannon with a muzzle
velocity of 1200 ft/sec at an angle of 30° above the horizontal.
14. Find the horizontal range of a shell fired from a cannon with a muzzle velocity
of 2400 ft/sec at an angle of 40° above the horizontal. Ans. 180,000 ft
15. A trench mortar throws a shell with a muzzle speed of 180 ft/sec. When
the elevation is 40° the range is 295 yd. How much is the range diminished by air
resistance?
16. A gun throws a shell with a muzzle speed of 300 ft/sec. When the elevation is
45° the range is 840 yd. How much is the range decreased by air resistance?
Ans. 95 yd
17. A boy on the top of a vertical wall throws a ball at a horizontal speed of
48 ft/sec and at a vertical speed of 32 ft/sec, upward. At the instant of release the
ball is 48 ft above the level ground, (a) How high is the ball above the ground 2.0 sec
after projection? (b) How many seconds elapse between the instant the ball is thrown
and the instant it reaches the ground? (c) What is the horizontal range? (d) What is
the approximate velocity with which the ball strikes the ground?
18. A ball is thrown from the top of a 60-ft tower. It starts with a speed of 64 ft/sec
in a direction 30° above the horizontal. Neglecting air resistance, find (a) the height
above the ground to which it will rise, (b) the time it is in flight, and (c) the distance
from the foot of the tower to the point at which it strikes the level surface.
Arts. 76 ft; 3.2 sec; 180 ft
19. A stone is thrown horizontally from the top of a high river bank and falls
into the water 100 ft below. It strikes the water 150 ft from the bank. Find the time of
flight and the initial speed of the stone.
20. A projectile is fired at an elevation of 45° and reaches the highest point in its
path in 22 sec. Neglecting air resistance, calculate (a) the muzzle speed, (b) the maxi-
mum height reached, and (c) the distance from gun to target if they are on the same
level. _ Ans. 1000 ft/sec; 7800 ft; 3f,000 ft
21. The initial speed of a shell is 1200 ft/sec. At what angle must the gun be fired
if the projectile is to strike a target at the same level as the gun and distant 6000 yd?
Neglect air resistance.
22. The initial speed of a shell is 1500 ft/sec. At what angle must the gun be fired
if the projectile is to strike a target at the same level as the gun and distant 12,000 yd?
Neglect air resistance. Ans. 15°
23. Assuming that a V-2 rocket that weighs 27,300 lb experiences an initial
vertical thrust of 57,000 lb, what will be its initial acceleration?
MARIE
SKLODOVSKA
CURIE
1867 to 1934
BORN IN WARSAW. DIRECTOR OF APPLIED PHYSICS IN THE UNI-

VERSITY OF PARIS. MARIE CURIE SHARED THE 19O3 NOBEL PRIZE
FOR PHYSICS WITH PIERRE CURIE AND HENRI BECqUEREL AND
WAS AWARDED THE 1 9 I I NOBEL PRIZE FOR CHEMISTRY FOR HER
DISCOVERY OF RADIUM AND POLONIUM.
6. Friction
Whenever an object moves while in contact with another object,
frictional forces oppose the relative motion. These forces are caused
by the adhesion of one surface to the other and by the interlocking
of the irregularities of the rubbing surfaces. The force of frictional
resistance depends upon the properties of the surfaces and upon the
force keeping the surfaces in contact.
The effects of friction are often undesirable. Friction increases the
65
work necessary to operate machinery, it causes wear, and it generates

heat, which often does additional damage. T o reduce this waste of
energy attempts are m a d e to reduce friction by the use of wheels,
bearings, rollers, and lubricants. Automobiles and airplanes are
streamlined in order to decrease air friction, which is large at high
speeds.
O n the other hand, friction is desirable in many cases. Nails and
screws hold boards together by means of friction. Power may be
transmitted from a motor to a machine by means of a clutch or a
friction belt. I n walking, driving a car, striking a match, tying our
shoes, or sewing fabric together we find friction a useful force. Sand is
placed on rails in front of the drive wheels of locomotives, cinders are
scattered on icy streets, chains are attached to the wheels of auto-
mobiles, and special materials are developed for use in brakes—all
for the purpose of increasing friction where it is desirable.
Sliding Friction. If a box on a horizontal floor is pushed side-
ward so that it slides, it is found that one must continue to apply a
steady horizontal force to cause the box to slide imiformly over the
horizontal surface. We conclude that there is a force, parallel to the
surfaces in contact, opposing the motion. This opposing force is called
friction. T h e frictional force is the result of the roughness of the two
surfaces in contact, which causes interlocking between them, giving
rise to a force that resists motion. If the applied force is just equal
to the frictional force, the body will continue to move uniformly;
if the applied force is greater than the frictional force, the body will bcv
accelerated.
T h e laws governing sliding friction, are these: (1) the frictional
force is parallel to the surfaces sliding over one another; (2) the
frictional force is proportional to the force which is norrnal to the sur-
faces and which presses them together; (3) the frictional force is
roughly independent of the area of the surface of contact; (4) the
frictional force is roughly independent of the speed of sliding, pro-
vided that the resulting heat does riot alter the condition of the
surfaces; arid''(5) the frictional force depends upon the nature of the
substances in contact and the condition of the surface (that is, on
polish, roughness, grain, and wetness).
These rules may be verified by simple experiment. By the use of a
spring balance to pull a brick uniformly on a table top (Fig. 1), the
FRICTION 67
frictional force may be found to be 1 lb whereas a force of 2 lb is
required to maintain the motion if a second brick is placed on top
of the first to increase the normal force. If the second brick is tied
behind the first (Fig. 2), the frictional force is still 2 lb showing its
independence of area of contact. Placing the bricks on glass or metal
surfaces, one finds that friction depends upon the nature of the sur-
faces in contact.
VZ-
FIG. 1.—^The frictional FIG. 2.—The frictional force is in-

force is directly proportional dependent of the area of the surface
to the normal force pressing of contact.
the two surfaces together.
Coefficient of Friction. T h e ratio of the frictional force to the

perpendicular force pressing the two surfaces together is called the
coefficient of friction.
"^N (1)
or
F = fxM
where ju. is the coefficient of friction, F the frictional force, and JV the
normal or perpendicular force.
Example: A 65-lb horizontal force is sufficient to draw a 1200-lb sled on level

well-packed snow. What is the value of the coefficient of friction?
F 65 1b
0.054
J^'' 1200 lb
T h e frictional force is proportional to the normal force, which

must include all normal components of forces pressing the surfaces
together. Only in very special cases is the normal force the weight of
the body.
Example: A 1200-lb sled is pulled along a horizontal surface at uniform speed

by means of a rope that makes an angle of 30° above the horizontal. If the tension in
the rope is 100 lb, what is the coefficient of friction?
The frictional force (parallel to the surface) is
F = 100 lb X cos 30° = 100 lb X 0.866 = 86.6 lb
The normal force N is the weight of the sled downward minus the vertical com-
ponent of the tension upward.
N = 1200 lb - 100 lb X sin 30° = 1150 lb
F 86.6 lb
/^ = JV = 1150Tb = °-°^^
Example: A 50-lb box is placed on an inclined plane making an angle of 30° with
the horizontal. If the coefficient of friction is 0.30, find the resultant force on the box.
The weight of the box is a force acting vertically downward. This force may be
broken into components parallel (P^ sin 30°) and perpendicular {W cos 30°) to the
plane. A frictional force (parallel to the plane) acts up the plane.
^• = H^ cos 30° = 50 lb X 0.87 = 43 lb

The frictional force is given by
F = fiN = 0.30 X 43 lb = 13 lb
The resultant force R is given by
R= Wsm?,0° - F= 50 lb X 0.50 - 13 lb = 12 lb
down the plane.
When two surfaces are lubricated, friction is reduced by the sub-

stitution of the internal friction of the lubricant for the friction between
the original surfaces. T h e ratio F/JV is then not a simple constant but
depends upon the properties of the lubricant and the area and relative
speed of the moving surfaces.
Static Friction. W h e n a body at rest on a horizontal surface is
pushed gently sideward, it does not move because there is a frictional
force just equal to the sideward push. If the push is increased, the
frictional force increases until a limiting friction is reached. If the side-
push exceeds''the lifniting friction, the body is- accelerated. When
there is no relative motion between the two surfaces in contact, the
friction is called static friction, and it can have any value from zero
u p to the limiting value.
For limiting friction (but not for all static friction) the same laws
apply as for sliding friction except, of course, that referring to the
FRICTION 69
speed of sliding. The coefficient of static (limiting) friction is the ratio of the
limiting frictional force to the normal force. For any two surfaces
' the coefficient of static friction is greater than the coefficient of sliding
friction.
Limiting Angle; Angle of Repose. T h e coefficient of static
friction may be found without measurement of forces by the following
simple a n d convenient method. Let
the plane AC (Fig. 3) be tilted u p -
ward (gradually) until the body B
just begins to slide down the incline.
Consider the weight W of the body
to be resolved into components JV"
FIG. 3.—Limiting angle for friction.
and F', respectively, perpendicular
a n d parallel to the incline. T h e com^ponent N presses the two surfaces
together, the component F' is directed down the plane, and the
frictional force F is directed u p the plane. Just before sliding occurs,
there is no acceleration, and F' is balanced by the friction F. From
the figure
F' F
And hence the coefficient of friction is given by
/x = tan 9 (2)
Rolling Friction. Rolling friction is the resistance to motion
caused chiefly by the deformation produced where a wheel or cylinder
pushes against the surface on which
it rolls. The deformation of a n auto-
mobile tire in contact with the pave-
ment is readily visible. Even in the
case of a steel wheel rolling on a steel
rail there is some deformation of the
two surfaces. A force F (Fig. 4) is
required to roll the wheel on the hori-
FIG. 4.—Rolling friction.
zontal rail because the surfaces are
continually distorted as illustrated by the hill along line CD. T h e
deformations of the two surfaces produce internal friction in the two
bodies. The force of rolling friction varies inversely as the radius of the
roller, and it is less the more rigid the surfaces.
7°
Rolling friction is ordinarily much smaller than sliding friction.
Sliding friction on the axle of a wheel is replaced by rolling friction
through the use of roller or ball bearings.
Fluid Friction, The friction encountered by soUd objects in
passing through hquids and the frictional forces set up within liquids
and gases in motion are examples of fluid friction. The laws of fluid
friction differ greatly from those of sliding and rolling friction. The
amount of frictional resistance encountered by an object moving
through a fluid depends on the size, shape, and speed of the moving
object, as well as on the nature of the fluid itself.
The frictional resistance encountered by a man falling through the
air increases with his speed until he reaches a terminal speed, about
120 mi/hr, at which the retarding force of friction equals his weight.
When he opens his parachute, the greater surface it presents increases
the retarding force of friction and reduces the terminal speed to, say,
25 ft/sec. In such descents the aviator reaches the ground with the
same speed whether he jumps from an altitude of 500 ft or from 5 mi,
owing to the fact that fluid friction increases with speed. ^
Viscosity. Viscosity is that property of a fluid, its internal
friction, which resists flow. Consider a layer of liquid in a shallow pan
A^///,SOLlDV///A^f
S ^ *
4
^ / / _
5) c / ^ / ____
k^ / / ^
5-/////////////////V////y/y///>'///^g^/gv//////i
FIG. 5.—Fluid friction.
on the surface of which a flat plate A is placed (Fig. 5). A force/ is

required to maintain the plate at a constant 'velocity v with respect
to the other,^surface B.
On the surface- of each solid, A and B, there will be a layer of
liquid that adheres to the solid and has zero velocity with respect to it.
The next layer of liquid moves slowly over the first, the third layer
moves slowly over the second, and so on. This distribution of speeds
.results in a continual deformation of the liquid. The portion of the
FRICTION 71
liquid C, which is cubical in shape at one instant, is rhomboidal a
moment later at R.
If the thickness s of the fluid between the surfaces is increased,
application of the same force produces a greater speed: vozs. If the
area A of the plate is increased, there is a corresponding decrease in
speed: voz\/A. An increase in the force produces a proportional in-
crease in speed: vozf. Thus the velocity is proportional t o / , to s, and
also to \/A. Hence we can write the equation
rjA
or
"=i P)
where the constant 17 depends only on the fluid and its temperature.
This equation defines the coefficient of viscosity r] of the liquid.
T h e absolute cgs unit of the coefficient of viscosity is called the
poise.
From Eq. (3), r? = ^

. 1 dyne X 1 cm / 2 '
1 poise = z „. . . 7— = 1 dyne-sec/cm''
'^ 1 cm'' X 1 cm/sec '
A coefficient of viscosity of 1 poise is one that requires a tangential

force of 1 dyne for each square centimeter of surface to maintain a
relative velocity of 1 cm/sec between two planes separated by a layer
of the fluid 1 cm thick.
T h e centipoise ( H o o poise) is the unit of viscosity commonly used.
I n setting u p this definition of coefficient of viscosity, we have
chosen a case in which the application of forces to a fluid produces
differences of velocity between adjacent thin layers (laminae) within
the fluid as indicated in Fig. 5. It is this laminar flow which is char-
acterized by the proportionality between force and velocity, which is
expressed by Eq. (3). In the case of turbulent flow the lines of flow are
complex and changing and Eq. (3) is not applicable.
T h e viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in temperature. A
liquid that flows as slowly as the proverbial molasses in J a n u a r y at
low temperature may pour freely at higher temperature. Lubricating
-j<Z COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
oil may fail to form a protective film at low temperatures. Hence, when
starting a car on a cold day, it is wise to allow the engine to idle for a
time until the oil is warmed. T h e viscosities of gases, unlike those of
liquids, increase with increase in temperature.
Nature of Viscosity. T h e internal friction of liquids is attributed
to the cohesive forces between molecules. O u r knowledge of t h e
details of this mechanism is far from complete, b u t t h e picture of
liquid viscosity just described does explain qualitatively the experi-
mentally observed facts. O n this basis, for example, one would expect
a decrease in the viscosity of a liquid with increase in temperature.
This is observed experimentally.
In the case of gases, whose molecules have relatively large separa-
tions, cohesive forces are small and some other mechanism must be
sought for internal friction. O n e supposes that in the laminar flow of a
gas there is a continual migration of molecules from one layer to
another. Molecules diffuse from a fast-moving layer to a slower
moving layer (5 to 4, Fig. 5), and from the slower moving layer to the
faster. Thus each layer exerts a drag on the other. T h e amount of this
drag depends on the mass of the molecules and their speeds, hence
on the product mv. This description of gas viscosity accounts for the
fact that an increase in temperature, which increases molecular
speeds, results in an increase in the viscosity of a gas.
SUMMARY
Frictional force F is proportional to the normal force N pressing
the two surfaces togetherj and is directed parallel to these surfaces
F = iiN
where /i is the coefficient of friction.
The coefficient of starting friction may be calculated from the
limiting angle of repose, &
\x = tan Q
Sliding friction is less than starting friction.
Fluid friction is mcasiored^ in terms of the coefficient of viscosity
" = r.
. 1 dyne X 1 c m
1 poise = -. y•.^ 7— = 1 •dyne-sec/cm''
^ 1 cm'' X 1 cm/sec '
FRICTION 73
QUESTIONS
1. Name several types of mechanism in which friction is essential for proper
operation.
2. What becomes of the energy expended against friction?
3. Why does a locomotive engineer shut off the steam when the drive wheels
begin to slip?
4. Why should one take short steps rather than long ones when walking on ice?
5. Friction being independent of area, why are broad belts used in driving heavy
machinery, and why are automobile brake shoes of large area desirable?
6. Why does a high-pressure tire roll more easily than a balloon tire on a smooth
pavement?
7. An automobile is moving along a concrete road with the same speed as that
of a streetcar along side of it. Which vehicle can stop in the shorter distance? (The
coefficient of friction for rubber on concrete is 0.7, for steel on steel 0.2.)
8. A body rests on a rough horizontal plane. Show that no force, however great,
applied toward the plane at an angle with the normal less than the limiting angle for
friction, can push the body along the plane.
PROBLEMS
1. A force of 155 lb is required to start a sled whose weight is 800 lb, while a force
of 54 lb is sufficient to keep it moving once it is started. Find the coefficients of starting
and sliding friction.
2. A 500-lb piano is moved 20 ft across a floor by a horizontal force of 75 lb. Find
the coefficient of friction. What happens to the energy expended? Ans. 0.15
3. A horizontal force of 6.0 lb is applied to a 10-lb block, which rests on a hori-
zontal surface. If the coefficient of friction is 0.40 find the acceleration.
4. A coin lying on a foot ruler starts to slide when one end of the ruler is raised
434 in. above the horizontal. What is the limiting angle for friction? the coefficient of
starting friction? Ans. 21°; 0.38
5. A block weighing 1.0 kg is placed on a horizontal slide and drawn across it by
weights hung from a cord, which passes over a frictionless pulley at the end of the
slide. When the block has a load of 9.0 kg on it, it is found that 2500 gm must be hung
on the end of the cord to maintain uniform motion. If 7.0 kg are now removed from
the block, what weight is it necessary to hang from the cord to keep the block in
uniform motion?
6. A box weighing 150 lb is moved across a horizontal floor by dragging it by
means of a rope attached to the front end. If the rope makes an angle of 30° with the
floor and the coefficient of friction between box and floor is 0.400, find the force
exerted by the man pulling the rope. Ans. 56.3 lb
7. If the coefficient of kinetic friction for the surfaces in contact is 0.20, what
force parallel to a 30° incline is required to pull a 100-lb box up the incline with an
acceleration of 2.0 ft/sec^
8. A m a n holds a book weighing 3.0 lb between his hands and keeps it from
falling by pressing his hands together horizontally. If the force exerted by each hand
is 7.5 lb, what is the coefficient of friction between book and hands? Ans. 0.20
9. A raian holds a block from falling by pushing it horizontally against a vertical
wall. If the block weighs 3.0 kg and the coefficient of static friction between block and
wall is 0.40, what force must the m a n exert?
10. A 200-lb box is d r a w n u p a skid 40 ft long and 20 ft high by a rope parallel
to the incline. Find the tension in the rope required to haul the box u p with uniform
motion if the coefficient of friction for the surfaces in contact is 0.30. Ans. 152 lb
11. An 80-lb box rests on an inclined plane 10.0 ft long and 6.0 ft high for which
the coefficient of sliding friction is 0.30. W h a t force parallel to the plane is required to
move the box with uniform speed u p the plane? down the plane?
12. T h e coefficient of friction between a block and the surface on which it slides
is 0.18 and the surface is inclined a t a n angle of 15° with the horizontal. If the block
weighs 300 lb, what force is needed to drag it u p the incline a t uniform speed? W h a t
force is required to let it slide down the plane at uniform speed?
Ans. 130 lb; 26 lb
13. An object having a weight of 10.0 lb is thrown forward on ice with a speed of
64 ft/sec. If the coefficient of friction between it and the ice is 0.10, how far will it go
a n d in how many seconds will it stop?
14. A 100-lb box slides down a skid 20.0 ft long and inclined at an angle of 60° to
the horizontal. At the bottom of the skid the box slides along a level surface of equal
roughness. If the coefficient of kinetic friction for the surfaces is 0.100, how far will the
box travel, and how long a time will elapse after it reaches the level surface before it
comes to rest? Ans. 162 ft; 10.1 sec
15. A 100-lb box slides down a skid 30 ft long and inclined at 60° to the hori-
zontal. At the bottom of the skid it moves along a horizontal surface until it comes to
rest. Assuming a uniform coefficient of kinetic friction of 0.20, calculate (a) the
accelerating force on the incline; {b) the time taken to travel the first 20 ft; (c) the
distance moved along the horizontal surface at the foot of the incline.
16. A sled weighing 100 lb reaches the foot of a hill with a speed of 40 ft/sec. T h e
coefficient of kinetic friction between the sled and the horizontal surface of the ice
at the foot of the hill is 0.030. H o w far will the sled travel on the ice? Ans. 830 ft
17. An object, which begins to slide on level ice with a speed of 10 ft/sec, comes to
rest in 100 ft. W h a t is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the object a n d the ice?
18. A block is placed on an inclined plane and the inclination of the latter
gradually changed until the block begins to slide down. At an inclination of 30° the
body starts to slip and it then travels 900 cm down the plane in 6.0 sec. Find the coeffi-
cients oi kinetic and static friction. Ans. 0.52; 0.58
19. A body takes just twice as long to slide down a plane inclined a t 30° to the
horizontal as if the plane were frictionless. W h a t is the coefficient of friction?
JOHN
WILLIAM
STRUTT,
third BARON
RAYLEIGH
1842 to I 9 I 9
BORN IN ESSEX, ENGLAND. CHAIRMAN OF THE DAVY-FARADAY

RESEARCH LABORATORY IN LONDON. AWARDED THE 19O4 NOBEL
PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS INVESTIGATIONS ON THE DENSITY OF
THE MORE IMPORTANT GASES, AND FOR HIS DISCOVERY OF ARGON,
ONE OF THE RESULTS OF THOSE INVESTIGATIONS.
7. Work and Power

T h e rate of production of a m a n working with hand tools only is
small, SO small that production by these methods does not meet the
demands of modern times. I n order to increase the output, machines
were devised. In them, the energy possessed by coal, gasoline, falling
water, or electricity is converted into useful work. T h e machine not
only enables the operator to make articles that would not other wise be
possible, but it also enables him to convert energy into useful work at
a much greater rate than he could by his own efforts. Each workman
in a factory has at his disposal power much greater than he alone
could develop.
75
Work. T h e term work, commonly used in connection with

widely different activities, is restricted in physics to cases in which
there is a force and a displacement along the line of the force. In this
technical sense of the word work, a pier does no work in supporting a
bridge, and a man does no work if he merely holds up a suit case,
though he may experience muscular fatigue. But in lifting the suitcase
to a rack he would perform work.
Work is defined as the product of the force and the displacement
in the direction of the force.
Work = Fs (1)
I n the British system, the most common unit of work is the. foot-pound,
the work done by a force of 1 lb exerted for a distance of 1 ft. In the
metric system, work is frequently expressed in terms of the erg (dyne-
centimeter), which is the work done by a force of 1 dyne exerted for
a distance of 1 cm. Other units of work are the joule (10^ ergs) and
the kilowatt-hour (page 81).
Example: A box is pushed 15 ft along a horizontal floor against a frictional force
of 50 lb. How much work is done?
Work = Fs
Work = (50 lb) (15 ft) = 750 ft-lb
FIG. 1.—Work = F5 cos 30°.

Example: What work is performed in dragging a sled 50 ft horizontally when the
force of 60 lb is transmitted by a rope making an angle of 30° with the ground (Fig. 1)?
The component of the force in the direction of the displacement is F cos 30°.
Work = (F cos 30°)s
Work = 60 lb X 0.866 X'50 ft = 2600 ft-lb
Energy. The capacity for' doing work is called energy. Though

energy can be neither created nor destroyed, it can exist in many forms'
and can be transformed from one form to another. T h e -energy
possessed by an object b y virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy, or
energy of motion. Energy' of position or configuration is called potential
WORK AND P O W E R 77
energy. I n any case, the change in the kinetic energy or potential energy
is equal to the work done on a body or group of bodies. It follows that
the units in which energy is expressed are the same as the units for work.
Simple Machines. A machine is a device for applying energy
to do work in a way suitable for a given purpose. No machine can
create energy. T o do work, it must receive energy from some source,
a n d the maximum work it does cannot exceed the energy it receives.
Machines may receive energy in diflferent forms, such as mechani-
cal energy, heat, electrical energy, or chemical energy. We are here
considering only machines that employ mechanical energy and do
work against mechanical forces. I n the so-called simple machines, the
energy is supplied by a single appliedforce and the machine does useful
work against a single resisting force. T h e frictional force which every
machine encounters in action and which causes some waste of energy
will be neglected for simplicity in treating some of the simple machines.
Most machines, no matter how complex, are combinations of the
lever and the inclined plane.
Actual Mechanical Advantage. T h e utility of a machine is
chiefly that it enables a person to perform some desirable work by
changing the amount, the direction, or the point of application of the
force. T h e ratio of the output force Fg exerted by the machine on a
load to the input force Fi exerted by the operator on the machine is
defined as the actual mechanical advantage (AMA) of the machine.
AMA = ^^ (2)
For example, if a machine is available that enables a person to lift

500 lb by applying a force of 25 lb, its actual mechanical advantage
is 500 lb/25 lb = 20. For most machines the A M A is greater than
unity. A machine that is designed to increase the force has a n A M A
greater than one; for example, a bench vise, a crowbar, or a block and
tackle. A machine designed to increase speed has an A M A less than
one; for example, a catapult, or the gear train in a h a n d grinding
wheel or the chain drive of a bicycle.
Ideal Mechanical Advantage. I n any machine, because of the
eff'ects of friction, the useful work done by the machine is always less
than the work done on the machine. T h e input work done by the
applied force Fi is measured by the product of Fi and the distance Si
through which it acts. The output work is measured by the product

of the output force Fo and the distance So through which it acts. Hence
Dividing each member of the inequality by FiSo, we obtain

F s-
that is, the ratio of the forces F„/i%- is less than the ratio of the distances
Si/so for any machine. If the effects of friction are very small, the value
of the output work approaches that of the input work, or the value of
Fo/Fi becomes nearly that of Si/so. T h e ideal mechanical advantage
(IMA) is defined as the ratio of the distance Si through which the input
force acts to the distance So through which the output force acts.
IMA = J' (4) .
Since the forces move these distances in equal times, the ratio Si/so is
also frequently called the velocity ratio. In a "frictionless" machine the
inequality of Eq. (3) would become an equality.
Example: A pulley system is used to lift a 1000-lb block of stone a distance of 10 ft

by the application of a force of 150 lb for a distance of 80 ft. Find the actual me-
chanical advantage and the ideal mechanical advantage.
,,,, F, 1000 lb
Si 80 ft
IMA = - = T^r^ = 8.0
So 10 ft
Efficiency. Because of the friction and other losses in all moving

machinery, the Useful work done by a machine is less than the energy
supplied to it. From the principle of conservation of energy,
energy input = energy output + energy wasted,
assuming no energy is stored in the machine. The efficiency of a machine

is defined as the ratio of its output work, to its input work. This ratio is always
less than 1, and is usually multiplied by 100 per cent and expressed in
•per cent. A machine has a high efficiency if a large part of the energy
WORK AND POWER 79
supplied to it is expended by the machine on its load and only a small

part wasted. T h e efficiency (eff.) may be as high as 98 per cent for a
large electric generator a n d will be less than 50 per cent for a screw
jack.
output work F^„
m p u t work i<iSi
Also, since
IMA ^ '
Note that the work input times the efficiency is equal to the work
output
Eff. X FiSi = FoSo (6)
Example: W h a t is the efSciency of the pulley system described in the preceding

example?
_ F„s, _ (1000 1b)(10ft) _
^ ^ • - J ^ - 1150 lb)(80 ft) - °-^^ - ^ 3 %
Also,
Eff- = ^ ' = w = °-«^ = «^%
T o calculate the mechanical advantage of a machine one can

imagine it to have carried out a chosen motion. Expressions are writ-
ten separately for the input distance Si and the output distance Sg.
T h e ratio of these is the ideal mechanical advantage
Example: A screw jack has a pitch of 0.25 in., a lever a r m 18 in. long, and an
efficiency of 40 per cent. Find the I M A and the A M A .
In one revolution of the lever a r m the screw lifts the weight W a distance 0.25 in.,
while the force F acts through 27r X 18 in.
27r X 18 in. ,-„

IMA = —K-7^. = 450
0.25 m.
For 40 per cent efficiency, 0.40 X F X 27r X 18 in. = WX 0.25 in.
AAÂ ^ 0.40 X 217 X 18 m . ' ^^.

AMA = -=r = TTir^. = 180
F 0.25 m.
Power. In science and technology the word power is restricted to

mean the time rate of doing work. T h e average power is the work per-
formed divided by the time required for the performance. I n meas-
uring power, both the work and the elapsed time must be measured.
^ work _,
Power = - ; (7)
time ^ '
T h e same work is done when a 500-lb steel girder is lifted to the
top of a 100-ft building in 2 min as is done when it is lifted in 10 min.
However, the power required is five times as great in the first case as
in the second, for the power needed to do the work varies inversely
as the time. If given sufficient time, a hod carrier can transfer a ton
of bricks from the ground to the roof of a skyscraper. A hoisting
engine can do this same work more quickly since it develops more
power.
M u c h of our everyday work is accomplished by using the energy
from some source such as gasoline, coal, or impounded water. We
often buy the privilege of having energy transformed on our premises.
Thus electricity flowing through the grid of a toaster has its electrical
energy transformed into heat. Energy is transformed, not destroyed.
We pay for the energy that is transformed (not for the electricity, for •
that flows back to the plant). T h e amount of energy transformed is the
rate of transformation multiplied by the time, Eq. (7).
Units of Power. Common British units of power are the foot-
pound per second and the horsepower. A horsepower is defined as 550 .
ft-lb/sec.
A metric unit of power is the erg per second, but since this is an
inconveniently small unit, the joule per second, called the watt, is
commonly used. The watt equals 10^ ergs/sec. The kilowatt, used
largely in electrical engineering, is equal to 1000 watts.
TABLE I. UNITS OF POWER

1 watt = 10' ergs per second = 1 joule per second
1 horsepower = 550.foot-p"ounds per second = 33,000 foot-pounds per minute
1 horsepower = 746 watts
1 kilowatt = 1,000 watts = 1.34 horsepower
Example: By the use of a pulley a man raises a load of 120 lb to a height of 40 ft

in 65 sec. Find the average horsepower required.
WORK AND POWER 81
work force X distance
Power
time time
(120 lb) (40 ft)
= 74 ft-lb/sec
65 sec
1 hp = 550 ft-Ib/sec
Therefore
74 ft-lb/sec ^ ,, ,
Power = ^rrî— = 0.13 hp
ft-lb/sec
550
Work units are commonly derived from power units. Since work is
the product of power a n d time, any power unit multiplied by a time
unit may be used as a unit of work. Commonly used units of work
formed in this manner are the watt-second (joule), the watt-hour,
the kilowatt-hour, and the horsepower-hour.
Measurement of Mechanical Power. The mechanical power
output of a rotating machine can be measured by equipping the
machine with a special form of fric-
tion brake (Prony brake), which
absorbs the energy output of the
machine and converts it into heat.
, A simple style of Prony brake suit-
able for small machines consists of
a band that passes around the rotat-
ing pulley of the machine and is
supported at the ends as shown in
Fig. 2. Two screws W serve to
tighten or loosen the band, -thus
regulating the load of the machine,
and two spring balances show in
terms of their readings, F and F',
the forces exerted on the ends of FIG. 2.—Prony brake.
the band. In operation the band is
dragged around by friction at the rim of the rotating pulley and
remains slightly displaced. The effective force of friction is equal to the
difference of the spring balance readings F' — F. T h e machine, in
opposing friction, does an amount of work {F' — F){2Trr) during
each rotation, or {F' — F){2Tvrn) in 1 min, where n is the number of
rotations that it makes per minute. If one expresses force in pounds and
the f-adius in feet, the power output of the machine in foot-pounds

per minute is 2Trrn(F' — F); or
^TVYTliF^ — F^
Horsepower output = 3 ^ 0 0 ft.lb/min hp ^^^
This is known as the brake horsepower.

Human Power Output. A m a n who weighs 220 lb may be able
to r u n up a 10-ft flight of stairs in 4.0 sec. If so, he is able to work at
the rate of 1 hp, since
220 lb X 10 ft .^_ , . , , _ ,
j-^ = 550 ft-lb/sec = 1.0 hp
A 110-lb boy would have to climb the same height in 2 sec in order to
develop the same power. H u m a n endurance will not enable even an
athlete to maintain this pace very long. In almost no other way can
a m a n approximate a horsepower in performance. In sustained
physical effort a man's power is seldom as great as H o hp.
Since the muscles of the body are only about 20 per cent efficient,
the rate at which they perform useful work is only about one-fifth the
rate at which they may be transforming energy. T h e remainder of the
energy is converted into heat, which must be dissipated through
ventilation and perspiration. Just as a mechanical engine may have
to be "geared down" to match its power output to the requirements
of the load, so we as h u m a n machines can often best accomplish work
by long-continued application at a moderate rate.
Alternative Ways of Writing the Power Equation. T h e rate
at which a machine works depends on several factors, which appear
implicitly in Eq. (7). When a machine is working, the average power
developfed is
where F is the average force that acts for a distance s in time t.

Equation (9) may be written P = F(s/t),'Or
P = Fv • (10)
which shows that the average rate at which a machine works is the
product of the force and tihe average speed. A special use of Eq. (10)
W O R K AND P O W E R 83
is that in which the force is appUed by a beU moving with a n average

speed 1). T h e bek horsepower is
P = ^^
33,000 ft-lb/min h p
where F is the difference between the tensions (in pounds) in the two
sides of the belt and v is the belt speed in feet per minute.
SUMMARY
Work is the product offeree and the displacement in the direction of
the force.
• Work = Fs
Energy is the capacity for doing work.
A machine is a device for applying energy at man's convenience.
T h e actual mechanical advantage (AMA) of a machine is the
ratio of the output force Fo that the machine exerts to the input force
Fi applied to the machine.
AMA = §
Fi
T h e ideal mechanical advantage (IMA) of a machine is defined as
the ratio of the distance Si through which the input force acts to the
distance So through which the output force acts.
IMA = ^
So,
_ work output _ FaSo _ AMA

work input FiSi IMA
Power is the time rate of doing work.
A horsepower is 550 ft-lb/sec or 33,000 ft-lb/min.
A watt is 1 joule/sec.
One horsepower is equivalent to 746 watts.
QUESTIONS
1. Distinguish carefully between doing of work and the exertion of force. Give
examples.
2. Show that no work is done on a body that moves with constant speed in a
circle.
3. In a tug of war, team A is slowly giving ground to team B. Is any work being
done? if so, by what force?
4. Does the use of a lever increase one's power?
5. What kind of machine would you select if you desired one having a mechani-
cal advantage of 2? of 500 or more? Which machine would be likely to have the
greater efficiency if both machines were as mechanically perfect as it is possible to
make them?
6. Why does a road wind up a steep hill instead of going directly up the slope?
7. How does the IMA of an inclined plane vary with the angle 6 of the plane,
that is, what trigonometric function of d gives the value of IMA?
8. Describe several machines in which the load moves at a greater speed than
the applied force. Which is greater in each case, the applied force or the force exerted
by the machine?
9. A screw jack used to support a heavy load will usually stay set without running
back. Show that in raising a load by means of such a jack at least half the work is
expended against friction in the jack.
^^ r ~^^
0 I n
FIG. 3.—^Three types of lever.
10. In Fig. 3 are shown the three ways in which the applied force Fi, the resistance
Fo and the fulcrum 0 can be arranged on a lever to suit the needs of a particular
situation. In which case is the AMA less than 1?
PROBLEMS
1. How much work does a 160-lb man do against gravity in climbing a flight
of stairs between floors 12 ft apart? Does this account for all the energy expended?
2. Find the work done in removing 300 gal of water from a coal mine 400 ft
deep. Water weighs 8.34 lb/gal. Arts. 1,000,000 ft-lb, or 1.00 X 10" ft-lb
3. A 500-lb safe is suspended from a block and tackle and hoisted 20 ft in 1.5
min. At what rate is the work performed?
4. A horse walks at a steady rate of 3.0 mi/hr along a level road and exerts a
pull of 80 lb in dragging a cart. What horsepower is he developing? Ans. 0.64 hp
5. How heavy a load can a 15-hp hoist lift at a steady speed of 240 ft/min?
6. A locomotive developing 2500 hp draws a freight train 1.75 mi long at a rate
of 10.0 mi/hr^Find the drawbar pull exerted by the engine. Ans. 46.8 tons
7. The friction brake of Fig. 5 is applied to an/electric motor. The following
data are recorded by an observer: r = 6.0 in.; F' = 55' lb; F = 20 lb; and n — 1800
rpm. Compute the horsepower at which the motor is working.
8. Find the useful horsepower expended in pumping 5000 gal of water per
minute from a well in which the water level is 40 ft below the discharge pipe.
Ans. 50 hp
WORK AND POWER 85
9. A 10-hp hoisting engine is used to raise coal from a barge to a wharf, an
average height of 75 ft. Assuming an efHciency of 75 %, how many tons of coal can
be lifted in 1.0 min?
10. Find the difference in the tensions of the two sides of a belt when it is running
2800 ft/min and transmitting 150 hp. Ans. 1770 lb
11. A 3200-lb car is towed by a horizontal towrope with uniform speed along a
level road. The tension in the towrope is 180 lbs and the car moves 450 ft in 30 sec.
(a) How much work is done on the car in towing it the 450 ft? (b) What horsepower is
utilized in towing the car?
12. A motor operates at its rated load of 10 hp for 8 hr a day. Its efficiency is
87%. What is the daily cost of operation if electrical energy costs 5 cents per kilowatt-
hour? Ans. $3.43
13. The engines of a patrol plane deliver 2100 hp to keep the plane in level flight
at a speed of 200 mi/hr. What is the total force opposing the forward motion of the
plane?
14. A 2000-lb load is moved at a speed of 15 mi/hr up a plane 100 ft long making
a 30° angle with the horizontal. The frictional force is 500 lb. Find the work done and
the necessary power. Ans. 1.50 X lO^" ft-lb; 60.0 hp
15. A 2000-lb car travels 30 mi/hr up a grade that rises 1.0 ft in 20 ft along the
slope. Find the horsepower expended.
16. A safe weighing 10 tons is to be
loaded on a truck, 5.0 ft high, by means of
planks 20 ft long. If it requires 350 lb to
overcome fric-
t i o n on t h e
skids, find the
least force Inclined plane.
n e c e s s a r y to
move the safe. Ans. 5400 lb
17. Find the work done in drawing a 100-lb box up
a plane 20 ft long to a platform 12 ft high if the
coefficient of friction is 0.20.
18. A man raises a 500-lb stone by means of a lever
5.0 ft long. If the fulcrum is 0.65 ft from the end that
is in contact with the stone, what is the ideal mechanical
advantage? Ans. 6.7
19. Neglecting friction, what applied force is neces-
5.—Wheel and axle. sary in problem 18?
20. A wheel and axle are used for raising a bucket up the shaft of a mine. The
wheel has a radius 20 in. and the axle is 4.0 in. in radius. The bucket weighs 120 lb
and moves upward with uniform speed when the tangential force applied to the rim
of the wheel is 30 lb. {a) What is the IMA of the wheel and axle? {b) What is the
efficiency? (c) What would be the acceleration of the bucket if the force applied to
the wheel were 32 lb? . ^n^. 5; 80%; 2.7 ft/sec^
21. T h e radius of a wheel is 2.0 ft a n d that of the axle is 2.0 in. W h a t force,
neglecting friction, must be applied at the rim of the wheel in order to lift a load of
900 lb, which is attached to a cable w o u n d around the axle?
2 2 . A m a n weighing 150 lb sits on a platform suspended from a movable pulley
and raises himself by a rope passing over a fixed pulley. Assuming the ropes parallel,
what force does he exert? (Neglect the weight ol the platform.) Ans. 50 lb
2 3 . A force of 3.0 lb is required to raise a weight of
16 lb by means of a pulley system. If the weight is raised
1.0 ft while the applied force is exerted t h r o u g h a dis-
tance of 8.0 ft, find (a) the I M A , (b) the A M A , and
(c) the efficiency of the pulley system.
24. A block and tackle having three sheaves in each
block is used to raise a load of 620 lb. If the efficiency of
the system is 69 %, what force is necessary? Ans. 150 lb
F I G . 6.—Block and tackle. FIG. 7.—Screw jack.
2 5 . Compare the mechanical advantages of a block and tackle (Fig. 6) (a) when
the end of the cord is attached to the upper block and (b) when it is attached to the
lower block.
26. A movable pulley is used to lift a 200-lb load. W h a t is the efficiency of the
system if a 125-lb force is necessary? Ans. 8 0 %
2 7 . T h e pitch of a screw j a c k (Fig. 7) is 0.20 in., and the input force is applied
a t a radius of 2.5 ft. Find the I M A .
28. Assuming an efficiency of 3 0 % , find the force needed to lift a load of 3300 lb
with the screw jack of problem 27. Ans. 12 lb
2 9 . A certain screw jack has a pitch of 0.20 in. and the bar used to turn the screw
is 4.0 ft long. Find the I M A , the A M A , a n d the efficiency of this screw jack if a 50-lb
force applied at the end of the b a r will just raise a 5.0-ton load.
3 0 . T h e lever a r m of a screw jack is 3.0 ft long and the pitch is 0.50 in. T h e
efficiency is 1 3 % . (a) Calculate the I M A , the A M A , and the input force necessary to
raise a load of 1.0 ton. (b) Calculate the input and output horsepower if the 1.0-ton
load is raised 1.5 ft in 2 min. Ans. 450; 59; 34 lb; 0.35 h p ; 0 045 h p
PHILIPP
LENARD
1862 —
BORN IN POZONY, HUNGARY. PROFESSOR OF EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS

AT KIEL, LATER AT HEIDELBERG. HE RECEIVED THE 1 9 O 5 NOBEL
PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS WORK ON CATHODE RAYS.
8. Energy-
All problems in mechanics can be solved, at least in principle, by the
laws of motion discussed in Chap. 4. Given certain information about
the initial status of an object and the forces to which it is subjected, we
can predict its position and velocity at any future time. In some situa-
tions, however, as in the description of the motion of a pendulum,
direct application of the laws of motion would require complicated
calculations of forces and accelerations in order to obtain a relatively
simple result. Consideration of the potential and kinetic energy
involved and the relation between work and energy simplifies the
87
solution of many problems in mechanics. Moreover the concept of

energy leads to the principle of the conservation of energy, which
unifies a wide range of phenomena in the physical sciences.
Potential Energy. Potential energy (PE) is energy which bodies
possess by virtue of their positions or configuration. T h e most common
form of potential energy is gravitational potential energy. Since the
earth attracts every body, work is required to lift the body to a higher
level. When a m a n carries a brick to the top of a building, most of the
energy that he expends is transformed into heat through friction
in the muscles of his body. T h e work that he accomplishes on the
brick (weight of brick times vertical distance) represents energy that
can be recovered. By virtue of its position at the top of the building
the brick possesses a capacity for doing work. It has potential energy.
T h e work done on the brick, and hence the potential energy gained
is the product of the weight W and the height h to which it is raised.
PE = Wh (1)
or
PE = mgh (2)
If Wîs in pounds and h in feet, the PE is given by Eq. (1) in foot-
pounds. If m is in grams and h in centimeters, the PE is given by
Eq. (2) in ergs. The gravitational potential energy is expressed rela-
tive to a specified arbitrary reference level. This reference level may be
sea level, or floor level, or table level, or any other starting point that
is agreed upon by the people concerned.
Example: A 20-lb stone is carried to the top of a building 100 ft high. How much
does its potential energy (PE) increase?
Friction being neglected, the increase in PE is just the amount of work done in
lifting the stone, so that
PE = Fs = (20 lb) (100 ft) = 2000 ft-lb
When a spring or a rubber b a n d is stretched, the energy expended

in stretchingît is converted into potential energy, energy which the
spring is capable of giving u p because the molecules of which it is
composed have been pulled out of their natural pattern and will exert
force in order to get back into that pattern. This energy of position
should not be thought of as a substance within the spring, but as a
condition. •
ENERGY 89
Energy is obtained from the combustion of gasoline by virtue of

the rearrangement of the molecules of which it and oxygen are com-
posed. In an internal-combustion engine, this potential energy of
configuration is released through the burning of the gasoline. Most
of the energy is transformed into heat, but a portion is converted into
useful mechanical work. Even the latter finally takes the form of heat
as a result of friction.
Kinetic Energy. I n addition to energy of position or state,
objects may possess energy due to their motions. A car or bullet in
motion, a stream of water, or a revolving flywheel possesses kinetic
energy (KE). T h e kinetic energy of a moving object can be measured
by the amount of work it will do if brought to rest, or by the amount
of work originally needed to impart the velocity to it.
Consider a body initially at rest on which a steady unbalanced
force F acts as it moves through a distance s. The body gains speed
at a rate given by F = {W/g)a. Its speed changes from an initial value
of 0 to a final value v. T h e work done on the body by the unbalanced
force that accelerates it appears as kinetic energy.
W
KE = Fs = — as
g
From Eq. (5), Chap. 3
las = v^ - 0^
as =
1 W .
KE (3)
2 g
or since W/g = m
KE y^mv^ (4)
If W is expressed in pounds, g in feet per second per second, and
V in feet per second, Eq. (3) gives the K E in foot-pounds. If m is in
grams and v in centimeters per second, Eq. (4) gives the K E in ergs.
Although a steady force has here been assumed, the result is
'independent of the particular manner in which a body attains its
velocity. T h e proof for nonuniform acceleration is more involved.
Example: What is the kinetic energy of a 3000-lb automobile which is moving at
30 mi/hr (44 ft/sec)?
rp- ^^ 2 1 (3000 lb)(44 ft/sec)^ -
go COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
When an accelerating force is applied to a body, the work done by
t h a t force produces a change in the kinetic energy of the body. If a
resultant force F acts to start a body in motion or to stop one initially
in motion
Fs = Vimv^ (5)
Example: What average force is necessary to stop a bullet of mass 20 gm and
speed 250 m/sec as it penetrates wood to a distance of 12 cm?
The work done by the retarding force is equal to the initial kinetic energy of the
bullet
Fs = yimv'^
/i' X 12 cm = H(20 gm)(25,000 cm/sec)^
F = 5.2 X 10' dynes
This force is nearly 30,000 times the weight of the bullet.
The initial kinetic energy, y^mv^ = 6.2 X 10' ergs = 620 joules, is largely wasted
in heat and in work done in deforming the bullet.
Stopping Distance. T h e fact that the kinetic energy of a
moving object is proportional to the square of its speed has an impor-
tant bearing upon the problem of stopping an automobile. Doubling
the speed of the car quadruples the amount of work that must be done
by the brakes in making a quick stop.
A consideration of the equation v^^ — Vi^ = las shows that, if
t;2 = 0 (indicating a stop), s = —v\^/2a, so that the distance in which
a n automobile can be stopped is likewise proportional to the square
of the speed, assuming a constant deceleration. Actually, however, the
deceleration accomplished by the brakes is smaller at high speed
because of the effect of heat upon the brake linings, so that the in-
crease in stopping distance with speed is even more rapid than is
indicated by theoretical considerations.
Example: In what distance can a 3000-lb automobile be stopped from a speed of
30 mi/hr (44 ft/sec) if the coefficient of friction between tires and roadway is 0.70?
The retarding force furnished by the roadway can be no greater than
F = ^^f= (0.70) (3000 lb) = 2100 lb
Since the workdone by this force is equal to the kinetic energy of the car, the stopping
distance can be found by substituting' in the equation:
• 2 g
_ 1 Wv^ _ (3000 lb)(44 ft/sec)^'
^ ~ 2 g E ~ 2(32 ft/sec2)(2100 lb) " "
ENERGY .91
Table I shows stopping distances for various speeds, assuming the
conditions of the preceding example.
TABLE I
Speed, mi/hr Stopping Distance, ft
10 4.8
20 19
30 43
40 76
50 120
60 170
70 230
80 310
90 390
T h e value of the coefficient of static friction for rubber on dry

concrete is considerably larger than 0.70, the figure assumed; but if
the wheels are locked it is the smaller coefficient of sliding friction
which must be considered. Moreover, as the tires begin to slip, the
rubber melts, and the coefficient of sliding friction becomes much
smaller. At the same time it should be remembered that at high speeds
the efficiency of brakes is greatly reduced by the heat developed in the
brake linings.
T h e distances discussed here are the distances the car moves after
the brakes are applied. During the time required for the driver to
react to a signal the car moves a distance that depends upon the speed
of the car and the reaction time. This distance must be added to the
distances given in Table I to find the total distance the car moves
after the signal.
I n practice, then, an automobile with excellent brakes can often
be stopped in shorter distances than those indicated for 10 and
20 m i / h r ; whereas at the higher speeds, 60 to 90 m i / h r , the actual
stopping distance is several times as large as the theoretical value. At
^ 0 m i / h r , for example, a distance of 1000 to 1500 ft (instead of the
theoretical value of 390 feet) is required for stopping if the brakes alone
are used. T h e decelerating effect of the motor often exceeds that of
the brakes at very high speeds.
T h e distance in which a freely falling body acquires a speed of
60 m i / h r is 120 ft. In order to stop an automobile, which has this
speed, the brakes must dissipate the same kinetic energy the auto-
mobile would acquire in falling from the top of a 120-ft building.
Conservation of Energy. Energy is given to a body when work
is done upon it. In this process there is merely a transfer of energy from
one body to another. In such transfer no energy is created or de-
stroyed; it merely changes from one form to another. This statement
is known as the law of conservation of energy. It is true that in most
processes some of the energy becomes unavailable. Work done against
friction is converted into heat energy in such a form that it can seldom
be used. Thus, although the energy is not destroyed, it is wasted as
far as its usefulness in the process is concerned.
Transformations of Kinetic and Potential Energy. Very
frequently there is an interchange of kinetic and potential energies. If
a ball is held at the top of a building, it possesses potential energy.
When it is released and falls, the kinetic energy increases as the
potential energy decreases. T h e sum of the K E and PE remains con-
stant and equal to the PE at the top.
Example: A 3000-lb automobile at rest at the top of an incline 30 ft high and
300 ft long is released and rolls down the hill. What is its speed at the bottom of the
incline if the average retarding force is 200 lb?
The potential energy at the top of the hill is available to do work against the
retarding force F and to supply kinetic energy.
PE = work + KE
1 W
2 g
3000 lb X 30 ft = 200 lb X 300 ft + ^ ^°°° ^^ "
2 32 ft/sec2"
90,000 ft-lb - 60,000 ft-lb = ~ ^^°°^. "^, t-2
2 32 ft/sec^
^ 64 ft/sec^ X 30,000 fplb ^
3000 lb '
B = 25 ft/sec
T h e motion of a pendulum furnishes another simple example of
energy transformations. A small ball (Fig. 1) of weight Mîs suspended
from a fixed point P by a string of length /. When the ball is pulled
aside from, 0 to position B, it is raised a distance h and hence given
potential energy Wh. When the ball is released, it moves toward its
lowest point, and its energy while remaining constant changes' from
potential to kinetic, the sum of the two forms always being e;qual to
Wh. At point 0 all the energy will be kinetic. T h e ball will have a
.speed V obtained from
ENERGY 93
1 W
Wh = y" (6)
2^
or
(7)
T h i ? is the speed it would have acquired if it had fallen freely through

a vertical distance h. However, the veloc-
ity is directed toward the left at 0. Under
the constraint of the string the ball will
continue to move along the arc BOA,
gaining potential energy at the expense
of its kinetic energy as it approaches A.
If no energy is lost to its surroundings,
the ball will reach point ^ at a height h
above its lowest position. I t will then
retrace its path AOB, and the motion
will be repeated.
Example: The bob of a pendulum has its FIG. 1.—Pendulum, an example
rest point 100 cm below the support. The bob of energy transformation.
is pulled aside until the string makes an angle of
15° with the vertical. Upon release, with what speed does the bob swing past its
rest point?
From the geometry of Fig. 1
P= (l - hY + {CBY = /2 - 2lh + h}+ {CBY
Since h is small compared with /, h} can be neglected.
Then
2ih = (csy
h =
{CBY
21
CB = 100 cm X sin 15° = 100 cm X 0.259 = 25.9 cm
(25.9 cm)^
^ ^ 2 X 100 cm = ^-^^ ""^
V = \/2gh = \ / ( 2 X 980 cm/sec2 X 3.35 cm) = 81 cm/sec
SUMMARY
Energy is the capacity for doing work.
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, only transformed.
This is the principle of the conservation of energy.
Kinetic energy is energy of motion.

1 W
KE = ^^v^
2 g
or
KE = }imv^
Potential energy is energy of position or configuration.

For gravitational potential energy
PE = Wh
or
PE = mgh
For transformations between work and kinetic energy,
1 W
QUESTIONS
1. A man rowing a boat upstream is just able to hold his position with respect to
the shore. Is he doing work? If so, on what?
2. Which performs work: the hammer or the nail? the powder or the bullet? the
catcher or the baseball? the baseball or the bat? Explain your answers.
3. When a car is moving with constant speed along a level road there is no net
force. Is any work being done on the car? Explain.
4. Is kinetic energy a vector or a scalar quantity?
5. Two boys are throwing and catching a ball on a moving train. Does the
kinetic energy of the ball at any instant depend on the speed of the train? Explain.
6. Two similar automobiles are driven up a slope, one to twice the height of the
other. How do their potential energies compare? If they are driven on the level, one
at twice the speed of the other, how do their kinetic energies compare?
7. Show that during the motion of a simple pendulum the work done by the
tension in the string is zero.
8. Show that when a body of mass m is dropped from a height h, the sum of its
kinetic and potential energies at any instant is constant and equals mgh.
9. Trace the changes in the energy of a roller coaster car.
10. Why is, the safe driving speed at night limited by the range of the driver's
headlights?
11. Suppose we change the arbitrary zero level for measuring the potential energy
of a body. Is the. potential energy of the body changed? Explain.
12. How can one calculate the minimum speed with which a projectile would have
to be fired vertically in order to escape from the earth?
ENERGY 95
PROBLEMS
1. A 100-lb stone is dropped from a height of 200 ft. Find its kinetic and potential
energies at 0, 1.0, and 2.0 sec after being released, and also upon striking the ground.
What do you notice concerning the sum of the potential and kinetic energies?
2. The hammer of a pile driver weighs 500 lb and falls 12 ft, driving a post 4.0 in.
into the ground. What mean force is applied to the post? Arts. 18,000 lb
3. The 1.0-ton hammer of a pile driver is raised 15 ft above'a pile and then
released. What is the average force exerted by the hammer on the pile if the pile is
driven 8.0 in. into the ground with each blow?
4. A pile is to be driven into the ground, which resists penetration with a force
of 15,000 lb. If the pile is struck by a 300-lb hammer moving with an initial speed
of 30 ft/sec, how far will it be driven at each blow? What average horsepower is
expended? (Neglect energy loss due to heating.) Am. 0.28 ft; 4T0 hp
5. A driver accelerates a car from 15 mi/hr to 35 mi/hr in 60 sec. The weight of
the car is 2800 lb. Find (a) the change in kinetic energy of the car, and {b) the acceler-
ating force acting on the car.
6. Which has greater kinetic energy: an airplane whose weight is 25 tons and
which is flying at 250 mi/hr, or a plane whose weight is 50 tons and which is moving
at 160 mi/hr? Am. 10.5 X 10^ ft-lb; 8.6 X 10' ft-lb
7. A box slides down a chute 12 ft high and 24 ft long onto a level platform. The
coefficient of friction of the box on the chute or platform is 0.20. Find (a) the speed of
the box as it leaves the chute, and {b) the distance it travels on the level platform.
8. If the coefficient of kinetic friction between road and tire is 0.40, how far will
a car traveling 60 mi/hr go after application of the brakes if all four wheels are
locked? Am. 300 ft
9. A 100-ton car is moving at a speed of 40 mi/hr'. A constant force of 1.0 ton
opposes the motion. Calculate {a) the time required to bring the car to rest; {b) the
distance it will travel in stopping; (c) the energy expended in stopping it; {d) the rate
of expenditure of this energy, in horsepower.
10. What kinetic energy does a 64.4-lb body acquire in sliding down a plane
100 ft long inclined at an angle of 30° with the horizontal, if the coefficient of kinetic
friction is 0.20? Am. 2T00 ft-lb
11. A sled, which with its load weighs 160 lb, is started into motion by a boy who
exerts a constant force of 28.2 lb for a period of 3.00 sec. The coefficient of kinetic
friction for the horizontal surface is 0.0200. Find the distance the sled travels after
the boy stops pushing.
12. A bicycle rider has to climb a hill whose crest is 10 ft higher than the base. What
must be-his speed at the foot of the hill in order to save him from doing one-tenth of
the necessary work against gravity? Am. 8.0 ft/sec
13. A vertical spring is 10.0 in. long when under a load of 12 lb and 12.5 in. long
when the load is increased to 35 lb. How much work is done in stretching this spring?
(Note that the force is not constant.)
14. A stream flows at a rate of 6.0 ft/sec. What is the kinetic energy associated
with each cubic foot of water? Ans. 35 ft-lb
15. A constant force of 12 lb acts vertically upward upon a 10-lb body, originally
at rest. What is the kinetic and the potential energy after 10 sec have elapsed? What
average horsepower is used?
16. Water is stored in a cylindrical tank 10.0 ft in diameter and 20.0 ft deep.
Calculate the potential energy of the water when the tank is filled if the bottom of the
tank is 30.0 ft above the ground. Ans. 3.9 X 10^ ft-lb
17. An object of mass 20 kg hung by a cord 2.0 m long is drawn aside 30° from
the vertical and released. It is stopped in a vertical position by a uniform spring which
is compressed 3.0 cm. What is the maximum force exerted on the compressed spring?
(Neglect energy loss due to heating.)
18. A cylindrical stand pipe is 10.0 ft in diameter and 75 ft high. How much work
is done in filling it with water pumped through a pipe entering at the bottom of the
tank? Ans. 1.38 X 10' ft-lb
19. A 110-lb body has its speed changed from 25 to 40 ft/sec in 1.8 sec. What
average power is requifed?
20. A wedge is 3.0 in. thick and 15 in. long. It is driven 0.25 in. into a log by the
impact of a hammer blow, (a) If there is an average force of 30 lb exerted on the
hammer for a distance of 4.0 ft, what is the ideal mechanical advantage of the entire
arrangement? (b) What is the average force exerted by the wedge upon the log?
(Neglect losses.) Ans. 960; 29,000 lb
21. A 2000-lb bomb falls freely for 30 sec and penetrates 6.0 ft into the ground.
What resisting force (assumed constant) does the earth exert?
22. A 144-lb body initially has kinetic energy of 6400 ft-lb. After 18 sec it has
kinetic energy of 160,000 ft-lb. Find (a) the initial speed, (b) the acceleration, (c) the
accelerating force, and (rf) the distance traveled during the 18 sec.
Ans.J,3 ft/sec; 12 ft/sec^; 54 lb; 2900 ft
23. The V-2 rocket projectile weighed 27,300 lb and acquired a speed of 3600
mi/hr in 70 sec. (a) What energy did it possess on account of its motion? (b) What
average power was expended in setting it into motion?
24. The "Big Bertha" gun fired by the German army in the First World War
used a projectile weighing 264 lb and having an initial speed of 1.05 mi/sec. (a)
Calculate its kinetic energy, (b) Compare this energy with that of the V-2 rocket of
problem 23. Ans. 1.26 X 10^ ft-lb; 1^5
25. How many miles per hour can a 500-hp engine pull a 180-ton train up a
2.0 per cent slope if the force of friction is 3000 lb?
26. A 4.41 X lO-'-lb rifle ball is fired into a 4.00-lb balKstic pendulum. The
pendulum is 12.0 ft long and it rises 0.118 ft as a result of the impact, (a) What is
the speed of the bullet just before impact? (b) What is the percentage loss in its kinetic
energy? , Ans. 2.50 X 10^ ft/sec; 99.9%
27. A vertical spring is lO'.O cm Ip'ng when carrying a load of 20 kg and 12.0 cm
long when carrying a load of 32 kg. How much work, (a) in joules, and (6) in foot-
pounds, is required to stretch the spring from 10,0 to 15.0 cm? (Note that the force
is not constant.)
SIR
lOSEPH
JOHN
THOMSON
1856 to 1940
BORN IN CHEETHAM HALL, NEAR MANCHESTER. PROFESSOR AT THE

ROYAL INSTITUTE FOR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN LONDON, LATER
MASTER OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. DISCOVERER OF ISOTOPY.
AWARDED THE 1 9 0 6 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS THEO-
RETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF THE PASSAGE OF
ELECTRICITY THROUGH GASES.
9. Torque
When a body is in equilibrium it is either at rest or in uniform motion.
Forces may act to change the Hnear motion of a body or to change the
rotation of the body. If all the forces acting upon a body intersect at a
common point, they have no tendency to produce or change rotation.
Under this circumstance the body is in equilibrium if the vector sum
of the forces is zero.
97
gS COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Since most bodies are acted upon by forces that do not act through
a single common point, we must consider the effect of each force in
changing the rotation as well as its effect in changing the linear
motion of the body. T h e same force applied at different places or in
different directions produces greatly different rotational effects. T h e '"
engineer is very much concerned with these effects and must make
allowances for them in the design of his structures.
Conditions for Equilibrium. Consider an arrangement in
which two opposing forces equal in magnitude act on a block as in
Fig. \a. It is obvious that if the block is originally at rest it will remain
so under the action of these two forces. We say, as before, that the
vector sum of the forces is zero.
fa) (b)
FIG. 1.—Forces which are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction produce
equihbrium when they have a common line of action (a) but do not produce equi-
librium when they do not have the same line of action (i).
Now suppose that the forces are applied as in Fig. \h. T h e vector
sum of the forces is again zero; yet it is plain that under the action of
these two forces, the block will rotate. In fact, when the vector sum
of the applied forces is equal to zero, we can be sure only that the body
as a whole will have no change in its linear motion; we cannot be sure
that there will be no change in its rotary motion. Hence complete
equilibrium is not assured. I n addition to the first condition for
equilibrium previously stated (Chap. 2), a second condition is neces-
sary, a condition eliminating the possibility of a change in rotational
motion. The example of Fig. \b indicates that this second condition is
concerned with the placement of the forces as well as their magnitudes
a n d directions.
I n order to study the factors that determine the effectiveness of a
force in changing rotational motion, consider the familiar problem of
turning a heavy wheel by pullirlg on a spoke. Fig. 2a. It is a matter of
common experience that the wheel can be set into motion more
quickly and easily by applying a- force at a point such as A, than by
applying the same force at a point B nearer the axis. T h e effect of a
given force upon the rotational motion of a body is greater the farther
TORQUE 99
the line of action of the force is from the axis of rotation. We should
not, however, fall into the common error of assuming that this
distance should be measured to the point of application of the force.
In Fig. 2b the point of application of the force is just as far from the
(a) (b)
FIG. 2.- -An unbalanced force produces rotational acceleration if its line of action
does not pass through the axis of rotation.
axle as it is when applied at A in Fig. 2a, but now there is no effect

upon the rotation of the wheel, for the line of action of F passes
through the axle and it merely pulls the wheel as a whole upward.
T h o u g h the magnitude of the force, its direction, and the distance
FIG. 3.—Measurement of moment arm.
of its point of application from the axis are the same in the two exam-
ples, rotation is affected in case a but not in case b.
Moment Arm. T h e factor that determines the effect of a given
force upon rotational motion is the perpendicular distance from the axis
of rotation to the line of action of the force. This distance is called the
'LOll^-
lOO COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
moment arm of the force. I n Fig. 3, the moment a r m of the force F is

indicated by the dotted line OP. T h e line of action of the force is a mere
geometrical construction and m a y be extended indefinitely either way
in order to intersect the perpendicular OF. It has nothing to do with
the length of the force vector. T h e force F in Fig. 2b produces no
rotation because its line of action passes through the axis of rotation
and its moment arm is therefore zero. The same force F in Fig. 2a has
a moment arm OA and, therefore, tends to change the rotation.
Torque. For a fixed moment arm, the greater the force the
greater is the effect upon rotational motion. The two quantities, force
and moment arm, are of equal importance. They can be combined
into a single quantity, torque (also called moment of force), which meas-
ures the effectiveness of the force in changing rotation about the
chosen axis. Torque will be represented by the symbol L.
The torque (moment of force) about a chosen axis is the product of
the force and its moment arm.
L = Fs . (1)
An axis must always be selected about which torques are to be

measured. The value of the torque produced by a given force depends,
of course, upon the axis chosen. T h e selection of an axis is quite
arbitrary; it need not be any actual axle or fulcrum. In m a n y cases,
however, a wise selection of the axis about which torques are to be
calculated greatly simplifies a problem, because it reduces to zero the
torque due to a force whose magnitude or direction is unknown.
Since torque is a product of a force and a distance, its unit is a
force unit times a distance unit, such' as pound-foot, the usual unit
in the British system. Any similar com-
bination of force and distance units makes
a suitable unit for torque.
Torque is a vector quantity. T h e direc-
tion assigned to the vector is parallel to
the axis of the torque. T h e consequences
F I G . 4.—Â clockwise torque. of'the vector nature of torque will be dis-
cussed in more detail later in connection
with rotary motion. For the present we shall confine our attention to
cases in which all the forces act in the same plane. For these cases the
axes, and therefore the torques, are parallel and only the algebraic
signs of the torques need be considered.
\
TORqUE lOI
T h e algebraic sign of such torques is determined by consideration
of the direction of the rotation the torque tends to produce. For
example, the torques in Fig. 3 tend to produce counterclockwise
accelerations about 0, while the torque in Fig. 4 tends to produce a
clockwise acceleration. O n e may refer to these torques as positive and
negative, respectively. Note that a given force may produce a clock-
wise torque about one axis, but a counterclockwise torque about
another axis. T h e direction of a torque is not known from the direction
of the force alone.
Example: A light horizontal bar is 4.0 ft long. A 3.0-lb force acts vertically
upward on it 1.0 ft from the right-hand end. Find the torque about each end.
Since the force is perpendicular to the bar, the moment arms are measured along
the bar.
About the right-hand end
Lr = 3.0 lb X 1.0 ft = 3.0 Ib-ft (clockwise)
About the left-hand end
Li = 3.0 lb X 3.0 ft = 9.0 Ib-ft (counterclockwise)
The torques produced by this single force about the two axes differ in both magnitude
and direction.
Concurrent and Nonconcurrent Forces. Concurrent forces are

those whose lines of action intersect in a common point. If an axis
passing through this point is selected, the torque produced by each
force of such a set is zero. Hence a consideration of torque is not
. necessary in the study of a set of concurrent forces in equilibrium.
For'"a set of nonconcurrent forces, there exists no single axis about
which no torque is produced by any of the forces. Therefore, in
studying a set of nonconcurrent forces in equilibrium, it is essential
to take into account the relation existing among the torques produced
by such a set of forces. This relation is expressed in the second condi-
tion for equilibrium.
T h e Two Conditions for Equilibrium. We have previously
considered (Chap. 2) the condition necessary for equilibrium under
the action of concurrent forces, namely, that the vector sum of all the
forces acting shall be equal to zero. This condition must also be
fulfilled when the forces are not concurrent. This first condition may
be expressed by the statement that the sum of the components in any
two perpendicular directions shall be zero.
SF, = 0 (2)
SF, = 0 (3)
I02 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
For an object to be in equilibrium under the action of forces in a

single plane, the algebraic sum of the torques (about any axis) acting
upon the body must be zero. This statement is known as the second
condition for equilibrium. It naay be represented by the equation
SL = 0 (4)
In the first and second conditions for equilibrium we have a com-

plete system for solving problems in statics. These same conditions are
useful in certain problems involving uniform motion. If the first
condition is satisfied, the vector sum of the forces is zero, and no
translational acceleration is produced. If the second condition is
satisfied, the algebraic sum of the torques is zero, and there is no
rotational acceleration. This does not mean that there is no motion,
b u t only that the forces applied to the body produce no change in its
motion. While in equilibrium, the body may have a uniform motion
including both translation and rotation.
Center of Gravity. T h e most common force acting upon a body
is its weight. For every body, no matter how irregular its shape, there
exists a point such that the entire weight may be considered as con-
centrated at that point. This point is called the center of gravity of the
body. T h e center of gravity may be either within or outside the body.
If a single force equal to the weight of the body and acting vertically
upward could be applied at the center of gravity, it would support
the body in equilibrium no matter how the body might be tipped
about the center of gravity.
A knowledge of the position of the center of gravity is very useful
in problems of equilibrium, for that is fhe point of application of the
vector representing the weight. (It is never necessary and seldom
convenient to break the weight u p into parts.)
Example: A uniform bar, 9.0 ft long and weighing 5.0 lb, is supported by a ful-
crum 3.0 ft from the left end as in Fig. 5. If a 12-lb load is hung from the left end,
what downward pull at the right end is necessary to hold the bar in equilibrium?
With what force does the fulcrum push up against the bar?
Consider the bar as an object in equilibrium. The first step is to indicate clearly
all the forces that act on it. Tlie weight of the bar, 5.0 lb, can be considered to be
concentrated at its middle. A 12-lb force acts downward at the left end of the bar,
a force R acts upward at the" fulcrum, and there is an unknown downward force F
at the right end. ,
>
TORQUE 103
Thc; first condition for equilibrium indicates that the vector sum of the forces
applied to the bar is zero, or that
/? - 12 lb - 5.0 lb - F = 0.
Without further information we certainly cannot solve this equation, since it has
two unknown quantities in it, R and F. Let us set it aside for a moment and employ
the second condition for equilibrium,
3FT err
calculating the torques about some axis
and equating their algebraic sum to zero. y/////////yy//////////////A
The first thing we must do is to select
an axis from which to measure moment lf=SLS
arms. We shall choose an axis through the I2LB
point A about which to calculate all the
torques. Beginning at the left end of FIG. 5 - -Finding the forces acting on
the bar, we have (12 lb)(3.0 ft) = 36 Ib-ft a lever.
of torque, counterclockwise about A. Next,
we see that the force R produces no torque, since its line of action passes through the
point A. (Is it clear now why we decided to take A as an axis?) Third, the torque
produced by the weight of the bar W is (5.0 lb) (1.5 ft) = 7.5 Ib-ft, clockwise.
Finally, F produces a torque F(6.0 ft), clockwise.
Taking the counterclockwise torque as positive and clockwise torque as negative
and equating the algebraic sum of all the torques to zero, we write,
(12 lb)(3.0 ft) + i?(0) - (5.0 lb)(1.5 ft) - F(6.0 ft)
= 36 Ib-ft + 0 - 7 . 5 Ib-ft F(6.0 ft) = 0
F(6.0 ft) = 28.5 Ib-ft
F = 4.8 lb
Substituting this value in the equation obtained from the first condition for
equilibrium, we find 7? - 12 lb - 5.0 lb - 4.8 lb = 0, or i? = 22 lb.
Example: A chain C (Fig. 6) helps to sup-
port a uniform 200-lb beam, 20 ft long, one end
of which is hinged at the wall and the other
end of which supports a 1.0-ton load. The chain
makes an angle of 30° with the beam, which is
horizontal. Determine the tension in the chain.
Since all the known forces act on the 20-ft
beam, let us consider it as the object in equi-
librium. In addition to the 200- and 2000-lb
forces straight down, there are the pull of the
chain on the beam, and the force F, which the
hinge exerts on the beam at the wall. Let us
not make the mistake of assuming that the
20fr
force at the hinge is straight up, or straight
FIG. 6.—The forces acting on a along the beam. A little thought will convince
horizontal beam. us that the hinge must be pushing both up and
I04 ^COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
out on the beam. The exact direction of this force, as well as its magnitude, is
unknown. The second condition for equilibrium is an excellent tool to employ in
such a situation, for if we use an axis through the point 0 as the axis about which
to take torques, the unknown force at the hinge has no moment arm and, therefore,
causes no torque. The remarkable result is that we can determine the tension T in
the chain without knowing either the magnitude or the direction of the force at 0.
The torques about 0 as an axis are, respectively,
(200 lb) (10 ft) = 2000 Ib-ft (counterclockwise)
(2000 lb) (20 ft) = 40,000 Ib-ft (counterclockwise)
r(20 ft) sin 30° = r(10 ft) (clockwise)
[NOTE: The moment arm of T is OP = (20 ft) sin 30° = 10 ft.] Then
- r(10 ft) + 2,000 Ib-ft + 40,000 Ib-ft + F{0) = 0
so that
r = 4200 1b = 2.1 tons
The problem of finding the magnitude and direction of the force at the hinge is
left to the student. Suggestion: apply the first condition for equilibrium.
The trick just used in removing the unknown force from the prob-
lem by taking torques about the hinge as an axis is a standard device in
statics. T h e student should always be on the lookout for the oppor-
tunity to side-step (temporarily) a troublesome unknown force by
selecting an axis of torques that lies on the line of action of the un-
known force he wishes to avoid.
Couples. In general, the application of one or more forces to an
object results in both translational and rotational acceleration. A n
exception to this is the case in which a
single force is applied along a line passing
d through the center of gravity of the object,
in which case there is no rotational
e -, -c .V .• acceleration. Another special case is the
biG. 7.—I'orces constitutmg a r
couple. one in which two forces equal in mag-
nitude, opposite in direction, a n d not
in the same line, are applied to the object as in Fig. 16. I n this case
there is no translational acceleration. Such a pair of forces, resulting
in a torque alone, is called a couple. The torque produced by a couple
is independent of the position of the axis and is equal to the product of one of the
forces and the perpendicular distance between them.
Consider the torque, produced by the couple shown in Fig. 7.
.About the- axis 0, the torque produced by Fi is Fi{OA), and that by
^ TORqUE 105
Fi is -rF2(0B). Since Fi = F^ = F the total torque is

\
F(OA) - F(OB) = F{OA - OB) = F{AB).
This verifies the statement that the torque produced by a couple is the
product of one (either) of the forces and the perpendicular distance
between them, a product independent of the location of the axis. A
couple cannot be balanced by a single force but only by the applica-
tion of another couple equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
SUMMARY
T h e torque produced by a force is equal to the product of the force
and its moment arm.
L = Fs
T h e moment arm of a force is the perpendicular distance from the

axis to the line of action of the force.
For an object to be in equilibrium it is necessary (1) that the
vector sum of the forces applied to it be zero, and (2) that the algebraic
sum of the torques (about any axis) acting on it be zero.
Si^x =0
SF, = 0
SL = 0
T h e center of gravity of a body is the point at which its weight may

be considered as acting,
A couple consists of two forces equal in magnitude, opposite in
direction and not in the same line. T h e torque produced by a couple
is equal to the magnitude of one (either) of the forces times the per-
pendicular distance between them.
T o r q u e is a vector quantity.
QUESTIONS
1. What are the advantages of an automobile brake drum with a large diameter
over one with a smaller diameter?
2. Describe and explain the difference in the position of a man carrying a suit-
case in one hand and that of a man carrying a suitcase in each hand.
Io6 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
3. A man wishes to check the weight of a purchase, but has available only a
spring balance reading to about a third of the presumed weight of the object. Show
how he could perform an accurate weighing with the spring balance and a yardstick.
4. Show that a couple cannot be balanced except by another couple.
5. Discuss the stability of a body in equilibrium. How is stability related to
potential energy? Give illustrations.
6. Justify the statement that in order for a body to be in equilibrium under the
action of three nonparallel forces, these forces must be directed so that their lines of
action intersect at a single point. '
7. Show that if the resultant of a set of concurrent forces is zero, the sum of the
torques about any point due to these forces must also be zero.
8. Archimedes is reputed to have said, "Give me a place to stand and I can lift
the earth." Comment on this statement. What are some of the auxiliary devices that
he would have needed for this cosmic experiment?
PROBLEMS
1. A rope is wound around a shaft 3.0 in. in diameter. If a pull of 160 lb is
exerted on the rope, what torque is imparted to the shaft?
2. A bar 20 ft long makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal. A vertical force of
40 lb is applied 4.0 ft from the upper end. Calculate the torque due to this force about
each end. Ans. 550 Ib-ft; 140 Ib-ft
3. The legs of a wheelbarrow are 3.0 horizontal ft from the axle. When the
wheelbarrow is unloaded, a force of 12 lb applied to the handles 4.0 horizontal ft
from the axle is needed to raise the legs from the ground. If a 120-lb weight is placed
in the wheelbarrow with its center 1.5 ft from the axle, what force must be applied
to the handles to raise the legs from the ground?
4. A nonuniform bar weighs 40 lb and is 12 ft long. When it is supported by a
fulcrum at its mid-point, a load of 8.0 lb must be supplied at the small end to hold the
bar in a horizontal position. Where is the center of gravity?
Ans. 4.8 ft from thicker end
5. A telephone pole weighs 300 lb and is 30.0 ft long. Its center of gravity is 10.0
ft from the thicker end. What force must be applied at the smaller end to maintain
the pole in a horizontal position when it is supported at its mid-point?
6. A painter stands on a horizontal scaffold hung by its ends from two vertical
ropes A and B 20 ft apart. The scaffold weighs '50 lb. The tension in A is 140 lb and
that in B is 60 lb. (a) What is the weight of the painter? (b) How far from A is he
standing? Ans. 150 lb; 4.7 ft
7. A uniform plank 20.0 ft long and weighing 200 lb is supported in a horizontal
position by two vertical ropes A and B, one at either end. Calculate the tension in
each rope when a 140-lb man and a 160-lb man are standing 5.0 ft and 12.0 ft,
respectively, from A.
8. A uniform pole 20 ft long and weighing 80'lbfis supported by a boy 2.0 ft from
end A and a man 5.0 ft from end B. At what point should a load of 100 lb be placed
•so that the man will support twice as much/as the boy? Ans. 8.8 ft from B
\ TORqUE 107
'^
9. A nonuniform bar of iron 16 ft long rests on two supports, one at either end.
At end A the support exerts a force of 200 lb, at end B, 160 lb. There is a load of 40
lb, 2.0 ft from B and another of 60 lb, 4.0 ft from A. Find the weight of the bar and
the position of its center of gravity.
10. A uniform rod 16 ft long and weighing 200 lb is pivoted at its upper end. It is
drawn aside so that it makes an angle of 30° with a vertical wall by means of a rope
fastened at its lower end and making a 90° angle with the rod. Find the tension in
the rope and the horizontal, vertical, and resultant forces at the pivot.
Am. 50 lb; 43 lb; 175 lb; 180 lb; 14° with vertical
11. A uniform rod 30 ft long and weighing 200 lb is pivoted at its upper end. It
is drawn aside so that it makes an angle of 60° with the vertical by means of a rope
fastened at the lower end and making an angle of 90° with the rod. Find (a) the
tension in the rope, (b) the horizontal force at the pivot, {c) the vertical force at the
pivot, and (d) the resultant force at the pivot.
12. A uniform horizontal beam 15 ft long has one end supported on a ledge in a
vertical wall while the other end is supported by a rope, which makes an angle of 30°
with the wall. The beam weighs 100 lb and supports a load of 200 lb at the outer end.
Find the tension in the rope and also the vertical and horizontal forces at the wall.
Arts. 290 lb; 50 lb; 140 lb
13. A crane boom 30 ft long, weighing 200 lb, and having its center of gravity
10 ft from the bottom is hinged at the lower end and makes an angle of 30° with the
vertical. It is held in position by a horizontal cable fastened at the upper end. The
boom supports a 1000-lb load at its upper end. Find the tension in the cable, the hori-
zontal and vertical components of the thrust at the hinge and the resultant thrust
there.
14. The uniform boom of a crane is 40.0 ft long and weighs 4.00 tons. The tie rope
is horizontal and is attached 10.0 ft from the upper end of the boom, which makes an
angle of 60° with the horizontal. If a 10.0-ton load is attached to the end of the boom,
calculate the tension in the tie and the force exerted by the boom on its lower support.
Am. 9.2 tons; 16.8 tons, 56.5° below the horizontal
15. The uniform boom of a crane is 40.0 ft long and weighs 400 lb. It is hinged
at the bottom and held at an angle of 45° with the vertical by a tie rope attached
10.0 ft from the upper end. The tie rope makes an angle of 60° with the vertical. A
load of 3600 lb is supported at the end of the boom. Find (a) the tension in the tie
rope, (b) the vertical and horizontal thrusts at the hinge, and (c) the resultant thrust
at the hinge.
16. A uniform ladder 30.0 ft long weighing 20.0 lb rests on horizontal ground and
leans against a smooth vertical wall. If the ladder makes an angle of 60° with the
horizontal, calculate the frictional force between ladder and ground necessary to
keep the ladder from slipping when a 150-lb man is 10.0 ft from the top of the ladder
Ans. 63.5 lb
17. A uniform ladder 20.0 ft long weighing 30.0 lb rests on horizontal ground and
leans at an angle of 60° with the horizontal against a smooth vertical wall. How far
up the ladder may a 160-lb man go before the ladder slips if the coefficient of friction
between ladder and ground is 0.433?
Io8 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
18. A uniform ladder 20 ft long and weighing 80 lb rests against a smooth vertical
wall at an angle of 30° to the wall. A 150-lb man stands 12 ft up from the bottom of
the ladder. Find the horizontal force at the base necessary to keep the ladder from
slipping. Ans. 75 lb
19. A uniform board 10.0 cm square weighs 100 gm. Weights are attached at
each corner in order around the square, 200 gm at A, 100 gm at B, 60 gm at C, and
40 gm at D. Find the center of gravity.
20. A uniform, 30-lb beam 10 ft long is carried by two men, A and B, one at each
end of the beam, (a) If A exerts a force of 25 lb, where must a load of 50 lb be
placed on the beam? (b) What force does B exert? Ans. 2.0 ft from B; 55 lb
21. A motor with a pulley of diameter 18 in. is coupled to a machine by a belt
that passes over a 24-in. pulley on the machine. The sides of the belt are under ten-
sions of 45 and 60 lb, respectively. Calculate the torque exerted at each pulley.
22. Where must a force of 100 lb be applied to a 20-lb uniform pole which is 10 ft
long, if a man holding one end supports 50 lb and a man at the other end supports
the remainder? What force does the second man exert?
Ans. 4.0 ft from second man; 70 lb
23. A 300-lb uniform beam 40 ft long is carried by 3 men, one at one end of the
beam, the other two supporting a crossbar. Where must the crossbar be placed so
that each man will support the same load?
24. A 200-Ib man stands on a 50-lb ladder which is 20 ft long. The ladder has one
end resting on a horizontal floor. The other end is held up by a vertical rope so that
the ladder makes an angle of 30° with the floor. The man is 4.0 ft away from the end
of the ladder to which the rope is attached. A boy exerts a downward force of 25 lb
perpendicular to the ladder at a point 8.0 ft away from the end that rests on the floor.
Determine (a) the tension in the rope, and {b) the thrust exerted by the floor.
Ans. 197 lb; 76 lb at 99° from horizontal
25. A 30.0-lb sphere rests on a 30° incline, (a) What is the minimum force that
will keep the sphere in equilibrium? (b) How must this force be applied?
26. A 20-lb farm gate is supported by two hinges 4.0 ft apart. The gate is 12.0 ft
long. Its weight is entirely supported at the upper hinge. If the gate is of uniform
construction, what forces are exerted at (a) the upper hinge and (A) the lower hinge?
Ans. 36 lb, 55° from vertical; 30 lb, horizontally
27. A meter stick is balanced on a fulcrum at the 50.0-cm mark. A scale pan P ^ t
the 14.0-cm mark just balances a second pan Q^ at the 90.0-cm mark. When a load
of 100 gm is added to pan (I, it must be moved .to the-75.6-cm mark to maintain
balance. Pan P remains unmoved. Calculate the weights of pans P and ().
28. A 250-lb cubical block of concrete 5.0 ft wide rests on a horizontal floor against
a small obstacle at one edge, (a) In order to overturn the block most easily, how should
one push, and (b) what force must one apply? (c) How will this force vary as the block
starts to tip? • Ans. 89 lb
29. The foot of a 50-lb uniform ladder is 6.0. ft from a smooth vertical wall. The
upper end rests against it at a point 30 ft from'the ground. If a 150-lb man h halfway
up the ladder, find (a) the force exerted by the -ladder against the wall, and also {b)
"the vertical, and (c) the horizontal components- of its force against the ground.
ALBERT
ABRAHAM
MICHELSON
1852 to I 931
BORN IN STRELNO, PRUSSIA. DIRECTOR OF THE PHYSICS DEPART-

MENT, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. THE 1 9 0 7 NOBEL PRIZE FOR
PHYSICS WAS CONFERRED ON HIM FOR HIS OPTICAL INSTRU-
MENTS OF PRECISION AND THE SPECTROSCOPIC AND METROLOGIC
INVESTIGATIONS WHICH HE CARRIED OUT BY MEANS OF THEM.
10. Rotation of Rigid Bodies

In almost all engines or motors, energy is transformed from heat or
electric energy to mechanical energy by turning a shaft or wheel.
Mechanical energy is transmitted by systems of pulley or gears. Such
transformation or transmission of energy involves rotation. In order
to study these machines, it is necessary to understand rotary motion
and the action of torque in changing it.
109
I lO COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Rotary Motion; Angular Speed. As a disk turns about its axis,

not all points move with the same speed since, to make one rotation,
a point at the edge must move farther than one near the axis, a n d the
points move these different distances in the same time. In Fig. 1 the
point A has a greater speed than B, and B greater than C.
If we consider the line ABC rather than the points, we notice that
the line as a whole turns about the axis. In a certain interval of time it
will turn through an angle shown by the shaded area. T h e angle turned
through per unit time is called the angular speed.
where w (omega) is the average angular speed and 6 is the angle

turned through in time t. The angle may be expressed in degrees, in
F I G . 1.—-Rotation FIG. 2.—The ratio of

about the axis 0. The an- arc to radius is a measure
gular speed is the same for of the angle,
all parts of the disk, but the
0 = ^ = ^.
linear speed increases as
the radius increases.
revolutions (1 ,rev = 360°), or in radians. T h e angular speed is then

expressed in degrees per second, revolutions per second, or in radians
per second.
The use of the radian as a unit of angular measurement is con-
venient because, when 'that system is used, there is a very simple
relation between angular motion and^ the linear motion of the points.
In Fig. 2 is shown an angle with its apex at the common center of
two circles. The length of arc cut from the circle depends upon the
length of the radius. The. ratio of length of arc to radius is the same for
ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES III
both the circles. This ratio may be used as a measure of the angle
9=^
r
where s is the length of the arc and r is the radius. The unit of angle in
this s ^ t e m is the radian, which is the angle whose length of arc is equal
to the radius. T h e length of the circumference is lirr. Hence
27r/*
1 rev = 360° = — = 2T radians
r
1 radian = -^— = 57.3° (approximately)
Angular Acceleration. As in the case of linear motion, angular

motion may be uniform or accelerated. Angular acceleration a (alpha)
is the time rate of change of angular velocity. Symbolically,
where Wi is the initial and 0:2 the final angular velocity.

I n studying uniformly accelerated angular motion, we treat it in a
manner similar to that in which uniformly accelerated linear motion
was handled in Chap. 3. For solving problems in uniformly acceler-
ated rotary motion, the following five equations are needed:
e -= wt (1)
w = M(wi + <^2) (2)
CO2 — COl = at (3)
d = uit + K«^' (4)
W2^ - coi2 = 2ad (5)
Note that these equations become identical with Eqs. (1) to (5) of
C h a p . 3 if 0 is substituted for s, w for v, and a for a. These equations
hold whatever the angular measure may be, as long as the same
measure is'used throughout a single problem. As in the case of linear
motion,' Eq. (1) holds for any type of angular motion while the other
four are true only for uniformly accelerated angular motion.
W h e n radian measure is used, there is a very simple relationship
between angular and linear motions. These relationships are given by
the equations
s = dr (6)
V = cor (7)
a = ar (8)
Example: A flywheel revolving at 200 rpm slows down at a constant rate of 2.00
radians/sec^. What time is required to stop the flywheel and how many revolutions
does it make in the process?
Ci)i = 200 rpm = 200 (2ir) radians/min = —yj.— radians/sec

0)2 = 0
a = —2.00 radians/sec^
Substituting in Eq. (3)
4007r
0 — ,„ radians/sec = ( — 2.00 radians/sec^)<
t = 10.5 sec
/400;r N^
0 — I "TTp radians/sec I = 2( —2.00 radians/sec^)9
110
6 = 110 radians = -;:;—rev = 17.5 rev
2ir
Moment of Inertia or Rotational Inertia. I t has been found

that a force is necessary to change the motion of a body, that is, to
produce an acceleration. A greater force is
required to'give an acceleration to a body
of large mass than to cause the same ac-
celeration in a smaller one. If the rotation
of a body about an axis is to be changed, a
,^^ , torque about that axis must be applied. T h e
1^ angular acceleration produced by a given
„ , , , , torque depends not only upon the mass of
FIG. 3.—Angular accel- '• , ' r
eration produced by a torque the rotating body but also upon the distri-
depends upon the distritau- bution of mass with respect to the axis. In Fig.
tion of mass. 3 ^ ]^^j. ^^^-^ adjustable weights Wi and
W2 is supported on a n axle. If a string is wrapped around the axle
a n d a weight W is hung on the string, the axle and rod will rotate.
T h e rate of gain in speed of rotation will be much greater when Wi
a n d W2 are near the axle, as shown by the dots, than when they are
near the ends of the rod. T h e mass is not changed by this shift, but
the distribution of mass is altered and the rotational inertia is changed.
ROTATION OF R I G I D BODIES 113
If a small body of mass m is located at a distancfe r from the axis,
its moment of inertia I (also called rotational inertia) is the product of the
mass and the square of the radius. Symbolically,
/ = mr^ (9)
or
I
W
/ = —) {9a)
g
In a n extended body each particle of matter in the body contributes
to the moment of inertia an amount {W/g)r^. The moment of inertia /
is the sum of the contributions of the individual elements.
7 = — n^ -\ r2^ + •— rs^ +
'-m")
g S g
(10)
where S means the sum of the products for all the particles of the
body. T h e unit of moment of inertia is made up as a composite imit.
TABLE I. MOMENT OF INERTIA OF REGULAR BODIES

The mass of the body is W/g
Moment of
Body Axis
inertia
Thin ring of radius r Through center, perpendicular to plane

of ring g
Thin ring of radius r Along any diameter 1 W
2 ,?
1 W
Disk of radius r Through center, perpendicular to disk
2 g
1 W
Disk of radius r Along any diameter - — fi
4 g
1 W
Cylinder of Radius r Axis of the cylinder
2 g
IW ^
Sphere of radius r Any diameter
Uniform thin rod of length / Perpendicular to rod at one end

3 g
Uniforrri thin rod of length / Perpendicular to rod at the center
12 g '
114 ' COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
If W is in pounds, g in feet per second per second, and r in feet, the

unit of moment of inertia becomes cTi—7^2 (ft)^ = Ib-ft-sec^.
For many regular bodies the moment of inertia can be expressed
quite simply in terms of the total mass of the'body and its dimensions.
A few of these are listed in Table I.
Each of these formulas is found by adding up the products
(W/g)r^ of Eq. (10) for the particles of that particular body. Notice
that the value of the moment of inertia depends upon the position
of the axis chosen.
Example: What is the moment of inertia of a 50-lb cylindrical flywheel whose
diameter is 16 in.?
For a cylinder about its axis
, 1W
2 g
r = 8.0 in. = % ft
1 50 1b
/ = ^2 32
îw^FTTZZZi
ft/sec2 ( I ft) = 0.35 lb-ft-sec2
Radius of Gyration. In considering the moment of inertia of a

body, it is frequently convenient to treat it as if all the mass were
concentrated at a single distance from the axis. For each body a
distance K can be found such that if all the mass were concentrated
at that distance the moment of inertia would not be altered. This
distance is called the radius of gyration. Its defining equation is
W
I = ~K'
g
It is most useful for irregular bodies since the moment of inertia of
such a body cannot be simply expressed in terms of its measurements.
If, however, the radius of gyration of the irregular body is known, it
can be used to compute the moment of inertia. For regular bodies
such as those listed in Table I we can write an expression for thf^.
radius of gyration in place of the expression for the moment of inertia.
For example, for a disk K = r/y/l and for a sphere K = r Vf^.
Example: A 40-lb flywheel has a radius of gyration of 1.5 ft. What is its moment
of inertia?
W 40 lb
7 = — ^2 = -———- (1.5 ft)2 = 2.8 lb-ft-sec2
g 32 ft/sec^ ^
ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES II5
Newton's Laws for Angular Motion. Newton's laws for rotary

motion are very similar to those for linear motion. T h e first law applies
to a condition of equilibrium. A body does not change its angular velocity
unless it is acted upon by an external, unbalanced torque. A body at rest does
not begin to rotate without a torque to cause it to do so. Neither does
a body that is rotating change its rotation or change its axis unless a
torque acts. A rotating wheel would continue to rotate forever if it
were not stopped by a torque such as that due to friction.
An unbalanced torque about an axis produces an angular acceleration,
about that axis, which is directly proportional to the torque and inversely
proportional to the moment of inertia of the body about that axis. In the form
of an equation this becomes
L = Ia (11)
where L is the unbalanced torque, I is the moment of inertia, and a
is the angular acceleration. Torque must always be referred to some
axis as are also moment of inertia and angular acceleration. In Eq.
(11) we must be careful to use the same axis for all three quantities.
As in the case of the force equation for linear motion, we must be
careful to use a consistent set of units in Eq. (11). The angular acceler-
ation must be expressed in radians per second per second. If the
torque is expressed in pound-feet, the moment of inertia must be in
pound-feet- (second) ^.
Example: A flywheel, in the form of a uniform disk 4.0 ft, in diameter, weighs
600 lb. W h a t will be its angular acceleration if it is acted upon by a net torque of 225
Ib-ft?
' \W^ 1 600 lb , ,,
/ = 0 — r^ = ;r ,^y-jr^ ; (2.0 ft) ^ = 38 Ib-ft-SCC^
2 g 2 32 ft/sec^ ^
i = /a
225 Ib-ft = (38 lb-ft-sec2)(a)
a = 5.9 radians/sec^
I n radian measure the angle is a ratio of two lengths and hence is a p u r e n u m b e r .
T h e unit " r a d i a n , " therefore, does not always appear in the algebraic handling of
units.
Example: If the disk of the preceding example is rotating at 1200 r p m , w h a t
torque is required to stop it in 3.0 min?
F r o m Eq. (3),
0)2 — coi = at
C02 = 0
Il6 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
wi = 1200 rpm = 20 rps = 407r radians/sec

t = 3.0 min = 180 sec
0 — 407r radians/sec = a(180 sec)
a — —zTon radians/sec''
L = Ia = (38 lb-ft-sec2) ( - ^ radians/sec^j = - 2 7 Ib-ft
The negative sign is consistent with a retarding torque.
For every torque applied to one body there is a torque equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction applied to another body. If a motor applies a torque to
a shaft, the shaft appHes an opposite torque to the motor. If the motor
is not securely fastened to its base, it may turn in a direction opposite
to that of the shaft. If an airplane engine exerts a torque to turn the
propeller clockwise, the airplane experiences a torque tending to turn
it counterclockwise and this torque must be compensated by the
thrust of the air on the wings. For twin-engined planes the two
propellers turn in opposite directions and thus avoid a net torque.
Work, Power, Energy. If a torque L turns a body through an
angle 6, the work done is given by the equation
Work = LO (12)
Since power is work per unit time,
P = Y^ = ^^L.^Ly,2rn (13)
T h e kinetic energy of rotation of a body is given by the equation

KE = K7co2 (14)
Frequently a body has simultaneous linear and angular motions.

For example, the wheel of an automobile rotates about its axle but the
axle advances along the road. I t is usually easier to deal with the
kinetic energy of such a body if we consider the'two parts: (1) that due
to translation of the center of mass {}îmv^) and (2) that due to rota-
tion about an axis, through the center of mass (J^/w^).
Example: What is the kinetic energy of a 5.0-lb ball whose diameter is 6.0 in.,
if it rolls across a level surface with a speed of 4.0 ft/sec?
c
.. KE = }4mv^ + }iIo3"
V 4 ft/sec
CO = - = -— = 16 radians/sec
r 1^ It
ROTATION OF RIGID B O D I E S u-.
From Table I,
, 2W , 2 5.0 1b / l A 2 1 ,^^ ,
1 = 7 — r^ = -F -T^TTT/—5 \ 7 ft J = Kc7 Ib-ft-sec^
5 ^ 5 32 ft/sec2 \ 4 / 256
KE='^ 3 ^ E ^ ^'^•^ ^'/""'^' + \ ( i Ib-ft-sec^) (16 radians/sec) =>

= 1.3 ft-lb + 0.5 ft-lb = 1.8 ft-lb
When energy is supplied to a body so that it is divided between

energy of translation and energy of rotation, the way in which the
energy is divided is determined by the distribution of mass. If two
cylinders of equal mass, one being solid and the other hollow, roll
down an incline, the solid cylinder will roll faster. Its moment of
inertia is less than that of the hollow cylinder and hence the kinetic
energy of rotation is smaller than that of the hollow cylinder; but its
kinetic energy of translation is greater than that of the hollow cylinder.
Hence the solid cylinder has a greater speed.
Example: A^solid cylinder 12.0 in. in diameter at the top of an incline 6.0 ft high
and 13 ft long is released and rolls down the incline. Find its linear and angular speed
at the bottom. Neglect energy losses due to friction.
The potential energy of the cylinder at the top of the incline is converted into
kinetic energy of translation and rotation as the cylinder rolls down. At the bottom
of the incline all the potential energy has been converted into kinetic energy.
PE = KE
Wh = ^ — z;2 + 1 / 0 , 2
2 .e 2
but
V
CO = -
r
and
Then
2 g 4 g Ag
V = Vnih = VH{'i2 ft/sec2) X 6 ft = 16 ft/sec

V 16 ft/sec .„ ,, ,
'^ ~ ~ ~ 0 Kn ft ~ radians/sec
Note that the linear speed does not depend upon the size or weight ^f the cyUnder.
ii8 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Comparison of Linear and Angular Motions. I n our discussion
of motions and forces we have found the equations of angular motion
to be quite similar to those of linear motion. They can be obtained
directly from the equations of linear motion if the following sub-
stitutions are made: 6 for s, co for v, a for a, L for F, I for m. I n Table I I
is listed a set of corresponding equations.
TABLE n . CORRESPONDING EQUATIONS IN LINEAR AND ANGULAR
MOTION
Linear Angular
s . 0
oj = 7
t
V2 — Vx
'' t " t
Uniformly accelerated m o t i o n . Wa,— v\ — at 0)2 — Wi = od
s = v\t -\- yiafl e = coi( + \i<xf-
V2^ — Vi^ = 2as 0)2^ — 0)2^ = 2a&
Newton's second law F = ma L = la.
Work Work = Fs W o r k = LQ
P = Fv P = IM
KB = y2mv>- KE = yÎw-"
SUMMAI lY
For a rotating body the angular speed is the angle turned through
per unit time by a line that passes through the axis of rotation,
CO =
Angular distance, in radians, is the ratio of the length of arc to its

radius.
A radian is the angle whose length of arc is equal to the radius.
Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity,
aj2 — Wi
a =
Equations of uniformly accelerated angular motion are similar to

those for linear motion with angle substituted for distance, angular
speed for lirjpar speed, and angular acceleration for linear acceleration.
ROTATION OF R I G I D BODIES II9
T h e moment of inertia (rotational inertia) of a body about a given
axis is the sum of the products of the mass and square of the radius for
each particle of the body
-i;(f')
T h e radius of gyration of a body about a n axis is the distance from
that axis at which all the mass might be concentrated without altering
the moment of inertia. It is defined by the equation
W
I = —K^
g
For angular motion Newton's laws may be stated:
1. A body does not change its angular velocity unless it is acted
upon by an external, unbalanced torque.
2. An unbalanced torque about an axis produces ali angular
acceleration about that axis, which is directly proportional to the
torque and inversely proportional to the moment of inertia of the
body about that axis,
L = la
3. For every torque applied to one body there is a torque equal

in magnitude and opposite in direction applied to another body.
In angular motion the work done by a torque L in turning through
an angle d is
Work = Ld
T h e power supplied by a torque is
P = Leo
Kinetic energy of rotation is given by the equation
KE = Yilu^
For a rolling body the total kinetic energy, both translational and rota-
tional, is
KE = yimv^ + yilu^
In the last five equations the angles must be expressed in radian
measure.
I20 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
QUESTIONS
1. Show why the radian measure of angle is equally satisfactory for all systems
of units.
2. Why is most of the mass of a flywheel placed in the rim?
3. Can you distinguish between a raw egg and one that has been hard-cooked in
its shell by giving each a spin on a table top? Explain.
4. A solid cylinder rolls down an inclined plane. Its time of descent is noted.
Then a hole is bored along the axis of the cylinder. When it is again allowed to roll
down the incline, will it require more, less, or the same time to reach the bottom?
Explain.
5. Show that when a hoop rolls down an incline half the kinetic energy is rota-
tional and half translational.
6. Derive an expression for the linear acceleration of a sphere that starts from
rest and rolls down a plane inclined at an angle 6 to the horizontal.
7. What portion of the total kinetic energy of a rolling solid disk is energy of
translation and what portion is energy of rotation?
8. Show that the total kinetic energy of a rolling solid cylinder is independent of
its radius. Is this true of other rolling bodies?
9. A hollow cylinder and a rectangular block are placed at the top of an incline.
When they are released, the cylinder rolls down the incline without loss of energy
while the block slides down with half its energy being used to do work against friction.
Do they reach the bottom at the same time? If not, which arrives first?
10. A bicycle wheel is supported by its axle on two inclined rods. It is allowed to
roll down first with the axle free to turn on its: bearings and second with the cones
tightened so that the wheel must turn with the axle. In which case does it reach the
bottom of the incline quicker? Explain.
PROBLEMS
1. A shaft 6.0 in. in diameter is to be turned in a lathe with a surface linear speed
of 180 ft/min. What is its angular speed?
2. A pulley 18.0 in. in diameter makes 300 rev/min. What is the linear speed of
the belt if there is no slippage? Ans. 1400 ft/min
3. The belt of problem 2 passes over a second pulley. What must be the diameter
of this pulley if its shaft turns at the rate of 400 rev/min? ^
4. A flywheel is brought from rest to a speed of 60 rev/min in }i min. What is the
angular acceleration? What is the angular speed at the end of 15 sec?
Ans. 3^0 rev/sec^; J^ rev/sec
5. A wheel has its speed increased from 120 to 240 rev/mir In 20 sec. (a) What
is the angular acceleration? (b)' How many revolutions of the wheel are required?
6. What is the angular acceleration of an automobile wheel 30 in. in diameter
when the car changes speed from 15 to 30 mi/hr in 5.0 sec? Ans. 3.5 radians/cec^
7. Considering the earth as a uniform sphere of 6.00 X 10^^ tons and 4000 mi
radius, calculate its moment of'inertia about its axis of rotation.
ROTATION OF R I G I D B O D I E S 121
8. A uniform circular disk 3.0 ft in diameter weighs 960 lb. What is its moment
of inertia about its usual axis? Ans. 34 Ib-ft-sec^
9. The disk of problem 8 is caused to rotate by a force of 100 lb acting at the
circumference. What is the angular acceleration?
10. If the disk of problems 8 and 9 starts from rest, {a) what is its angular speed
at the end of 10 sec? (b) What is the linear speed of a point on the circumference?
Ans. 44 radians/sec; 66 ft/sec
11. A 400-lb flywheel has a radius of gyration of 2.0 ft. (a) What constant torque
is required to bring the wheel from rest to a speed of 120 rev/min in 30 sec? (b) How
much work is done in this interval?
12. What constant driving torque must be applied to a 400-lb flywheel having a
radius of gyration of 2.0 ft in order to develop an angular speed of 1800 rev/min in
10 sec? Assume a constant frictional force of 20 lb acting on the 6.0-in. shaft.
^ Ans. 950 Ib-ft
13. The rotor of an electric motor has a moment of inertia of 25 Ib-ft-sec^ If it
is rotating at a rate of 1200 rev/min, what frictional torque is required to stop it
in 1.0 min?
14. A belt driven pulley 24 in. in diameter makes 300 rev/min. If the tension in
the tight side of the belt exceeds that of the slack side by 80 lb, (a) how much work is
done in 5.0 min? (A) What is the rate of working in horsepower?
Ans. 7.5 X lO^* ft-lb; 4.5 hp
15. A motor running at a rate of 1200 rev/min can supply a torque of 4.4 Ib-ft.
What power does it develop?
16. What is the initial kinetic energy of rotation of the rotor in problem 13? What
becomes of this energy when the rotor is stopped. Ans. 2.0 X IQ^ ft-lb
17. A solid cylinder of mass 300 gm and radius 1.5 cm starts from rest and rolls
down a plane' 1470 cm long, inclined at 30° to the horizontal. How long will it take
to descend, if there is no loss of energy due to friction? What will be its energy of rota-
tion at the bottom?
18. A 16-lb bowling ball is rolling without slipping down an alley with a speed of
20 ft/sec. What is its kinetic energy (a) of translation, (i) of rotation? What is its
total kinetic energy? , Ans. 100 ft-lb; 40 ft-lb; 140 ft-lb
19. A wheel of an automobile traveling 30 mi/hr has an external radius of 14.0 in.
and weighs 80.0 lb. Assuming the radius of gyration to be 10.0 in. find (a) the kinetic
energy of translation, (b) the kinetic energy of rotation, and (c) the total kinetic
energy of the wheel.
20. A 25-lb solid cylinder is at the top of an incline 5.0 ft high and 13 ft long.
What linear speed does it acquire in rolling down the incline? Ans. 15 ft/sec
21. A 25-lb solid sphere is at the top of an incline 5.0 ft high and 13 ft long. What
linear speed does it acquire in rolling down the slope?
22. A small object of mass 300 gm is arranged to revolve around an axis at a
distance of 60.0 cm. What constant torque would cause the object to turn through
40.0 rev in 3.00 min, if it starts from rest and moves with uniform angular accelera-
tion? Ans. 1.68 X 10* cm-dynes
2 3 . A uniform disk of 12.0-in. diameter a n d 50.0-lb weight is mounted on a n

axle having a diameter of 1.00 in. A string is wrapped around the axle, a n d a con-
stant force of 1.00 lb is exerted on it. W h a t speed will the wheel acquire in 3.00 min?
24. T h e a r m a t u r e of a motor revolving at 1800 rev/niin comes to rest in 20.0 sec
after the power is turned off. Calculate (a) the angular acceleration, (b) the n u m b e r
of revolutions which the motor makes before it comes to rest, (c) the angular distance
traversed during the fifth second after the a r m a t u r e power is turned off,
Ans. 9.43 rad/sec^; 300; 23.2 rev
2 5 . T h e belt which drives a 1600-lb flywheel of radius of gyration 2.00 ft passes
over a pulley of 1.00-ft radius on the same shaft as the flywheel. T h e average pull of
the tight belt exceeds that of the slack belt by 100 lb. H o w long will it take the flywheel
to acquire an angular speed of 600 r e v / m i n if it starts from rest?
26. A small sphere rolls without loss of energy down a 20° incline. W h a t is its
linear acceleration? Ans. 7.8 ft/sec^
27. A steel ball rolls down an incline 225 cm long, making an angle of 4.0° with
the horizontal. It requires 3,00 sec for the ball to reach the bottom of the incline after
starting from rest at the top. Calculate the value of ^ for this location.
28. A solid, cylindrical shaft of mass 50 lb has a radius of 5,0 in. a n d rotates in a
bearing with an angular speed of 1000 r e v / m i n . T h e coefficient of kinetic friction
between the shaft a n d the bearing is 0.050. H o w m a n y revolutions would the shaft
make if the driving force were removed? Ans. 114 rev
29. (a) W h a t is the constant torque which must be applied to a flywheel of mass
400 lb a n d radius of gyration 2.00 ft if, starting from rest a n d moving with a uniform
angular acceleration, it develops an angular speed of 1800 r e v / m i n in 10,0 sec?
(i) If the shaft on which the pulley is mounted has a radius of 6,00 inches a n d there
is a fricttonal force of 20.0 lb, how much must be the total torque at the edge of the
flywheel?
3 0 . A flywheel weighing 500 lb has its mass largely concentrated in the rim,
which has an average diameter of 2.00 ft. A cord wrapped around the rim has main-
tained in it a constant force of 10.0 lb. Determine the angular speed of the wheel
30.0 sec after it is started from rest. Ans. 19,2 r a d / s e c
31. A uniform disk has a diameter of 20,0 c m a n d a mass of 3000 gm. I t is free to
rotate with negligible friction. A string wrapped around the disk is attached to an
object of mass 100 gm. Determine the angular acceleration of the disk.
3 2 . A 50,0-gm bullet moving with a speed of 100 m / s e c strikes a projection on a
wheel of moment of inertia 2.00 X 10^ gm-cm^. T h e radius of the uniform disk
is 30.0 cm. If 8 0 % of the energy of the bullet is expended in producing rotation of
the wheel, determine the angular speed imparted to it. Ans. 141 r a d / s e c
GABRIEL
LIPPMAN
I 8 4 5 t o I 92 I
BORN IN HOLLERICH, LUXEMBOURG. DIRECTOR OF THE PHYSICAL

LABORATORY AT THE SORBONNE, PARIS. AWARDED THE 1 9 0 8
NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS METHOD OF PHOTOGRAPHIC
REPRODUCTION OF COLORS, BASED UPON THE PHENOMENON OF
INTERFERENCE.
11. Momentum
In collisions between objects in motion the forces involved may be
extremely large. When the bat strikes a baseball, both ball and bat
are greatly distorted while they are in contact. If a heavy, fast-moving
truck strikes a house, the force may be sufficient to move the building
from its foundation.
While the force may be very great during the impact, the* large
123
force acts for only a very short time. T h e force is not constant during
the contact, varying between wide limits. T h e way in which the force
varies during the collision depends upon the elastic properties of each
of the bodies involved as well as upon their speeds. Because of the
complicated manner in which the forces vary it is usually convenient
to study impact problems from the standpoint of momentum.
Momentum. If a passenger car traveling at the rate of 20 m i / h r
is brought to rest in 1 sec, a large force is required. T o bring a loaded
truck traveling at the same speed to rest in the same time would
require a much greater force. If the speed of the passenger car is
40 m i / h r instead of 20 m i / h r , the force would also be increased. T h e
force required depends jointly upon the speed and mass of the moving
object. T h e product of the mass and velocity of a body is called its
momentum. T h e defining equation for m o m e n t u m is
p = mv (1)
where/" is the momentum, m the mass, and v the velocity. Every object
in motion has momentum.
In the British system we use W/g in place oim and the equation for
m o m e n t u m becomes
W
P = -J^ (2)
where W is the weight and g is the acceleration due to gravity. No
special name is assigned to the unit of momentum but it is made up as
a composite unit. Since W is in pounds, g in feet per second per
second, and v in feet per second, the unit of m o m e n t u m becomes
r~i—1 (ft/sec) = lb-sec. T h e comrpon cgs unit of m o m e n t u m is the
gram-centimeter per second.
Example: What is the momentum oi a lOO-lh shell as it leaves the gun with a
speed of 1200 ft/sec?
p =^~v = li^^—^ (1200 ft/sec) = 3800 lb-sec

g 32 ft/sec^ ' '
M o m e n t u m is a vector quantity, its direction being that of the

velocity. T o find the m o m e n t u m of a system of two or more bodies we
must add their momenta vectorially. Consider two 4-lb balls moving
MOMENTUM 125
toward each other with equal speeds of 4 ft/sec as shown in Fig. 1.

The momentum of ^ is pA = ( 3 2 ft/sec^) ^^ ft/sec) = 0.5 lb-sec to
the right while that of B is similarly 0.5 lb-sec to the left. T h e vector
sum of the two is zero and hence the ^—s. ^^—v.
momentum of the system is zero. I 4L3] {~4LB\
Conservation of Momentum. Ac- \..,^_y \.._^
cording to Newton's first law of motion, -jr. ""TFT/SEC
the velocity of a body does not change
. . , , - FIG. 1.—Two balls of equal
unless It IS acted upon by a net force. ^^^^ having velocities equal in
Since the mass of the body is constant, magnitude but opposite in direc-
we find that the momentum does not tion. The momentum of the sys-
T w 1 , 1r . tem is zero,
change unless an external lorce acts upon
the body. The statement that the momentum of a body, or system of
bodies, does not change except when an external force is applied is
known as the law of conservation of momentum. T h e use of the law
enables us to explain simply the behavior of common objects.
If an external force does act upon a system of bodies, the momen-
tum of the system is changed but, in the process, some other set of
bodies must gain (or lose) an amount of momentum equal to that lost
(or gained) by the system. I n every process where velocity is changed
the momentum lost by one body or set of bodies is equal to that gained
by another body or set of bodies.
M o m e n t u m lost = momentum gained (3)
Let us consider further the balls shown in Fig. 1. If they continue

to move toward each other, they will collide and in the collision each
will exert a force on the other. T h e momentum of the system of two
balls is zero before the impact. By the law of conservation of momen-
tum it must be zero after the impact. If the balls are elastic, they will
rebound and the conservation law requires that the speeds of recoil
shall be equal to each other (but not necessarily equal to the original
speed) so that the momentum shall remain zero. j
T h e recoil of a gun is an example of conservation of momentum.
The momentum of gun and bullet is zero before the explosion. T h e
bullet gains a forward momentum, and hence the gun must acquire an
equal backward momentum so that the sum will remain zero.
Example: A 2.0-oz bullet is fired from a 10-lb gun with a speed of 2000 ft/sec.
What is the speed of recoil of the gun?
The momentum of the gun is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to that
of the bullet.
Vi = V«
g g '
r2.0^(200^ftêc)^25f^/^^^
"' = (TI)
I n the firing of the gun, forces are exerted, one on the gun and the
other on the projectile. These forces, however, are internal, that is, they
are within the system of the gun and bullet that we considered. If we
consider the bullet alone, the force becomes an external force and
causes a change in momentum of the bullet but, in accordance with
Newton's third law, an equal and opposite force acts on the gun
giving it a momentum equal in magnitude to that of the bullet but
opposite in direction.
Impulse. The change in momentum caused by an external force
depends upon the amount of the force and also upon the time the
force acts. From Newton's second law
F = ma.
Vi — Vi
a =
t
{V2 — Vl)
F =
t
Ft = mv2 — mvi (4)
Thus the product of the force and time is equal to the change in
momentum. The product of force and time is called impulse. Equation
(4) implies that no object can be stopped instantaneously and that the
shorter the length of'time required for stopping the greater must be
the force, A-bomb dropped from a height of several thousand feet has
very great momentum. As it Strikes the steel deck of a ship, it must be
stopped in a very short tim? or it will penetrate the deck. T h e ordinary
steel deck of a ship is unable to -supply the force necessary to gtop the
bomb. Extremely large forces are involvedyn impacts where a rapidly
jnoving body is stopped "quickly.
MOMENTUM I27
I n an impact the force almost never is constant throughout the

time of coUision but varies'between wide limits. Equation (4) can be
used only to find the average force during the time interval /. If it is
necessary to know the force at any instant during the collision, it may
be determined if the rate of change of momentum is known, for the
force is equal to the rate of change of momentum. Since it is seldom
possible to observe thq rate of change of momentum, the force can
best be studied in terms of the deformation produced in the colliding
bodies. T h e relation between force and deformation will be studied
in a later chapter.
Example: A 3000-lb car traveling with a speed of 30 mi/hr strikes an obstruction

and is brought to rest in 0.10 sec. What is the average force on the car?
From Eq. (4)
W W
Ft =• 1)2 — "1
S g
W 3000'lb
g 32 ft/sec^
Vi = 30 mi/hr = 44 ft/sec
Wvj-vi _ 3000 lb (0 - 44 ft/sec)
= -41,0001b
y 1 ~ 32 ft/sec2 0.10 sec
The negative sign of the result indicates that the force is in a direction opposite
to the initial velocity, a result which we should expect after careful consideration of
the problem.
Elastic and Inelastic Collisions. In any collision between two

bodies the relative velocity of approach is proportional to the relative
velocity of recession. In symbols
^ - Vl — V2
where vi — Vt is the relative velocity before impact and vt — Vi is the

relative velocity after the impact but with the sign changed. T h e ratio
e is a constant for any two bodies, and it is called the coefficient of
restitution. A collision is said to be perfectly elastic if ^ = 1. It is com-
pletely inelastic if e = 0, and in this case the two colliding bodies
adhere and move as one body after the collision. For all other in-
elastic collisions the value of e is between zero and one.
For the special case of perfectly elastic collision kinetic energy is

conserved in the collision. I n all inelastic collisions the kinetic energy
after the impact is less than that before.
Example: A 2.0-lb ball traveling with a speed of 22 ft/sec overtakes a 4.0-lb ball
traveling in the same direction as the first with a speed of 10 ft/sec. If the coefficient
of restitution is 0.80, find the velocities of the two balls after the collision.
e(vi — Bi) = V2 — Vi
0.80(22 ft/sec - 10 ft/sec) = v^' - »/
Vi — Vi = 9.6 ft/sec
Multiplying by g and substituting numerical values

2.0 lb X 22 ft/sec + 4.0 lb X 10 ft/sec = (2.0 \h)vy' + (4.0 \h)v2'
21)/ + Vi = 42 ft/sec
and since
"2 - v/ = 9.6 ft/sec
V2' = 17.2 ft/sec
v^' = 7.6 ft/sec
Angular Momentum. In motions of rotation angular momentum

appears in much the same way as linear momentum appears in
motions of translation. Just as linear momentum is the product of
mass and velocity, the angular momentum of a body is defined as the
product of its moment of inertia and its angular velocity.
Angular m o m e n t u m = /w (5)
T h e units in whic)i angular momentum are expressed can be
determined by examination of Eq. (5). I n the British system mo-
ment of inertia / is expressed in Ib-ft-sec^ and angular velocity
w ,in radians per second. Thus angular momentum is expressed in
(Ib-ft-sec^) (rad/sec) or Ib-ft-sec. As usual the " r a d i a n " which repre-
sents a dimensionless ratio is dropped from the unit. In the cgs system
/ is in gm-cm^ and co in radians per second. Thus angular momentum
is expressed in gm-cmVsec.
Conservation of Angular Momentum. The angular momentum of
a body remains unchanged unless the body is acted upon by an external torque.
This is the law of conservation of angular momentum. T h e action of a
flywheel, which helps to .maintain constant speed of rotation in a
motor, depends upon this principle. Since the moment of inertia of the
MOMENTUM 129
flywheel is large, the torques acting on it do not produce rapid changes
in its angular momentum. During the time the motor is speeding up,
the flywheel supplies a resisting torque; when the motor slows down,
the flywheel applies an aiding torque to maintain the speed.
If the distribution of mass of a
rotating body is changed, the an-
gular velocity must change to main-
tain the same angular momentum.
Suppose a m a n stands on a stool that
is free to rotate with little friction
(Fig. 2). If he is set in rotation with
his hands outstretched, he will rotate
at a constant fate. If he lowers his
arms, his moment of inertia is de-
creased and his rate of rotation
increases.
Another consequence of the prin-
ciple of conservation of angular
momentum is that a rotating body
maintains the same plane of rotation
unless acted upon by a torque. A FIG. 2.—Conservation angular
top does not fall over when it is momentum.
spinning rapidly for there is not sufficient torque to cause that change
in angular velocity. T h e rotation of the wheels helps maintain the
balance of a bicycle or motorcycle. T h e barrel of a gun is rifled to
cause the bullet to spin so that it will not "tumble."
If an unbalanced external torque is applied to a rotating body the
angular momentum will be changed. From Eq. (11), C h a p . 10
L = la
W2 — Wi
a
Lt = lu>% — I(J:\ (6)
The product of torque and time is called angular impulse. Angular
impulse is equal to change in angular momentum.
Vector Properties i n Angular Motion. Angular velocity,
angular acceleration, angular momentum, and torque are all vector
quantities. All rotary motion is referred to an axis. T h e vector repre-
senting the vector quantity is taken parallel to the axis of rotation.

T h e sense along this line is given by a "right-hand rule." If, in imagina-
tion, one grasps the axis with the right hand, the fingers pointing in
the direction the particles move around the axis, the thumb points
in the direction of the vector. I n Fig. 3
the angular velocity of the rotating disk
is represented in magnitude and direc-
B tion by the vector AB parallel to the
axis. If a torque is applied to the disk in
such a manner that the axis of the torque
FIG. 3.—Angular velocity is is the same as the axis of rotation of the
represented by a vector parallel
to the axis. disk, the direction of the torque will be
parallel to AB and the resultant angular
acceleration will also be parallel to AB. Hence such a torque will
produce only a change in the magnitude of the angular velocity.
If, however, a torque is applied to the disk by a vertical force on
the end of the axle as F in Fig. 4, the axis of the torque is a horizontal
line such as CD and the torque is represented by the vector ED. The
angular acceleration produced is in
the direction CD. When the disk is
viewed from above, its motion is de-
scribed by the vectors drawn in Fig. 5,
AB representing the original angular
velocity of the disk and BC repre-
A "^ . B
FiG. 4.—^Torque acting on a rotating FIG. 5.—Vector representa-
disk. tion of angular velocity and
angular acceleration.
senting the. angular acceleration produced by the torque. Since
the angular acceleration is a t ' right angles to the angular veloc-
ity, no change in angular speed is produced but only a change in
direction. T h a t is, the axis of rotation changes its direction, ro.tating
in a counterclockwise sense. Note that the direction of motion of the
end of the axle is at right- angles to the original direction of the axle
MOMENTUM 131
and also at right angles to the direction of the force applied. T h e
direction of motion of the end of the axle is in the direction of the
torque applied. Such shift in the axis of spin of a rotating body is called
precession. T h e vertical axis GH about which the turning of the spin
axis takes place is called the axis oj precession. I n Fig. 6 are shown the
three axes involved in the motion. Each axis is perpendicular to the
other two. T h e line AB is the axis of spin along which is drawn the vec-
tor representing the angular velocity oi of the rotating body; CD is
the axis of torque along which is drawn the vector representing L,
and GH is the axis of precession along which is drawn a vector repre-
senting the angular velocity of precession S2.
Acu
w A
FIG. 6.—Three axes describing FIG. 7.—Vector d i a g r a m for
precession: axis of spin AB, axis of precession.
torque CD, and axis of precession
GH.
T h e rate of precession, that is, the angular speed about the axis of
precession depends upon the angular mornentum of the rotating body
and upon the torque applied. From Eq. (6)
Lt = /(wi — w) = / A w
In Fig. 7, OA represents the original angular velocity, OB represents

the angular velocity a short time Ai later, and AB represents the
change Aw in angular velocity. If the angle </) is small,
rf) - — - —
62" o
Aco = co<j)
but the angular speed 0 about the axis of precession is

Q =
At
or
Then
LAt = 7 Aw = 7 cofl Ai
L = 7wO (7)
(8)
T h e rate of precession is directly proportional

to the torque applied and inversely propor-
tional to the angular momentum of the rota-
ting body.
Example: A disk with its axle has a weight of 4.0 lb

and a tnoment of inertia of 0.0040 lb-ft-sec='. It is
FIG. 8.—A rotating supported at one end of the axle (Fig. 8), the support
disk supported at one being 3.0 in. from the center of gravity. When the disk is
end of its axle precesses.
making 1800 rpm what is the rate of precession?
The weight, considered as concentrated at the center of gravity, produces a torque
L = IVs = (4.0 lb) (0.25 ft)

CO = 1800 rpm = 30 rps = 2x X 30 radians/sec
7^ ^ (4.0 lb) (0.25 ft)
loo ~ (0.0040 lb-ft-sec2)(27r X 30 radians/sec)
0 = 1.3 radians/sec
Gyroscopes. A gyroscope is a rotating body

that is so mounted as to be free to turn about any
of three mutually perpendicular axes. Such a
mounting is shown in Fig. 9. If the wheel spins
with high angular speed about axis 1, the base
m a y be turned in any manner without trans-
mitting a torquCj except for frictional torque, to
the rotating wheel, which will therefore maintain
its axis of rotation unchanged as the support is
tilted in any manner so long as the wheel rotates
rapidly. SinC^ the angular momentum depends
upon the moment of inertia and upon the angular
velocity, a heavy wheel rotating at high speed
FIG. 9.—A gyro-
would have a large angular n:ioniientum and scope has three axes
correspondingly great stability. If a torque is of freedom.
MOMENTUM 133
applied to the axis of spin, there will be precession of the axis as
previously described.
T h e two principal characteristics of the behavior of gyroscopes are
(1) stability of the axis a n d (2) precession. Both of these character-
istics are employed in the many applications of gyroscopes. I n those
applications which require stability great care must be taken in
mounting the gyroscope wheel so that as little torque as possible is
transmitted to the axis. I n this class of application are the gyropilot,
gyrohorizon indicator, directional gyro, and to some extent the gyro-
compass. T h e latter, however, is so constructed that when it is in any
position except that with its axis parallel to the axis of the earth there
will be a torque which will cause a precession into that position.
Every rotating body shows gyroscopic action, the greater the
angular momentum the more marked will be the effect. Some of these
effects are useful, others harmful. As a car turns a corner, the gyro-
scopic action of the wheels produces a torque tending to overturn the
car. T h e flywheel increases the force on the front wheels when turning
to the right, b u t decreases it when turning to the left.
T h e gyrostabilizer may be used to reduce the roll of a boat by
exerting a torque opposite to the roll. T h e gyroscope wheel, spun at
high speed by a motor, is mounted with its axis vertical in such a
manner that the axis may be tilted forward or backward b u t not
sideways. When the boat rolls, say to the right, a control gyro closes
contacts of a motor which tilts the axis forward. There results a torque
opposing the roll to the right. Similarly if the roll is to the left, the
motor tilts the axis backward supplying a torque again opposing the
roll. It is here assumed that the spin of the gyroscope is counterclock-
wise as viewed from above.
SUMMARY
Momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of a body. It is a
vector quantity.
W
p = mv = — V
S
Impulse is the product of a force and the time it acts. Impulse is
equal to the change in momentum,
Fl = mv2 —mvi
T h e law of conservation of momentum states that the momentum of a
body or system of bodies does not change unless an external force acts
upon it.
Angular momentum is the product of moment of inertia and angular
velocity,
Angular m o m e n t u m = /w
T h e law of conservation of angular momentum states that the angular

m o m e n t u m of a rotating body remains unchanged unless it is acted
upon by an external, unbalanced torque.
Angular momentum is a vector quantity as are also angular velocity,
angular acceleration, a n d torque. T h e direction of the vectors repre-
senting these quantities is parallel to the axis in the sense given by the
"right-hand rule."
Precession is the change in direction of the axis of spin of a rotating
body under the action of a torque.
A gyroscope exhibits the properties of stability of axis and preces-
sion. These properties result in many useful applications.
QUESTIONS
1. Why does a gun appear to have a greater "kick" when fired with the butt held
loosely against the shoulder than when held tightly?
2. Why does a heavy rifle not kick as strongly as a light rifle using the same
cartridges?
3. Explain how the term conservation applies to energy. To momentum.
4. Compare the change in momenta produced by two equal forces acting for
equal times on two unequal masses, one of which is at rest the other initially in
motion.
5. When one billiard ball strikes a second in such a manner that their centers of
gravity are not in the line of motion of the first 'ball, their paths after collision do not
lie on the same line. Draw a vector diagram to represent the momenta before and
after such a collision if the angle between the paths is 100°.
6. Mercury is often shipped in small iron cylinders. Why is it easier to carry a
full cylinder weighing 100,1b on the shoulder than to carry a cylinder three-fourths
full? '' '
7. Prove that if the coefficient of restitution is less than one, the kinetic energy
after a collision is less than that before the collision.
8. Prove that if the coefficient of restitution is one, kinetic energy is conserved in
a collision. '
. 9. How may the speed of a rifle bullet be measured with simple apparatus?
MOMENTUM 135
10. How may a high diver turning somersaults in the air arrange on the way down
to strike the water head first? What physical principle does he make use of?
11. A stone is dropped in the center of a deep vertical mine shaft. Will the stone
continue in the center of the shaft or will it strike the side? If it strikes the side, will it
be the north, south, east, or west side? Consider the linear speed of rotation of the
earth and assume ideal conditions.
12. A projectile is fired due south in the Northern Hemisphere. When it strikes
the ground will it be east or will it be west of the north-south line along which it
started? Consider the speed of rotation of the earth. If the projectile is fired north, on
which side of the line will it strike? On which side of an east-west line will it strike if
fired east? if fired west?
13. A boy rolling a hoop finds he can control it by touching it lightly with a stick
on the side toward which he wants it to turn. Explain.
14. Why is a rifle barrel "rifled"?
15. An airplane propellor rotates counterclockwise as viewed from the pilot's
seat. What effect does its gyroscopic action have when the plane is turning toward the
right? when the plane is diving?
16. What ,is the gyroscopic action of the front wheels of a car traveling at high
speed when one turns toward the right?
17. Why does the axis of a spinning gyrocompass always point north?
PROBLEMS
1. What is the momentum of a 160-lb shell if its speed is 2000 ft/sec?
2. What is the momentum of a 5.0-ton truck when traveling at the rate of
60 mi/hr? Arts. 28,000 lb-sec
3. A 5.0-kg rifle fires a 10-gm bullet with a speed of 700 m/sec. What is the speed
of recoil of the rifie?
4. What is the recoil speed of a 9-lb rifle when it projects a 0.6-oz bullet with a
speed of 2400 ft/sec? Am. 10 ft/sec
5. A 40-ton freight car moving with a speed of 15 mi/hr (22 ft/sec) runs into a
stationary car of the same weight. If they move off together after the collision, what
is their speed?
6. A 10-ton freight car rolling freely at 6.0 mi/hr collides with and is coupled to
a 7.0-ton car originally at rest. Calculate the speed with which the two cars roll away.
Arts. 3.5 mi/hr
7. Two 5.0-lb balls A and B approach each other with speeds of 20 ft/sec and
30 ft/sec, respectively. Assuming a perfectly elastic collision, what will be their speeds
after collision?
8. A 5.0-lb ball and a 10.0-lb ball approach each other with equal speeds of
20 ft/sec. What are their speeds after collision if the collision is perfectly elastic?
Ans. 33 ft/sec; 6.7 ft/sec
9. A 5.0-lb ball and a 10.0-lb ball have speeds of 10.0 ft/sec and 14.0 ft/sec,
respectively, as they approach each other. Find their speeds after collision if the
coefficient of restitution is 0.80.
10. An automobile weighing 3200 lb is moving at the rate of 60 mi/hr. (a) What
is its momentum? (6) What constant retarding force would be required to stop this car
in 2.5 sec? (c) How far would it travel in coming to rest?
Ans. 8800 lb-sec; 3500 lb; iTO ft
11. A 5.0-oz baseball arrives at the bat with a speed of 160 ft/sec. It remains in
contact with the bat for 0.020 sec, and leaves with the direction of its motion reversed
and at a speed of 280 ft/sec. (a) What inûlse does the bat impart to the ball? (i)
What is the value of the average force exerted by the bat on the ball?
12. A machine gun fires 10 bullets per second into a target. Each bullet weighs
0.50 oz and has a speed of 2400 ft/sec. Find the force necessary to hold the gun in
•position and that required to hold the target in position. Ans. 23 lb; 23 Jb
13. A 40-gm bullet is fired into a 10-kg block that is suspended by long cords so
that it can swing as a ballistic pendulum. If the block is displaced so that its center
of gravity rises 10 cm, what was the speed of the bullet?
14. A 5J^-oz baseball is thrown so that it is captured by the 11.7-lb block of a
ballistic pendulum. The block is displaced so that its center of gravity is raised 2.7 in.
With what speed was the ball pitched? Ans. 95 mi/hr
15. The rotor of an electric motor has a moment of inertia of 25 Ib-ft-sec'. If it is
rotating at a rate of 1200 rev/min, what is its angular momentum?
16. The rotor of an electric motor weighs 160 lb and has a radius of gyration of
9.0 in. What is its angular momentum when it is rotating at the rate of 1800 rev/min?
Ans. 530 Ib-ft-sec
17. What torque is required to change the speed of the rotor of problem 15 from
600 rev/min to 1200 rev/min in 2.0 sec?
18. What torque is required to change the speed of the rotor of problem 16 from
1800 to 600 rev/min in 3.0 sec? Ans. 120 Ib-ft
19. A gyroscope wheel weighs 7.0 lb and has a radius of gyration of 4:0 in. It
spins with its axis horizontal at a rate of 3000 rev/min. The gyroscope is supported
by a pivot near one end of the axle 6.0 in. from the center of gravity (Fig. 8). What is
the angular velocity of precession?
20. A top that weighs 12 oz has a radius of gyration of 0.80 in. The center of
gravity is 2.0 in. from the point. The top spins at a rate of 2400 rev/min with its axis
making an angle of 30° with the vertical. Find the angular velocity of precession. If
the rotation of the top is clockwise as one looks downward along the axis, is the preces-
sion clockwise or is it counterclockwise? Ans. 2.4 radians/sec
GUGLIELMO
MARCONI
1874 t o i 9 3 7
BORN IN BOLOGNA, ITALY. FOUNDER OF THE MARCONI WIRELESS

TELEGRAPH COMPANY ( 1 8 9 7 ) . MARCONI AND BRAUN RECEIVED
THE 1 9 0 9 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR THEIR DEVELOPMENT
OF WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.
12. Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform motion along a straight line seems "natural"; no cause for
such action is expected. However, if there is a change in the direction
of the motion, some disturbing factor is at once assumed. Just as a
force is required to change the speed of an object, so a force must act
to cause a change in the direction of the motion. Whenever the net
force on a body acts in a direction other than the original direction
of motion, it changes the direction of the motion. Such acceleration
137
A
is very common, for it is present whenever a car turns a corner, a
plane changes its direction, a wheel turns, or in many other common
motions. The simplest type of motion in which the direction changes is
uniform circular motion, in which there is no change in speed but
only a change in direction.
Central Acceleration. W h e n an object is moving in a circular
path with constant speed, its velocity is continually changing. T h e
acceleration produces a change in direction but no change in speed.
Therefore the acceleration must
always be at right angles to the
mption, siiice any component in
the direction of the motion would
produce a change in speed. T h e
acceleration is always directed
toward the center of the circle in
which the body moves. It is con-
stant ill magnitude but continu-
FIG. 1.—Changing velocity in uniform
ally changing direction. In Fig. 1 a
circular motion. body is moving with uniform speed
in a circular path. Its velocities
at the points A and B are represented, respectively, by the vectors
vi and V2. In the vector triangle, Av represents the change in velocity
in time At as the body moves from A to B. The acceleration a is
Av
At
The vector triangle is similar to the distance triangle OAB, and hence
Av _AB
vi r
If the angle AOB is small, the arc s is equal to the chord AB and
s = v{At). In magnitude î and V2 are the same. Then
Av viAt)
V
and
Av
At
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 139
Hence
« = 7 (1)
where v is the linear speed and r is the radius of the circular path. This
equation states that the acceleration increases as the speed is in-
creased and for a given speed is greater for a shorter radius.
The acceleration may also be expressed in terms of the angular
speed. From Eq. (7), Chap. 10,
V = cor .
where v is the linear speed and co the angular speed. Substitution for v
in Eq. (1) gives
, = M_^ = ^V (2)
r
In Eq. (2) oj must be expressed in radians per second. The units of a
then depend upon the units in which r is measured.
Example: A train whose speed is 60 mi/hr rounds a curve whose radius of curva-
ture is 484 ft. What is its acceleration?
a = ^
r
» = 60 mi/hr = 88 ft/sec
r = 484 ft
(88 ft/sec) 2
a = = 16 ft/sec2
484 ft
Example: What is the acceleration of a point on the rim of a-flywheel 3.0 ft in
diameter, turning at the rate of 1200 rotations/min?
a = wV
= 1200 rpm = 20 rps = 20 X 27r radians/sec
3.0 ft ^^^
r = - ^ = 1.5 ft
a = (20 X 2x radians/sec)2 (1.5 ft) = 24,000 ft/sec^
Centripetal Force. According to Newton's laws of motion any

object that experiences an acceleration is acted upon by an un-
balanced force, a force which is proportional to the acceleration and
in the direction of the acceleration. The net force that produces the
central acceleration is called centripetal force and is directed toward the
center of the circular path. Every body that moves in a circular path
does so under the action of a centripetal force. A body moving with
uniform circular motion is not in equilibrium.
From Newton's second law the magnitude of the centripetal force
is given by
W Wv^
Fc =—a = (3)
g g r ^^
in which W is the weight of the moving object, v is its linear speed, g is
the gravitational acceleration, and r is the radius of the circular path.
The force is expressed in pounds if the other quantities are in the
customary British units.
Example: A 3200-lb car traveling with a speed of 60 mi/hr rounds a uniform
curve whose radius is 484 ft. Find the necessary centripetal force.
g r
W = 3200 lb ^*1
^ = 32 ft/sec" |(
V= 60 mi/hr = 88* ft/sec
r = 484_ft
3200 lb (88 ft/sec)^ -
^" = SlTtTiiT^^ 484 ft = ^^001''
In Eq. (3), W/g can be replaced by its equivalent, the mass m of

the moving body. Thus
mv^ , ,
If m is in grams, v in centimeters per second, and r in centimeters, the

force is expressed in dynes.
Ân inspection of Eqs. (3) and (4) discloses that the centripetal
force necessary to pull a body into a circular path is directly propor-
tional to the square of the speed at which the body moves and in-
versely proportional to the radius of the circular path. Suppose, for
example, that a 10-lb object is held in a circular path by a string
4 ft long. If the object moves at a constant speed of 8 ft/sec,
Wvf _ (rtflb)(8ft/sec)^ _
' ~ g r ~.(32 ft/sec;2)(4 ft) ~ ^ ^^
If the speed is doubled, ^c increases to 20 lb. If, instead, the radius is
decreased from 4 to 2 ft, Fc increases to 10 lb. If at any instant the
,^,
String breads, eliminating the centripetal force, the object will retain
the velocity it has at the instant the string breaks, traveling at con-
stant speed along a line tangent to the circle. The paths taken by the
sparks from an emery wheel are an illustration of this fact. This action
is illustrated in Fig. 2.
If the string breaks the rock flies off. If friction "breaks" the car skids off.
FIG. 2.
No Work Done by Centripetal Force. Work has been defined

as the product of force and the displacement in the direction of the
force. Since centripetal force acts at right angles to the direction of
motion, there is no displacement in the direction of the centripetal
force, and it accomplishes no work. Aside from the work done against
friction, which has been neglected, no energy is expended on or by an
object while it is moving at constant speed in a circular path. This
conclusion is consistent with the observation that, if its speed is con-
stant, the kinetic energy of the body also is constant.
Action and Reaction. Newton's third law expresses the observa-
tion that for every force there is a force of reaction equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction. When an object not free to move is acted
upon by an external force, it is pushed or pulled out of its natural
shape. As a consequence it exerts an elastic reaction in an attempt to
resume its normal shape. On the other hand, the action of a force
upon a free object resitlts in an acceleration. The object exerts an
inertial reacting force upon the agent of the accelerating force.
The elastic reacting force of a stretched body is equal in magnitude
to the stretching force but opposite in direction. So also the inertial
reacting force of an accelerated body is equal in magnitude to the
accelerating force but opposite in direction. It should be remembered,
however, that a force of reaction is exerted bj> the reacting object, not
on it.
Centrifugal Reaction. A string that constrains an object to a
circular path exerts on the object the centripetal force that changes its
velocity. In reaction against this change of motion, the object pulls
outward on the string with a force called the centrifugal reaction. This
force, which is exerted by the object in its tendency to continue along
a straight path, is just equal in magnitude to the inward (centripetal)
force. ,
As the speed of a flywheel increases, the force, needed to hold the
parts of the wheel in circular motion increases with the square of the
speed, as indicated by Eq. (3). Finally the cohesive forces between
/
/
/
\
\
\
FIG. 3.—Centripetal force on a liquid. The principle of the centrifuge.
the molecules are no longer sufficient and the wheel disintegrates,

the parts flying off along tangent lines like mud from an automobile
tire. T h e inward directed force is greatest near the center of the wheel,
for each ring must supply the force required to, accelerate all rings
farther from the axis.
W h e n a container full of liquid is being whirled at a uniform rate,
the pail exerts an inward force on the liquid sufficient to keep it in
circular motion (Fig. 3). T h e bottom of the pail presses on the layer of
liquid next to it; that layer in turn exerts a force on the next; and so
on. I n each layer the pressure (force per unit area) must be the same
all over the layer or the liquid will not remain in the layer. If the liquid
is of uniform density (mass per unit voliime), each element of volume
of weight w in at given layer will experience an inward force {jv/g){v'^/r)
just great enough to maintain it in that layer and there will be no
motion of the liquid from one layer to another. If, however, the layer
is made up of a mixture of particles of different densities, the force
required to maintain a giyen element of volume in the layer will
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION H3
depend upon the density of the Hquid in that element. Since the in-
ward force is the same on all the elements in a single layer, there will
be a motion between the layers. For those parts which are less dense
than the average the central force is greater than that necessary to
hold them in the layer; hence they are forced inward. For the parts
more dense than the average the force is insufficient to hold them in
the circular path and they will move outward. As rotation continues,
the parts of the mixture will be separated, with the least dense near-
est the axis and the most dense farthest from the axis. This behavior is
utilized in the centrifuge, a device for separating liquids of different
densities. T h e cream separator is the most common example of the
centrifuge b u t it is very commonly used to separate mixtures of
liquids or mixtures of solid in liquid. Very high speed centrifuges may
be used to separate gases of different densities.
Airplane pilots sometimes pull out of a vertical dive at such high
speed that the centripetal acceleration becomes several times as large
as the gravitational acceleration.
Under these circumstances, the flow
of blood to the pilot's brain is de-
creased. This sometimes causes the
pilot to lose consciousness during the
period of maximum acceleration.
Centrifugal G o v e r n o r . T h e
speed of an engine can be controlled
by centripetal force through a governor
(Fig. 4). This device consists of a pair
of masses C, C attached to arms hinged m^ \i%
on a vertical spindle which rotates at
a speed proportional to that of the
engine. As the speed of rotation in- FIG. 4.—Â centrifugal governor.
creases, the centripetal force necessary
to maintain the circular motion of the balls is increased and they move
farther from the axis. This motion is used to actuate a valve V, de-
creasing the supply of steam or fuel. As the speed of the engine
decreases, the balls descend, opening the throttle. Thus the engine
speed may be kept reasonably constant under varying loads.
W h y Curves Are Banked. A runner, in going around a sharp
curve, leans inward to obtain the centripetal force that causes him to
turn (Fig. 5a). T h e roadway exerts an upward force sufficient to
sustain his weight, while at the same time it must supply a horizontal
(centripetal) force. If the roadbed is flat, this horizontal force is
frictional, so that it cannot be large enough to cause a sharp turn when
the surface of the roadway is smooth. If the roadbed is tilted from the
horizontal just enough to be perpendicular to the leaning runner, no
frictional force is required.
FIG. 5.—^The advantage of banking curves.
As is shown in Fig. 5b, the force exerted by the roadway on the

leaning runner is along A'C. This force is equivalent to two forces:
(1) the upward force B'C, which supports the weight of the runner;
(2) the (inward) centripetal force A'B' necessary to cause the runner to
turn. If the roadway is tilted as shown, the resultant force A'C is
perpendicular to the roadway, a n d there is no tendency to slip.
It should be noticed that triangle A'B'C (the diagram of forces)
is similar to triangle: ABO, since the corresponding angles in these two
triangles are equal.
By virtue of this fact, we can write IB/'BC = l^'/B'C. But
Z B ' = F , = {W/g){v^fr), and WC = W, so that 'JB'j'WC = v^gr,
proving that
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION I45
^ = = — = tan 9 (5)
BC gr
where AB/BC is the ratio of the elevation of the outer edge of the road-
way to its horizontal width a n d 6 is the angle between the road surface
and the horizontal. Because the ratio AB/BC depends upon the speed
at which the curve is to be traversed, a roadway can be banked ideally
for only one speed. At any other speed the force of friction will have
to be depended upon to prevent slipping. T h e banking of highway
curves, by eliminating this lateral force of friction on the tires, greatly
reduces wear in addition to contributing to safety.
Example: A curve on a highway forms an arc whose radius is 150 ft. If the road-
bed is 30 ft wide and its outer edge 4.0 ft higher than the inside edge, for what speed
is it ideally banked?
25 »2 „ 'AB
^=; = —) hence v^ = =:= ?r
BC gr BC
so that
. = ^ ( 4 . 0 f t ) ( 3 2 f t / s e c ' ' ) ( 1 5 ^ ^ ^5 ft/sec
Example: An unbanked curve has a radius of 242 ft. What is the maximum speed
at which a car can make the turn if the coefficient of friction is 0.81?
When a curve is not banked, the centripetal force must be supplied by friction
between the wheels and the roadway. Since the normal force is the weight
coefficient of friction = -jj^

Also
g r
TT-, = — = coefficient of friction
W gr
^ = 32 ft/sec2, r = 242 ft
(32 ft/sec2) 242 ft
= 0.81
v-" = (32ft/sec2)(242ft) 0.81
z) = 79 ft/sec = 54 mi/hr
Curvilinear Motion, Frequently the net force acting upon a

body is neither parallel to the direction of its motion nor at right angles
to that direction. In this case neither the speed nor the direction
remains constant. Such motion may be readily studied by considering
two components of the acceleration, one parallel to the original

direction of motion, the other perpendicular to that direction.
O n e of the most common of such motions is planetary motion, in
which the force on the moving body is inversely proportional to the
square of the radius and always directed toward a fixed point. T h e
body travels in an ellipse, the fixed point being at one focus. T h e speed
is greatest when the moving body is near the focus, less when it is
farther away. This motion is called planetary motion because the
planets move in this manner in their
journeys around the sun. T h e gravitational
forces acting are inversely proportional to
the square of the radius.
T h e laws describing this motion are
called Kepler's laws (1571-1630), since they
were first stated by him as empirical rules.
They are usually stated as follows:
F I G . 6.—^The radius vector 1. Each planet describes a n ellipse in
R represents the distance from which the sun occupies one focus.
the focus to the moving body. 2. T h e radius vector, R in Fig. 6,
T h e two shaded regions are
equal in a r e a a n d represent describes equal areas in equal intervals of
areas swept out by If in equal time.
times. T h e body moves from 3. T h e square of the period (timeofone
c to rf in the same time that
it moves from a to b. revolution) of any planet is proportional to
the cube of the longer axis of its orbit.
Since electrified particles show a similar law of attraction, we
should expect them to behave in the same manner as those moving
imder the action of gravitational forces.
SUMMARY
In uniform circular motion (a) the speed v is constant; (b) the direction
of the^motion is continually and uniformly changing; (c) the accelera-
tion ac is constant iri'magnitude and is directed toward the center
of the circular path. T h e magnitude of the central acceleration is
given by
y2
ac=~
where v is the linear speed and r is the radius, or by
where w is the angular speed.

T h e centripetal force, the inward force that causes the central

acceleration, is given by
Fc = or fc = —
g r -^ r
T h e centrifugal reaction is the outward force exerted by the moving
object on the agent of its centripetal force. T h e magnitude of the
centrifugal reaction is equal to t h a t of the centripetal force.
T h e proper banking of a curve to eliminate the necessity for a
sidewise frictional force is given by the relation
AB v^
^ = = — = tan 0
BC gr
Often in curvilinear motion the accelerating force is neither paral-

lel nor perpendicular to the direction of motion. T h e acceleration
produces change in both speed a n d direction.
Planetary motion is described by Kepler's laws.
QUESTIONS
1. Mention practical devices that make use of central forces.
2. Show that the units of v'^/r are those of acceleration.
3. Why is the acceleration of a body moving in uniform circular motion always
directed toward the center?
4. If a heavy bolt on the end of a string is rotated rapidly enough, the string
will break. What force causes the string to break? Is the centripetal force ever greater
than the centrifugal reaction?
5. A centripetal force is required to maintain a body in uniform circular motion.
Does this force do work? Why?
6. Explain the statement that "an aviator experiences 3 ^'s in pulling out of a
certain dive."
7. Why is a curved railroad track tipped toward the center of the curve?
8. Analyze clearly the reasons why an automobile overturns when going too fast
around a curve. Which wheels leave the ground first?
9. How could you determine the mass of the earth? How could you find out how
much the sun weighs?
PROBLEMS
1. A car traveling at a speed of 30 mi/hr rounds a circular curve whose radius
is 200 ft. What is the centripetal force acting on a 160 lb man riding in the car?
2. A 3200-lb automobile is moving with a constant speed of 40 mi/hr on a curve
of 100 ft radius, (a) What is its acceleration? (6) What is the centripetal force on the
i»*
automobile? (c) What supplies this force? Ans. 34 ft/sec^; 3400 lb
3. A ball weighing 2.5 lb is whirled in a circular path at a speed of 12 ft/sec.
If the radius of the circle is 5.7 ft, what is the centripetal force?
4. A 5.0-lb ball is swung in a vertical circle at the end of a cord 3.0 ft long.
What is the maximum speed at which it can swing if the cord can sustain a tension of
60 lb? Ans. 11 radians/sec
5. A 2.0-lb ball is swung in a vertical circle at the end of a wire 3.0 ft long. Find
the maximum and minimum tensions in the wire if the ball makes 45 rev/min.
6. At the equator the centripetal acceleration is about 3.0 cm/sec''. How fast
would the earth have to turn to make the apparent weight of a body zero?
Ans. 18 rev/3ay
7. An aviator loops the loop in a circle 400 ft in diameter. If he is traveling
120 mi/hr, how many g's does he experience?
8. What is the least speed at which an airplane can execute a loop of 400-ft
radius so that there will be n© tendency for the pilot to fall out at the highest point?
Ans. iTO ft/sec
9. Compute the minimum speed that a pail of water must have in order to swing
without splashing in a vertical circle of radius 3.8 ft.
10. If the coefficient of static friction between road and tire is 0.50, find the maxi-
mum speed with which a car can turn a corner on a horizontal road if the curve has
a radius of 100 ft. Ans. 27 mi/hr
11. A 3200-lb automobile is moving 10 ft/sec on a level circular track having a
radius of 100 ft. What coefficient of friction is necessary to prevent the car from
skidding?
12. A boy is sitting 4.0 ft from the center of a rotating platform. The coefficient
of friction between the boy and the platform is 0.20. What is the greatest angular
speed it may have without causing the boy to slide off? Ans. 1.3 radians/sec
13. A 100-lb boy is standing on a merry-go-round platform 10 ft from the center.
The platform is turning at the rate of 4.0 rev/min. Find the boy's linear speed, his
radial acceleration, the frictional force needed to prevent him from slipping off the
platform, and the coefficient of static friction if he is on the verge of slipping at this
speed.
14. Find the angle of banking for a curve to be traversed at 30 mi/hr, if the radius
is 40 ft. Ans. 57°
15. On some roads the curves are banke'd so that there is no side thrust on the
passengers in a car which takes the curve at 45 mi/hr. Find the angle of banking for
a circular curve making a 90° turn in a distance of 314 ft along the road.
16. On a railroad the roadbed is designed for a speed of 60 mi/hr. If the bed of a
curve is banked 12° 25', find the radius of the curve. Ans. 1100 ft
17. An amusement device has a mast with crossarms extending 20 ft from the
center at the top. A car is suspended from the end of a crossarm by a rope 30 ft long.
Find the angular speed in radians per second and in revolutions per minute that will
cause the rope to make an ^ngle of ,30° with the vertical.
18. The governor of an engine has arms that are 30 cm long and stand at an
angle of 30° with the vertical when the g6vernor is in constant rotation. Find the
angular speed, in rotations per minute, of the shaft of the governor.
" Ans. 59 rev/min
.. s
"V
'' CARL
FERDINAND
BRAUN
1 8 5 0 to I9I 8
"BORN IN T-ULT5A, HESSE. DIKECTOR OF THE PHYSICAL INSTITUTE

AT STRASBOURG. IN I 9 O 9 HE SHARED THE NOBEL PRIZE FOR
PHYSICS WITH MARCONI FOR THEIR DEVELOPMENT OF WIRELESS
TELEGRAPHY.
13. Vibratory Motion

Three types of motion have been treated in the earlier chapters. The
simplest is that of an object in equilibrium, a motion consisting of
constant speed and unchanging direction. The second type of motion,
which is produced by the action of a constant force, is that in which
the direction is constant and the speed increases uniformly. Projectile
motion was discussed as a combination of these two simple types of
149
motion. T h e third type of motion discussed is uniform, circular raotion,
that produced by a (centripetal) force of constant magnitude directed
inward along the radius of the circular path of the moving object.
It is clear that the forces we commonly observe are not always
zero, constant in magnitude and direction, or constant in magnitude
and of rotating direction; so that, consequently, the motions com-
monly observed are not always uniform rectilinear, uniformly
accelerated, uniform circular, or even combinations of the three. In
general, the forces acting on a body vary in both magnitude and
direction, resulting in complicated types of nonuniformly accelerated
motion, which cannot be investigated in an elementary physics course.
O n e common and important type of nonuniformly accelerated motion
that can be analyzed is periodic motion.
Periodic Motion. A type of motion that is particularly impor-
tant in mechanics is the to-and-fro or vibrating motion of objects
stretched or bent from their normal positions and then released. Such
1 ' an object moves back and forth along a fixed path,
repeating over a n d over a fixed series of motions and
returning to each position and velocity after a definite
period of time. Such motion is called periodic motion
or harmonic motion. This type of motion is produced by
varying forces, and hence the body experiences varying
\c
accelerations. While m a n y periodic motions are quite
1 m>
complicated, they can usually be studied as combina-
tions of relatively simple types of vibration. It is
fortunate that the simple vibrations, though produced
by varying forces, can, be analyzed rather easily and
completely by elementary methods.
FIG. 1.—An Simple Harmonic Motion. When an elastic
o b j e c t s u p - spring is stretched by a force, the amount of the force
p o r t e d by a
spring vibrates required is proportional to the stretch. Suppose that an
w i t h s i m p l e object of mass m (Fig. 1) hanging in equilibrium at the
harmonic mo- end'of a spiral spring, is pulled down a distance x
tion. ''
below the equilibrium position. T h e spring exerts a
restoring force on the object tending to pull it back toward its original
position. This force is proportional to the displacement x but opposite
in direction.
F= -Kx (1)
VIBRATORY MOTION 151
When the object is released, the restoring force produces an accelera-

tion that is proportional to F. Hence the acceleration a is also pro-
portional to X but opposite in direction.
a = —kx (2)
As the object moves toward its equilibrium position, its speed increases
but the force and consequently the acceleration decreases until it
becomes zero when the object reaches the initial
position. Because of its inertia the object con-
tinues past the equilibrium position b u t at once '--v<
a retarding force comes into being which in-
creases until the object reaches c where it stops //
//
and begins its return trip. At all times during //
//
0
this motion the net force and hence the acceler- I
ation is proportional to the displacement and
directed toward the equilibrium position. The type
. of vibratory motion in which the acceleration is propor-
tional to the displacement and always directed toward
the equilibrium position is called simple harmonic motion
(SHM). This is always motion along a straight
line, the acceleration and the velocity constantly
changing as the vibrating body moves through its
series of positions. The direct proportionality of FIG. 2 . — A ball
acceleration and displacement distinguishes sim- and spring in approxi-
ple harmonic motion from all other types of mate simple harmonic
motion.
vibratory motion.
Very few vibrating bodies execute motion that is strictly simple
harmonic but many vibrate with a motion that is so nearly simple
harmonic that it can be treated as such without appreciable error.
Suppose that a steel ball is mounted on a flat spring that is clamped
in a vise as in Fig. 2. Pull the ball sideways, bending the spring, and
you will observe a restoring force that tends to move the ball back
toward its initial position. This force increases as the ball is pulled
farther away from its original position. The motion of the ball is only
approximately S H M since it moves along the arc of a circle instead of
along a straight line and the direction of the force is' tangent to the
circle rather than toward the initial position. However, if the dis-
placement is small, the departure from S H M is so slight that no great
error is introduced by assuming that the motion is simple harmonic.
The motion of a pendulum is also approximately S H M .
Period, Frequency, and Amplitude. T h e period T of a vibra-
tory motion is the time required for a complete to-and-fro motion or
oscillation. In a complete oscillation the vibrating body moves from
the equilibrium position to one end of the path, back to the equi-
librium position, to the other end of the path, and back to the equilib-
rium position ready to repeat the cycle. Sometimes a half-period is
used, the time of just one half this complete vibration. I n all our
discussion we shall use the whole period.
The frequency n of the vibratory motion is the number of complete
oscillations per second. T h e frequency is
the reciprocal of the period: n = \/T.
T h e amplitude of a vibratory motion
is the maximum displacement from the
equilibrium position.
T h e Circle of Reference. W h e n a
body moves with uniform speed in a circle,
the projection of this motion on a diameter
is simple harmonic motion. In Fig. 3 the
body at A is moving with uniform speed
FIG. 3.—Circle of reference Vc in a circular path. T h e projection B
for analyzing simple harmonic moves back and forth along the diameter.
motion.
T h e acceleration of the particle at A is Uc
directed toward the center of the circle. T h e component 12 of the central
acceleration of particle A parallel to the chosen diameter is the
acceleration of B. T h e triangles ABC and AED are similar. Therefore
— X
a
r (3)
where Uc is the central acceleration, r is the radius, and x is the dis-

placement of the particle B. T h e minus sign is used since x is measured
to the right while a is directed to the left.
a •= (4)
Since Cc and f are constant in magnitude,

a = —kx (5)
that is, the acceleration of B is directly proportional to the displace-
ment and directed toward the equilibrium position. Since this is the
definition of S H M , it^bllows that the projection of uniform circular
motion upon a diameter is S H M .
This example of simple harmonic motion is very useful in studying
that type of motion since it can be used to determine relationships
between velocity, acceleration, period, frequency, and amplitude. T h e
circle used here is commonly called the reference circle.
I n terms of the reference circle the period of the S H M is the same
as the time of one revolution in the reference circle. T h e amplitude in
S H M is the same as the radius of the reference circle, and the fre-
quency is the number of revolutions per second in the reference circle.
For every S H M a reference circle can be set up from these relationships.
Period in SHM. F r o m Eq. (4) the period can be expressed in
terms of the acceleration and displacement. From Eq. (1), C h a p . 12,
the central acceleration in uniform circular motion is
,,2
Oc =
r
T h e speed of the particle in the reference circle is
^^ =s 7 =2irr-r
then
il-Kriry _ 47r2
ac. =
r T^
From Eq. (4)
X AT'
a = —Uc - = Tj^ r - = 7^ X
•r T^' r " r^
Solving for 7"^
T^ = - 4 x 2 -
a
T = 2.^-1 (6)
The period can be expressed in terms of the force constant of the
spring (or other agency) that supplies the restoring force. From
Eq. (1)
F = -Kx
and from Newton's second law
F = — a
g
Combining these equations
X W
a gK
^ = 2 - AIgK
J^ (7)
If JV is the weight in pounds, g is in feet per second per second, and K
is in pounds per foot this equation gives the period in seconds. An
alternative form of Eq. (7) is
r = 2 7 r ^ | (la)
If the mass rn is expressed in grams and the force constant K in dynes

per centimeter, Eq. (7a) gives the period in seconds.
These equations express the fact that the period in S H M depends
only upon two factors, the mass of the vibrating body and the force
constant of the spring (or other agent). It should be noted that the
period is independent of the amplitude. ,
Reference to Eqs. (7) and (7(2) will show that, if the object is
replaced by another four times as heavy, the period will be doubled.
If, instead, the spring is replaced by another four times as stiff, the
period is halved.
Example: A 5.0-lb ball is fastened to the end of a flat spring (Fig. 2). A force of
2.0 lb is sufficient to pull the ball 6.0 in. to one side. Find the force constant and the
period of vibration.
5.0 lb
2x A,^^ ^. , "Z-^T, r^ .1. /r.x = 1-2 sec
/ (32-ft/sec^) (4.0 lb/ft)
Acceleration and Speed in SHM. At the position of greatest

displacement,, that is, at the end points of the motion, the vibrating
object comes momentarily to a stop. It should be noticed that at the
.instant when its speed is zero, the object is acted upon by the maxi-
VIBRATORY MOTION I55
m u m restoring force, so t h a t the acceleration is greatest when the

speed is zero. T h e restoring force (and therefore the acceleration)
decreases as the object moves toward the equilibrium position. At the
equilibrium position the acceleration is zero and the speed is greatest.
T h e direction of the acceleration reverses as the object passes through
the equilibrium position, increasing as the displacement increases,
and reaching a m a x i m u m at the other extreme of displacement.
Example: A 2.0-lb body vibrates in SHM with an amplitude of 3.0 in. and a
period of 5.0 sec. Find the acceleration and the speed (a) at the mid-point, (b) at the
end of the path, and [c) at a point 2.0 in. from the'mid-point.
Since the amplitude is 3.0 in., the radius of the reference circle is 3.0 in. The speed
Vc of the particle in the reference circle is
2xr (27r)(3.0in.)
Vc = -ir- = —s~7^— = 3.8 m./sec
T 5.0 sec '
At the mid-pointi of the path, the velocity in the reference circle is the same as that
of the vibrating body,
Vi = Vc = 3.8 in./sec = 0.32 ft/sec
At the mid-point, the acceleration in the reference circle is perpendicular to the
diameter, and hence the component parallel to the path of the vibrating body is zero.
Therefore
fli = 0
At the end point, the velocity in the reference circle is perpendicular to the path
of vibration and hence has no component in that direction.
1-2 = 0
At the end point, the acceleration in the reference circle is the same as the accelera-
tion in the vibration
Vc^ (3.8 in./sec)2 . . . . ,
02 = Oc = — = TTFT- = 4.8 m./sec''
r 3.0 m.
At the point 2.0 in. from the mid-point, we may find the acceleration by use of
Eq. (3)
a —X
Oc r
X = 2.0 in.
dc = 4.8 in./sec^
r= 3.0 in.
-a,x -(4.8in./sec2)(2.0in.) ,^. , ,
a= = 5-77^ • = —3.2 m./sec''
r 3.0 m. '
From Fig. 3 the velocity in the path of vibration is the component v of the velocity ^
Vc in the reference circle. From the geometry of Fig. 3
V. = Vc cos / BAL — Vc -p-7

CA = r = 3.0 in.
BA = \/r^ - x" = VCa.O in.y - (2.0 in.)^ = 2.2 in.
V = (3.8 in./sec) V T T ^ = 2.8 in./sec = 0.23 ft/sec
^ ' 3 . 0 m. ' '
T h e Simple P e n d u l u m . O n e of, the most common of approxi-

mate simple harmonic motions is the motion •
of a ' pendulum. A pendulum consisting of a
^\ small relatively heavy bob at the end of a
very light string is called a simple pendulum. "If
i such a pendulum, is displaced as shown in Fig. 4,
the weight! mg of the bob sitpplies a restoring
\\ force ma. From similar triangles
ma
mg
a=< - g-jx
O"1-4——- ma-\
F"3
If the angle Q is small, the acceleration and
FIG. 4.—Â s i m p l e displacement are essentially proportional and in
pendulum. opposite directions.
From Eq. (6) we can obtain an expression for the period of the
pendulum.-
—X I,
a ~ g
T = 2-^| (8)
T h e period depends only upon the length of the 'pendulum and the
acceleration due to gravity.
Simple Angular ^Harmonic Motion. If a heavy cylinder is sup-
ported at the erid of a wire' (torsion pendulum) and twisted through
an angle Q (Fig. 5), the wire supplies a restoring torque that is propor-
tional to the angle of twist.
L = KS (9)
T h e constant ^0 is called the moment of torsion of the wire and depends
upon the length, diameter, and material of the wire. This constant is
of considerable importance in the design of instruments
in which the sensitivity depends upon the twist of a
wire or fiber.
When the pendulum is released, the restoring torque
produces an angular acceleration proportional to the
angular.-displacement. T h e motion produced is simple
angular harmonic motion. T h e period depends upon the
moment of torsion of the support and upon the moment
of inertia of the oscillating system. Its value is given by
the equation
(10)
FIG. 5.—A
torsion pen-
where Ko is the moment of torsion of the supporting dulum. Angu-
fiber and I is the moment of inertia of the system about lar harmonic
motion.
an axis along the supporting fiber.
Resonance. Suppose that the natural frequency of vibra,tion
of the system represented in Fig, 2 is 10 vib/sec. Now imaging that,
beginning with the system at rest, we apply to it a to-and-fro force,
say, 25 times per second. In a short time this force will set the system
to vibrating regularly 25 times a second, but with very small arnpli-
tude, for the ball and spring are trying to vibrate at their natural rate
of 10 vib/sec. During part of the time, therefore, the system is so to
speak, "fighting back" against the driving force, whose frequency is
25/sec. We call the motion of the system in this case a forced vibration.
Now suppose that the alternation of the driving force is gradually
slowed down from 25/sec to 10/sec, the natural frequency of the
system, so that the alternations of the driving force come just as the
system is ready to receive them. When this happens, the amplitude of
vibration becomes very large, building up until the energy supplied
by the driving force is just enough to overcome friction. Under these
conditions the system is said to be in resonance with the driving force.
A small driving force of proper frequency can build up a very large
amplitude of motion in a system capable of vibration. We have all
heard car rattles that appear only at certain speeds, or vibrations set
up in dishes, table lamps, cupboards, and the like by mmical sounds
"V ;1|—^jC"
r 158 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS

of particular frequency. A motor running in the basement will often
set certain pieces of furniture into vibration.
This problem of resonant vibrations may becoine particularly
important with heavy machinery. T h e problem is to find the part that
is vibrating in resonance with the machinery and to change its natural t
frequency by changing its mass or its binding force (force constant).
A most common example of resonance is furnished by radio cir-
cuits. When one tunes his radio receiver, he is in effect altering w h a t ,
f • • ' • /
1 "**
t
1 -M !
•v j|
', J
0i
i
.. ^^^_ -i IS
-mt^^^
^^^^^1
l^> ,-C^
K'^^^ J^^w
Fio. 6.—Dangerous resonance. Excessive vibration caused the collapse of the bridge.
5= corresponds to the spring constant in a mechanical system. By thus

changing the natural frequency, one can bring the circuit into
resonance with the desired electrical frequency transmitted by the
sending station. The forced vibrations from all other frequencies have
such small amplitudes that they do not produce any noticeable effect.
'''*'• ' * SUMMARY

Simple harmonic motion is that type of vibratory motion in which the
acceleration is proportional to the displacement and is always directed
toward the position of equilibrium.
ir- .>'
VIBRATORY MOTION I59
Simple harmonic motion is always motion along a straight line.
M a n y vibrations that are not strictly simple harmonic are very close
approximations and may be treated as such without serious error.
T h e motion of the projection on a diameter of a point that moves
at constant speed on the "circle of reference" describes simple har-
monic motion.
T h e period of a vibratory motion is the time required for one com-
plete oscillation,
The frequency is the number of complete oscillations per second.

T h e amplitude of the motion is the maximum displacement from
the equilibrium position.
A simple pendulum is one which consists of a concentrated bob sup-
ported by a very light string. Its period is given by
T=2irJ-
A torsion pendulum vibrates with simple angular harmonic motion. Its
period of oscillation is given by
T
T h e moment of torsion Ko is the ratio of the torque to the angle of

twist produced by that torque. It depends upon the length, diameter,
and material of the rod.
Resonance occurs when a periodic driving force is impressed upon a
system whose natural frequency of vibration is the same as that of the
driving force. When this happens, the amplitude of vibration builds
up until the energy supplied by the driving force is just sufficient to
overcome friction in the system.
QUESTIONS
1. Why are simple harmonic motions common in nature? Give some examples.
2. Is the motion of the piston in the cylinder of a steam locomotive simple
harmonic?
3. Within a solid sphere of uniform density the gravitational force on an object
varies directly with the first power of the distance from the center. Assuming that the
earth were such a sphere and a hole could be drilled completely through it along a
diameter, what would happen to an object dropped into this hole?
l6o COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
4. Under what conditions does the addition of two simple harmonic motions
produce a resultant which is simple harmonic?
5. What is the purpose of the pendulum of a clock or the balance wheel of a
watch?
6. When a pendulum clock gains time what adjustment should be made?
. 7. A 1-in. iron ball and a 1-in. wooden ball are supported by threads of equal
length. When the two are set swinging how will the periods compare?
8. A simple pendulum has a period of 2.00 sec at sea level and 45° latitude.
What will be the effect on the period if the pendulum is at sea level (a) at the equa-
tor? {b) at latitude 60°? Whaf will be the effect of taking it to elevation 5000 ft at
latitude 45°?
9. A small ball is supported by a string that passes through a hole in the support.
The ball is started swinging and the string slowly pulled up through the hole. Describe
and explain the motion of the ball.
10. Why do marching men break step when crossing a light bridge?
PROBLEMS
1. What is the force constant of a spring that is stretched 11.0 in. by a force of
5.00 lb?
2. What is the period of vibration of a 10.0-lb body if it is suspended by the
spring of problem 1? Ans. 1.50 sec
3. A spring elongates 2.0 cm for a load of 15 gm. If a body of mass 294 gm is
attached to the spring and it is set into vibration with an amplitude of 10 cm, what
will be (a) the force constant, (b) the period, (c) the maximum speed of the vibrating
body?
4. A 1000-gm cage is suspended by a spiral spring. When a 200-gm bird sits in
the cage, the cage is pulled 0.50 cm below its position when empty. Find the period
of vibration of the cage (a) when empty, (6) when the bird is inside.
Ans. 0.32 sec; 0.35 sec
5. Find the maximum speed and acceleration for the vibration of problem 2,
assuming that the amplitude of motion is 2.0 in.
6. The drive wheels of a locomotive whose piston has a stroke of 2.00 ft make 185
rev/min. Assuming that the piston moves with SHM, find the speed of the piston
relative to the cylinder head, at the instant when the piston is at the center of its stroke.
Ans. 19.4 ft/sec
7. A 50.0-gm body hung on a spring causes it to elongate 2.00 cm. When a
certain object is hung on this spring and set vibrating its period is 0.568 sec. What is
the mass of the object attached to the spring?
8. A 200-gm body elongates a spring 4.9 cm. (a) What will be the period of vibra-
tion of the spring when a 400-gm object is attached to it? (b) What will be the maxi-
muth speed of the vibrating object if the amplitude is 3.0 cm?
Ans. 0.63 sec; 30 cm/sec
9. A 2.0-lb body is executing simple harmonic motion of amplitude l-.O ft and
period 0.80 sec. (a) What is its speed as it passes through the equilibrium position?
(i) What is its kinetic energy at that instant?
V I B R A T O R Y MOTION l6l
10. A 100-lb body vibrates with SHM of amplitude 12 in. and a period of 0.784
sec. (a) What is its maximum speed? (b) its maximum kinetic energy? (c) its minimum
kinetic energy? Am. 8.0 ft/sec; 100 ft-lb; 0
11. A 10-lb block of iron is caused to vibrate with SHM by means of a spring.
If the amplitude of vibration is 12 in. and the time of a complete vibration is 0.80 sec,
find the maximum kinetic energy of the block.
12. A tooth in the blade of a reaper describes approximate SHM of 1.5 in. ampli-
tude and has a period of 0.20 sec. Find its speed when at a point 0.50 in. from the
center of its path. Atis. 44.5 in./sec
13. A body whose mass is 5.0 kg moves with SHM of an amplitude 24 cm and a
period of 1.2 sec. (a) Find the speed of the object when it is at its mid-position, and
when 24 cm away, (b) What is the magnitude of the acceleration in each case?
14. A body suspended from a coiled spring oscillates vertically in SHM through
a distance of 2.0 ft. The time for one complete vibration is 3.0 sec. Find (a) the maxi-
mum speed of the body, {b) the speed of the body 0.38 sec after it has passed the
lowest point of its path, and (c) the maximum acceleration of the body.
Arts. 2.1 ft/sec; 1.5 ft/sec; 4.4 ft/sec^
15. A body having simple harmonic motion of amplitude 5.0 cm has a velocity
of 50 cm/sec when its displacement is 3.0 cm. What is its period?
16. A 2.0-lb body vibrates in SHM with a period of 4.0 sec and an amplitude of
10.0 in. Find the maximum speed and the maximum acceleration. Find the speed
and acceleration when the body is one-sixth period from the equilibrium position.
Find the net force on the vibrating body at the latter position.
Ans. 1.3 ft/sec; 2.0 ft/sec^; 0.65 ft/sec; 1.7 ft/sec^; 0.11 lb
17. A 2.0-lb body vibrates in SHM with an amplitude of 6.0 in. and a frequency
of 240 vib/min. Find the speed and acceleration when the body is 3.0 in. from the
equilibrium position.
18. Find the restoring force on a 3.0-lb body in SHM at the instant its displace-
ment is 0.50 in. The frequency is 180 vib/min and the amplitude is 1.5 in.
Ans. 1.4 lb
19. Find the period of a simple pendulum 3.0 ft long. What is the length of a
pendulum with just half this period?
20. What must be the length of a simple pendulum that is to beat seconds?
Assume g = 32.2 ft/sec^. Ans. 3.28 ft
21. A simple pendulum was accurately adjusted to have a period of 2.00 sec.
The supporting fiber broke and was shortened 2.00 in. Find the change in period.
22. A solid cylinder, whose weight is 16.0 lb and radius is 9.0 in., is supported
along the axis of the cylinder by a wire 2.0 ft long. The cylinder is twisted through
an angle of 120° by a couple whose torque is 4.0 Ib-ft. Find the moment of torsion of
the wire and the period of the pendulum when released.
Ans. 1.9 Ib-ft/radian; 1.7 sec
23. A solid disk of 30 cm radius and of mass 9.0 kg is suspended as a torsion
pendulum. In order to twist the disk completely around once, two forces, each of
22.5 kg must be applied tangentially to the disk at opposite ends of a diameter.
What is the moment of torsion and the period of oscillation?
l62 COLLEGE T E C H N I C A L PHYSICS
24. A body of mass 60.0 gm is moving with a uniform angular speed in a vertical
circle of radius 10.0 cm at the rate of 20.0 rev/sec. (a) What is the magnitude and
direction of the centrifugal force 0.00625 sec after the body passes a horizontal diame-
ter going in the upward direction? {b) What is the velocity of a companion particle,
executing SHM on a horizontal diameter of the circle?
Ans. 9.51 X 10« dynes; 889 cm/sec
25. A thin bar is mounted vertically and supports at its lower end a 15.0-lb object.
A horizontal force of 12.5 oz causes the object to be displaced laterally 0.85 in. (a)
What is the period of the motion when the system is caused to vibrate horizontally
with a small amplitude? (i) What is the maximum speed of the object when its
amplitude of vibration is 2.00 in.?
26. An irregularly shaped bar is supported by a wire which can be twisted 15.8°
by a torque of 5.25 X 10' cm-dynes. The system as a torsion pendulum vibrates with a
period of 0.333 sec. What is the moment of inertia of the bar?
Ans. 5.34 X 10* gm-cm''
27. A 200-gm sphere of radius 12.0 cm is supported by a wire as a torsion pendu-
lum. The frequency of the pendulum is 0.250 vib/sec What is the kinetic energy of
the system when it is displaced 12.5° from its equilibrium position?
28. A torsion pendulum consists of a vertical wire supporting a disk. A torque
of 10.0 Ib-ft twists the disk 7.5°. The frequency of the pendulum is 90 vib/min. What
is its moment of inertia? Ans. 0.86 Ib-ft-sec^
29. A tuning fork makes 256 complete vibrations per second. What is the ac-
celeration of one of its prongs when it is displaced 0.50 mm from its equilibrium
position?
30. A watch has a balance wheel which moves with an angular acceleration of
41 rad/sec^ when it is displaced 15° from its equilibrium position^ What is its fre-
quency? Ans. 2.0 vib/sec
31. A load of 500 gm causes a spring to stretch 12.0 cm. An additional load of
100 gm is added, and the spring is set into vibration with an amplitude of 3.25 cm.
Calculate (a) the frequency; {b) the speed of the load when the displacement is 1.63
cm; (c) the maximum kinetic energy of the system.
32. A torsion pendulum begins moving 'with an angular acceleration of 15
rad/sec^ when its displacement is 90°. What is the frequency of the pendulum?
Ans. 0.49 vib/sec
33. At a certain place a simple pendulum 100 cm long makes 250 complete
vibrations in 8.35 min. What is the length of a simple seconds pendulum at that
place?
34. Calculate the length of a simple pendulum which has a period of 1.000 sec
at a place where ^ = 981 cm/sec^. Ans. 24.8 cm
35. A simple pendulum is 45 in. long. At a place where g has the standard value
of 32.17 ft/sec", what will be the frequency of the pendulum?
\
JOHAN
DIDRIK
VAN
DER
WAALS
1837 to 1923
BORN IN LEYDEN. PROFESSOR AT AMSTERDAM UNIVERSITY.

RECEIVED THE I 9 I O NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS WORK
CONCERNING THE EQUATIONS OF STATE OF GASES AND LIQUIDS.
14. Elastic Properties of Solids

When a structure or a machine is to be buih, suitable materials must
be chosen for the parts. An engineer bases his design on the laws of
mechanics and a knowledge of the properties of the materials avail-
able. Some of the properties thus considered are weight, strength,
hardness, elasticity, thermal expansion, and maximum safe operating
temperature.
Much of the progress in the design of structures has resulted from
the discovery, adaptation, or development of new structural materials.
163
As Stone, brick, steel, and reinforced concrete replaced the original

structural materials, m u d and wood, buildings became stronger and
taller. Early tools were made of wood, bone, or stone, but the dis-
covery of metals made possible the construction of more intricate and
useful devices. The machine age depends largely upon the technology
of metals.
Elasticity. Among the most important properties of materials
are their elastic characteristics. If, after a body is deformed by some
force, it returns to its original shape or size as the distorting force is
removed, the material is said to be elastic. Every substance is elastic
to some degree.
Consider a long steel wire fastened to the ceiling, in such a manner
that its upper end is held rigidly in place. T o keep
the wire taut suppose a stone of sufficient weight is
,^_XI^ fastened to the lower end of the wire. T h e force per
fon unit area of cross section of the wire is defined as the
tensile stress in the wire. T h e pound per square inch
¥fj^:? is a unit in which this stress is commonly measured.
AL This force per unit area, is sometimes called unit
* !...H
—K stress.
Let L (Fig. 1) represent the length of the wire
I. when just enough force has been applied to take the
FIG. 1.—Stress kinks out of it. Increasing the stretching force by an
and strain in the amount F will Stretch or elongate the wire an amount
stretching of a AL. T h e ratio of the change in length AL to the total
length L is called the tensile strain. Notice that the
change in length must be measured in .the same unit as the total length
if the value of this ratio A L / L is to be independent of the units used.
Hooke's Law. Robert Hooke recognized (1676) and^stated the
law that is used to define the elastic properties of a body. In studying
the effects of tensile forces, he observed that the increase in length of a
body is proportional to the applied force over a rather wide range of
forces. This observation may be made more general by stating that
the stress is proportional to th^strain. I n this form the statement is known
as Hooke's law.
If the stress is increased above a certain value, the body will not
return to its original size (or shape) after the stress is removed. It is
.then said to have acquired a permanent set. The smallest stress that
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 165
produces a p e r m a n e n t set is called the elastic limit. For stresses t h a t

exceed the elastic limit Hooke's l a w is not applicable.
Young's M o d u l u s . A modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio
of a stress to the corresponding strain. This ratio is a constant, charac-
teristic of the material. T h e ratio of the tensile stress to t h e tensile
strain is called Young's modulus.
tensile stress F/A FL
r tensile strain AL/L A AL
(1)
Example: A steel bar, 20 ft long and of rectangular cross section 2.0 by 1.0 in.,
supports a load of 2.0 tons. How much is the bar stretched?
FL
AAL
Solving for AL
^=YA
F = 2.0 tons = (2.0 tons) (2000 lb/ton) = 4000 lb
L = 20 ft
A = (2.0 in. X 1.0 in.) = 2.0 in.^
r = 29,000,000 lb/in.2
(4000 lb) (20 ft)
AZ,= = 0.0014 ft = 0.017 in.
(29,000,000 lb/in.=')(2.0 in.^)
Values of Y for several c o m m o n materials are given in T a b l e I.
TABLE L ELASTIC CONSTANTS
Tension Compression
Young's
Stress a t Hardness
Material modulus, Breaking Breaking
elastic Brinell
lb/in.2 stress, stress,
limit, number,
lb/in. 2 lb/in.2
lb/in.2 kg/mm^
Aluminum, rolled 10,000,000 25,000 29,000 50,000 40

A l u m i n u m alloy, 20 % nickel 9,400,000 23,000 60,000 110,000 100
Glass, silica 10,000,000 10,000 50,000
Iron, wrought 27,500,000 23,500 47,000
Lead, rolled 2,200,000 3,000
Phosphor bronze 60,000 80,000 50-200
Plastics, cast phenolic 1,000,000 9,000 23,000 38
Plastics, polystyrene 400,000 7,000 13,000 25
R u b b e r , vulcanized 2,000,000 500 2,500
Steel, annealed 29,000,000 40,000 75,000 150
Note that the physical dimensions of T are those of force per unit area.
Figure 2 illustrates apparatus for determining Young's modulus by
applying successively greater loads to a wire and measuring its
elongation.
Although stretching a rubber b a n d does increase the restoring
force, the stress a n d strain do not vary in a direct
proportion; hence Young's modulus for rubber is not
a constant. Moreover, a stretched rubber b a n d does
not return immediately to its original length when the
deforming force is removed. This failure of an object
to regain its original size and shape as soon as the
deforming force is removed is called elastic lag or
hysteresis (a lagging behind).
Ordinarily stretching a wire cools it. R u b b e r gets
warmer when stretched and cools when relaxed. This
can be verified easily by stretching a rubber band
and quickly holding it against the lips or tongue,
which are very sensitive to changes in temperature.
O n e would expect then that heating a rubber band
would increase the stress. A simple experiment shows
this to be true. Suspend a load by a long rubber band
and apply heat to the band with a Bunsen flame
played quickly across the band so as not to fire the
FIG. 2.—Ap-
paratus for de- rubber. T h e b a n d will contract, lifting the load. A wire
t e r m i n i n g under similar circumstances will expand, lowering the
Young's mod- load. T h e modulus of elasticity of a metal decreases
ulus.
as the temperature increases.
Volume Elasticity. Bodies can be compressed as well as stretched.
I n this type of deformation also, elastic forces tend to restore the body
to its original size.
Suppose that a rubber ball is placed in a liquid confined in a
vessel a n d that a force is applied to the confined Jiquid, causing the
ball to contract. T h e volume stress is the added force per unit area F/A
and the volurrie strain is the fractional change — A F / F that is produced
in the volunie of the specimen. T h e ratio (volume stress)/(volume
strain) is called the coefficient of volume elasticity, or bulk modulus.
stress F/A
K = (2)
strain AV/V
ELASTIC P R O P E R T I E S OF SOLIDS 167
This type of deformation, which involves only volume changes,

applies to liquids as well as to solids. T h e bulk moduli of liquids and
solids are large numbers of the same order of magnitude, expressing
the familiar fact that large forces are needed to produce even minute
changes in their volumes. Gases are more easily compressed and have
correspondingly smaller bulk moduli. T h e compressibility of a material
is represented by the reciprocal of its bulk modulus.
Elasticity of Shear. A third type of elasticity concerns changes
in shape. This is called elasticity of shear. As an illustration of shearing
strain, consider a cube of material
(Fig. 3) fbced at its lower face and
acted upon by a tangential force F
at its upper face. This force causes
the consecutive horizontal layers
of the cube to be slightly dis-
placed or sheared relative to one
another. Each line, such as BD or
CE, in the cube is rotated through
FIG. 3.—Shearing of a cubical block
an angle <j) by this shear. T h e through an angle </> by a force F.
shearing strain is defined as the
angle ^ , expressed in radians. For small values of the angle,
4> = BB'/BD, approximately. T h e shearing stress is the ratio of the
force F to the area A of the face BCGH. T h e ratio, shearing stress
divided by shearing strain, is the shear modulus or coefficient of rigidity, n.
_FIA - ^1^
" ~ (^ "" BB'IBD ^^^
The volume of the body is not altered by shearing strain.
TABLE IL BULK MODULI AND SHEAR MODULI
Material K, \ol\nP- n, lb/in.2
10 X 108 3 6 X 10"
Copper (hard) 17 6 1
14 7 4
Glass ... 65 3 5
1.5-4
Steel 23 11.6
Water 0.30
36.
Ultimate Strength. T h e way in which samples of different
materials are deformed by various loads is illustrated by Fig. 4. For
each load the tensile strain is calculated as the ratio of the elongation
to the original length. This is plotted against the tensile stress, a n d a
curve is drawn through the points so obtained.
In the region below the elastic limit (EL) the sample obeys
Hooke's law and returns to its original length when the stress is
removed. The sample will support
stresses in excess of the elastic
limit, but when unloaded it is
found to have acquired a perma-
nent set.
If the applied stress is in-
creased slowly, the sample will
finally break. T h e maximum stress
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 applied in rupturing the sample
TENSILE STRAIN =AL/L is called the ultimate strength.
FiG. 4.- -Elastic behavior of certain Although the ultimate strength of
metals.
the sample lies far up on its strain-
stress curve, it is seldom safe to expect it to carry such loads in
structures. Axles and other parts of machines, which are subject to
repeated stresses, are never loaded beyond the elastic limit.
Whenever a machine part is subjected to repeated stresses over a
long period of time, the internal structure of the material is changed.
Each time the stress is applied, the molecules and crystals realign.
Each time the stress is removed, this alignment retains some perma-
nent set. As this process continues, certain regions are weakened,
particularly around areas where microscopic cracks appear on the
surface. This loss of strength in a machine part because of repeated
stresses is known asfatigtie. Since failure due to fatigue occurs much
sooner if flaws are present originally than in a perfect part, it is
important to detect such flaws, even though they are very slight,
before the part is installed. Great care is exercised in testing parts of
airplane structures to detect p i Iginal flaws. In many plants, x-rays are
used to detect hidden flaws.
Thermal Stresses. W h e n a structure such as a bridge,is p u t
together, the design must take into account changes iri shape due to
changes in temperature. If such provision is not made, tremendous
forces develop that may shatter parts of the structure. Anyone who
ELASTIC P R O P E R T I E S OF SOLIDS 169
has ever seen a concrete pavement shattered by these forces on a hot

day reahzes the violence of such a phenomenon.
T h e suitability of a material for a certain application may depend
on properties other than the mechanical ones just discussed. Among
those are flammability, moisture absorption, electrical conductivity,
and thermal conductivity. For most structural purposes, however,
materials are selected chiefly on the basis of their cost and their elastic
properties.
Some Further Properties of Matter, Materials possess several
characteristics that are closely related to the elastic properties. Among
these are ductility, malleability, compressibility, and hardness.
T h e ductility of a material is the property that represents its
adaptability for being drawn into wire. Malleability is the property of
a material by virtue of which it m a y be hammered or rolled into a
desired shape. In the processes of drawing or rolling, stresses are
applied that are much above the elastic limit so that a "flow" of the
material occurs. For many materials the elastic limit is greatly
reduced by raising the temperature; hence processes requiring flow
are commonly carried on at high temperature.
T h e hardness of a substance was once determined from its ability
to scratch other materials. T h e property of hardness of engineering
materials is now commonly measured by the Brinell number or Rockwell
number, based on two somewhat different test procedures.
T h e Brinell number is the ratio of load, in kilograms, on a sphere
used to indent the material, to the spherical area, in square milli-
meters, of the indentation. T h e standard indentor is a hardened steel
ball of 10 m m diameter and the usual load is 3000 kg, although
500 kg loads are used in testing some softer nonferrous materials.
I n the Rockwell test, hardness is measured by the depth of pene-
tration of a spherical-tipped conical indentor under certain specified
conditions. T h e Rockwell number is read directly from a scale,
lower numbers corresponding to soft materials, which suffer deeper
penetration.
Hardness is not a fundamental property of materials but a com-
posite one dependent on the elastic moduli, elastic limit, the hardening
produced by "working" a metal, etc. Empirical relations are used to
determine other properties from the easily measured hardness, b u t
all such schemes are of doubtful or limited validity.
T h e useful life of a structure or a machine part depends quite as
lyo COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
m u c h on its surface properties as on its bulk properties. A glass fiber
0.003 m m in diameter may have a tensile strength 30 times that of a
fiber 1 m m in diameter, owing to the greater freedom from surface
flaws in the smaller fiber. T h e surface layers of metal tools, glass
plates, and rubber tires may be treated so as to introduce compressive
stresses in the surface, thereby greatly increasing the durability of the
part.
Importance of Correct Testing Procedures. O n e difficulty
encountered when attempting to measure the elastic properties of a
material is that of providing a uniform or typical sample. If examined
under sufficient magnification, no material is found to be uniform
(homogeneous). Rock, brick, and concrete have structure that can
readily be seen. Elastic constants for such materials should not be
taken for samples that are not large compared to the size of the unit
structure. Resistance to crushing varies from 800 to 3800 Ib/in.^ for
concrete, while that of granite varies from 9700 'to 34,000 Ib/in.^
Equally as important as correct sampling is the choice of a testing
procedure which permits measurement of a given property of the
sample under the same conditions as those under which the material
will be used. It may be convenient to measure the ultimate strength
of a steel by subjecting a small polished cylinder to steadily increasing
tension until rupture occurs. But such a test tells little about the
possible failure of a machine part m a d e of the same steel when that
part has an unpolished surface and when it is subjected to rapidly
recurring loads or to twisting and bending. A valid test must duplicate
the conditions of actual use.
M a n y industries have developed laboratories and testing equip-
ment with which to examine the properties of the materials they
purchase and to control the quality of their products. Recommended
procedures for making numerous -tests have been developed co-
operatively by industry and such' organizations as the American
Society for Testing Materials and the National Bureau of Standards.
SUMMARY
Elasticity is that property of a body which enables it to resist and
recover from a.,deformation. "^
T h e smallest stress that produces a permanent deformation is
known as the elastic limit.
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF S O L I D S 171
Hooke's law expresses the fact that, within the limits of elasticity,
stress is proportional to strain.
A modulus of elasticity is found by dividing the stress by the corre-
sponding strain.
Young's modulus is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain,
^L/L
T h e coefficient oj volume elasticity or bulk modulus is the ratio of volume

stress to volume strain,
F/A
K =
AF/F
T h e shear modulus or coefficient of rigidity is the ratio of shearing stress
to shearing strain,
F/A
n =
4>
Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus.

Brinell hardness number is the ratio of the force applied on a hardened
steel ball to the spherical area of indentation produced in a sample.
QUESTIONS
1. VVhat is the purpose of the steel in a horizontal reinforced concrete beam?
in a vertical column? Does concrete need reinforcement more under compressive or
under tensile stresses? Why?
2. A horizontal concrete beam is to be reinforced with steel rods. Should they
be embedded near the upper or near the lower side of the beam? Why?
3. Which is the more elastic, rubber or steel? air or water?
4. Can one use a slender wire in the laboratory to estimate the load capacity of a
large cable on a bridge? Explain.
5. In what way do the numerical magnitudes of (fl) strain, (i) stress, and {c)
modulus of elasticity depend on the units of force and length?
6. A certain force is required to break a piece of cord. What force is required
to break a cord made of the same material which is (a) twice as long, (b) twice as
large in diameter and the same length?
7. From Table I, which material would be preferable for the spiral spring of a
spring balance? Why?
8. What kind of elasticity is utilized in a suspension bridge? an automobile tire?
an automobile drive shaft? a coil spring? a water lift pump? rubber heels?
PROBLEMS
1. Young's modulus for steel is about 29 X 10^ lb/in. ^ Express this value in
kilograms per square centimeter.
2. How much will an annealed steel rod 100 ft long and 0.0400 in.^ in cross sec-
tion be stretched by a force of 1000 lb? Am. 1.03 in.
3. How much will a steel wire 20 ft long and 0.20 in. in diameter stretch when a
load of 200 lb is hung on it?
4. A wire 1000 in. long and 0.01 in.^ in cross section is stretched 4.0 in. by a force
of 2000 lb. What are (a) the stretching stress, (b) the stretching strain, and (c) Young's
modulus? Ans. 2 X 10^ Ib/in.^; 0.004; 5 X 10' lb/in."
5. A certain wire 0.70 mm in diameter and 2.0 m long was stretched 1.6 mm
by a force of 2.0 kg. Find Young's modulus for the material of which the wire was
made. '
6. Fibers of spun glass have been found capable of sustaining unusually large
o-tresses. Calculate the breaking stress of a fiber 0.00035 in. in diameter, which broke
under,a load of 0.385 oz. Ans. 2.5 X 10^ Ib/in.^
7. A load of 60 tons is carried by a steel column having a length of 24 ft and a
cross-sectional area of 10.8 in.^ Wh^t decrease in length will this load produce?
8. To maintain 200 in.' of water at a reduction of 1 % in volume, requires a force
per unit area of 3400 Ib/in.^ What is the bulk modulus of the water?
^nj. 3.4 X 10^ lb/in.2
9. A 12-in. cubical block of sponge has two parallel and opposite forces of 2.5 lb
each applied to opposite faces. If the angle of shear is 0.020 radian, calculate the
relative displacement and the shear modulus.
10. The bulk (volume) modulus of elasticity of water is 3.0 X 10^ Ib/in.^ What is
the change in volume of the water in a cylinder 3.0 ft long and 3.0 in. in diameter
when there is a compressional force per unit area of 14.3 lb/in.'^ exerted on a tight
piston in the cylinder? Ans. 1.2 X 10"^ in.'
11. Many high-tension cables have a solid steel core to support the aluminum
wires that carry most of the current. Assume that the steel is 0.50 in. in diameter,
that each of the 120 aluminum wires has a diameter of 0.13 in., and that the strain
is the same in the steel and the aluminum. If the total tension is 1.0 ton, what is the
tension sustained by the steel?
' -•. N
>^
C't-
if
WILHELM
WIEN
I 864 to 1928
BORN IN GEFFKEN, EAST PRUSSIA. R O N T G E N ' S SUCCESSOR AT

WiJRZBURG AND MUNICH UNIVERSITIES. IN I 9 1 I WIEN WAS
AWARDED THE NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS DISCOVERIES
REGARDING THE LAWS GOVERNING THE RADIATION OF HEAT.
15. Liquids at Rest

Materials are commonly classified as solids, liquids, and gases. T h e
class into which a substance falls depends upon the physical conditions
surrounding it at the time of observation. Under varying conditions a
single substance may be observed in any one of the three states. We are
all familiar with water in its three states: ice, water, and vapor. Other
substances such as iron and most other metals, which are not familiar
in the liquid and gaseous states, nevertheless exist in those states if the
temperature is sufficiently high. Those substances which are com-
173
monly observed as gases can all be liquefied and solidified if the tem-
perature is lowered far enough and the pressirre is made great enough.
Solids are bodies that maintain definite size and shape. A liquid
has a definite volume, for it will fill a container to a certain level,
forming a free surface, but it does not have a definite shape. Gases
have neither definite shape nor definite volume, but completely fill
any container no matter how small an amount of gas is p u t into it.
T h e term "fluid" is applicable to both liquids and gases.
Pressure. When a liquid is confined in a container, the liquid
exerts force on every part of the area of the walls and bottom of the
container which the liquid touches. If the liquid is at rest, this force
is everywhere perpendicular to the containing surface. T h e force per
unit area is called pressure. In symbols
F
Pressure is a scalar quantity. '

T h e idea of pressure is not restricted to liquids but may be used
whenever a force is applied over an area. A Very large pressure may
result from the application of even a moderate force if it acts on a
small area. Such objects as pins and nails are made with sharp points
so that high pressures may produce distortion of the surfaces they
press against even when a relatively small force is applied.
A unit of pressure may be m a d e from any force unit divided by an
area unit. Pressures are commonly expressed in pounds per square
inch. Sometimes pressures are expressed in terms of certain commonly
observed pressures as, for example, an. atmosphere., representing a pres-
sure equal to that exerted by the air tinder normal conditions, or a
centimeter oj mercury., representing a pressure equal to that exerted by a
column of mercury 1 cm high. T h e concept of pressure is particularly
useful in discussing the properties of liquids and gases.
Example: The end of a stake that is to be pushed into the ground has an area of
0.50 in.^ What, is the pressure under the stake when a force of 200 lb is apphed?
pJ.^ 2001b_^^^^
A 0.50 in. ^
Pressure Due to Grayity. T h e atoms and molecules of which a

liquid is composed are attracted to the earth in accordance with
L I Q U I D S AT REST 175
Newton's law of universal gravitation. Hence, liquids collect at the
bottoms of containers, and the upper layers exert forces on the ones
underneath.
T h e pressure at a point in a liquid means the force per unit area of
a surface placed at the point in question. Imagine a horizontal
surface A (Fig. 1), which is 10 in. below the surface of the liquid.
Because of its weight, the column of liquid
directly above the surface exerts a force
F on the surface. If the liquid is water,
each cubic foot weighs 62.4 lb and each
cubic inch weighs
(62.4/1728) lb = 0.0361 lb.
If we take the area A as 2.0 in.^, the
volume above the area is
(10 in.)(2.0 in.2) = 20 in.*
Hence the weight of water above the area

IS FIG. 1.—Pressure in a liquid.
(0.036 lb/in.*)(20 in.3) = 0.72 lb

and this is the force exerted on the surface. T h e pressure is the force
divided by the area,
P = ^ = 9 i r - - 2 = 0.36 1b/in.2
A 2.0 m.^ '
Density. O n e of the properties characteristic of every material
is its density. We are all familiar with the fact that a small piece of one
material may be heavier than a much larger piece of another mate-
rial. T h e mass per unit volume of a substance is called its density.
d =m (2)
V
Units of density are made up by dividing the chosen unit of mass by
the unit of volume, as grams per cubic centimeter.
It is sometimes helpful to use another quantity called weight-
density or weight per unit volume
W
D=y (3)
1)6 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Since W = mg, we have the simple relation between density and
weight-density
D = dg (4)
Weight-density is commonly used when we are concerned with

effects depending upon force while density is used when mass is to be
considered. Values of density for some substances are given in Table I.
TABLE 1. DENSITIES AND WEIGHT-DENSITIES OF SOLIDS AND

LIQUIDS
Density, Weight-density,
Substance gm/cm' lb/ft'
Alcohol (ethyl) at 20°C 0.79 49.4

Water at 4°C 1.000 62.4
Water at 20°C 0.998 62.3'
Gasoline 0.68 42
Mercury 13.6 850
Oak 0.8 50
Aluminum 2.7 169
Copper 8.89 555
Ice 0.92 57
Iron, wrought 7.85 ^ 490
\
In order to find the pressure P due to the weight W^ of a column of
liquid, it is sufficient to know the weight-density D and the depth h
below the surface, for the force exerted on the area A is the weight of
the colunnn.
W = iiAD
W _kAD
A ~ A
P = hD (5)
T h e pressure may also be expressed in terms of the density d

of the liquid'by substituting from Eq. (4)
P = Mg (6)
Example: Find the pressure at the bottom of a tank that is filled with gasoline
to a depth of 8.0 ft.
LIQUIDS AT REST 177
P = hD
h = 8.0 ft
D = 42 lb/ft«
P = (8.0ft)(42Ib/ft3) 340 Ib/ft^
340 Ib/ft^
= 2.4 lb/in.2
144 in.Vft^
If the bottom of the tank is 6.0 by 8.0 ft, what force is exerted on it?
—J
F= PA
P = 340 Ib/ft^
A = (61) ft) (8.0 ft) = 48 it^_
F = (340 lb/ft2)(48 ft^) = 16,000 lb
Example: Find the pressure due to a column of mercury 74.0 cm high.
P = hdg
h = 74.0 cm
d = 13.6 gm/cm^
^ = 980 cm/sec^
P = (74.0 cm)(13.6 gm/cm3)(980 cm/sec^) = 986,000 dynes/cm^
Pressure in Liquids at Rest. T h e following general statements

apply to the pressure in a liquid at rest:
1. Pressure exists at every point within the liquid.
2. As indicated by Eq. (5), the pressure is proportional to the
depth below the surface.
3. At any point in a liquid the magnitude of the force (due to
pressure) exerted on a surface is
the same no matter what the
orientation of the surface is.
If this statement were not true,
there would be a net force in FIG. 2.—The force on the base is not
one direction, and the liquid always equal to the weight of the liquid.
would be set in motion.
4. T h e pressure is the same at all points at the same level within a
single liquid.
5. T h e force due to the pressure is everywhere perpendicular to
the surfaces of the container.
6. T h e force on the bottom of a container is the pressure at that
level times the area of the bottom. T h e force may be greater than,
equal to, or less than the weight of the liquid in the container. I n
Fig. 2 are shown several containers, each having the same base area •
and, the same depth of liquid. T h e force
on the base is the same in each of these
cases even though the weights of liquid
are widely different. (How is the differ-
ence between weight of liquid in the
container and the force on the base
h,=l4cm
accounted for?)
Example: In a U-tube (Fig. 3) the right-hand
arm is filled with mercury while the other is filled
/ir2.0cm with a liquid of unknown density, the levels being
as shown in the diagram. Find the density of the
unknown liquid.
At the level of the surface of separation the
FIG. 3.—Columns of un- pressure is the same in the two liquids.
equal heights produce equal At that level the pressure in the mercury is
pressures.
Px = htdig
and the pressure in the unknown liquid is
Pi = h^2g
P2 = Pl
= hidig
hid I 2.0 cm X 13.6 gm/cm'
Buoyancy; Archimedes' Principle.

Everyday observation has shown us that
when an object is lowered into water it
apparently loses weight and indeed may
even float on the water. Evidently a
liquid exerts an upward, buoyant force
upon a body placed in it. Archimedes
(287-212 B.C.), a Greek mathematician
and inventor, recognized and stated the
fact that a body wholly or partly submerged
in a fluid experiences an., upward forcb equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced.
Archimedes;! principle can readily be FIG. 4.—The upward force on
the bottom of the block is greater
verified experimentally. O n e can deduce than the downward force on the
this principle from a consideration of top.
L i q U I D S AT REST 179
Fig. 4. Consider a block of rectangular cross section A, immersed in a
liquid of weight-density D. On the vertical faces, the liquid exerts
horizontal forces, which are balanced on all sides. O n the top face it
exerts a downward force hiDA and on the bottom face an upward
force hiDA. T h e net upward force on the block is
hiDA - hiDA = hDA,
which is just the weight (volume hA times weight-density D) of the

liquid displaced by the block.
T h e control of submarines depends in part on Archimedes'
principle. In submerging the boat, sea water is admitted into ballast
tanks a n d the buoyant force balanced. T h e boat is brought to the
surface by expelling the water from these tanks with compressed air.
Specific Gravity. T h e specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of
its density to that of some standard substance. The standard usually
chosen is water at the temperature of its maximum density, 39.2°F.
Thus, if d is the density of the substance and d^ the density of the water,
the specific gravity (sp. gr.) of the substance is
Sp. gr.=f (7)

dy:
also
Sp- gr- = 77- (7a)
Since each of the two densities has the same unit, their quotient has no
units. Specific gravity is often more convenient to tabulate than
density, the values of which in the British and metric systems of units
are different. One may easily compute density from specific gravity
by the use of Eq. (7).
d = (sp. gr.)^„
The units of density thus obtained will be those of the system in which
the density of water is expressed.
Since the density of water in metric units is 1 gm/cm^, the density
is numerically equal to the specific gravity in that system.
l8o COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Weight-density and Specific Gravity Measurements by

Archimedes' Principle. This principle suggests a method for com-
paring the weight-density of a substance with that of some stand-
ard fluid, such as water. T h e measurement of specific gravity involves
the following reasoning which is briefly stated in symbols:
_ weight-density of substance ^,/V W^
"• °^' weight-density of water ~ W^/V ~ W^
_ weight of body in air
apparent loss of weight in water
Since the volume of a submerged body is equal to the volume of the
displaced water, the ratio of the weight-densities is the same as the
ratio of the weight Wg of the sample of the substance to the weight
Wto of an equal volume of water. These weights can be determined by
weighing the sample in air a n d in water. T h e weight in water sub-
tracted from the weight in air gives the apparent loss of weight in
water, which is the weight of the water displaced (from Archimedes'
principle). Therefore, the specific gravity can be determined by the
measurements indicated in Eq. (8).
Example: A metal sphere weighs 35.2 oz in air and 30.8 oz when submerged in
water. What is the specific gravity and the weight-density of the metal?
From Eq. (8)
_ weight of sample in air
"' ° ' apparent loss of weight in water
Weight in air = 35.2 oz
Loss of weight in water = 35.2 oz — 30.8 oz = 4.4 oz
35.2 oz „„
From Eq. (7a)

D = (sp. gr.)D„
D„ = 62.4 lb/ft' _
D = (8.0)(62.4 Ib/ft^) = 500 lb/ft'
Quick determinations of the specific gravity of a liquid can be

m a d e with a hydrometer. This instrument (Fig. 5) is a glass bulb
attached to a narrow stem and weighted so as to remain upright when
floating in a liquid. It floats at such a depth as to displace exactly its
own weight of the liquid (Archirriedes' principle). T h e "stem is
calibrated to indicate the specific gravity of the solution, for the
' smaller this specific gravity the deeper the bulb sinks in the liquid.
L i q U I D S AT REST 3il
External Pressure; Pascal's Law. T h e pressure previously

discussed is that caused by the weight of the liquid. If any external
pressure is applied to the liquid, the pressure will be increased beyond
that given by Eq. (5). T h e most common of such
external pressures is that due to the atmosphere.
Whenever an external pressure is applied to any
confined fluid at rest, the pressure is increased at every
point in the fluid by the amount of the external pressure.
This statement is called PascaCs law, after the
French philosopher (1623—1662) who first clearly
expressed it. T h e piactical consequences of Pascal's
law are apparent in automobile tires, hydraulic
1
.i ^ ^ jacks, hydraulic brakes, pneumatic drills, and air
/ ^ i m brakes.
Hydraulic Press. T h e fact that an external
pressure applied to a liquid at rest increases the
pressure at all points in the liquid by the amount of
the external pressure has an important application
FIG. 5.—^Hydrom- FIG, 6.—Hydraulic press.

eter.
in a machine called the hydraulic press. Small forces exerted on th).<»
machine cause very large forces exerted by the machine. In Fig. 6,
the small force F i is exerted on a small area A-^. This increases the pres-
sure in the liquid under the piston by an amount P. T h e force that this
increase of pressure will cause on the large piston will be F2 = PA2,
since the pres'sure increase under both pistons is the same. Hence,
A2
PA-, = Fi and PAt = Fx; or
l82 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Simply by changing the ratio of J 2 to ^ i , the force F2 may be made

as large as is safe for the big piston to carry. Larger pistons require
more transfer of liquid and are correspondingly slower in action.
Example: In a hydraulic press the small cylinder has a diameter of 1.0 in. while
the large piston has a diameter of 8.0 in. If a force of 120 lb is applied to the small
piston, what is the force on the large piston, neglecting friction?
Since the pressure is increased the same amount at both pistons,
P2 = Pi
SUMMARY
Pressure is force per unit area,
- = ^
Density of a substance is mass per unit volume,
Weight-density is weight per unit volume,

W
At a depth h below the surface, the pressure due to a liquid of

weight-density D is
P = hD
Archimedes'principle states that a body wholly or partly submerged

in a fluid is buoyed u p by a force equal to the weight of the fluid
'^'''^Thfspecific gravity of a substance is the ratio of its density to that of
^^'pascaPs law states that a n external pressure applied to a confined

liquid increases the pressure at every point in the liquid by an amount
. equal to the external pressure.
L I Q U I D S AT R E S T 183
QUESTIONS
1. How do liquids exert pressure below the surface? What determines the
amount of this pressure?
2. In stating that the pressure at a point in a liquid is proportional to depth,
what is assumed regarding its density?
3. If when floating in water you take a deep breath, will you float with more or
less of your body out of water? Explain.
4. Does a ship wrecked in mid-ocean sink to the bottom or does it remain
suspended at some great depth? Justify your opinion.
5. A free balloon can be arranged to float at a constant elevation in the air, but
this is not possible for a submarine in water. Show why this is the case.
6. A can full of water is suspended from a spring balance. Will the reading of the
balance change (a) if a-block of cork is placed in the water and (b) if a piece of lead is
placed in the water? Explain.
7. Explain how to determine the specific gravity of a liquid by weighing a solid
suspended in it.
8. To secure great sensitivity, is a narrow or wide hydrometer stem preferable?
Why?
9. Discuss several important uses of the hydrometer.
10. On a hydrometer that is to be used for liquids lighter than water is the unit
mark beginning the scale placed near the top or bottom of the stem? Why?
11. Two beakers partly filled with water are connected by a siphon. One beaker
rests on each pan of a balance, which is initially balanced. Explain the changes that
are observed in the position of the balance when (a) a block of wood is laid on the left
pan (b) the block of wood is floated in the left beaker (c) an iron ball on a string is
lowered until just submerged in the left beaker (d) the iron ball is allowed to rest on
the bottom of the beaker.
PROBLEMS
1. What is the volume of a 160-lb man who can float with just his nose out of
water?
2. The density of sea water is 1.03 times that of fresh water. Calculate the num-
ber of cubic feet of sea water displaced by a ship whose displacpment is given as
5000 tons. Ans. 1.56 X 10^ ft^
3. A box whose base is 2.0 ft square weighs 200 lb. What is the pressure
beneath the box?
4. A vertical force of 4.0 oz pushes a phonograph needle against the record
surface. If the point of the needle has an area of 0.0010 in.^, find the pressure in
pounds per square inch. Ans. 250 lb/in.^
5. The barometric pressure is 30 in. of mercury. Express this in pounds per
square foot and in pounds per square inch.
6. What is the pressure at the base of a column of water 40 ft high?
Ans. 17 lb/in. 2
l84 COLLEGE T E C H N I C A L PHYSICS
7. If the specific gravity of sea water is 1.03, find the pressure at a depth of 3000
ft in the ocean.
8. An ocean depth of 35,400 ft has been measured off the island o_f Mindanao.
What is the pressure at that depth? Am. 15,800 Ib/m.
9. A tank 4.0 ft in diameter is filled with water to a depth of 10.0 ft. {a) Vvhat
is the pressure at the bottom? (i) Find the total thrust on the bottom of the tank.
10. Find the force tending to crush an outside hatch of a submarme 2.00 tt m
area when the boat is 100 ft below the surface of the sea. Specific gravity of sea water
. , „, Ans. 12,800 lb
IS 1.03. 1 iu
11. A swimming tank 50 ft long and 20 ft wide has a sloping floor so that the
water is 4.0 ft deep at one end and 7.0 ft deep at the other. Find the total force due
to the water on the bottom and on each end.
12. A pail 20 cm in diameter at the bottom, 30 cm in diameter at the top, 22 cm
high, and weighing 1.5 kg stands full of water upon a table. The volume of the pail
is 10.9 liters. Calculate the force due to the water on the bottom of the p_ail and the
force of the pail and contents against the table. Ans. 6900 gm,- 12,000 gm
13. A rectangular scow 150 ft long and 15.0 ft wide weighs 50,000 lb. Find the
depth of fresh water required to float it.
14. A barge 20 ft by 50 ft floats in fresh water. How many 180-lb men can be
taken aboard if the barge is to sink only 3.0 in. deeper in the water? Ans. 86
15. A coal barge with vertical sides has a bottom 40 ft by 20 ft. When loaded with
coal, it sinks 18 in. deeper than when empty. How much coal was taken on.
16. A barge has vertical sides and a flat bottom of 320 ft^ area. When partly
loaded, the barge is immersed in fresh water to a depth of 2.00 ft. Upon removal of the
load the barge rises 16 in. (a) What is the approximate weight of the barge? {b) What
vertical displacement will result if a 10-ton truck is loaded on the barge
4 M . 13,300 lb; 1.0 ft
17. A block of lead weighs 3.30 lb. When suspended in water, it is found that the
water and containing vessel gain 0.30 lb in weight. What is the specific gravity of the
lead? . , _Q
18. A solid that weighs 120 gm in to is found to weigh 90 gm m water and 78 gm
in a solution of zinc sulphate. What is the specific gravity of the solid and that ol the
"^ Ans. 4.0; 1.4
solution? . . , N .£
19. A stone weighs 30.0 lb in air, and 21.0 lb in water. What is its (a) specific
gravity, (6) weight-density, and (c) volume? ,c u r
20. The weight of a submarine is 200 tons and it lies submerged and full ot water
at the bottom of the sea. If the specific gravity of the material is 7.80, find the total
pull that must be exerted by the hfting chains in order to raise the vessel from the
r D -•? • r t-^w,. 1 n^ Ans. 174 tons
bottom. Specific gravity of sea water-is l.uJ.
21. A 2.0-lb iron ball is supported by a wire and immersed m oil ot specitic ^
gravity 0.80. What is the tension in the wire? Specific gravity of iron is '•«•
22; A.piece of copper, specific gravity 8.9, weighs 523 gm in air and 447 gm in
water. Is the body solid dr hollow? If hollow, find the volume of the cavity.
' Ans. 17 cm'
L I Q U I D S AT R E S T 185
23. A 20.0-kg body of specific gravity 5.00 is at the bottom of a lake 10.0 m deep.
Calculate the amount of work required to lift it to the surface assuming 5 % of the
force exerted to be used to overcome friction.
24. How many cubic feet of poplar (25 Ib/ft^) must be used to construct a raft
that will just support 10 persons whose average weight is 160 lb if 20 lb of iron is used
in the construction. Ans. 43 ft'
25. An ornament made of gold and silver weighs 76.8 gm and has a specific
gravity of 18.0. Assuming the volume of the alloy to be equal to the combined volumes
of its component parts, calculate the amounts of gold and silver in the ornament.
26. The piston of a hydraulic lift for cars is 8.0 in. in diameter. The device is
operated by water from the city system. What is the water pressure necessary to
raise a car if the total load lifted is 3142 lb? Ans. 63 lb/in.^
27. What size piston is to be used in a hydraulic lift, if the maximum load is
5000 lb and the water pressure is that due to a 100-ft head of water?
28. Two pistons of a hydraulic press have diameters of 1.00 ft and 1.00 in.,
respectively, (a) What is the force exerted by the larger piston when a 56.0-lb weight
is placed on the smaller one. (6) If the stroke of the smaller piston is 1.50 in., through
what distance will the larger piston have moved after 10 strokes?
Ans. 8060 lb; 0.104 in.
29. The lever of a hydraulic press gives a mechanical advantage of 6.0. The sec-
tional area of the smaller plunger is 1.0 in.'' and that of the larger plunger is 15 in.^
What load will the larger plunger sustain when a 60-lb weight is applied to the lever?
30. A block of wood 5.0 cm by 4.0 cm and 3.0 cm high floats in water immersed
to a depth of 2.5 cm. What mass of aluminum (specific gravity 2.6) on top of the block
would cause both to be completely immersed? Ans. 16 gm
31. A body of mass 36.00 gm appears to weigh only 31.96 gm when it is immersed
in liquid of specific gravity 1.26. What is the density of the body?
32. A diver and his suit weigh 220 lb. It requires 30.0 lb of lead to sink him in
fresh water. If the specific gravity of lead is 11.3, what is the volume of the diver and
his suit? Ans. 3.96 ft'
33. Uranium has a specific gravity of 18.7. (a) What is the weight of a cubic inch?
(b) How large a volume could a man carry if he can lift a load of 200 lb?
34. A vessel contains water and a liquid of specific gravity 2.50. The two do not
mix. A solid object floats with 70% of its volume in the water and the remainder in
the denser liquid. Calculate the density of the solid. Ans. 1.45 gm/cm'
35. A body weighs 22.9584 gm in air, 19.7562 gm in water of specific gravity
0.997, and 17.4351 gm in a certain liquid. Calculate the density of the body and that
of the liquid.
36. A wooden block weighs 9.00 lb in air. A lead sinker is hung from the lower
end of the block and is lowered into water until the lead only is immersed. The appar-
ent weight of the system is found to be 15.000 lb. When the system is completely im-
mersed in water, the apparent weight is 3.00 lb. Calculate (a) the weight density of
the wood, (b) the specific gravity of the wood, and {c) the apparent weight of the
system if immersed in oil of specific gravity 0.800. Specific gravity of lead is 11.3.
Ans. 46.8 lb/ft'; 0.750; 5.52 lb
3 7 . W h a t volume of lead of specific gravity 11.3 must be placed on top of a

20.0-gm block of cork of specific gravity 0.240 to cause the cork to be barely sub-
merged in water? r ^T ^ lu •=
3 8 . A buoy is 7 5 % submerged when floating in fresh water. A force of 62 4 lb is
iust sufficient to submerge it completely, {a) W h a t is the volume of the buoy? (i) W h a t
. . •„ * • u*3 Ans. 4.0 ft'; 187 lb
IS Its approximate weight? . . , , -,«„
3 9 . A gold ring set with a diamond weighs 4.000 gm m air and 3.720 gm in
water. Find the weight of the diamond if t h e specific gravity of the gold is 19.3 and
t h a t of the diamond is 3.50. . o en T*
4 0 . A 23.40-gm hollow stopper is m a d e of glass of specific gravity 2.50 Its
a p p a r e n t weight when immersed in water is 3.90 gm. W h a t is the volume of the
. , ., , Ans. 10.1 cm-*
internal cavity.'' . . i u
41. A stone of specific gravity 2.50 starts from rest and sinks m a fresh-water lake.
Allowing for a 2 5 % frictional force, calculate the distance the stone sinks in 3.0 sec.
4 2 . If the specific gravity of crude oil is 0.70, w h a t is the m i n i m u m pressure
needed at the bottom of an oil well 1.0 mi deep to force the oil to the top
Ans. 1600 Ib/in.^
4 3 . A plank made of wood of specific gr^îty 0.80 has a volume of 5.0 f t l W h a t
force would be needed to hold this plank submerged in fresh water?
4 4 . T o what pressure can a 150-lb m a n raise the air pressure m an automobile
tire if he uses a simple p u m p without levfers a n d the area of cross section of the piston
. o A • 2? i- t- r- ^^_ 5Q lb/in.2
is 3.0 in.^"^ . , . ,
4 5 . Electric meters have their moving coils arranged on sharp pivots which are
supported by jeweled bearings. T h e points are often rounded off" in the shape ot a
hemisphere. If one of these had a radius of 5.0 X 10"^ in. and supported a coil weigh-
ing 0.15 oz, what would be the pressure u n d e r the pivot?
4 6 . A 100-kg man stands on a bellows having a circular shape of 10.0 cm radius.
T h e bellows is connected to a vertical pipe and is filled with oil of specific gravity
0.800. How high will the oil rise in the pipe in order to support the m a n .
Ans. j . y o m
4 7 . A 100-kg m a n stands on a square, water-filled bellows which measures 20
b y 20 cm. T h e bellows communicates with a vertical pipe which has a sectional area
of 2.0 c m ^ How high will the water rise in the pipe? . mnn
4 8 . A V-shaped open manometer contains kerosene of specific gravity 0.700
Find the displacement of the liquid column produced by a difference of pressure of
1.00 m m of mercury when the sides of the manometer make angles of 30 with the
, . , , ' ' Ans. 3.88 cm, along tube
horizontal. . , j * f qn
49. T h e lever of a certain hydraulic press gives a mechanical advantage ot bU
T h e diameter .of the smaller plunger is 2.0 in. a n d that of the larger is 10 m . W h a t
force is exerted by the press when a, 40-lb force is applied to the handle
50. If the casing of an oil well 500 ft deep isfuU of water, w h a t is ^he pressure a t
the bottom due to the weight of the water? "^- °'™'
51. A hydraulic lift operated by water u n d e r pressure of 100 Ib/in.^ has'a plunger
16 in. in diameter and weighs 2000 lb. W h a t load can it carry?
' % •'
\ • \\_
ii^v
^^F-,--. ^
NILS
GUSTAF
\ . \ DALEN
1869 to 1937
BORN IN STENSTORP, SWEDEN. ENGINEER AND INVENTOR. DALEN

WAS AWARDED THE I 9 1 2 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS
INVENTION OF THE AUTOMATIC REGULATORS THAT CAN BE USED
IN CONJUNCTION WITH GAS ACCUMULATORS FOR LIGHTING LIGHT-
HOUSES AND LIGHT BUOYS.
16. Fluids in Motion

The harnessing of waterpower and the building of efficient steam
turbines requires knowledge of the behavior of fluids in motion. T h e
designing of streamlined cars, trains, and airplanes is based on the
Study of problems involving fluids in motion^—particularly air in
motion. An understanding of the fundamental principles of flight and
the operation of certain aircraft instruments follows from a logical
extension of the principles of mechanics to fluids in motion.
187
We have seen that the properties of liquids at rest can be described

by the simple concepts of pressure and weight-density, by Archimedes'
principle of buoyancy, and by Pascal's law of the transmission of
pressure. W h e n liquids are m motion, new properties become appar-
ent. I n predicting what happens we cannot always rely on our
previous experience or intuition. But careful consideration shows that
the phenomena of fluids in motion can be described in terms of the
familiar principles of mechanics. The term "fluid" is applicable to
both liquids and gases and is used in considering their common
properties.
Fluid Flow. Knowledge of the laws that govern fluid flow is
important in providing for the distribution of water, gas, and oil in
^ pipelines and the efficient trans-
mission of energy in hydraulic ma-
^ V chines. T h e rate of flow of a liquid
through a pipe or channel is usually
measured as the volume that passes
~ \ a certain cross section per unit time,
FIG. 1.—Rate of flow of liquid ^^ gallons per minute, liters per
through a pipe. ^^^^^^^ ^^^_ j ^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^p^^d
of the liquid at section S in Fig. 1 is v, the distance / through
which the stream moves in time t is vt. This may be regarded as the
length of an imaginary cylinder that has passed section S in time t.
If A is the area of cross section, then the volume of the cylindrical
section is Al = Avt, and the rate of flow of the liquid is given by
^ = ^ ' =^^, (1)
I n a fluid at rest the pressure is the same at all points at the same
elevation. This is no longer true if the fluid is. moving. When water
flows in a uniform horizontal pipe, there is a fall in pressure along
the pipe in the direction of flow. T h e reason for this fall in pressure is
that force is required to maintain motion against friction. If the liquid
is being accelerated, additional force is required.
W h e n the valve of Fig. 2 is closed, water rises to the same level in
each vertical tube. When the valve is opened slightly to permit a
small rate of flow, the water level falls in each tube, indicating a
• progressive-decrease of pressure along the pipe. T h e pressure drop is-
F L U I D S IN MOTION 189
proportional to the rate of flow. Frictional eff"ects are very important

when water is distributed in city mains or when petroleum is trans-
ported long distances in pipe lines. Pumping stations must be placed
at intervals along such lines to maintain the flow.
%
FIG. 2.—Friction causes a fall in pressure along a tube in which a liquid flows.
Stream Lines and Tubes of Flow. We shall first consider steady

flow. A fluid flowing in a pipe (Fig. 3) will have a certain velocity
Vi at a, a velocity ^^2 at b, and so on. If, as time goes on, the velocity
of whatever fluid particle happens to be at a is still Vi, that at b is
still V2, etc., then the flow is said to be steady and the line abc is a
streamline. It represents the fixed path followed by an orderly proces-
FiG. 3.—Steady flow. Path abc is FIG. 4.—-Steady flow. Volume abc is
a streamline. a tube of flow.
sion of particles. When the flow is unsteady or turbulent there are

eddies -and whirlpools in the motion and the paths of the particles
are continually changing.
It is convenient to imagine the whole region in which flow occurs
to be divided into tubes of flow, each following in form the stream lines
on its surface. A tube is made up of a bundle of lines of flow. T h e
fluid in a tube of flow remains in that tube. It is assumed that all
particles passing a given cross section in a tube of flow have the same
velocity. In regions where the streamlines are crowded together the
speed is increased (Fig. 4).
I go COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
T h e Streamlining of a car or a plane is intended to permit a steady

flow of air past its surfaces so as to reduce the resistance or drag,
which turbulent flow would produce. Figure 5 shows a disk, a sphere,
and a streamlined object of equal cross sections. They are placed in
streams of fluid moving with the same speeds. T h e forces required to
hold the objects stationary in the streams are indicated by the vectors.
Note the reduction in force obtained by streamlining the object to
S UNITS
c'TURBULENh \ EDDIES
^-n\V)lv(('".'
'6- 0[ l(o) iTi 1 i

F I G . 5.—Coipparative drag.
reduce turbulence. A pursuit plane may have a drag equivalent to

that of a rectangular plate only 20 in. square, moving broadside.
Flow through a Constriction. • W h e n a liquid is flowmg through
a pipe of varying cross-sectional area (Fig. 6), there can be no accu-
mulation between a and K provided that the liquid is incompressible
Hence the weight of liquid passing through the cross section A, with
speed .1 must equal the weight passing in the same time t through
cross section Ai. with speed vi.
AiViDt = Aiv^Dt (2)
where D is the weight-density of the liquid.

F L U I D S IN MOTION 191
T w o important consequences are immediately apparent from this
equation. Since AiVi = A2V2, it follows that the speed of flow in a pipe
is greater in those regions where there is a constriction in the cross-
sectional area A. Furthermore, if as in Fig. 6 the speed is greater at b
than at a, the liquid experiences an acceleration between a and b.
This requires an accelerating force. This accelerating force can be
present only if the pressure at a is greater than the pressure at b. We
conclude that in the steady flow of a liquid, the pressure is least where
the velocity is greatest.
FIG. 6.—Liquid flow in a tube.
Bernoulli's Theorem, T h e preceding description of the steady

flow of a liquid can be put in more definite form by a n application
of the principle of conservation of energy to the liquid flowing between
the two planes a and b of Fig. 6. In any time t the volume V that flows
through a is the same as that which flows through b. Since the pres-
sure is diff"erent at the two ends, work is done on the liquid of an
amount PiV - P2V (since work = Fs = (PA)(vt) = PV). T h e work
done is equal to the change in energy (both potential and kinetic).
/\ W \ W \
(3)
P,v - P2V = {Wh2 - whr) + u — ^2^ - 2 — Î'j
Since
W
V =
D
W W
P.jy-P. {Wh - Why) + V2'
D 27 2 5 /
Simplifying 'and rearranging terms to group initial terms on one side
of the equation and final terms on the other gives
(4)
Each term in Eq. (4) has the dimensions of a length. I n the pressure-
depth relation the depth h is frequently called the " h e a d . " In analogy
then, each term of Eq. (4) is called a head; P/D^ the pressure head;
v'^/Zgy the velocity head; and h, the elevation head.
Although Bernoulli's theorem is rigorously correct only for in-
compressible, nonviscous liquids, it is often applied to ordinary liquids
with sufficient accuracy for m a n y engineering purposes.
E x a m p l e : W a t e r flows a t the r a t e of 30D f t V m i " t h r o u g h a n incJlned pipe
(Fig. 6). At a, where the diameter is 12 in., the pressure is 15 lb/in*. W h a t is
the pressure a t h, w h e r e the diameter is 6.0 in. a n d the center of the p i p e is 2.0
ft lower t h a n at a?
300 ftVmin
v4iUl = -42f2 = 5.0 ftVsec
60 sec/min
Ai V2 fl-(6.0 in.}''
= 4.0
A2 IT; ~ T ( 3 . 0 in.)2
-——^-ryjr - 6.4 ft/sec
V2 4ui = 26 ft/sec
Pi (15 l b / i n . ^ ) ( U 4 iti.Vft^) = 2200 lb/ft«
For water D - 62.4 Ib/flK

Frotn Eq. (4)
= 2200 Ib/ft^ + (62.4 lb/ft^)C2.0 ft) + 2 x'tzhhlc'' ^^^•'*^^Z^)* " (^6ft/sec)^]

= 2200 lb/ft* + 120 lb/ft= - 620 ib/ft^
= 1700 Ib/ft^ = 1 2 I b / i n . 2
Pressure and Speed. When water flows through a pipe that has
a constriction (Fig. 7), the water
necessarily speeds u p as it enters
the constriction, and as we have
seen there is a decrease in pressure be-
a 6 c tween a and b. Consider the case of a
FiG. 7.—Flow through a con-
striction. Decrease in pressure ac- horizontal pipe. Applying Bernoulli's
companies increiê in speed. tlieorem, we get
D'^2g D'^lg (5)

FLUIDS IN MOTION 193
Combining Eq. (5) with Eq. (2) gives
D DviWAi^
p.-p,=g(,=_v)==^^(^:-i) (6)
Equation (6) may be used to determine the rate of flow of the liquid,
that is, the Volume per second of liquid passing a.
D Sfafie tube
FIG. 8.—Pitot-tube air-speed indicator. The pressure tube P is open at the end
while the static tube S is closed at the end but has openings on the side. The pressure
gauge has a sealed inner case C and is operated by the pressure-sensitive diaphragm D.
A tube similar to that of Fig. 7 having a constricted throat section
between larger diameter inlet and outlet sections is called a Venturi
tube. A meter that utilizes such ,a tube and is
calibrated by the relation of Eq. (6) is called a
Venturi ^gmvjneter,_^
T h e speed of flow of a fluid or that of a body
moving relative to a fluid may also be measured
by means of a pitot tube (Fig. 8). Because of the
inertia of the fluid, its impact causes the pressure
in tube P to be greater than the static pressure
in tube S. T h e two tubes are connected to a
gauge that records the differential pressure. A
pitot tube is frequently used to measure the air
speed of an airplane. T h e dial of the pressure F I G. 9.—B e r -
gauge can be calibrated to read the speed of the noulli's principle ap-
tube relative to the air. plied to a spray jet.
The^ atomizer on a spray gun (Fig. 9) and the jets in a carburetor

utilize Bernoulli's principle. Air is forced through a tube that con-
J 94 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
tains a constriction. At this narrowed part a side tube enters from the
liquid reservoir. At the constriction the air speed is high and the pres-
sure consequently is reduced below atmospheric. T h e difference in
pressures forces the liquid up the connecting lube from the top of
which it is expelled by the air blast. T h e water injector on a loco-
motive boiler operates in a similar manner.
Airfoils. Imagine that the walls of a Venluri tube are moved
apart as suggested in Fig. 10. T h e result will be as shown at the right
-AIRmiL
CHORD
FIG. 10.—Airfoils.
in Fig. 10. T h e near-by streamline follows the curved surface closely;

at increasing distances above the surface the streamlines arc less
curved, and at a distance equal to four times the chord length the
curvature is negligible. T h e increase in speed of the air on the upper
curved surface results in a decreased pressure at that surface. Because
the pressure below the section is greater than that above it, the section
ANGLE (^
ATTACK
oiREcrion
7r
FIG. 11-—Lift produced by air flow past an airfoil.
experiences a lift. Any such surface designed to obtain reacting force

from the air through which it moves is called an airfoil. In this sense
airplane wings, ailerons, rudders, and propellers are all airfoils.
When an airfoil is inclined upward a few degrees with respect to
the wind direction, air will be deflected from the lower surface and
the reacting force will produce a pressure at the lower surface greater
than atmospheric by an amount indicated by the arrows in Fig. 11.
At the upper surface the pressure is less than atmospheric, according
to Bernoulli's principle. Both effects, but chiefly the second, con-
tribute to the lifting force L. If t h e weight of the airfoil or wing is W,
and it experiences a drag D due to air friction, it is evident that the
vectors representing these three forces must add to form a closed tri-
angle (zero resultant) when the wing is moving with constant velocity.
Discharge from an Orifice. W h e n liquid escapes from a small
sharp-edged orifice in a vessel (Fig. 12) the outgoing liquid gains
kinetic energy at the expense of the
remaining liquid. In the absence of
friction, the kinetic energy, if changed
back to potential energy, should be
sufficient to raise the escaping liquid
to the level of the surface in the vessel.
Liquid of weight Win leaving the (a) " (b)
FIG. 12.—Discharge from an orifice.
orifice with speed v has kinetic energy
}'4{W/g)v^. T h e potential energy of this same liquid when at the
upper surface of the liquid is Wh. Equating these we get
1 W
_ _ j;2 = Wh or v^ = 2gh (7)
2 g
This relation is known as TorricellPs theorem (1608-1647).
Since the pressure P at a depth h below the liquid surface is Dh,
Eq. (7) also can be expressed as
(8)
This expression is also applicable to the escape of a gas at pressure P.

These results are only approximate. During the flow, the stream-
lines from all parts of the vessel crowd together at the orifice, and the
stream contracts somewhat in cross section outside the orifice owing
to the inertia and centrifugal force of the liquid as it follows the
curved streamlines. The effect of frictional resistance is to decrease
the rate of discharge to about 0.6 of that given by Eqs. (7) a n d (8).
Contraction can be eliminated by the use of an orifice whose walls
curve to fit the streamlines (Fig. \2b).
Example: A tank containing water has an orifice of 1.0 in.^ in one vertical side,
9.0 ft below the free surface level in the tank. Find the velocity of discharge assuming
that there is no wasted energy. Assuming the cross section of the stream contracts to
0.64 of the area of the circular orifice, find the flow.
From Eq. (7)

V = -/2gh = V 2 X 32 ft/sec^ X 9.0 ft = 24 ft/sec
The rate of flow = (area of cross section) (speed)
= (0.64)(1.0in.2)(24 ft/sec)
= (0.64) ( ^ ft^) (24 X 60 ft/min) = 6.4 ftVmir
Turbines. In a ttirbine the direction of flow of water, steam, or

burning gases is changed by blades or buckets
on a wheel, and the force resulting from this
change in m o m e n t u m is used to rotate the
wheel. For efficient operation turbine blades
should be so formed that the impelling fluid
flows smoothly over them. Also the fluid
should be discharged from the turbine with
as small a speed as possible. Figure 13 shows
how this is accomplished in a Pelton wheel.
13.—Action If the velocities of the jet and bucket are v
Pelton wheel. and v', respectively, and if v' is half of v,
F/XED MOVING FIXED MOVING
RELATIVE l^\STEAM
STEAM \<iyELoary
VELOCITY
RELATIVESTEAM
VELOCITY
''STEAM VELOCITY
BLADEVELOCITY
FIG. 14.—^The steam turbine, {a) In a reaction turbine steam expands in alternate
rings of fixed and moving blades that act as jets. The diagram shows two stages.
Steam pressure falls in both fixed and moving blades. As the steam expands, the
direction of its motion is changed, and the reaction rotates the moving blades. Steam
velocity referred to the earth increases in the fixed blades but decreases in the moving
blades, {b) In the vector diagram, the horizontal arrows represent the velocity of
the blades relative to earth. The flow lines are those which would be seen by an
observer on the moving blades. The blades are shaped so that the velocity of the
steam relative to the moving blades is parallel to the blade surfaces on entering and on
leaving.
"fi^'-

then the velocity of the outgoing water relative to ground will be
zero and the whole of the kinetic energy of the water in the jet is
converted into useful work. In practice 70 to 90 per cent of this ideal
work may be obtained. Figure 14 shows a steam turbine in which the
\
1
•:+i
• i
%
• ! » • .
FIG. 15.—A 50,000-kw turbine during construction.
direction of flow of high-speed steam is repeatedly changed by passage

past alternate stator and rotor blades until much of its energy has
been delivered to the rotor.
SUMMARY
The rate of flow of a liquid through a pipe is usually measured as
the volume that passes a certain cross section per unit time,
R = Av
ig8 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
In the steady flow of a liquid the pressure is least where the

velocity is greatest.
The steady flow of a liquid can be described by Bernoulli's theorem
in the statement that the sum of the pressure head, the elevation
head, and the velocity head remains constant,
Bernoulli's principle is applied in a Venturi flow meter to measure

the rate of flow of a fluid.
An airfoil is any surface designed to obtain a reacting force from
the air through which it moves.
The speed with which a liquid escapes from a vessel through an
orifice is given by TorricelWs theorem.
In a turbine the change in m o m e n t u m of a fluid as it is deflected

by blades causes the shaft to rotate.
QUESTIONS
1. Why does the flow of water from a faucet decrease when someone opens^.
another valve in the same building?
2. Discuss the statement, "Fluids have a zero coefficient of static friction." ^
3. Give a detailed description of the process of fluid flow. What are the causes .
of flow?
4. Describe four illustrations of Bernoulli's principle.
5. Why will marbles not fall vertically in a cylinder of water?
6. How is air drawn into a gas burner? ^
7. If a person is standing near a fast-moving railroad train, is there danger that
he will fall toward it? ,
8. What makes a flag flutter? What makes a baseball curve? '
9. How does the speed of flow of liquid from a small hole in a tank depend upon
the depth of the hole below the liquid surface?
10. A jet of water strikes a surface and the water may be assumed to run off with
a negligible speed. Derive an expression for theforce exerted by the jet. ,-
11. Why is a difference of pressure needed to force a liquid through a horizontal
pipe of uniform/diameter?
12. How will an increase in altitude affect the difference in pressure on the upper
and lower surfaces of an airplane wing? Justify your answer by reference to Eq. (4).
FLUIDSINMOTION 199
13. A stretched elastic band is wrapped around a ping-pong ball. The ball is
snapped forward by the elastic band, which also causes the top of the ball to spin in
the forward direction. Will the ball "rise" or "drop"?
14. Explain how you would pitch a ball for an "incurve." For a "drop."
15. Water flows in a horizontal conduit of nonuniform cross section. Does a
typical small mass of the liquid remain in equilibrium as it passes through the pipe?
Explain.
16. Explain by the aid of diagrams why a ball will remain spinning on the side
of an air jet.
17. Twcf tall cylinders are filled with liquid to the same height. One contains
water, the other mercury. In which cylinder is the pressure greater at a given depth?
If small holes are opened in the wall halfway up the cylinders, from which will the
liquid emerge at higher speed? Which jet will travel farther before striking the table
top?
PROBLEMS
1. Water flows from a pipe of 2.0 cm internal diameter at the rate of 8.0 liters/
min. What is the speed of the water in the pipe?
2. Liquid flows in a pipe of inside; diameter 1.5 in. at an average speed of 3.5
ft/sec. What is the rate of flow in gallons per minute? (1 gal = 231 in.')
Ans. 19 gal/min
3. Oil flows in a 10-in. pipe line at a speed of 3.5 mi/hr. How many gallons of
oil does the pipe deliver in one day?
4. What is the kinetic energy of each cubic foot of water in a stream that is
moving with a speed of 64 ft/sec? Ans. 4000 ft-lb
5. How much work is done in forcing 50 ft' of water through a }i-m. pipe if the
difference in pressure at the two ends of the pipe Is 15 lb/in.^?
6. A Pel ton wheel is driven by a jet of water 3.0 in. in diameter moving 120
ft/sec. (a) How much energy is supplied per second? (b) Assuming an efSciency of
75%, what horsepower can the wheel develop? Ans. 83,000 ft-lb; iTO hp
7. A fire hose emits 32 lb of water per second in a horizontal jet which strikes a
vertical wall at a speed of 75 ft/sec. If each particle of water rebounds with the
same horizontal speed as it has when it strikes the wall, what is the total force exerted
by the water on the wall?
8. Liquid of specific gravity 0.90 flows in a horizontal ttibe 6.0 cm in diameter.
In a section where the tube is constricted to 4.2 cm in diameter the liquid pressure is
less than that in the main tube by 16,000 dynes/cm^. Calculate the speed of the liquid
in the tube. Ans. iTO cm/sec
9. A Venturi meter having a 5.0-in.^ throat is connected in a pipe of 12-in.^
cross section. The pressures are observed to be 22 lb/in.^ in the pipe and 16 lb/in.^ at
the throat when water flows steadily through the meter. What is the rate of flow in
cubic feet per second?
10. A horizontal pipe of cross section 4.0 in.^ has a constriction of cross section
1.0 in.2 Gasoline (weight-density 42 lb/ft') flows with a speed of 6.0 ft/sec in the
-10319-
large pipe where the pressure is 10.0 lb/in.'' Find (a) the speed, and (i) the pressure
in the constriction. Ans. 24 ft/sec; 7.5 lb/in.^
11. Oil of specific gravity 0.85 flows in a tube 3.0 cm in diameter at a pressure ofl
1.6 X 10^ dynes/cm^. In a Venturi constriction the tube has a 2.0 cm diameter andj
the pressure is 1.0 X 10" dynes/cm^. .Calculate the rate of flow of oil in the tube.
12. Water flows steadily through a pipe at the rate of 64 ft'/min. A pressure gaugel
placed on a section of the pipe where the diameter is 4.0 in. reads 16 Ib/in.^ Deter-
mine the pressure in a section of the pipe where the diameter is constricted to 2.0 in. "
Ans. 0.93 lb/in.2
13. (a) With what speed does water flow from an opening that is 25 ft below the
free surface? {b) Calculate the speed of discharge of water from this aperture if an
added pressure of 20 lb/in.^ is applied to the surface of the water.
14. Water in a storage tank stands 9.0 ft above the level of a valve in the side of
the tank, {a) With what speed will water come out of the valve, if friction is negligible?
(ft) To what height will this water rise if the opening in the outlet tube is directed ''
upward? Ans. 24 ft/sec; 9.0 ft
15. Water is maintained at a height of 24 ft in a tank. Calculate the diameter of a
circular streamlined hole needed at the base of the tank to discharge water at the rate <
of 1.0 gal/min.
16. Water having an elevation head of 24 ft flows at the rate of 9.0 ft/sec in a
sloping channel. Neglecting friction losses, what is the speed of the water at a place
where the elevation head is 12 ft? Ans. 29 ft/sec "
17. The level of water in a tank is maintained 4.0 ft above the center of a sharp-
edged orifice in the side of the tank. The orifice is 1.0 in. in diameter, but the stream
contracts to two-thirds this diameter as it leaves the hole. What is the rate of discharge
from the hole?
18. Castle Geyser at Yellowstone shoots a spire of water 25() ft into the air. By
how much must the pressure at its base exceed atmospheric pressure?
Ans. 108 lb/in.2
19. In a wind-tunnel experiment the pressure at the upper surface of an airfoil
is found to be 12.95 lb/in.^ while the pressure at the lower surface is 13.05 lb/in.^
What is the lifting force of a wing of this design if it has a span of 24 ft and a width
of 5.0 ft?
20. An airplane weighing 800 lb has a wing area of 120 ft^. What difference in,
pressure on the two sides of the wing is required to sustain the plane in level flight?
Ans. 0.046 lb/in."
I
HEIKE
KAMERLINGH
ONNES
I 853 to 1926
BORN IN GRONINGEN, HOLLAND. FOUNDER OF THE CRYOGENIC

LABORATORY AT LEIDEN. AWARDED THE I 9 I 3 NOBEL PRIZE
FOR PHYSICS IN RECOGNITION OF HIS INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE
PROPERTIES OF MATTER AT LOW TEMPERATURES, WHICH LED,
AMONG OTHER THINGS, TO THE PRODUCTION OF LIQUID HELIUM.
17. Properties of Gases

All matter, whether solid, liquid, or gas, consists of molecules that
attract each other. In solids the molecules are relatively close to each
other and the forces of attraction are great enough to hold the mole-
cules in a regular pattern and thus maintain a definite volume and
shape. In a liquid the molecules are, on the average, farther apart;
the forces are therefore smaller and while the liquid maintains a
definite volume it assumes the shape of its container. In a gas the
distances between molecules are large compared to their size and the
forces of attraction are small compared to-those in solids and liquids.
A gas therefore has neither shape nor volume of its own but assumes
those of its container.
Air. T h e most common gas is air, a mixture of several gases b u t
principally nitrogen and oxygen. Since the air is always present, we
seldom notice the forces that air exerts unless these forces become so
great that they produce inconvenience, discomfort, or destruction.
It is a common expression to characterize something £is '^light as
air," but air is hardly "light." Air is attracted by the earth as is every
other substance and the total weight of the air is tremendous, roughly
6 X 10^^ tons. This huge weight is always pressing on the surface of
the earth.
Air Pressure. Since air has weight, it exerts force on any object
immersed in it. T h e force per unit area is the air pressure. This pressure
under standard conditions is about 14.7 lb/in.^ As a result of this
pressure very large forces are exerted on even moderately large areas.
On an ordinary window, say 3.0 h by 6,0 ft the force is
(14.7 lb/in.2)(36 in.)C72 in.) =.38,000 lb ^ 19 tons.

Fortunately this large force is normally balanced by another force
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction on the other side of the
wincfow lor no orcfmary wmdow would of itseff be abfe to withstand
so great a force. If a container such as an ordinary tin can is closed
tightly and air pumped out, it soon collapses because of the greater
force on the outside. This action is used in certain types of conveyors.
A spout is inserted into grain or .other loose material, air is removed
from the spout by means of a blower, a n d the outside air pushes the
material up the spout. Freight cars or boats may be loaded or un-
loaded very quickly in this manner.
Buoyancy. T h e buoyant effect of air or other gas is by no means
negligible. A balloon is supported as it floats in air by a buoyant
force equal to the weight of air displaced. At the surface it may dis-
place a weight of air greater than the combined weight of bag, gas
contained in the bag, and load. If this is the case, the balloon will rise.
As the balloon rises, the external pressure decreases, and the balloon
expands; but a t the same time the density of air becomes less so that
PROPERTIES OF GASES 203
the buoyancy per unit volume is decreased. T h e balloon will rise

until the weight of air displaced in the new position is equal to the
total weight of balloon and contents.
T h e buoyant force of air on solids is less important because it is
only a small fraction of the weight of the solid. However, in accurate
weighing buoyancy cannot be neglected.
TABLE I. DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOME GASES
(0°C and 760 m m of mercury)
Density, Weight-density, Specific gravity

Gas
gm/liter lb/ft' (relative to air)
Air 1.293 0.081 1.000

Carbon dioxide 1.977 0.123 1.529
Hydrogen 0.090 0.0056 0.069
Helium 0.178 0.011 0.138
Nitrogen 1.251 0.078 0.967
Oxygen 1.429 0.089 1.105
Steam, 100°C. 0.598 0.037 0.462
E x a m p l e : Brass weights are used in weighing an aluminum cylinder whose

approximate mass is 89 gm. W h a t error is introduced if the buoyant effect of air
(d = 0.0013 gm/cm^) is neglected?
<^braas = 8 . 9 gm/cm'
dAi = 2.7 g m / c m '
V =
89 g m
VB = 10 cm^
8.9 gm/cm*
89 gm
K., = 33 c m '
2.7 g m / c m ^
T h e difference in volume V of air displaced on the two pans of the balance is
V= VM - VB = 33 c m ' - 10 cm= = 23 c m '

m= Vd = 23 c m ' X 0.0013 g m / c m ' = 0.030 gm
T h e error introduced is only a small fraction of the total mass, b u t in m a n y ex-

periments where accuracy is important an error of 0.030 gm in 89 grams is too great
to allow.
Example: A balloon is to operate at a level where the weight-density of air is
0.060 lb/ft'. H o w m u c h load can it support if it has a volume of 800 ft' ai that level
and is filled with hydrogen D = 0.0050 lb/ft'? T h e weight of the bag is 30 lb.
Q04 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
W = VD
Weight of air displaced
IVa = 800 fe5< 0.060 lb/ft" = 48 lb
Weight of hydrogen
WK = 800 ft' X 0.0050 l b / f t ' = 4 lb
Weight of bag
Wi = 30 lb
T h e load supported
Z, = H/„ - W', - Hî, = 48 lb - 4 lb - 30 lb = 14 lb
T h e Mercury Barometer. If a long vertical tube is inserted into
71? a liquid and air pumped from it, the liquid will
PUMP
be pushed lip into the tube by the air on the
outside (Fig. 1). T h e liquid will rise until the pres-
sure in the tube due to the remaining air and the
column of liquid is the same as the pressure out-
side the tube at the same level in the liquid. At
the level of the outside surface AB the pressure is
F I G . 1.—When air the same as the air pressure. If we could remove
is p u m p e d from the
tube, atmospheric
all the air above the liquid, the height of the
pressure forces liquid liquid column above the free sur-
into it. face would give a direct measure
of atmospheric pressure. Such an instrument is called
a barometer. T h e length of tube necessary for use as a
barometer depends upon the density of the liquid used,
for in the liquid P = hD. The most satisfactory liquid
for a barometer is mercury. Because of its high density
(13.6 gm/cm^) the column supported by atmospheric
pressure is only about 30 in. high, whereas water
would require a tube over 30 ft in length. Mercury has
the added advantage that it does not vaporize readily
at ordinary temperatures, and hence the pressure due
to its vapor in the space above the liquid is very small.
A simple mercury barometer can be made by
filling a 3-ft glass tube with mercury, carefully stopper-
F I G . 2.—
ing the end so that no air is trapped in the tube and
Principle of the
inverting the tube in a dish of mercury as shown in m e r c u r y b a -
Fig. 2. Wheji the stopper is removed, some mercury rometer.
runs out of the tube and the upper surface sinks to a position lower than
the top of the tube. The height of the mercury column above the
surface in the well is called the barometric height and is usually about
30 in. near sea level. If, while filling the tube, one allows air to get
into the space above the mercury column, the barometer will read
too low because of the downward pressure of the entrapped air.
A common type of mercury barometer is
shown in Fig. 3. It consists essentially of a
closed glass tube inserted into a well in which
the level of the free surface is adjustable to
bring it to the end of the scale shown by the
small pointer to the right of the tube. Gradu-
ations are marked on the scale only near the
top where an indicator is placed to assist in
making the reading. This type of barometer is
used in technical laboratories, weather obser-
vatories, and even on ships for accurate reading
of barometric pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure. Barometer read-
ings are much lower at high altitudes than at
sea level, since the weight of air above the
measuring station is much less. T h e decrease
as we go to higher altitudes is not uniform as
it is in a liquid, since the density of air decreases
with increase in altitude.
At any one level barometric pressure varies
from day to day. Standard atmospheric pres-
sure supports a column of mercury 76.00 cm
(29.92 in.) in height at latitude 45° and at sea
level. Barometric pressure is usually expressed FIG. 3.—Â mercury ba-
in terms of the height of a mercury column, rometer.
b u t it can be converted into other pressure units by the use of the
familiar relation P = hD (or P = hdg).
Example: Express standard atmospheric pressure in pounds per square inch and
in dynes per square centimeter
P= hD
h = 29.92 in.
D = 13.60 X 62.4 lb/ft" ^
1728 in.Vft'
13.60 X 62.4
P = 2^92 in. lb/in.5 = 14.7 Ib/in.^
1728
p = hdg = 76.00 cm X 13.60 gm/cm^ X 980 cm/sec"
= 1,013,000 dynes/cm^
2o6 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Since the dyne per square centimeter is a very small unit a larger unit of pressure,
the bar, is used. A bar is 1,000,000 dynes/cm^. A more common unit, t h e millibar, is
used in weather records. T h e millibar is a thousandth of a bar or 1000 dynes/cm^.
Standard atmospheric pressure is approximately 1013 millibars.
The Aneroid Barometer. T h e mercury barometer is the most

reliable type of barometer, but it is not readily portable since its con-
struction requires that it be kept in a vertical position. Whenever the
Poinfer ^
> =rr^ >
' f c j - Mainsprinff:^
FIG. 4.—Ân aneroid barometer.
use of a barometer requires portability, another type called an aneroid

barometer is used. T h e essential feature of an aneroid barometer
(Fig. 4) is a metallic box or cell, corrugated to make it flexible and
partly exhausted of air. This cell tends to coYia.rîc under the pressure
of air, b u t a strong spring balances the force due to air pressure and
prevents collapse. As th& pressure of the air changes, the free surface
of the cell moves in or out slightly, and this small movement is mag-
nified by a system of levers and trans-
mitted to a needle that moves over a dial.
Pressure in a Confined Gas, Boyle's
Law. Whenever a sample of gas is con-
fined in a closed container, it exerts pres-
sure. Consider a container such as that
F I G . 5.—Relation between shown in Fig. 5, one wall of which is a
pressure and volume in a gas
at constant temperattire. ^ movable piston. In its initial position
a there is a pressure Pi 'when the volume '
IS V\. If, however, the piston is pressed down until it i§ in the
new position shown in- h, the volume has been_decreased to Vi while
the pressure has been increased to Pi. If this change takes place so
slowly that there is no change in temperature, the volume occupied

by the gas is inversely proportional to the pressure
v^l (1)
or the product of pressure and volume is always the same,
that is,
PiFi = AF2 (2)
This relationship is expressed in Boyle's law, named after the Irish
physicist, Robert Boyle (1627-1691), who first stated it. It may be
written as follows: If the temperature of a confined gas does not
change, the product of the pressure and volume is constant. I n
symbols,
. PV = k ' (3)
Example: The volume of a gas under standard atmospheric pressure (76.0 cm
of mercury) is 200 in.' What is the volume when the pressure is 80 cm of mercury if
the temperature is unchanged?
From Eq. (2)
PiFi = P2V2
76 cm X 200 in.^ = 80 cm X Fj
V2 = mo 200 in 3 = 190 in.^
Boyle's law holds true over wide ranges of temperature and pres-
sure. There are, however, conditions under which it cannot be a p -
plied. If the temperature is near that at which the gas will liquefy,
there will be large deviations from the simple law. The. change in
volume is greater than that predicted by the law. Also if the pressure
becomes very great, the deviation from Boyle's law is large, in this
case the change in volume being less than that predicted by the law.
Pressure Gauges. Several types of instruments may be used to
measure the pressure of a gas. A few of these, such as the barometer,
measure the whole pressure directly; others measure only the difference
between the gas pressure and atmospheric pressure. This differential pressure
is called gauge pressure.
O n e of the simplest types of pressure-measuring device is a simple
U-tube manometer such as is shown in Fig. 6. The excess pressure of
the gas above atmospheric is indicated by the difference h in level of
the liquid in the two tubes. T h e liquid may be mercury, in which
case the reading is directly in centimeters of mercury, or any other
liquid which does not react with the gas and is not too volatile. T h e
reading may be converted into centimeters of
mercury by use of Eq. (5), Chap. 15
h Hg £>Hg = hiDi
JO
CONTAINER
V where the subscripts Hg and / refer, respectively,
to mercury and the liquid, used.
Other pressure gauges make use of the force
exerted on the end of a piston by the gas, this force
being balanced by a known weight. Still others
FIG. 6.—Â simple make use of the deformation of an elastic mem-
U-tube manometer.
brane by the pressure.
Gauge pressures cannot be used in Boyle's law. Whenever t h e .
pressure indicated is a gauge pressure, atmospheric pressure must be
added before using it in the law.
•ft
Example: An automobile tire whose volume is 1500 in.' is found to have a pres-
sure of 20.0 Ib/in.^ when read on the tire gauge. How much air (at standard pressure)
must be forced in to bring the pressure to 35.0 Ib/in.^?
The 1500 in.' of air in the tire at 20 lb/in.^ is compressed into a smaller volume at
35.0 lb/in.2
PiFi = P^Vi
Pi = 20.0 lb/in.2 + 14.7 Ib/in.^ = 34.7 lb/in."
P2 = 35.0 lb/in.2 + 14.7 Ib/in.^ = 49.7 lb/in."
(34.7 Ib/in.2)(1500 in.') = (49.7 lb/in.2)F2
V2 = 1050 in. 2
The volume of air added to the tire is
1500 in.3 - 1050 in.3 = 450 in.'
when its gauge pressure is 35.0 Ib/in.^
The volume at atmospheric pressure will be found from Boyle's law.
14.7 lb/in.2 XV = 49.7 Ib/in.^ X 450 in.'
„ 49.7
450 in.' = 1500 in.'
14.7
Volume Elasticity of Gases. If the pressure on a confined gas is

increased, the volume decreases in accordance with Boyle's law.
When the pressure is released, the gas returns to its original volume.
T h e gas has the property of volume elasticity.
If the temperature remains the same during compression and ex-
pansion, from Eq. (2), Chap. 14, the bulk modulus is
stress AP AP
K = F (4)
strain AF/F AF
If the pressure is increased by a small amount AP to P + AP, the

volume is decreased by a small a m o u n t A F to F — AF. From Boyle's
law,
PV = {P •\^ A P ) ( F - AF)
= PV -\- FAP - P A F - APAF
Since A P and A F are small, their product can be neglected and
PV = PV ^ FAP - PAF
FAP = PAF
AP _ P
AF ~ F
Substituting in Eq. (4),
FAP P
K = P (5)
Thus at constant temperature the bulk modulus of a gas is equal to

its pressure.
T h e Siphon. T h e siphon (Fig. 7) is a simple
device commonly used to transfer liquid from one
-fr%
container to another. It consists essentially of an
inverted U-tube completely filled with liquid. An h,
external pressure P due to the atmosphere tending
to force the liquid in A up the tube and over
into B is diminished in the tube by the pressure
hD of the column of liquid. T h e same external
pressure P tending to force the liquid over to A
is diminished by hiD. There is a net pressure B
hiD — hD, causing the liquid to flow from ^ to P FIG. 7.—A siphon.
since the liquid level is higher in A than in B. T h e siphon will not
operate if the height h is greater than the column the atmosphere can
support {h = P/D).
2IO COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
SUMMARY
Molecules of a gas are relatively far apart and do not attract each
other sufficiently to maintain a definite volume or shape. A gas takes
the shape and volume of its container.
Air has weight and hence exerts pressure.
T h e buoyant force of a gas is equal to the weight of the gas
displaced.
T h e barometer is an instrument for the measurement of air pres-
sure. There are both mercury and aneroid types of barometer.
Standard barometric pressure ic; 76.00 cm (29.92 in.) of mercury
at sea level and 45* latitude. This is equivalent to about 14.7 Ib/in.^
Pressure decreases as the altitude increases a n d varies from time to
time at a single place. Pressure is also expressed in millibars. A millibar
is 1000 dynes/cm^.
BoyWs law states that if the temperature of a confined gas is un-
changed the product of pressure and volume is constant.
Gauge pressure is the excess pressure above atmospheric. Gauge

pressure cannot be used in Boyle's law.
QUESTIONS
1. State some of the relative advantages a n d disadvantages of the mercury vs.
the aneroid types of barometers.
2. Show clearly w h y the constant k in the Boyle's-law equation PV = t is not a
pure number, b u t has the dimensions of work.
3. W h y cannot the door of a closet be slammed shut?
4. W h y is there more danger in the failure of an air storage tank in which the
pressure is 100 l b / i n . ' than in the failure of a water tank in which the pressure.is
100 Ib/in.V
5. W h y is the work of digging a tunnel u n d e r a river done in a high pressure
chamber? W h a t determines h o w high the pressure should be in the chamber? W h a t
danger is involved if the pressure becomes too low? too high?
6. I n a common type of drinking fountain a large bottle of water is inverted into
a small reservoir. W h y does the water not all r u n out?
7. Could a balloon be constructed that would rise until it reached the moon?
• 8. I n certain instruments pressure must be transmitted for considerable distance
a n d to various levels. W h a t advantages are there in using a gas as a transmitting
m e d i u m rather than a liquid? W h a t disadvantages?
9. Cite the physical principle involved in the operation of (a) a hydrometer,
(A) hydraulic brakes, (c) an aspirator, ((/) a merciuy barometer, if) an airship.
PROBLEMS
1. The barometric pressure is 30 in. of mercury. Express this in pounds per
square foot and in pounds per square inch.
2. What is the net lifting abihty of a balloon containing 400 m' of hydrogen, the
balloon without gas weighing 250 kg, if the density of air is 1200 gm/m^?
Ans. 19A kg
3. A lighter-than-air airship weighs 5.0 tons and its load 2.0 tons. What must
be the volume of the lifting bags if they are filled with helium? Neglect the buoyant
effect on the structure and load.
4. A block of material whose specific gravity is 2.50 is found to have a mass of
32.240 gm when measured by an equal-arm balance with brass weights. Find the
correction for buoyancy of the air and the true mass. Ans. 0.012 gm; 32.252 gm
5. A cylindrical glass jar of 5.0 cm radius is covered with a closely fitting glass
plate weighing 200 gm. What total force is required to lift the plate off if the inside
of the vessel is exhausted to a pressure of 1.0 cm of mercury?
6. A gas occupies 2.0 ft' under a pressure of 30 in. of mercury. What volume will
it occupy under 25 in. of mercury pressure? Assume that the temperature is un-
changed. Ans. 2.4 ft'
7. To what fraction of its original volume is the air compressed in a diving bell
when it is lowered to a depth of 60 ft in salt water of specific gravity 1.026, the height
of the barometer being 30 in.? What air pressure would keep the water out of the bell?
8. A uniform air column is 50 cm long at atmospheric pressure. It is compressed
to 40 cm length by an added pressure of 18 cm of mercury. What is the atmospheric
pressure? Ans. 11 cm of mercury
9. To what depth must a diving bell 5.0 ft high be immersed in order that the
water may rise 3.0 ft within it? The barometric reading-is 30 in. of mercury.
10. The volume of an air bubble increases tenfold in rising from the bottom of a
lake to its surface. If the height of the barometer is 30.0 in., and if the temperature
of the air bubble is constant, what is the depth of the lake? Ans. 306 ft
11. An air bubble occupies a volume of 12 cm' when submerged 8.0 m below the
surface of an oil vat. The oil has a specific gravity of 0.80, and the air above it is at
normal atmospheric pressure. What is the buoyant force upon the bubble when it is
just below the surface of the oil?
12. A tube 120 cm long, closed at one end, is half filled with mercury and then
inverted into a mercury trough in such a way that no air escapes from the tube. If the
barometric pressure is 75 cm, what is the height of the mercury column inside the
tube? Ans. 27 cm
13. A uniform capillary tube sealed at one end and placed in a horizontal position
contains a column of air 24 cm long trapped between the closed end and a slug of
mercury 36 cm in length. Barometric pressure is 72 cm of mercury. What is the length
of the entrapped column of air if the tube is turned into a vertical position, (a) with
the closed end pointing downward? (i) with the closed end pointing upward?
14. A barometer, which has not been completely freed of air, reads 76.0 cm
when the correct barometric height is 77.0 cm. The free internal height of the top of
the barometer tube above the surface of the mercury in the cistern is 85 cm. Find the
true barometric height when the height of the mercury in the defective instrument is
75.0 cm. Ans. 75.9 cm
15. A barometer has a little air in the space at the top of the mercury column
and hence reads only 28 in. when the barometric pressure is 29 in. When the barom-
eter reads 29 in., the correct pressure is 30.2 in. What is the correct value of the
atmospheric pressure when it reads 26 in.? .
16. An open U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of gas in a tank.
The manometer contains oil of specific gravity 0.80. What is the gas pressure on a
day when the mercury barometer reads 75.0 cm and the oil stands 20 cm higher in
the open arm of the manometer than in the arm which communicates to the confined
gas? Ans. 76.2 cm of mercury
17. In a J-tube a volume of 5.0 cm* of air is trapped when the level of the mercury
on the open side is 60 cm higher than on the closed end. If the barometric height is
72 cm, what will be the difference in levels to cause the air to have a volume
of 6.0 cm'?
18. The volume of a tire is 1500 in.' when the pressure is 30 lb/in.^ above atmos-
pheric pressure, (a) What volume will this air occupy at atmospheric pressure?!,
Assume that atmospheric pressure is 15 lb/in. ^ (b) How much air will come out of the
tire when the valve is removed? . Ans. 4500 in.'; 3000 in.'
19. An oxygen tank has a volume of 1.50 ft' and its pressure gauge indicates,
100 lb/in.^ After opening the tank valve for a time the gauge reads 30 lb/in.^ How
many cubic feet (at atmospheric pressure) have escaped? Assume the temperature
constant. Assume atmospheric pressure to be 15 lb/in.^
20. An oxygen tank has a volume of 1.5 ft', and its pressure gauge indicates
200 lb/in.'' After opening the valve for a time, the gauge reads 150 lb/in.^ How many
cubic fee;t will the escaped oxygen occupy at atmospheric pressure? Assume tem-
perature constant. Ans. 5.0 ft'
21. Water is pumped into the bottom of an airtight tank holding 1000 gal, com-
pressing the air above it until a pressure gauge reads 60.0 Ib/in.^ (a) How much water
does the tank then contain? (b) If 200 gal of water are drawn off, what will the gauge
pressure then be? Assume atmospheric pressure is 15.0 lb/in^.
22. A tank containing 24 ft' of oxygen at 150 lb/in.'' absolute pressure is con-
nected through a small tube with a second tank containing 48 ft' of nitrogen at
120 lb/in.^ absolute pressure. Assuming both tanks are at the same temperature, the
volume of the connecting pipe is negligible, and no temperature change occurs, what
is the pressure of the gases when mixed? Ans. 130 lb/in.^
MAX
VON
LAUE
1879 -
BORN IN PFAFFENDORF ON THE RHINE. PROFESSOR AT ZURICH,

FRANKFURT AM MAIN, AND BERLIN. AWARDED THE I 9 1 4 NOBEL
PRIZE FOR HIS DISCOVERY OF THE DIFFRACTION OF RONTGEN
RAYS IN CRYSTALS.
18. Molecular Theory of Matter

In our discussion of the properties of liquids and those of gases we
assumed that the fluids are composed of small particles called molecules
and that liquids and gases differ in the spacing and forces between
the molecules. These assumptions are in accord with present ideas
of the structure of matter.
Most of the conclusions that we reach regarding the molecular
nature of matter are the result of indirect observations, since the
213
molecules are much too small to see and in all except a few experi-
ments the effects of individual molecules are too small to observe.
From observation of the effects of large groups of molecules, we make
up a picture or theory of the arrangement and behavior of the mole-
cules. We then test by experiment the results predicted by the theory.
Observation can be made only on large numbers of molecules at one
time or on the average effects of individual molecules. Hence only
average effects are subject to observation.
Fundamental Assumptions, I n building a theory of the molecu-
lar nature of matter, we start with a set of assumptions. T h e assump-
tions are considered valid if the results predicted are verified by
experiment. ^^^
We assume that all matter is composed of distinct particles called
molecules. In the case of a pure substance, these molecules are alike
in all respects. T h e chemical properties are determined by the char-
acter of the molecules; but the physical properties depend also upon
the forces the molecules exert on each other, and the relation of these
forces to the distances between molecules. Also the motion of the
molecules must be taken into account.
We assume that the molecules obey Newton's laws of motion.
Except in very special circumstances, we assume that collisions be--
tween molecules are elastic, that is, that both momentum and kinetic
energy are unchanged.
It is assumed further that the molecules are continually in motion.
The average speed is dependent upon the temperature.
From observation of the physical properties of solids, liquids, and
gases, we can state some conclusions about the forces which molecules
exert upon each other. In order to pull a solid apart, it is necessary
to exert rather large forcfes of tension. Hence there must be forces of
attraction between the molecules when they are at the distances
existing in solids. M u c h smaller forces are required to separate parts
of liquids, and in gases the molecules if left to themselves separate
without external forces. These facts indicate that as the distance be-
tween molecules increases, the force of attraction decreases rapidly.
On the other hand, we find that very large forces of compression are
necessary to reduce the volume 'of a solid or a liquid. We must there-
fore conclude that when the distance between the molecules is very
.small, there are forces of repulsion and that these forces increase very
MOLECULAR THEORY OF M A T T E R 215
rapidly as the distance' between the molecules decreases. T h e forces

must vary in a manner something like that shown in Fig. 1. As the
molecules approach each other from distances which are large com-
pared to their own dimensions, the forces exerted on one another are
at first extremely small; then on
closer approach a force of attrac-
tion develops which reaches a
maximum value, decreases to
zero, a n d finally becomes a re-
pulsive force which increases
very rapidly as the distance is
further reduced.
Pressure in a Gas. If our
picture of the molecular nature
of matter is correct, it must lead
to the laws, which are observed
in the behavior of gases.
Consider the gas contained
.—Variation of attractive force with
in a cubical box the length of distance between molecules.
each edge being / (Fig. 2). Sup-
pose there are n molecules in each cubic centimeter of the gas. O n
the average the effect of the motion of the molecules is the same as
if one-third of them are moving in each of
^ \ ^ the three directions up and down, right a n d
left, and back and forth.
Consider one of the molecules that is
1^ I moving back and forth. When it strikes one
of the sides of the box it rebounds with its
speed V unchanged. If its momentum before
I y ^ the collision was mv, its momentum after the
FIG. 2.—Pressure in a impact is —mv. The change in momentum
gas is related to molecular is therefore 2mv. As it moves back and
motion. forth, it moves a distance 2/ between
collisions with this face. T h e time between impacts is 21/v, and hence
there are v/2l collisions per second. T h e change in momentum per
second is 2mv X v/2l = mv'^/l. Since the change in momentum per
second is the force, in accordance with Newton's second law, this one
molecule exerts a force Fi on this face (and the opposite one as well)
2l6 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
given by
F. = ^ • (1)
But if n is the number of molecules per unit volume there are nP

molecules in the box and on the average one third take part in the
back-and-forth motion. Therefore the total force on this face is
F = ^nl'~ = ^Pnmv^ (2)
Pressure is force per unit area. T h e area of the side of the box is P.^
F _ 1 rmv^
P = i/^nmv^ (3)
We have obtained the force on one side of the container by multi-

plying the number of molecules by the force exerted by one molecule.
In any gas the speeds of individual molecules are widely different.
We must therefore consider the average force per molecule. T h e average
force per molecule is the average value of mv^/l. Since m and / are con-
stant, this average is m/l times the average v^. T h e square root of the
average value of v^ is called the root mean square (rms) value of v. It is
this value that is used in the pressure equations.
The average kinetic energy of the molecule is }imv^. Then
P = Hn{y2mv') (4) "
I n a volume V of the gas, the number of molecules is JV = nV.

Multiplying both sides of Eq. (4) by V, we have
PV = HNiHmv^) (5)
Since a t a given temperature the average kinetic energy is con-

stant and the number of molecules remains the same, Eq. (5) repre-
sents Boyle's law.
Example: Compute the rms speed of the molecules of oxygen at 76.0 cm of

. mercury pressure and 0°G, when the density of oxygen is 0.00143 gm/cm'.
MOLECULAR THEORY OF M A T T E R 217
From Eq. (3)
Since |
1 3P
nm = d, P = •^dv'' or ^j^ _
p = hdg = 76.0 cm X 13.6 gm/cm' X 980 cm/sec^
= 1,013,000 dynes/cm^
2 ^ 3P ^ 3 X 1,013,000 dynes/cm^
" ~ d " 0.00143 gm/cm"
.^/3 X 1,013,000 . ^ -^. .
V= \ Q 00143— cm/sec = 45,700 cm/sec
This speed corresponds to that of a rifle bullet.
Cohesion and Adhesion. T h e force with which hke molecules

attract each other is called cohesion. Within a solid the forces of
cohesion are large since the molecules are close together. If the solid
is broken, it is difficult to force the molecules close enough together
for these forces to become large again. When an iron bar is broken,
the pieces may be fitted together, but they will not cohere. However,
by heating the iron until it softens and pounding it with a hammer, the
molecules may be again brought close enough to cohere and the bar
is welded. Local heating until the metal flows also serves to bring the
molecules close enough for cohesion. Two ordinary plates of glass or
two blocks of steel, when brought together, show little evidence of
cohesion because they touch at only a few points. It is possible, how-
ever, to grind these surfaces flat enough so that when they are brought
into contact the cohesive forces become very large. The highest grade
gauge blocks will thus cohere and can be pulled apart only with con-
t siderable difficulty.
At the surface between two different substances, or in a mixture,
unlike molecules attract each other. T h e attraction of unlike mole-
cules is called adhesion. Glue adheres to wood; solder adheres to brass.
Adhesive forces may be greater than cohesive forces, in fact, the rela-
tive magnitude of the cohesive and adhesive forces determines the
nature of the surface between two substances in contact.
Surface Phenomena. Within the body of a liquid each molecule
is surrounded by many others similar to itself. Forces of cohesion are
exerted on this molecule from every direction. O n the average these
forces are the same in every direction, and there is an equilibrium

condition (Fig. 3). For a molecule at the surface, however, the con-
ditions are cuite different. It is acted upon by the cohesive forces of
the molecules of liquid at the side
and below but above by the adhe-
sive forces of the gas molecules.
Since the molecules of air are rela-
tively far apart, the number that are
close enough to exert appreciable
FIG. 3.—Forces acting on a molecule adhesive force on the surface mole-
of a liquid.
cule is comparatively small. There
is, therefore, a resultant force R on the surface molecule directed into
the liquid as shown in Fig. 3.
T h e resultant force on the surface molecules causes a liquid to
assume a shape such that the surface has the smallest possible extent.
If a small amount of liquid is released from a medicine dropper,
the d r o p assumes a spherical shape, since this is the form which has,
the least area for a given volume. Rain drops are spherical; water'-
droplets on an oily surface or small droplets of mercury on a glass
plate also take a spherical shape. If the drop
becomes large, its weight causes it to lose its
spherical shape; but as long as it does not
wet the surface on which it lies, it does not
spread out but forms a drop whose edges are
rounded.
Surface Tension. In Fig. 4, AB repre-
sents an imaginary line in the surface of a
liquid. The molecules along the line are acted 4.—Forces across
upon by forces across the line in exactly the an imaginary line in a
same manner as the particles of a stretched surface.
drumhead experience a tension. T h e force per unit length across such
a line is called the surface tension T.
F
T = (6)
I t is customary to express the force in dynes and the length in centi-

meters so that T is given in dynes per centimeter. Values of surface
tension for several liquids in contact with air are given in T a b l e 1.
MOLECULAR THEORY OF MATTER 219
TABLE I. SURFACE TENSION FOR PURE LIQUIDS IN CONTACT WITH

AIR
Temperature, T,
Liquid
°C dynes/cm
Benzene 20 27.6
50 24.7
Carbon tetrachloride 20 26.8
Ethyl alcohol 20 22.3
50 19.8
Methyl alcohol 20 22.6
50 20.1
Mercury 20 465.
Water 10 74.2
20 72.8
50 67.9
Liquid lead 400 445.
Liquid tin 400 520.
Surface tension is the cause of several phenomena that would not

be expected of liquids at rest. A steel needle has a
density so high that the buoyant force of water upon
it is not sufficient to support its weight. However, if
it be oiled slightly so that the water will not wet it
FIG. 5—The
and it is laid very carefully upon the surface so that force due to sur-
the film is not broken, it will float (Fig. 5). Note that face tension is
the surface is depressed under the needle so that the sufficient to sup-
port a needle.
film is able to exert an upward force.
Surface tension can be measured simply by immersing a wire
frame in the liquid and measuring with a sensitive spring balance
the force necessary to pull it out of
the liquid. As the frame is lifted
above the surface (Fig. 6), the force
required varies because the force
that the film exerts is always parallel
to the film. Only when the frame
^°'^ '^^ . has been lifted so that the film is
FIG, 6.^MeasurinK surface tension. .,• 1 • ^1 r j. j i_ .û
^ vertical, is the lorce exerted by the
film vertical. One must therefore use the maximum force as the
frame is pulled out to measure the surface tension. We note that there
is a film on each side of the frame. T h u s in this experiment the length
L of the film is twice the length / of the frame.
r = FL- =11F— (7)
Example: What force in addition to its weight is required to pull a wire frame
5.0 cm long from the surface of water, temperature 20°C.
T = 72.8 dynes/cm
F= 21T
= 2 X 5.0 cm X 72.8 dynes/cm = 730 dynes
Contact between Liquids and Solids. When the surface of a

liquid is in contact with a solid, the surface is usually curved. T h e
(a) <b)
FIG. 7.—Ângle of contact.
molecules in this portion of the surface are subject to the force of

cohesion of the molecules of the liquid and the forces of adhesion of
the solid and gas. T h e forces exerted by the gas are usually so small
that they need not be considered. I n Fig. la is shown a case in which
the adhesive force is greater than the cohesive force. The adhesive
force A is perpendicular to the wall of the container, the cohesive
force C is directed into the liquid, and the surface sets itself perpen-
dicular to the resultant R. If a line is drawn tangent to the surface
(perpendicular to R), it makes an angle 6 with the wall. This angle is
called the angle of contact. If the cohesive force is greater than the ad-
hesive force, the resultant surface will curve downward as shown in
Fig. lb. T h e angle of contact B is greater than 90°. Certain angles of
contact are given in Table I I .
T h e liquid shown in Fig. la clings to the wall of the container,
that is, it wets the container while the liquid in Fig. lb does not wet
. the container. Any liquid wets its container if the adhesive forces are
TABLE IL ANGLES OF CONTACT BETWEEN PURE LIQUIDS

AND CLEAN SOLIDS
Solid Liquid 6, degrees
Glass Water 0
Glass Ethyl alcohol 0
Glass Mercury 128
Paraffin.... Water 107
greater than the cohesive forces b u t does not wet it if the cohesive
forces are the greater.
T h e principal problem in cleaning is to obtain a liquid that will
wet the surface to be cleaned. Water will not normally wet greases,
but the addition of a wetting agent makes water effective against
greasy surfaces. Soap is most commonly used as the wetting agent,
but other preparations are equally effective. The wetting agent re-
duces the relatively high surface tension of
water. I n soldering also a wetting agent, the Tcosd
flux, is used.
Capillarity. It is a common observation
that water rises in fine glass tubes. If a string
lies over the edge of a pan of water, the water
will rise in the string over the top a n d down
the outside. These effects are caused by sur-
face tension.
FIG. 8.—Rise of liquid in
In the tube shown in Fig. 8, the liquid a capillary tube.
wets the tube making an angle of contact 6.
T h e liquid rises in the tube until the force due to surface tension is
equal to the weight of the liquid lifted up.
F = W
T h e upward force F is the product of the length of the film, that is,
the circumference lirr of the tube and the upward component T cos 6
of the surface tension.
F = ITTTT COS 6 (8)
T h e weight of liquid lifted is the product of the volume irr^h and the
weight per unit volume dg.
. W = irr^hdg (9)
lirrT cos 6 = irr^hdg
, 2T cos d ,,_-
^ = -7dg~ (10) ^
We note that if the angle of contact is greater than 90°, the cosine is
negative and the Hquid goes down in the tube. T h a t is, if the Uquid
does not wet the tube, it descends.
Example: The tube of a mercury barometer is 3.0 mm in diameter. What error
is introduced into the reading because, of surface tension?
For mercury
T = 465 dynes/cm
e = 128° cos e = -0.616
d = 13.6 gm/cm^
23^ cos ^
h = rd£
2(465 dynes/cm)(-0.616)
" ~ 0.15 cm X 13.6 g m / c n ? X 980 cm/sec^ " ~^-^^^ ""^ = "2.86 mm
o
The negative sign indicates that the reading is lower than the correct reading.
At the surface of separation between two liquids, there is also a

tension similar to surface tension. It is called interfacial tension.
Diffusion. If a bottle of ammonia is opened in one corner of a
closed room, the odor is soon apparent in all parts of the room even
though there are no air currents. T h e ammonia molecules reach the
observer because of their own motion. The molecules in the air of
the room are relatively far apart. As the ammonia molecules move,'
they pass between the molecules of the air with occasional collisions.
Some of the molecules reach every part of the enclosure in a short
time. The process of one substance mixing with another because of
molecular motion is called diffusion. If th(; gas is confined in a small
container and the pressure is reduced, diffusion takes place more
rapidly, for the gas molecules are farther apart and collisions are less
frequent. ,^
Diffusionôccurs in liquids as well as in gases. This may be shown
by dropping a few copper sulphate crystals into a j a r of water. As the
crystals dissolve, the blue color appears fifst at the bottom and slowly
spreads upward. After .a period of some weeks, all the liquid will be
colored. Since the copper sulphate solution is denser than water, the
spreading cannot be caused by convection currents as it would be if
the crystals were suspended near the top. If this were done, the mix-
ing would be quite rapid.
Diffusion of gas or .liquids through solids is also
common. A light gas such as hydrogen passes quite
readily through porous earthenware. Such a porous jar
arranged as at A in Fig. 9 with a tube extending into
a flask of water is filled with air. When a container of
hydrogen is lowered over the porous jar, the hydrogen
diffuses into the j a r faster than air diffuses out. Hence the
pressure is increased inside the system, and water is
forced out.
Osmosis. Some substances, such as parchment or
vegetable materials, have the property of allowing some FIG. 9.—
molecules to diffuse through but not others. Suppose a Diffusion of
piece of parchment is fastened over a thistle tube and gas through
a porous
some sugar sirup placed inside (Fig. 10). When this is cup.
immersed in water, the water molecules diffuse in
through the parchment, but the larger suffar molecules cannot diffuse
out. This process is called osmosis. T h e liquid rises in the tube until
the pressure, due to the liquid, is sufficient to stop
the diffusion or the membrane breaks. T h e pressure
set up by this one-way diffusion is called osmotic
pressure.
Osmosis is an important process in animal and
vegetable life since it determines the flow of liquids
through membranes. When fruit or vegetables are
placed in fresh water, the skin becomes stretched
and may even burst because water passes in through
the skin. If, however, the fruit or vegetable is placed
in a sugar or salt solution, liquid may pass out
through the skin with resultant shriveling.
Brownian Movement. Individual molecules
FIG. 10.—Osmosis. are too small to be visible, but it is possible to
observe the effects of collisions of molecules with
small particles, which can be seen with the aid of a microscope.
If some gamboge, a gum, is dissolved in alcohol and a small amount
poured into a dish of water, a very fine suspension is formed. W h e n
this is viewed by means of a microscope, the particles are seen to be
in very erratic motion. This motion is called Brownian motion after the
m a n who first observed it (1827). T h e motion is due to collisions
of molecules with the particles. Each impact imparts a motion to the
particle, and since it is struck first from one direction and then
another, the motion is quite erratic. Brownian motion constitutes one
of the most direct pieces of evidence for the belief in the motion of
molecxiles.
SUMMARY
T h e molecular theory of matter is based upon a set of assumptions.
Predictions made upon the basis of these assumptions are tested ex-
perimentally to determine whether the theory is tenable.
T h e fundamental assumptions are that all matter is m a d e u p of,
molecules, which are in constant motion. Newton's laws of motion
are assumed to hold. In collisions between molecules, the laws of con-
servation of momentum and conservation of energy hold. T h e mole-
cules exert forces upon each other, which depend upon the distance
between them.
T h e pressure of a gas is given by the expression
P = înmv^
Cohesion is the attraction between like molecules, while adhesion is
the attraction between imlike molecules.
At the surface of a liquid there is a surface tension. It is expressed
as the force (in dynes) per unit length of the surface film!
% {>
- =f
Liquids rise or are depressed in fine tubes. The height to which
they rise is given by the expression
2rcos0
h = :]
rdg
Diffusion takes place because the molecules of a gas or liquid move
between the molecules of the substance into which it is diffusing. '
Osmosis is-one-way diffusion through a semipermeable mejnbrane.
Brownian movements are motions of small particles that are bom-
• barded by molecules.
M O L E C U L A R T H E O R Y OF M A T T E R 225
QUESTIONS
1. What reasons have you for beUeving in the existence of molecules?
2. What is the evidence that the molecules of a gas are in motion?
3. Discuss the reasons for believing that the molecules of a liquid are in motion.
4. How is the motion of the molecules in a gas different from that in a liquid?
in a solid?
5. Show that the kinetic energy per mole (gram-molecular weight) is the same
for all gases at the same temperature.
6. Explain why the meniscus for certain liquids in a capillary tube is convex
upward whereas for others it may be concave.
7. Molten lead is poured through a sieve at the top of a shot tower and is caught
in water at the bottom. Why are the shot spherical?
8. What effect has the looseness of the soil on the loss of water by evaporation
from a garden plot in summer?
9. Show that the surface tension of a film, defined as the force per unit length,
also may be interpreted as the potential energy per unit area of film, T = W/A.
10. What is the importance of capillary action in the success of an irrigation
system?
11. What physical principles are applied when candle wax is removed from
clothing by covering the spot with blotting paper and then passing a hot iron over
the paper?
12. Should the reading of a mercury barometer be corrected for capillary depres-
sion? Explain.
13. Water will not run from the upper end of a capillary tube the lower end of
which dips below the surface of water, but sap runs from the end of a maple branch
that has been cut off. Explain.
14. A glass rod is sometimes placed against the mouth of a bottle when pouring
liquid from it into another vessel. Explain the usefulness of the rod.
15. Suggest a design for a dripproof cream pitcher or sirup dispenser.
16. Show that surface tension causes a pressure inside a liquid droplet given by
P = ZT/r.
17. Show that the pressure due to surface tension in a bubble is given by P = 4 T/r.
18. Why may alcohol escape from an automobile radiator that will hold water?
PROBLEMS
1. There are 6.02 X 10^^ molecules in a quantity of any gas whose mass in
grams is equal numerically to the molecular weight. How many molecules are there
in a cubic centimeter of nitrogen under standard conditions?
2. Compute the rms speed of hydrogen molecules at 0°C and 76.0 cm of mercury
when the density is 0.090 gm/liter. Ans. 18 X 10^ cm/sec
3. Compute the rms speed of carbon dioxide molecules under standard condi-
tions. The density of carbon dioxide is 1.977 gm/liter.
4. U n d e r normal conditions the average distance a hydrogen molecule travels

between collisions is 1.83 X 10"*^ cm. Compute (a) the time between collisions a n d
(i) the frequency of collisions. Ans. 1.02 X 10^^" sec; 9.8 X lOVsec
5. If the mean free path of carbon dioxide molecules u n d e r standard conditions
is 6.29 X 10~* cm, what is the time between collisions?
6. A l-liter flask contains 2.68 X 10^^ molecules of oxygen each of mass 5.31
X 10~^* gm a n d having an rms speed of 4.61 X 10'* cm/sec. Compute the pressure
In the flask and reduce it to atmospheres. ATIS. 1.00 a t m
7. (a) T h e highest v a c u u m obtained in the laboratory is measured by a b o u t 10^^
m m of mercury. H o w m a n y air molecules per cubic centimeter are left? (b) T h e r e is
evidence that the gas density in interstellar space is 10~^^ g m / c m ^ and that molecules
travel 10^ k m between collisions, which occur at intervals of 1 year. Find the n u m b e r
of molecules per cubic centimeter in interstellar space a n d the pressure. Assume a n
a\'erage atomic weight of 20.
8. H o w high will water rise in a capillary tube of 0.5 m m radius? Ans. 3 cm
9. T o w h a t height will a liquid of specific gravity 0.80 and surface tension 30
d y n e s / c m rise in a tube of 0.60 m m internal diameter? (The contact angle is D°.)
10. Some distilled water in a capillary tube becomes mixed with an impurity
that does not appreciably affect its density, but does change the angle of contact from
0 to 20°, If the tube has a radius of 0.30 m m , what change in height will the water
experience? Assume T unchanged. Ans. 3.0 m m
11. A liquid of specific gravity 0.85, for which the angle of contact is zero, rises
to a height of 12.0 m m in a capillary tube of 2.0 m m diameter. Find the surface ten-
sion of the liquid.
12. Find the internal diameter of a glass tube in which water rises to a height of
4,5 cm. Ans. 0.066 cm
13. A certain oil whose angle of contact against glass is 24° a n d density 0,90
gm/cm^ rises 3,2 cm in a glass capillary tube 1.0 m m in diameter. W h a t is the surface
tension of the oil?
14. T w o vertical glass plates 1.0 m m a p a r t are dipped into water. H o w high will
the water rise between the plates? A?is. 1.5 cm
15. A U-tube is m a d e with the internal diameter of one a r m 1,0 cm a n d t h a t of
the other a r m 2.0 m m , a n d mercury is poured into the tube. If the angle of contact of
mercury with glass, after exposure to air, is 60°, w h a t will be the difference in level
of the surfaces in the two tubes?
I
• ; 1
SIR
-'
WILLIAM
HENRY
BRAGG
1862 to 1942
BORN IN WESTWARD, CUMBERLAND. PROFESSOR AT LEEDS UNI-

VERSITY, LATER DIRECTOR OF THE DAVY-FARADAY RESEARCH
LABORATORY. SHARED THE 1 9 I 5 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS W I T H
HIS SON W . L. BRAGG FOR THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY
OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE BY MEANS OF X-RAYS.
19, Temperature Measurement; Thermal Expansion

In m a n y industrial operations it is necessary to heat the material that
enters into a process. I n such cases a major factor in the success of
the procedure is knowledge of when to stop. I n many modern indus-
trial processes the attainment of a uniform product having desirable
properties requires precise measurement and control of temperature
during the operation. For example, in the metallurgical industries the
227
characteristics of the metal being treated are vitally affected by its

temperature history.
T h e comfort and eifficiency of human b e i n ^ is influenced by the
temperature of their s u r r o a n d i n ^ . Idea! air conditioning requires
measurement and control of temperature.
T h e most common type of temperature-measuring device utilizes
the expansive properties of certain materials.
Temperature Sensation. We can tell something about the
temperature of an object by feeling it. If it is very^ hot, we can sense
this even without touching it. But under some conditions our temper-
ature sense is a very unreliable guide. For example, if the hand has
been in hot water, tepid water will feel cold; whereas, if the hand
has been in cold water, the same tepid water will feel warm. If we go
outdoors on a cold day and pick up a piece of wood, it will feel cold.
Under the same conditions a piece of steel will feel even colder.
Both of these examples suggest that our sensations of hot or cold
depend on the transfer of heat to or away from the hand. Tîe steel
feels colder than the wood because it is a better conductor of heat
and takes heat from the hand much more rapidly than does the wood.
Temperature LevcL T h e sense we possess for judging whether
a thing is hot or cold cannot be used to measure temperature, but it
does suggest to us what temperature is. The temperature oj an object is
that property which determines the direction of flow of lieat between it and its
surroundings. If heat flows away from an object, we say that its tem-
perature is above that of the surroundings. If the reverse is true, then
its temperature is lower. T o answer the question of how much higher
or lower requires a standard of measure and some kind of instrument
calibrated to read temperature difference in terms of that standard.
Such an instrument is called a thermometer.
Thermometers, There arc m a n y possible kinds of thermometers,^
since almost all the properties of material objects (except mass) change
as the temperature changes. T h e amount of any such change may be
used to measure temperature. T o be useful, the amount of the change
must correspond in some known manner to the temperature change
that induces it. T h e simplest case is the one in which equal changes in
the property correspond to equal changes in the temperature. This is
approximately true for the length of a column of mercury in a glass
capillary connected to a small glass bulb.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 229
When a mercury thermometer is heated, the mercury expands
more than the glass bulb and rises in the capillary tube. T h e position
of the mercury in the capillary when the bulb is in melting ice is
taken as a reference point. Such a reference temperature, chosen
because it is easily reproducible, is called a. fixed point.
If the bulb is placed in contact with something else and the
mercury goes above the fixed point set by the melting ice, then that
material is at a higher temperature than the melting ice. If the
mercury goes below the fixed point, then the temperature is lower.
T h e answer to how much higher or how much lower can be obtained
only by selecting another fixed point so that the interval between the
two can be divided into a convenient number of units in terms of
which temperature changes can be compared, or, as we say, measured.
T h e other fixed point chosen is the boiling point of water.
This is the temperature of the water vapor above pure water which
is boiling under a pressure of one standard atmosphere. Since the
temperature at which water boils depends upon the pressure, it is
necessary to define this fixed point in terms of a standard pressure.
M a n y other easily reproducible
temperatures may be used as fixed
points. For example, the boiling
point of oxygen, a very low temper- /oo 2/2 373 BO/Um POINT
ature, a n d the melting point of OF WATER
platinum, a very high temperature,
are sometimes used. The tempera-
tures of such fixed points are based
on the primary temperature inter-
val between the freezing point of
water a n d the (standard) boiling
point of water. li- 3Zy 273 y FRB£Z/N6 POINT
OF WATER
Common Thermometer Scales.
T w o thermometer scales are in
common use: one, the centigrade FAHRENHEIT
CENTIGRADE KELVIN
scale, which divides the standard FIG. 1.—Fixed points on various tem-
interval into 100 equal parts called perature scales.
degrees centigrade; and the other, the
Fahrenheit scale, which divides the standard interval into 180 equal
parts called degrees Fahrenheit (Fig. 1). T h e centigrade degree repre-
sents a larger temperature interval than a Fahrenheit degree. O n e
Fahrenheit degree is equal to five-ninths of a centigrade degree. A
reading on the centigrade scale indicates directly the interval between
the associated temperature and the lower fixed point, since the latter
is marked zero. The Fahrenheit scale is more cumbersome, not only
because the standard interval is divided into 180 parts instead of 100,,
but also because the base temperature, that of melting ice, is marked
32°. T h e Fahrenheit scale is used in many English-speaking countries,
while nearly all others use the centigrade scale. Having the two tem-
perature scales is something of a nuisance, but it is comparatively
easy to convert temperatures from one scale to the other.
For any two temperature scales that use the freezing point and
boiling point of water as fixed points, the temperature may be con-
verted from one to the other by means of a simple proportion. For
centigrade and Fahrenheit scales this relation is
c --0° 100° - 0 °
(1)
F - 32° ~ 212° -- 32°
This equation reduces to
C 100 5
F - 32° ~ 180 ~ 9
This may be solved for either C or F to give
C = % ( F - 32°) (2)
F = ^^C-f32° ' (3)
Several numerical examples will serve to illustrate the process.

Example: A centigrade thermometer indicates a temperature of 36.6°G. What
would a Fahrenheit thermometer read at that temperature?
The number of degrees centigrade above 0°C is 36.6. This temperature will be
{^•'b) 36.6 or 65.9 Fahrenheit degrees above the freezing point of water. The Fahren-
heit reading will be 32.0°F added to this, or 97.9°F.
Example: A Fahrenheit thermometer indicates a temperature of 14°F. What is
the corresponding reading on the centigrade scale?
The temperature of 14°F is 32° — 14° = 18°F below the freezing point of water.
A temperature interval of 18°F is equivalent to ^^(18°) = 10°C. Hence the reading
on the centigrade scale is 10 deg below the freezing point of water, or
0° - 10° = - 1 0 ° C
't^B^m
Example: A comfortable room temperature is 72°F. What is this temperature

expressed in centigrade degrees?
C = 5^(72° - 32°) = :?g(40°) = 22°C.
Expansion Thermometers. T h e property most commonly used

in thermometers is expansion. T h e expansion may be tliat of a liquid,
a solid, or a gas. Mercury-in-glass thermometers may be used over a
range from the freezing point of mercury ( —38.9°C) to the softening
temperature of glass (about 500°C). For temperatures below the
freezing point of mercury, other liquids, such as alcohol, or pentane,
may be used. T h e expansion of a solid or of a gas may be used over a
much greater range of temperatures.
FIG. 2.—Resistance thermometer coil.
Resistance Thermometers. Electrical methods of measuring

temperature are applicable over a wide range and are capable of
high precision. The variation of electrical resistance with temperature
is often used in temperature measurements. A resistance thermometer
(Fig. 2) consists of a small coil of wire, usually platinum, encased in a
suitable protecting tube. By measuring the resistance of the coil at
several known temperatures one can plot a resistance-temperature
curve and thus calibrate the coil as a thermometer. The most accurate
method of temperature measurement, resistance thermometry, can
measure tenaperatures with an uncertainty of only 0.01 °C and can
detect a difference in temperature of 0.0001 °C.
Thermoelectric Thermonveters. I n another electrical method
temperatures are measured by the variation of electric current in a
thermocouple (Fig. 3). If wires of two different metals are joined at
their ends and one of these junctions is maintained at a different
temperature from the other, electricity will flow around the circuit.
This current depends on the difference in temperatures at the two
junctions. One junction may be held at 0°C in an ice bath, and the
electrical measuring instrument calibrated to indicate directly the
c =>*
FIG. 3.—^Thermocouples.
temperature of the other junction. Thermocouples have high sensi-

tivity and a wide range. With them, temperatures C3.n be measured
at any convenient distance from the test body. Thermocouples are
sufficiently rugged and inexpensive to find numerous uses in industry.
Several tiny thermocouples may be
K AAAAAA COLD JUNCTIONS

;
connected in series to form a thermo-
pile (Fig. 4) capable of measuring
the radiation from a star.
Optical Pyrometer. At very
high temperatures special thermom-
eters, called pyrometers, are used. In
an optical pyrometer (Fig. 5) the
brightness d u e to the hot object (in-
side of a furnace, for example) is
matched against the brightness due
RECEIVING ELEMENTS
to the filament of a standard lamp.
F I G . 4.—Thermopile.
T h e temperature is determined from ,
the electric current needed to heat the lamp filament to match the
brightness due to the hot object.
T h e color of an object also changes with temperature. As the tem-
perature rises, the object first becomes a dull red, at a higher temper-
ature a bright red, and finally white at very high temperatures. These
changes in color may be used to measure temperature. .
Coefficient of Linear Expansion. Nearly all materials expand
with an increase in temperature. A solid changes all its linear dimen-
sions and thus its volume. Liquids and gases have no shapes of their
own, and therefore only volume expansion has meaning. For solids
we are primarily concerned with linear expansion.
T h e coefficient of linear expansion is the change in length per unit length
per degree rise in temperature. In symbols
a. Lol^t
where a. is the coefficient of linear expansion, Zo and Lt are the initial

and final lengths, respectively, and Ai is the change in temperature.
FILAMENT
FILAMENT TOO DARK
FILAMENT TOO BRIGHT
WWW^ FILAMENT CORRECT

FIG. 5.—Optical pyrometer.
Measurements of the change in length and the total length are

always expressed in the same unit of length; hence the value of the
coefficient will be independent of the length unit used, but it will
depend on the temperature unit used. The value of the coefficient of
expansion must be specified as "per degree centigrade" or "per degree
Fahrenheit" as the case may be. If we let AZ represent the change in
length of a bar, then
AL = aLo bd (5)
The final length will be
Z« = lo + AL = Lo + aU Ai = U{\ + a U) (6)
TABLE I. COEFFICIENTS OF LINEAR EXPANSION (AVERAGE)
Material Per°C Per°F
Aluminum 0,000022 0 000012

0.000019 0,000011
Copper. 0.000017 0 0000094
Glass, ordinary 0.0000095 0.0000053
Glass, pyrex 0.0000036 0.0000020
0,0000009 0 0000005
Iron 0,000012 0,0000067 *
0.000005 0.000003
Platinum 0.0000089 0.0000049
Fused quartz 0,00000059 0.00000033
Steel 0,000011 0,0000061
Tungsten 0.0000043 0.0000024
Example: A copper bar is 8.0 ft long at 68°F and has a coefficient of expansior)
of 0.0000094 per °F. What is its increase in length when heated to 110°F?
AL = LffiiAl ^ (8,0 ft)(0.0000094/°F)(110°F - 68°F) = 0.0032 ft
Example: A steel plug has a diameter of 10.000 cm at 30.0°G. At what temper-
ature will the diameter be 9.986 cm?
A i = L(,a At
10.000 cm 9.986
At 130°G
(10.000 cm)(0.0000Il/°G)
Hence the required temperature
t = 30.0°C - 130°C = -100°C
T h e facts that different solids have different expansion coeffi-

cients, and that the coefficient of expansion for a given material may
vary somewhat with temperature, lead to many industrial problems.
If a structure, for example a furnace, can be made of materials that
expand equally over wide ranges in temperature, the structure will
hold together much better than if such materials cannot be found.
When it is impossible to find suitable materials with approximately
equal coefficients, allowance must be made for the large forces t h a t ,
arise, owing to the fact that different parts of the structure expand _
at different rates. Some materials that go together well at one tem-
perature may be quite unsatisfactory at others'ibecause their coeffi-
cients may change considerably as the tempeirature changes.
Tungsten is a metal that expands in a manner similar to that of
many glasses. Tungsten, platinum, and Dumet (an alloy) are metals
often used to seal electrodes through the glass of electric light bulbs,
x-ray tubes, and the like, since the expansion of these metals can be
matched with that of appropriate glasses.
When the temperature of a solid is raised, it expands in all direc-
tions. Certain crystals are found to have different coefficients of ex-
pansion along different axes. However, many of the common materials
have the same properties in all directions. These are called isotropic
substances.
Coefficient of Volume Expansion. The coefficient of volume expan-
sion for a material is the change in volume per unit volume per degree rise in
temperature. In symbols
& = (7)
Vo^t
where j3 is the coefficient of volume expansion, Vt is the volume at
temperature t, VQ the volume at 0°C (32°F), and A^ is the tempera-
ture change.
There is a simple approximate relation between the coefficient of
linear expansion for an isotropic solid and the corresponding coeffi-
cient of volume expansion:
/3 = 3a (approx) (8)
• This relation can be derived by consideration of the expansion of a
cube of the material.
TABLE I I . COEFFICIENTS OF VOLUME EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
Substance Per°C Per°F
Alcohol (ethyl). . . 0.0011 0.00061

Mercury 0.00018 0.00010
Water (15-100°C) 0.00037 0.00020
Example: Find the change in volume of an aluminum sphere of 5.0 cm radius

when it is heated from 0 to 300°C.
The volume of a sphere is given by

7„ = jiTrr^ = ^^Tr(5.0 cm)« = 520 cm'
From Eq. (7)

7, - 7o = /3Fo A«
|3 = 3a = 3(2.2 X 10-V°C)
Hence the change in volume is
j7, _ Fo = 3(2.2 X 10-V°C)(520 cm')(300°C) = 10 cm'
The change in volume of the sphere is the same whether it be a solid sphere or a
hollow spherical shell.
Generally a liquid expands when its temperature is raised. Water/

is an important exception to this rule, since in the region from 0 to 4 0
"-> /.02
I
I /.00_70 " ^^
0 4 10 20 30 40 50 60
TEMPEMTU/^B /N DEG. C.
PIG. 6.—-The expansion of wafer.
water contracts when its temperature is raised (Fig. 6>. Above 4 C

water expands with increasing temperature.
Expansion of Gases. The behavior of a gas when its temperature
is changed can be examined in the apparatus shown in Fig. 7. Suppose
that the gas is confined in the bulb B, which is connected to a U-tube
manometer M in which the mercury level may be adjusted by raising
or lowering the reservoir R.
With the bulb surrounded by an ice bath, the mercury levels rhay
be adjusted to ?ero on the scale. The pressure of the gas Po is then just
atmospheric pressure. If the temperature of the bulb is raised to t by
immersing it in hot water, both the volume and the pressure of the
gas will increase as indicated by the change in levels of the mercury.
It is convenient to keep either the pressure or the volume constant in
order to study the variation in the other factor with change in tem-
perature. By raising the reservoir the level of mercury in the left-hand
column may be restored to the index 0. T h e gas then occupies its
original volume. Its pressure Pt can be found
by measuring the difference in levels of the
mercury columns and adding to it the atmos-
pheric pressure.
Let us define 7 the coefficient of pressure
change, at constant volume as
Pt -Po
y = (9)
PoAt
Substitution of the observed values of Pt, Po,
and At in Eq. (9) gives the value of 7 for the
particular gas used. Experiments of this type
performed carefully with many different gases
give the interesting result that the value of 7
is roughly the same for all gases, providing
the pressure of the gas is not too high. T h e
value found for 7 is
7 = >^73/°G = 0.00366/°G (10)

T h a t is/ the pressure of any gas at constant
volume will change by 3-^73 of its pressure at F I G . 7.—Â g a s t h e r -
0°C for each degree change in temperature. mometer.
T h e apparatus can be modified to hold a gas at constant pressure
while its change in volume is read from the displacement of mercury.
T h e coefficient of expansion j8 at constant pressure may then be ob-
tained by Eq. (7). It is found that, when the pressure of the gas is
not too high, the value of |8 is approximately the same for all gases,
and is the same as the value for 7,
18 = M73/°C = 0.00366/°G (11)
It is apparent from their behavior that gases can be used as

thermometric substances. Gas thermometers (Fig. 7), usually of the
constant-volume type, filled with dry air, nitrogen, hydrogen, or
helium have been widely used in scientific work where their accuracy
outweighs the disadvantage of cumbersome equipment. A gas ther-

mometer is calibrated by observing the pressure Po at the ice point
and then the pressure Ps at the steam poir^t. An unknown tempera-
ture t is then determined from the pressure of the gas Pt at that tem-
perature, thus
t = ^ ^ 100°Q (12)
Absolute Temperature Scale. An important consequence of the

experiments that showed that all gases havg approximately the samel
values of the coefficients /3 and 7 is the establishment of a scale of
temperature known as the absolute gas scale of temperature. Thfe
derivation of this scale is suggested by revvriting Eq. (9), putting in ,
the numerical value for 7 ,
P . = A ( I + ^ ) (13)
Pt = ^ (273 + t)
A new scale is adopted in which the size of the degree is the same a^
the centigrade degree and the temperature T of the gas is given by
T = 273 +t (14)
T h e n Eq. (13) becomes
p
Pt = 273^ ^ (volume constant) (15)
showing that the pressure of a gas at constant volume is proportional

to its absolute temperature. T h e defining Equation, for temperatures
on the absolute gas scale, Eq. (14), could be derived equally well for a
constant-pressure gas thermometer using Eqs. (7) and (11),
F, = ^ r (16)
An examination of Eq. (13) ;and the coi-responding graph of pres-

sure vs. centigrade temperature (Fig. 8) suggests a .question of funda-
mental importance: Is there an absolute zero of temperature? An
answer is n o t possible from a consideration of the behavior of gases
alone. T h e extrapolation of the pressure-temperature curve in Fig. 8
suggests the existence of a lowest temperature, that at which a gas
would have zero pressure, that is, no motion of its molecules, this
point being near —273°G, according to the graph. But all gases be-
come liquids and even solids at temperatures above absolute zero,
and furthermore Eqs. (10) and (11) do not hold for gases near the
temperatures at which they liquefy.
We need a temperature scale that is independent of the properties
of particular substances. There is such a scale, known as the Kelvin
scale or the absolute thermodynamic scale. It is an ideal scale based on
0^
-223 '173 -123 -73 -23 27 77 °C
SO 100 ISO 200 250 300 350 "K
TEMPERATURE
FIG. 8 ,—^Variation of the pressure of a gas at constant volume as a function of
temperature.
certain fundamental laws (Chap. 22). Fortunately, the temperatures

on the thermodynamic scale are the same on the absolute gas scale.
Temperatures on the absolute scale are designated by the symbol °K.
Absolute temperature can also be expressed in terms of the Fahren-
heit degree by the relation
R = %K (17)
where R represents the temperature on the Fahrenheit absolute, or

Rankine, scale. Thus the temperature of the ice point on the absolute
Fahrenheit scale is
R = %(273) = 492°/? (18)
Since the temperature of the ice point on the Fahrenheit scale is

32°F, a temperature F on the Fahrenheit scale is converted to the
Fahrenheit absolute (the Rankine) scale by the equation
R = 492° + (F - 32)
R = 460° + F (19)
Example: Express 20°C and — 20°C on the centigrade absolute (or Kelvin) scale.
K = 273° + 20° = 293°K
K = 273° + (-20°) = 253°K
Example: Express 68°F and — 5°F on the Fahrenheit absolute (or Rankine) scale.
R = 460° + 68° = 528°R /
R = 460° + ( - 5 ° ) = 455°R ''
TABLE I I I . COEFFICIENTS OF VOLUME EXPANSION OF GASES
Pressure, Volume Pressure

Temperature,
Substance cm of coefficient, coefficient,
°C
mercury per°C per°C
(J
0-100 0.6 376.66X10-6

0-100 25 365.80
0-100 76 367.1 X 10-5 366.50
0-100 100 367.28 367.44
O-iOO 2000 388.66
0-100 76.4 366.00 365.04
0-100 100 374.10 372.48
Sulphur d i o x i d e . . . . 0-100 76 390.3 384.5 ^
The Gas Laws. We have found that pressure, volume, and

temperature of a gas are related. In Chap. 17 we considered the rela-
tion between pressure P and volume V when the temperature remains
constant, namely, that the product of pressure and volume is constant.
PV = k (20)
This relation is known as Boyle's law.
We have now found that thfereâre relationships between temper-
ature and pressure if the volume remains unchanged and between
temperature and volume if the pressure is constant. These relations
are expressed simply if, an absolute (Kelvin or Rankine) tempe'rature
scale is used.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 24I
From Eq. (15)
P
•=. = ki (volume constant) (21)
and from Eq. (16)
V
-Tf. = ki (pressure constant) (22)
These two equations express Charles's laws. If the volume of a confined

gas is constant, the pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature,
or
— = — (22,)
If the pressure of a confined gas is unchanged, the volume is directly proportional

to the absolute temperature, or
T. - T. (24)
The General Gas Law. The three gas laws just stated can be
combined into a single law that applies to changes in the conditions
of a gas whether the factors change one at a time or simultaneously.
This general gas law may be written in'equation form as
PV = MRT (25)
where M is the mass of gas, and /? is a constant.
If we introduce the restrictions stated in the special laws, the
general gas law reduces to the simpler expressions. If mass and tem-
perature are constant, Eq. (25) reduces to PV — k (Boyle's law). If
M and V are constant, P/T = ki; while if P and M are constant,
V/T = ki. These are Charles's laws.
In using the general gas law it may be convenient to write it in
other forms. Dividing both sides of Eq. (26) ,by MT and expressing
the result in terms of initial and final conditions, we have
or, since the density d = M/V,
- ^ = - ^ r27)
The general gas law can be used to study any changes in the con-
ditions of the gas so long as absolute temperatures and complete pres-
sures are used. Gauge pressures cannot be used in the gas law.
Example: A 5000-cm^ container holds 4.90 gm of a gas when the pressure is

75.0 cm of mercury and the temperature is 50°C. What will be the pressure if 6.00 gm
of this gas are confined in a 2000-cm' container at 0°G?
From Eq. (26)
Pi X 2000 cm^ _ 75.0 cm of mercury X 5000 cm^

6.00 gm X 273°K 4.90 gm X 323°K
Pi = 194 cm of mercury
Example: The weight-density of air at 32°F and 29.92 in. of mercury pressure is
0.081 lb/ft'. What is its weight-density at an altitude where the pressure is 13.73 in.
of mercury and the temperature is —40°F?
From Eq. (27)
Pi P,
T, = 32° + 460° = 492°R

Ti = - 4 0 ° + 460° = 420°R
29.92 in. 13.73 in.
0.081 lb/ft' X 492°R ~ D^ X 420°R
Da = 0.044 lb/ft'
Example: Air at pressure 14.7 lb/in.^ is pumped into a tank whose volume is
42.5 ft'. V ^ a t volume of air must be pumped in to make the gauge read 55.3 Ib/in.^
if the temperature is raised from 70 to 80°F in the process?
Pi = 14.7 lb/in.2
Ps = 14.7 lb/in.2 -I- 55.3 Ib/in.^ = 70.0 Ib/in.^
Ti = 70° + 460° = 530°i?
Tj = 80° -I- 460° = SAO°R
Since M is constant,
PiFi _ PsFj
14.7 Ib/in.^ X Fi _ -70.0 Ib/in.^ X 42.5 ft«

530°R ", ~ 540°P
Fi = 199 ft=
Since 42.5 ft' of air were in the tank at the beginning, the volume of air added is
F = 199 f t " - 4 2 . 5 ft' = 157 ft'

SUMMARY
T h e temperature of an objefct is that property which determines the
direction of flow of heat between it a n d its surroundings.
A thermometer scale is established by choosing 2iSfixedpoints two
easily reproducible temperatures (ice point and steam point), dividing
this interval into a number of equal subintervals, and assigning an
arbitrary zero.
Conversions between centigrade and Fahrenheit scale readings
are m a d e by the relations
F = %C + 32°
C = %{F - 32°)
T h e coefficient of expansion is the fractional change (in length or in
volume) per degree change in temperature. The units, per °C or per
°F, must be expressed.
Lf — LQ
a. =
i8 = V.At
T h e expansion of a material is equal to the product of the coeffi-
cient of expansion, the original size (length or volume), and the tem-
perature change. Symbolically
AL = aLo At and AV = jSFo At
T h e presstire and volume coefficients of expansion of all gases are
approximately equal to îis per °C.
Conversions to the centigrade absolute (Kelvin) and Fahrenheit
absolute (Rankine) scales are made from the relations
K = 273° -f C
R = 460° + F
T h e general gas law is
PiVi ^ P2V2
Ti T2
QUESTIONS
1. List several methods of measuring temperatures and mention the factors that
limit the range of each. What means are available for measuring the highest attainable
temperatures?
2. What factors must be taken into account in the design of a sensitive thermome-
ter?
3. What precautions are necessary to insure accurate readings when using a
liquid-in-glass thermometer?
4. Outline carefully the logical steps in the definition of a temperature scale.
5. How do you account for the fact that solids and liquids generally expand
when heated?
6. Would the coefficent of linear expansion be different if the inch were used
as the unit of length rather than the centimeter? If the Fahrenheit scale were used
rather than the centigrade scale? Explain.
7. An observation made on the expansion of a liquid contained in a bulb or tube
does not give the true expansion of the liquid. Explain.
8. Would the error introduced by the expansion of the container be larger in a
liquid thermometer or in a gas thermometer? Explain why.
9. Suggest several practical uses of the differential expansion of two different
•materials. In what cases is differential expansion undesirable?
10. Describe the action of a temperature-compensated balance wheel in a watch.
11. In the early manufacture of light bulbs platinum wire was sealed through the
glass. By reference to Table I, show why this was feasible.
12. A steel plug fits into a hole in a brass plate. What will be the effect on the
closeness of fit if the plug alone is heated? If the plate alone is heated? If both are
heated equally?
13. Show that the coefficient of area expansion is approximately twice that of
linear expansion and that the coefficient of volume expansion is approximately three
times that of linear expansion.
14. Table IV gives the coefficient of linear expansion for iron at different tem"-
peratures. Explain the meaning and usefulness of such a table.
TABLE IV
«, °C a ,
0-100 10.5 X lO-iiper °C
100-200 ....11.5
200-300 '....13
300-400 15
400-500. ; , 14
500-600 16
600-700 16
Above 900 29
15. Describe briefly the expansion of water near 4°C. What are some consequences
of this behavior of water?
PROBLEMS
1. Liquid oxygen freezes at —218.4°G and boils at —183.0°C. Express these
temperatures on tjie Fahrenheit scale.
2. Convert -14°C, 20°C, 40°C, and 60°C to Fahrenheit readings. Convert
98°F, — 13°F, and 536°F to centigrade readings.
Ans. 6.8°F; 68°F; 104°F; 140°F; 37°C; - 2 5 ° C ; 280°G
3. What is the approximate temperature of a healthy person in °C?
4. Calculate the temperature at which the readings of a Fahrenheit and a
centigrade thermometer are the same. Ans. —40°
5. (a) Change 40°C and - 5 ° C to the Kelvin scale, (b) Change 4S°F and 50°F
to the Rankine scale.
6. Over a period of 50 years, the extremes of temperature in New York differ
by 116 Fahrenheit degrees. Express this range in centigrade degrees.
Ans. 64.5 centigrade degrees
7. Express a change in temperature of 20°C in terms of the Fahrenheit scale.
8. The lower end of a vertical steam pipe 50 ft long is supported rigidly by a
hanger attached to the basement ceiling. When the pipe is at 40°F, a steam radiator
attached rigidly to the upper end of the pipe rests on the attic floor. Find the distance
the radiator is lifted off the floor when the iron steampipe is at 220°F.
Ans. 0.72 in.
9. Assuming the highest summer temperature to be 40°G and the lowest winter
temperature — 20°C, what allowance should be made for expansion in a steel bridge
1700 ft long? The coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 11 X I 0~^ per °C.
10. An iron rod and a zinc rod have lengths of 25.55 cm and 25.50 cm, respectively,
at 0°C. At what temperature will these rods have the same lengths? The coefficients
of expansion of iron and zinc are 0.000010 and 0.000030 per °C, respectively.
Ans. 98°C
11. A steel wagon tire is 16 ft in circumference at 220°C when it is put onto the
wheel. How much will the circumference shrink in cooling to 20°C?
12. A wheel is 3.000 ft in circumference. An iron tire measures 2.992 ft around
its inner face. How much must the temperature of the tire be raised in order that
it may just slip onto the wheel? Ans. 200°C
13. Measurements are made at 25°C upon a brass tube by a steel scale correct
at 0°C. The result is 6.45 m. Find the length that would have been obtained if the
tube and scale had been at 0°C.
14. A steel tape correct at 0°C is used to measure land when the temperature is
25°C. What percentage error will result in length measurements due to the expansion
of the tape? Ans. 0.027 %
15. A pyrex glass flask of volume 1000 cm' is full of mercury at 20°C. How many
cubic centimeters will overflow when the temperature is raised to 50°C?
16. A 50-gal steel drum is filled with gasoline when the temperature is 50°F.
How much of the gasoline will overflow when the temperature becomes 110°F?
Coefficient of linear expansion of steel, = 10 X 10"^ per °C; coefficient of volume
expansion of gasoline, = 0.00096 per °G). Ans. 1.6 gal
17. A gas occupies 200 cm' at 100°C. Find its volume at 0°C, assuming constant
pressure.
18. A tire gauge registers 32 lb/in.^ when air in a certain tire is at 10°C. After
running for a time the tire heats up to 30°C. Calculate the pressure that would be
registered then by the gauge. Ans. 35 lb/in. °
19. The coefficient of volume expansion of air at atmospheric pressure is 0.0037
per °G. What volume would 10 cm' of air at 0°C occupy at 100°C? at -100°C?
at -200°C?
20. On a hot day, temperature 35°C, the tires on a car are inflated to a pressure
of 30 lb/in.^ What will be the pressure of the air in the tires in the evening when the
temperature drops 20°G? Ans. 28 lb/in,^
21. A gas occupies 2.0 ft' under a pressure of 30 in. of mercury. What volume
will it occupy under 25 in. of mercury pressure? Assume that the temperature is
unchanged.
22. A gas occupies 500 cm' at 100°C. Find its volume at 20.0°C, assuming con-
stant pressure. Ans. 393 cm'
23. Given 200 cm' of oxygen at 5°C and 76 cm of mercury pressure, find its
volume at 30°C and 80 cm of mercury pressure.
24. A cylinder is sealed at one end and is closed at the other end by a piston. A
volume of 2.0 ft' of dry air trapped in the cylinder exerts a pressure (absolute) of
15 lb/in.^ when the temperature is 68°F. The piston compresses the air to a volume
of 0.20 ft' and the temperature rises momentarily to 180°F, then slowly decreases to
68°F. (a) What pressure does the air exert on the piston when the temperature has
returned to 68°F? {b) What is the approximate value of the maximum pressure
exerted by the air in the cylinder? Ans. 150 Ib/in.^; 180 Ib/in.^
25. The volume of a tire is 1500 in.' when the pressure is 30 lb/in.^ above atmos-
pheric pressure. What volume will this air occupy at atmospheric pressure? Assume
that atmospheric pressure is 15 lb/in.^ How much air will come out of the tire when
the valve is removed?
26. Compare the densities of the air at the bottom and at the top of a mine shaft
when the temperatures and pressures are, respectively, 5°G and 31 in. of mercury
at the bottom and 20°G and 30 in. of mercury at the top. Ans. dh/dt = 1.09-
27. A mass of gas has a volume of 6.0 ft' at 40°C and 76 cm of mercury pressure.
Find its volume at — 15°C and 57 cm of mercury pressure.
^
\ SIR
WILLIAM
LAWRENCE
'^ .:?>. ^ BRAGG
«*<»»
1890 —
BORN IN ADELAIDE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA. CAVENDISH PROFESSOR

AT CAMBRIDGE SINCE 1 9 3 8 . SHARED THE I 9 1 5 NOBEL PRIZE FOR
PHYSICS WITH HIS FATHER W . H . BRAGG FOR EXPERIMENTAL
METHODS THAT LED TO THE MEASUREMENT OF THE W A V E -
LENGTHS OF X-RAYS AND THE ELUCIDATION OF THE ARCHI-
TECTURE OF CRYSTALS.
20. Heat Quantities

After the concept of temperature became understood, there were
many centuries of scientific development before the real nature of
heat was established. Even today there are many people who do not
carefully observe the distinction between these important technical
terms. It "was early recognized that a temperature difference between
247
24S COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
two objects resulted in a flow of heat when they were piaced in

thermal contact. T h e real nature of the " t h i n g " that flows under such
circumstances was not clearly identified until about 1840. This devel-
opment depended on the measurement of heat quantities.
Meaning of Heat. T o raise the temperature of an object, it is
necessary either to add heat to it from some source at a higher tem-
perature or to do work on it. I t is possible to warm your hands by
rubbing them together. T h e work done against friction is transformed
into heat and raises the surface temperature of the hands. When a
wire is broken by bending it back and forth rapidly, some of the work
is transformed into heat and the wire gets hot. When a nail is pulled
out of a board, work is needed because of the friction Ijetween the
wood and the nail. T h e work produces heat, which warms the wood
a n d the nail. Pumping up an automobile tire with a hand p u m p
takes work. Some of this work produces heat, which warms the
p u m p , tire, and air. Heat is-a form of energy that molecules of matter
possess because of their motion. Heat must not be confused with tem-
perature, which determines the direction of transfer of heat.
Suppose we dip a pail of water from the ocean. Its temperature is
the same as that of the ocean, but the amount of heat (energy) in the
pail of water is infinitessimal compared with the amount in the ocean.
H e a t may be measured in terms of any unit that can be used to
measure energy. It is more convenient, however, to measure heat in
terms of a unit appropriate to the experiments that involve heat.
Temperature must be meastired in terms of a n independently estab-
lished standard.
Units of Heat. O n e effect of the addition of heat to water, or any
other substance, is a rise of temperature. T h e amount of heat neces-
sary to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree,
Fahrenheit is nearly constant throughout the interval between 32
and 212°F. This fact suggests a convenient unit to use in measuring
heat. It is called the British thermal unit (Btu) and is the amount of
heat needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree
Fahrenheit.
I n the metric system the corresponding unit of heat is called a
calorie. T h e calorie is the heat necessary to raise the temperature of
one gram of water one degree centigrade. O n e Btu is equivalent to
approximately 252 calories.
HEAT QUANTITIES 249
Since the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit

mass of water one degree is not quite constant throughout the tem-
perature range, the definitions of the. Btu and the calorie may be re-
garded as the average values in the region from freezing to boiling.
Specific Heat. The heat needed to change the temperature of
unit mass of a substance one degree is a characteristic of that substance.
T h e specific heat^ of a substance is defined as the heat per unit mass
per degree change in temperature
' = -mt (^)

where S is the specific heat, H the heat change in the material of
mass M, and M the change in temperature. In the British system the
specific heat is expressed in British thermal units per pound per degree
Fahrenheit, and in the metric system in calories per gram per degree
centigrade. Because of the way the Btu and the calorie are defined,
the specific heat of a substance in metric units is the same numerically
as that expressed in the British system. This means, for example,
T A B L E I. S P E C I F I C H E A T S
c a l / g m °C or
Substance B t u / l b °F
Alcohol 0.60
Aluminum 0.212
Brass ^ 0.090
Carbon (graphite) 0.160
Copper 0.092
Ethylene glycol (Prestone) 0.528
Glass (soda) 0.016
•Gold 0.0316
Hydrogen (at 15°C, constant pressure) 3.389
Ice • 0.51
Iron 0.117
Lead 0.030
Mercury 0.033
Silver 0.056
W a t e r (by definition) 1.00
W a t e r vapor (at 100°C, constant pressure) 0.482
Zinc 0.093
* Some authors call this quantity thermal capacity and define specific heat as the ratio
of the thermal capacity of the substance of that of water-
Q50 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
that the specific heat of sak, which is 0.204 Btu/lb °F, is also 0.204
c a l / g m °C. Water has a specific heat much larger than that of most
common materials.
Knowing the specific heat iS* of a material, one can calculate the
heat H necessary to change the temperature of a mass M from an
initial value ti to a final value i/ from the relation
H = MS{tf - ti) (la)
Example: How much heat is necessary to raise the temperature of 2.5 lb of

alcohol from room temperature (68°F) to its boiling point (173°F)?
Heat required,
H = (2.5 lb)(0.60 Btu/Ib °F)(173°F - 68''F) = 160 Btu
Method of Mixtures. T h e experimental determination of the

specific heat of a metal by the method of mixtures consists essentially
of adding a knoWn mass of metal at a known high temperature to a
known mass of water at a known low temperature and determining
the equilibrium temperature that results. T h e heat absorbed by the
water and containing vessel can be easily computed and this is equated
to the expression for the heat given up by the hot metal. F r o m this
equation the unknown specific heat can be
computed.
H e a t lost = heat gained (2)
T h e heat lost by the warm object is MxSx Aif^,
where Mx is the mass of the object, Sx the specific
heat of the object, and Atx the change in its
temperature. T h e heat gained by the container
and water will be McSc Aic + M^Sw ^tw, where
Mc and S^ are the mass and specific heat of the
F I G . 1.—Double container, and My, and Sw are the mass and
walled calorimeter.
specific heat of the water in the container. T h e
temperature change Aic refers to the container, and A^^ is the change
in the temperature of the water. T o minimize the exchange of heat
with the surroundings, a double-walled vessel (Fig. 1) i§ usually
used in calorimetric Experiments. Such a, container is called a
calorimeter. ' .'
HEAT QUANTITIES 25I
Example: When 2.00 lb of brass at 212°F are dropped into 5.00 lb of water at
3S.0°F, the resulting temperature is 41.2°F. Find the specific heat of brass.
Heat lost by brass = Heat gained by water •

MBSB AtB = M^„ A<„,
(2.00 lb)^B(212°F - 41.2°F) = (5.00 lb)(1.00 Btu/lb °F)(41.2°F - 35.0°F)
(5.00 lb)(1.00 Btu/lb °F)(41.2°F - 35.0°F)
SB =
(2.00 lb)(212°F - 41.2°F)
0.091 Btu/lb °F
Example: Eighty grams of iron shot at 100.0°C are dropped into 200 gm of water
at 20.0°C contained in an iron vessel weighing 50 gm. Find the resulting temperature.
In this mixture heat is lost by the shot and heat is gained by the water and its
container.
Heat lost by shot = M^S^ At^ = (80 gm)(0.12 cal/gm °C)(100.0°C - t)

Heat gained by water = MJSy, At„ = (200 gm)(1.00 cal/gm °C)(i - 20.0°C)
Heat gained by vessel = Afc5', A*. = (50 gm)(0.12 cal/gm °C)(( - 20.0°G)
Heat lost by shot = heat gained by water + heat gained by vessel
(80 gm)(0.12 cal/gm °G)(100.0°d - t) = (200 gm)(1.00 cal/gm °C){t - 20.0°C)
+ (50 gm)(0.12 cal/gm °C)(i - 20.0°C)
t = 23.6°C
Change of State. Not all the heat that an object receives neces-
sarily raises its temperature. Surprisingly large amounts of energy are
needed to do the work of separating the molecules when solids change
to liquids and liquids change to gases. Water•^yill serve as a familiar
example. T h e solid phase of water is ice. Ice has a specific heat of
about 0.5 c a l / g m °C. Water has'a specific heat of 1 'cal/gm °C.
T o raise the temperature of 1 gm of ice from — 1 to 0°C requires
3^^ cal of heat energy. T o raise the temperature of 1 gm of water in
the liquid phase from 0 to 1°C requires 1 cal. T o melt a gram of ice
requires 80 cal, although the temperature does not change while this
large amount of heat is being added. T h e heat per unit mass needed
to change a substance from the solid to the liquid state at its melting
temperature is called the heat of fusion.
T h e heat of fusion Lf is expressed in Btu per pound or in calories, per

gram. T h e heat of fusion of ice is about 144 Btu/lb, or 80 cal/gm.
Whereas specific heats are numerically the same in British and metric
units, the numerical value of a heat of fusion in the metric system is
% that in the British system.
Heat of Vaporization. Once a gram of ice is melted, 100 cal are
required to raise the temperature of the gram of water from the melt-
ing point to the boiling point. As we continue to add heat at the
boiling point, the temperature remains the same until the liquid is
changed entirely to vapor. T h e steps by which a gram of ice is heated
through fusion and vaporization are shown to scale in' Fig. 2. T h e
a m o u n t of heat per unit mass necessary to change a liquid from the
.
^ "0 yAPORfZATJON iMPOR
S /oo
I
I hsOUD\
/
FUSION!
1 ... 1 , 1 , 1 .. , .... 1, . 1 ,, , I-
100 200 300 400 £00 600 700 800
HEAT CHANGE /N CALORIES
FIG. 2.—Heat required to change 1 gm of ice at — 10°C to steam at 110°C.
liquid to the vapor phase without changing the temperature is called

the heat oj vaporization.
" M (4)
For water the heat of vaporization L^. is approximately 540 cal/gm,

or 970 Btu/lb. This is over five times as much energy as is needed to
heat water from the melting t o ' t h e boiling point. Where this energy
goes in a change of state may be better understood if we think of the
liquid as made up of a myriad of molecules packed closely but rather
irregularly, compared to the neat arrangement in the crystals that
make up the solid. One gram of water occupies 1 c m ' of space as a
liquid. T h e Same amount of water (and therefore the same number of
molecules) in the vapor state at 1 a t m of pressure and a temperature
of 100°C fills 1671 cm* instead of one. T h e work to vaporize the water
has been done in separating the molecules to much larger distances
than in the liquid state.
HEAT QUANTITIES 253
Example: How much heat is required to change 50 lb of ice at 15°F to steam at
212°F?
Heat to raise temperature of ice to its melting point = MiSi (32°F — 15°F)
= (50 lb) (0.51 Btu/lb °F)(32°F - 15°F) = 430 Btu
Heat to melt ice = (50 lb) (144 Btu/lb) = 7200 Btu
Heat to warm water to its-boiling point = Af^„ (212°F — 32°F)
= (50 lb)(1.0 Btu/lb °F)(212°F - 32°F) = 9000 Btu
Heat to vaporize water = (50 lb) (970 Btu/lb) = 48,000 Btu
Total heat required:
430 Btu
7,200
9,000
48,000
64,000 Btu
Note that in this summation the 430 is negligible and may be disregarded, since there
is a doubtful ftgutc in the XhoMsands place in 48,000.
Measurement of Heat of Fusion. Heats of fusion and vaporiza-

tion, like specific heats, are determined by calorimetric experiments.
The only change needed in Eq. (2) is the addition of a term giving
the amount of heat required to change the state. If a mass M of ice is
added to a calorimeter containing enough warm water so that all
the ice melts,- the ice will gain heat and the calorimeter and water will
lose an equal amount. The heat gained by the ice will be the heat to
melt it, assuming that it is at 0°C when put into the calorimeter, plus
the heat to warm it to the final temperature once it is all melted.
This is,
Hg = MiLi + MiSîtf - 0) (5)
where Hg represents heat gained by the mass Mi of melting ice whose
heat of fusion Li is to be measured, S^ is the specific heat of the water
which was ice before it melted, and tf is the final temperature. The
heat lost by the calorimeter and the water in it will be
Hi = McSc Ate + M^S^ A<„ (6)
where the symbols have meanings analogous to those following Eq. (2).
The initial temperature should be about as far above room tempera-
ture as the latter is above the final temperature. In this case, the heat
that is lost to the surroundings while the calorimeter is above room
temperature is compensated by that gained while the calorimeter is

below room temperature. The value of the heat of fusion Li is deter-
mined by equating Hg and Hi from Eqs. (5) and (6), and solving the
resulting equation for U.
Example: When 150 gm of ice at 0°C are mixed with 300 gm of water at 50.0°C
the resulting temperature is 6.7°C. Calculate the heat of fusion of ice.
Heat lost by water = (300 gm)(1.00 cal/gm °G)(50.0°C - 6.7°C) = 13,000 cal
Heat to melt ice = (150 ^;m)Li
Heat to raise temperature of ice water to final temperature
= (150 gm)(1.00 cal/gm °G)(6.7°G - 0°G) = 1000 cal
Heat lost = heat gained
13,000 cal = (150 gm)Zi + 1000 cal
Li = 80.0 cal/gm
Any method of mixtures problem may be solved by choosing at

will some standard state and then calculating the heat that would
be gained or lost by each material in going from its initial condition
to the standard state.
Example: If 150 gm of ice at 0°C are added to 200 gm of water in a 100-gm-
aluminum cup at 30°C, what is the resulting temperature?
Here let us choose v/ater at 0°C as the standard state. Next compare the heat
gained by the ice in going to the standard state with the heat lost by the water and
cup in cooling to 0°C.
Heat gained by ice in melting = (150 gm)(80.0 cal/gm) = 12,000 cal
Heat lost by cup = (100 gm)(0.212 cal/gm °C)(30°G - 0°G) = 640 cal
Heat lost by water = (200 gm)(1.0 cal/gm °C)(30°G - 0°G) = 6000 cal
Since the melting of all the ice would require more heat (12,000 cal) than that avail-
able from the water and cup (6600 cal), not all the ice will meh. The final tempera-
ture will then be 0°C. The amount of ice remaining is given by
_ (12,000 - 6600) cal ,,
^ - ~8orîi/iii^— = ^^ ^ •
Vaporization. Vaporization is the change of a substance into the
state of a vapor or a gas. It may occur in three ways.
Evaporation is the vaporization of a liquid at its surface only.
This proceeds without visible disturbance. Liquids left in uncovered
dishes generally disappear in time by evaporation. The rate of evapo-
ration depends on the material and such factors as the temperature,
the surface area, amount of ventilation, and the pressure exerted on
HEAT QUANTITIES 255
the surface. Evaporation is a cooling process, since it is the more
energetic molecules that are able to escape from the liquid. R a p i d
evaporation may cool the remaining liquid enough to freeze it.
Boiling is the vaporization of a liquid in bubbles in the body of
the liquid as well as at the free surface. It is accompanied by agitation
of the liquid as the bubbles rise, expand, and burst. The_bi)jling
point of a liquid, is the temperature at which its vapor pressure is_.
^ u a l to the pressure exerted on the liquid^ The temperature at which
a liquid boils at standard pressure, 76.0 cm of mercury, is called its
normal boiling point.
Sublimation is the changing of a solid directly into a vapor with-
out passing through a liquid state. Clothes hung to dry on a cold day
may freeze and then dry. Solid carbon dioxide sublimes without
wetting its container, hence its trade name "dry ice." T h e odor of
solid camphor and naphthalene (moth balls) is evidence that they
sublime at room temperature.
The EflFect of Pressure on a Change of State. It is a familiar
fact that at high altitudes where the atmospheric pressure is reduced
water boils at temperatures lower than at sea level. O n the other
hand, if the pressure on the liquid surface is increased in a steam
boiler or in a pressure cooker boiling occurs at temperatures higher
than the normal boiling point. Boiling can be brought about either
by increasing the temperature of a liquid until its vapor pressure is
equal to the pressure on the liquid, or by reducing the pressure on
the liquid to the value of the saturated vapor pressure. T h e vapori-
zation curve of Fig. 3 represents conditions of equilibrium between
the liquid and vapor states of water.
T h e vaporization of water results in a large increase in the volume
occupied by the molecules. An increase in pressure therefore raises
the boiling point. T h e vapor pressure curve for water, OC in Fig. 3,
shows that water can be boiled under reduced pressure at tempera-
tures less than 100°C.
•• T h e freezing of a liquid is accompanied by a change of volume,
although this change is much smaller than that which occurs o n
vaporization. For the few substances which, like water, expand on
freezing, an increase in pressure lowers the freezing point. T h e line
OA in Fig. 3 is the fusion curve for water. Each point on it represents
a pressure and a temperature at which ice and water can exist
together in equilibrium, the relative amounts of each remaining the
same if no heat is added or removed.
In ice skating or skiing a layer of ice or snow is melted even
though the temperature is below 0°C owing to the momentary in-
crease in pressure. The water film lubricates the skate or ski and re-
freezes as soon as the pressure is reduced, since its temperatiure is below
0°C. This process is called regelation.
CRITICAL
PO/NT
4^"
TEMPERATURE
FIG. 3.—Triple-point diagram for a substance such as water.
Triple Point. Three cases of equilibrium have been discussed,

those between liquid and vapor, between solid and liquid, and be-
tween solid and vapor. In each case the temperature of equilibrium
depends on the pressure. This dependence can be represented con-
veniently in an equilibrium graph in which the.coordinates of the
points plotted represent temperatures and the corresponding pres-
sures for equilibrium between two states of the substance.
In Fig. 3, the equilibrium curve OC shows the raising of the boil-
ing point of the substance with increase of pressure. Curve OB shows
the raising of the sublimation point with increase of pressure. Curve
OA is typical of a substance, which, like water, expands on freezing,
and shows for such a substance the lowering of the melting point with
increase of pressure.
It can be shown that for any substance the three equilibrium
curves intersect at a common point, 0 in Fig. 3, called the triple point,
at which conditions of temperature and pressure the three phases.
HEAT QUANTITIES 257
solid, liquid, and saturated vapor, can exist together in equilibrium.

For water the triple point is at 0.0075°G and 4.62 m m of mercury
pressure. If these conditions are changed, one of the phases will dis-
appear. If the temperature is raised, for example, the ice will melt
a n d the state of the system (water and saturated vapor) will be repre-
sented by a point on curve OC.
Consider a solid substance kept under constant pressure and
whose temperature is gradually increased. At each temperature its
state will be represented by a point on the line dg in Fig. 3. T h e sub-
stance will remain solid from d to e. At e, which represents the melt-
ing temperature, the solid substance can exist in equilibrium with the
liquid. From e to J the substance will be in the form of liquid a n d
unsaturated vapor. At / the liquid and saturated vapor can exist
together. This is the boiling point for the substance at the pressure
chosen. At higher temperatures, a l o n g / ^ , the vapor will be super-
heated and no longer saturated.
Critical Point. An instructive experiment can be performed,
with suitable precautions, using a strong glass tube in which liquid
carbon dioxide and carbon dioxide vapor have been sealed. As the
tube is slowly heated, the meniscus (liquid-vapor boundary) can be
observed to remain practically stationary, becoming flatter as the
temperature increases. At 31°C the meniscus vanishes. T h e density
of the liquid has decreased with rising temperature and the density of
the vapor has increased, until they became equal at 31°C. T h e tem-
perature at which the liquid and vapor densities of a substance be-
come equal is called its critical temperature. T h e pressure of the saturated
vapor at this temperature is called the critical pressure.
A vapor kept above its critical temperature will never form a
meniscus, that is, it will never liquefy no matter how greatly it is
compressed. Above the critical temperature and under high pressure
the vapor may become as dense and as incompressible as the liquid
at lower temperatures. The vaporization curve OC of Fig. 3 or Fig. 4
terminates at the critical point C. For water the critical point is at
374°C and 218 atm pressure.
When a substance in the gaseous state is below its critical tem-
perature it is called a vapor; when above that temperature it is called
a gas. Only gases well above the critical temperature obey the gas
laws. Near the critical temperature there are marked departures from
the gas ]aws. For saturated vapors the pressure is independent of

volume.
Phases of Matter. Among the common materials are m a n y t h a t
do not have definite melting points; for example, glass and butter.
In a furnace, glass will gradually soften until it flows freely even
though at ordinary temperatures it is quite solid. When it is solid it
may be thought of as a supercooled liquid; it flows, but very slowly.
Since it does not have a definite melting point, it does not have a
heat of fusion.
4
1 • c
70 -
60 -
50 - SOLID UOUIO
REGION REGION
t440
1- VAPOR
REGION
20
10
gy
n 1 ' 1 1
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40
TEMPERATURE.''C
F I G . 4.—^Triple-point d i a g r a m for CO2.
T h e specific heat of glass changes as the temperature rises. Such

changes indicate transitions in the arrangement of the molecules.
Specific heat measurements may be used by the ceramic engineer in
studying the changes in these products as the temperature is varied:
M a n y niaterials decompose at high temperatures and therefore do
not exist xn liquid and gaseous states. Some may exist in the liquid
state but decompose before reaching the gaseous state.
Since the chemical elements cannot be decomposed by heating,
they are all capable of existing in the solid, liquid, and gaseous states.
M a n y of them have more than one solid state, as in the case of phos-
phorus, which is known in three solid phases: black, formed at very
high pressures, and the more familiar red and yellow forms. Powdered
HEAT QUANTITIES 259
sulphur results from a direct transition of sulphur vapor to the solid
state. If this powder is melted and then cooled, it solidifies normally.
SUMMARY
Heat is a form of energy.
T h e most commonly used units of heat are the calorie and the
British thermal unit.
T h e calorie is the amount of heat required to change the tempera-
ture of 1 gm of water 1°C.
T h e British thermal unit is the amount of heat required to change the
temperature of 1 lb of water 1°F.
T h e specific heat of a substance is the heat per unit mass per degree
required to change the temperature of the substance (Units: c a l / g m
°Cor,Btu/lb°F).
T h e specific heat of water varies so slightly with temperature that
for most purposes it can be assumed constant (1 cal/gm °G) between
0 and 100°C.
T h e heat lost or gained by a body when the temperature changes
is given by the equation
H = MSU
In a calorimeter the heat lost by the hot bodies is equal to the heat
gained by the cold bodies.
Heat lost = heat gained
T h e heat of fusion is the heat per unit mass required to change a

substance from solid to liquid at its melting point.
T h e heat effusion of ice is approximately 80 cal/gm, or 144 B t u / l b .
T h e heat of vaporization is the heat per unit mass required to
change a substance from liquid to vapor.
T h e heat of vaporization of water at its normal boiling point is
approximately 540 cal/gm, or 970 B t u / l b . It depends on the tem-
perature at which vaporization takes place.
T h e boiling point of a liquid is raised by an increase in pressure
on the liquid.
The freezing point of water and of the few materials which ex-
pand on freezing is lowered by an increase in pressure. T h e freezing
point of substances which contract on freezing is raised by an in-

crease in pressure.
The triple point is the condition of pressure and temperature at
which the three phases can coexist in equilibrium.
The critical point is the condition of pressure and temperature a t
which a Hquid and its vapor are indistinguishable. T h e critical tem-
perature is the highest temperature at which a gas can be liquefied
by pressure alone.
QUESTIONS
• L What is the distinction between quantity of heat and temperature?
2. What is the experimental evidence for considering heat to be a form of energy?
To what general principle does this lead?
3. What is the physical distinction between a solid, a liquid, and a gas? What is
the distinction between a vapor and a gas?
4. In terms of molecular theory what happens when a liquid is evaporating?
Why is a liquid cooled by evaporation?
5. At how low a temperature can water be made to boil?
6. Which produces the more severe burn, boiling water or steam? Why?
7. Which would be liable to explode with greater violence, a high-pressure steam
boiler or a tank containmg air at the same pressure? Why?
8. A tall vertical pipe is closed at the bottom, filled with water, and heated at
the bottom by a Bunsen burner. Water and steam erupt from the tube as from a
geyser. Explain.
9. A piece of blotting paper is placed in a beaker of ether with part of the
blotter protruding over the edge of the beaker. Soon "frost" is noticed on the pro-'
truding portion of the blotter. Explain.
10. Do all substances have melting points?
11. In what sense is freezing a heating process? How does the heat thus produced
protect plants and temper the climate?
12. What condition must be satisfied before a gas may be liquefied by pressure?
13. How is regelation involved in the motion of a glacier?
14. One sometimes places a tub of water in a fruit storage room to keep the tem-
perature above 30°F during a cold night. Explain.
15. Why should foundations extend below the frost line?
16. Why do water pipes occasionally burst in winter?
PROBLEMS
1. How many Btu are required to raise the temperature of 0.50 lb of aluminum
from 48 to 212°F?
2. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 1.5 lb of water in an
8.0-oz aluminum vessel froni 48°F to the boiling point, assuming no loss of heat to the
surroundings? Ans. 260 Btu
HEAT QUANTITIES 261
3. What is the specific heat of 500 gm of dry soil if it requires the addition of
2000 cal to increase its temperature 20°C?
4. From the following data, taken in a calorimeter experiment, what value is
obtained for the specific heat of iron?
Mass of iron 320 gm

Mass of calorimeter 55 gm
Specific heat of brass calorimeter 0.090 cal/gm °C
Mass of cold water 350 gm
Temperature of iron, before mixing 95.0°C
Temperature of water, before mixing 15.0°C
Temperature of water and iron after m i x i n g . . . . 22.6°C
^nj. 0.116 cal/gm °C

5. By referring to the definitions, show that 1 Btu is equal to 252 cal.
6. Calculate the amount of energy required to heat the air in a house 30 by 50
by 40 ft from 10 to 70°F. The density of air is about 0.080 lb/ft* and its specific heat at
constant pressure is approximately 0.24 Btu/lb °F. Discuss the assumptions made in
your calculations. Ans. 69,000 Btu
7. (a) How much heat is required to change the temperature of a 10.0-lb block
of copper from 50 to 250°F? (b) If the block (at 250°F) is placed in 50 lb of water
at 40°F, what will be the resulting temperature?
8. Find the resulting temperature when 80.0 gm of iron shot at 100.0°C are
dropped into 200 gm of water at 20.0°C contained in an iron vessel weighing 50 gra.
(Specific heat of iron is 0.12 cal/gm °G) Ans. 24°G
9. To determine the specific heat of an alloy, 200 gm of the substance at 98°C
are placed in 100 gm of water at 20.2°G held in a 50-gm aluminum cup. If the cup is
insulated from its surroundings and if the alloy and the water reach an equilibrium
temperature of 23.0°C, what is the value of the specific heat of the alloy?
10. A 3.0-lb lead ball at 160°F is dropped into 5.0 lb of oil (specific heat 0.60
Btu/lb°F) at 70°F contained in a 4.0-lb copper vessel. Assuming heat exchanges to
be restricted to this system, what temperature will be reached finally by the mixture?
Ans. 72°F
11. When 200 gm of a certain alloy at 100°C are placed in a 100-gm copper
calorimeter containing 100 gm of water at 10°C, the equilibrium temperature reached
is 35°C. What is the specific heat of the alloy?
12. There are 100 gm of water in a brass calorimeter weighing 200 gm. It is
found that 590 cal are required to raise the temperature of water and container 5.0°C.
What is the specific heat of brass? Ans. 0.090 cal/gm °C
13. When 81 gm of aluminum at 100°G are dropped into a copper calorimeter
weighing 200 gm and containing 400 gm of oil at 15°C, the mixture reaches a final
temperature of 20°G. Calculate the specific heat of the oil.
14. A 100-lb casting was cooled from 1300° (red hot) to 200°F by placing it in
water whose initial temperature was 50°F. How much water was used? The specific
heat of iron is approximately 0.12 Btu/lb°F for this temperature range. Ans. 88 lb
15. When 200 gm of aluminum at 100°C are dropped into an aluminum calo-
rimeter weighing 120 gm and containing 150 gm of kerosene at 15°C, the mixture
reaches a temperature of 50°G. What is the specific heat of kerosene?
16. When 30 gm of ice at — 10°C are added to a 50-gm copper calorimeter con-
taining 100 gm of water at 35°C, what final temperature is reached, assuming no
heat gain or loss froni outside the system? Aris. 8.3°C
17. A 30-gm piece of ice at —20°G is dropped into a 25.0-gm calorimeter of
specific heat 0.20 cal/gm°C containing 100 gm of water at 35.0°C. The final equi-
librium temperature, corrected for thermal leakage, is found to be 7.2°C. What is
the specific heat of the ice?
18. An iron ball at 95°G weighing 150 gm is dropped into a cavitf in a block of
ice. The cavity is then drained and found to contain 21.0 gm of water. Calculate the
heat effusion of ice. Ans. 79.5 cal/gm
19. A certain refrigerator contains 2500 gm of water and 5000 gm of food (specific
heat 0.90 cal/gm°C). Find the mass of ice required to cool the contents of the re-
frigerator from 30 to 10°C if the ice water drains out at 0°C.
20. How much heat is required to change 50 lb of ice at 15°F to steam at 212°F?
(The specific heat of ice is 0.50 Btu/Ib "F.) Ans. 6.5 X 10^ Btu
21. A 1.0-lb iron ball at 210°F is dropped into a cavity in a block of ice. If it melts
0.14 lb of ice in cooling to the temperature of the ice, what is the specific heat of the
iron?
22. How much energy must be removed by the refrigerator coils from a 0.50-lb
aluminum tray containing 3.0 lb of water at 70°F to freeze all the water, and then
to cool the ice to 10°F? Ans. 580 Btu
23. A copper vessel weighing 0.50 lb and containing 2.0 lb of ice, all at a tempera-
ture of 20°F, is placed in a calorimeter of negligible heat capacity containing 6.0 lb
of water at 70°F. What mass of steam at 212°F would have to be condensed in the
calorimeter to heat the mixture to 70°F?
24. A 2.0-lb aluminum pail contains 20 lb of water at 70°F. What mass of ice
at the melting point must be placed in the pail to cool the water to 50°F, assuming
the heatexchanges to be limited to pail and contents? Ans. 2.5 lb
25. A certain industrial process required heating 2500 lb of water per hour from
40 to 160°F. This is accomplished by passing steam into a coil immersed in the watgr.
The steam enters at a temperature of 302°F. How many pounds of steam must be
supplied to the heating coil per hour? The specific heat of steam is 0.48 Btu/lb °F.
26. How many Btu's are needed to change 50 lb of ice at 12°F to steam at 232°F?
Ans. 66,000 Btu
27. Water is heated in a boiler from 100 to 284°F where, under a pressure of
52.4 lb/in.^, it.boils. The heat of vaporization for water at 284°F is 511.5 cal/gm, or
920.7 Btu/lb. How much heat is required to raise the temperature and to evaporate
500 gal of water?
28. When 1.445 gm of coal are completely burned in a special calorimeter, the
temperature of the 2510 grn of water is raised from 74.85 to 82.65°F. (a) How much
heat is given to the water as a result of the combustion of the coal? (b) What is the
heat of combustion of the coaf? Ans. 10,900 cal; 7530 cal/gm
CHARLES
GLOVER
BARKLA
1877 to I 944
BORN IN WIDNES, LANCASHIRE. PROFESSOR AT THE UNIVERSITY

OF EDINBURGH. AWARDED THE I 9 1 7 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS
FOR HIS DISCOVERY OF THE SECONDARY X-RADIATION CHARAC-
TERISTIC OF ELEMENTS. THIS REVEALED THE NUMBER OF ELEC-
TRONS IN AN ATOM AND WHICH ELEMENTS WERE STILL UNKNOWN.
MOSELEY WOULD HAVE SHARED THE AWARD BUT FOR HIS DEATH
AT GALLIPOLI.
21. Heat Transfer

Heat is the most common form of energy. Every object that, we see
or feel possesses heat energy. Heat is continually being transferred
from one body to another.
The engineer is concerned with heat and its flow. Sometimes he
wants to get it from one place to another. Heat must be transferred
263
from the firebox to the water in a boiler, or from the automobile

engine to the surrounding air. I n other cases the engineer tries to
prevent the flow of heat, as from the firebox to the surrounding room
or from the welder's tongs to his hand. I n the first problern he is con-
fronted with the fact that there are no perfect conductors of heat.
T h e second problem, that of heat storage, is complicated by the fact
that there are no perfect heat insulators, so that one cannot confine
heat. I n order to utilize heat to the best advantage, it is necessary to
know the laws that govern heat transfer.
Heat Flow. H e a t is always being transferred in one way or
another, wherever there is any difference in temperature. Just as
water will run down hill, always flowing to the lowest possible level,
so heat, if left to itself, flows down the temperature hill, always warm-
ing the cold objects at the expense of the warmer ones. T h e rate at
which hea.t flows depends on the steepness of the temperature hill as
well as on the properties of the materials through which it has to flowi.
T h e difference of temperature per unit distance is called the tempera-
ture gradient in analogy to the idea of steepness of grade, which deter-
mines the rate of flow of water.
Types of Heat Transfer. There are three ways in which heat is
transferred. Since heat itself is the energy of molecular activity, the
simplest mode of transfer of heat, called conduction, is the direct com-
munication of molecular disturbance through a substance by means
of the collisions of neighboring molecules. Convection is the transfer of
heat from one place to another by actual motion of the hot material.
Heat transfer is accomplished also by a combination of radiation and
absorption. I n the former, heat energy is transformed into r a d i a n t
energy, similar in nature to light. I n fact, a part of such radiant energy
is light. While in the form of radiation, the energy may travel a tre-
mendous distance before being absorbed or changed back into heat.
For example, energy radiated from the surface of the sun is converted
into heat at the surface of the earth only eight minutes later.
Conduction. Conduction of heat is irnportant in getting the heat
from the fire through the firebox and into the air or water beyond.
Good heat conductors, such as iron, are used for such jobs. T g keep
heat in, poor conductors, or insiilators, are used, the amount.of flow
being reduced to the smallest level that is consistent with other neces-
sary properties of the material, such as strength and elasticity. T h e
HEAT TRANSFER 265
amount of heat that flows through any body by conduction depends

upon the time of flow, the area through which it flows, the tempera-
ture gradient, and the kind of material. Stated as an equation
H = kAt^ (1)
where k is called the thermal conductivity of the material, A is the area

measured at right angles to the direction of
the flow of heat, t is the time the flow con-
tinues, and A T/L is the temperature gradient.
T h e symbol A T represents the difference in
temperature between two parallel surfaces
distant L apart (Fig. 1).
I n the British system these quantities are
usually measured in the following units: H in
Btu, A in square feet, t in hours, AT* in °F,
and L in inches. T h e thermal conductivity k
is then expressed in Btu/(ft^ hr °F/in.). The
corresponding unit of k in the metric system
is cal/(cm2 sec ° C / c m ) . Fio. 1.—Heat con-
duction through a thin
Example: A copper kettle, the circular bottom of plate,
which is 6.0 in. in diameter and 0.062 in. thick, is placed
over a gas flame. Assuming that the average temperature of the outer surface of the
copper is 300°F and that the water in the kettle is at its normal boiling point, how
much heat is conducted through the bottom in 5.0 sec? The thermal conductivity
may be taken as 2480 Btu/Cft^ hr °F/in.).
H == kAt^
Lt
The area A of the bottom is

/3 0 \^
7rr' ( 3 2 ft) =0.20ft=
5.0
t ••
5-0 «'='= = 3600^"^
AT 300°F - 212°F
1400 °F/in.
L 0.062 in.
^ = (24^0 ft^hf°F/in.) («-20 f^') ( ^ ^ 0 (1400 °F/in.) = 960 Btu
There are large differences in the thermal conductivities of various

materials. Gases have very low conductivities. Liquids also are, in
general, quite poor conductors. The conductivities of solids vary over
a wide range, from the very low values for asbestos fiber or brick to
the relatively high values for most metals. Fibrous materials such as
hair felt or asbestos are very poor
conductors (or good insulators)
when dry; if they become wet,
they conduct heat rather well.
One of the difficult problems in
using such materials for insulation
is to keep them dry.
Convection. The heating of
buildings is accomplished largely
through convection. Air heated
by contact with a stove (conduc-
tion) expands, becomes less dens^,
FIG. 2.—Heating; by convection. i • t r i 11,1
and is then forced upward by the
denser cold air around it. More cold air thus comes in contact with
the stove setting up a circulation, which distributes warm air through-
out the room. When these convection currents are enclosed in two sets
of pipes, one for the ascending hot
air and another for the descending
cold air, heat from a single furnace
can be distributed throughout a
large building (Fig. 2). In order to
provide a supply of fresh air, the
(a)
cold-air return pipe is often supple-
mented or even replaced by a con-
nection to the outside of the building.
M6HT •^J^^ND BREEZE A /
Land and sea breezes are local
convection currents in the atmos- LAND COOL
phere. During the day the land be-
comes warmer than the near-by
water because it a:bsorbs heat more (b)
FIG. 3.- Convection currents in the
rapidly and also because its specific atmosphere.
heat is lower than that of the water.
The warmer air above the earth expands, rises,oand is displaced by the
cooler sea air (Fig. 3). Dtiring the night theând loses heat by radiation
•more rapidly than does the sea, and the direction of circulation of the
air is reverspd,^ giving an offshore breeze. [
HEAT TRANSFER 267
I n water, as in air, the principal method of heat transfer is con-
vection. If heat is supplied at the bottom of a container filled with
water, convection currents will be set u p and the whole body of water
will be warmed. -If, however, the heat is supplied at the top of the
container, the water at the bottom will be warmed very slowly. For
example, if the top of a test tube filled with water is placed in a flame,
the water in the top of the tube can be naade to boil vigorously before
the bottom of the tube begins to feel w a r m to the hand. ^
Convection currents in water can be made visible in a glass tube
bent into rectangular shape (Fig. 4) and heated below one vertical
arm. T h e liquid in that column expands and is pushed
upward by the denser liquid in the neighboring arm.
If a few drops of ink or dye are added at the top, the
circulation of the water is made clearly visible. Con-
vection is the transport of heat in this manner by the
motion of the substance containing it. Convection cur-
rents are utilized in hot-water heating systems, in which
the hot water rises through the pipes, circulates through
the radiators, and sinks again when cooled, forcing up
more hot water. The calculation of the amount of heat
that will be carried away from a certain surface, such
as a boiler tube, by convection is generally difficult,
since this mode of heat transfer is influenced by more FIG. 4.—
variables than is either conduction or radiation. For Convection cur-
this reason, problems involving heat transfer by con- rents in water.
vection are usually solved by approximate relations found by trial.
Since convection is a very effective method of heat transfer, it must
be considered in designing a system of insulation. If large air spaces
are left within the walls of a house, convection currents are set u p
readily and much heat is lost. If, however, the air spaces are broken
up into small, isolated regions, no major convection currents are pos-
sible and little heat is lost by this method. For this reason the insulating
material used in the walls of a refrigerator or in a house is a porous
material—cork, rock wool, glass wool, or other materials of like nature.
They are not only poor conductors in themselves but they leave many
small air spaces, which are very poor conductors and at the same time
are so small that no effective convection currents can be set up.
Radiation. The transfer of heat by radiation does not require a
material medium for the process. Energy traverses the space between
tl;ie sun and the earth and, when it is absorbed, it becomes heat energy.
Energy emitted by the heated filament of an electric lamp traverses
the space between the filament and the glass even though there is no
gas in the bulb. Energy of this nature is emitted by all bodies. A body,
which absorbs this radiant energy, converts the energy into heat, with
a resulting increase in the random motion of its molecules.
All hot bodies emit radiant energy. Radiant energy travels out
from a hot stove until it encounters some object where, in general,
it is partly reflected, partly absorbed, and partly transmitted. In every
way it behaves in the same manner as light except that it does not
produce the sensation of sight. Heat radiation differs from light only
in being of longer wavelengths.
There are large differences in the transparency of various sub-
stances to heat radiations. Certain materials, such as hard rubber,
nickel oxide, special glasses or a deep-black solution of iodine in
carbon disulphide, which are opaque to light, are almost perfectly
transparent to heat radiation. Ordinary window glass, quite trans-
parent optically, absorbs all heat radiations. The glass roof of a green-
house is transparent to the visible and near infrared radiations
received from the sun and admits them. Their energy is converted into
heat when they are absorbed by the objects inside the greenhouse.
These objects become warmer and themselves radiate energy. But
since their temperatures are not high, the heat radiation they emit is
not identical with the radiation that entered. Glass does not transmit
this heat radiation, and hence the energy radiated by the bodies in
the greenhouse cannot get; out. A greenhouse thus acts as an energy
trap and, since heat losses by radiation and convection are largely
prevented, the temperature inside is greater than the temperature
outside when the greenhouse receives direct sunlight.
The Ideal Radiator. An ideal blackbody is defined as one which
absorbs all the radiation which falls upon it. No perfect blackbody is
known, but a surface coated with lampblack is a very good approxi-
mation. A hole bored through the wall of a metal tube appears darker
than the surrounding surface because almost all the light entering the
hole is absorbed. Thus a cavity having only a small aperture is almost
a blackbody ip the technical sense of absorbing all radiation incident
upon it. I
Objects whose surfaces are in such condition that they are good
HEAT TRANSFER 269
absorbers of radiation are also good radiators. If two silver coins one
of which has been blackened are placed in a small furnace, the
blackened surface will absorb more radiation than the bright surface.
The blackened surface will also radiate faster than the polished sur-
face if the two are held at the same temperature. A blackbody is the
ideal radiator.
Theory of Exchanges. The rate at which a body radiates energy
depends only on its temperature and the nature of its surface. The
rate of radiation increases very rapidly
as the temperature rises. But all objects
radiate. Prevost stated in the form of a
theorem the idea that all objects con- DOUBLE-WALLED
tinuously radiate heat to their sur- GLASS BOTTLE —
roundings and receive heat from their
surroundings. When the temperature SILVERED-
of a body remains constant it is receiv- SURFACES
ing heat at the same rate as that at
which it is radiating. A piece of metal VACUUM-
left in the sun rises in temperature
until it loses heat at the same rate at
which it absorbs heat. A piece of ice
radiates energy less rapidly than one's
FIG. 5.—Dewar, or thermos, flask.
hand held near it and thus seems cold,
while a heated iron radiates energy faster than the hand and thus
seems warm.
A thermos bottle (Fig. 5) illustrates how the principles of heat
transfer may be used to decrease the amount of heat flowing into
(or out of) a container. It consists of two bottles, one inside the other,
touching each other only at the neck. The space between the two
bottles is evacuated and the surfaces are silvered. Transfers by con-
duction are minimized by using a very small area of a poorly con-
ducting material; those due to convection are lessened by removing
the air. The transfer by radiation is made small because the polished
silver acts as a poor emitter for one surface and a poor absorber for
the other.
Rate of Radiation. The law that expresses the total energy of all
wavelengths radiated from a blackbody at a given temperature was
stated originally by Stefan on the basis of careful measurements of
the energy radiated from a blackbody cavity. Subsequently Boltzmann

derived the same law from electromagnetic theory. T h e rate P at
which energy is radiated by a blackbody is proportional to the area
of the body and to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
P = cAT^ (2)
T h e relation expressed by Eq. (2) is called the Stefan-Boltzmann law.

If the power P is in watts, the area A in square centimeters, and the
absolute temperature T is in degrees Kelvin, the constant c has the
value 5.70 X 10~^^ watt/cm^(°K)'*. It is important to note that a non-
black body will radiate at a smaller rate.
A blackbody at temperature T radiates energy and also receives
energy from its surroundings at temperature To. According ^ to
Prevost's theorem of heat exchanges, the net rate at which the body
loses heat by radiation is the difference between the rate at which i |
receives energy and the rate at which it loses energy:
P = cAiT'- To') (i)
For the case of small temperattire differences, the rate of cooling

is proportional to the difference in temperature.
P = c'A{T - To) (4)
This is Newton's law of cooling. It is a valid approximation in the trans-

fer of heat from a radiator to a room, the loss of heat through the
walls of a room, or the cooling of a cup of coffee on the table.
Example: What power is radiated from a tungsten filament 20 cm long and

0.010 mm in diameter when the filament is kept at 2500°K in an evacuated bulb?
The tungsten radiates at 30 per cent of the rate of a blackbody at the same tempera-
ture. Neglect conduction losses.
•, A= 7r(0.0010 cm)(20 cm) = 0.0628 cm^

r^ = (2500°K)'^ = 39.1 X 1012 (°K)^
From Eq. (2)

i.
.P= (0.30)[5.70 X 10-12 watt/cm2(°K)^](0.0628 cm2)[39.1 X IQi^fK)*] = 4.21 watts

HEAT TRANSFER 271
SUMMARY
Heat is the most common form of energy.
T h e three ways in which heat may be transferred from one place
to another are conduction, convection, and radiation-absorption.
Conduction is heat transfer from molecule to molecule through a
body, or through bodies in contact.
Convection is heat transfer due to motion of matter caused by change
in density.
I n the process of radiation energy is transferred, without the aid of
a material, from one body to another where, upon absorption, it again
becomes energy of thermal motion. Radiant energy travels as an
electromagnetic wave.
Temperature gradient is temperature difference per unit distance
along the direction of heat flow. It may have units in degrees centi-
grade per centimeter, degrees Fahrenheit per inch, etc.
Thermal conductivity ^ is a quantity that expresses how well a sub-
stance conducts heat. It may have units of calories per square centi-
meter per second for a gradient of l ° C / c m or Btu per square foot per
hour for a gradient of l ° F / i n .
" At{LT/L)
Good absorbers of radiation are also good radiators. A blackbody
is a perfect absorber of radiation and an ideal radiator.
The total energy radiated per unit time by a blackbody is pro-
portional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature (Stefan-
Boltzmann law).
H = cAT^
QUESTIONS
1. What kinds of bodies are good insulators? Why?
2. Why does iron seem colder to the touch than wood in winter weather?
3. A piece of paper wrapped tightly on a brass rod may be held in a gas flame
without being burned. If wrapped on a wooden rod, it burns quickly. Explain.
4. Explain why a moistened finger may freeze quickly to a piece of metal on a
cold day but not to a piecfe of wood.
5. Can you suggest an apparatus to demonstrate the differences in thermal con-
ductivities of various metals, which gives results that do not depend also on
differences in the specific heats?
6. Why does a chimney "draw" poorly when a fire is first lighted?
7. Does warm air over a fire rise, or is it pushed up? Explain.
8. Why is a hollow wall filled with rock wool a better insulator than when filled
with air alone? \
9. What is the purpose of the inert gas in modern tungsten filament lamps?
10. A test tube filled with water is inclined so that the flame of a Bunsen burner
reaches only the upper part of the tube. It is found that the lower part of the tube
can be held in the hand painlessly indefinitely. If, however, the positions of hand and
flame are interchanged, the tube cannot long be held. What do you conclude froifi
these observations?
11. Conduits for hot-air heating systems are frequently made of bright sheet
metal. The addition of a layer of asbestos paper on the conduit may actually increase
the loss of heat through the surface. Explain.
12. Explain how a thermos flask minimizes energy losses from convection, con-
duction, and radiation. ,
13. Describe a means for detecting radiant energy.
PROBLEMS
1. How much heat is conducted in 1.0 hr through an iron plate 2.0 cm thick
and 1000 cm^ in area, the temperatures of the two sides being kept at 0 and 20°C?
2. A certain window glass, 30 in. by 36 in., is 3-^ in. thick. One side has a uniform
temperature of 70°F, and the second face a temperature of 10°F. What is the tem-
perature gradient? Ans. 480°F/in.
3. The thermal conductivity of window glass is approximately 7.24 Btu/(ft^ hr
°F/in.) at ordinary temperatures. Find the amount of heat conducted through the
window glass of problem 2 in 1.0 hr.
4. A copper kettle, the bottom of which has an area 0.20 ft^ and thickness
0.062 in., is placed over a gas flame. Assuming that the average temperature of the
outer surface of the copper is 300°F and that the water in the kettle is at its normal
boiling point, how much heat is conducted through the bottom in 1.0 min? (The
thermal conductivity of copper is 2480 Btu/(ft^ hr °F/in.). Ans. 11.7 X 10^ Btu
5. How much heat is conducted through a sheet of plate glass, k = 0.0024
cal/(cm^ sec °C/cm.), which is 2.0 m by 3.0 m and 5.0 mm thick when the tempera-
tures of the surfaces are 20 and — 10°C, respectively? Why is considerably less heat
transmitted through a window glass of these dimensions when room temperature is
20°G and the outdoor temperature is — 10°C?
6. How much steam will be condensed p?r hour on an iron pipe 2.0 cm in mean
radius and 2.0 mm thick, a 60-cm length of which is in a steam chamber of 100-C,
if water at an average temperature t)f 20°C flows continuously through the pipe?
The coefficient of thermal conductivity for iron is 0.18 cal/(cm^ sec °C/cm).
Ans. 360 kg
7. The bottom of a copper kettle, k = 0.91 cal/(cm'' sec °C/cm), is 1.6 inm thick
and 300 cm^ in area. The kettle contains water at 100°C and the outside surface of
HEAT TRANSFER 273
the bottom of the kettle is at a temperature of 103°C. {a) Approximately how much
heat is transmitted to the water in 15 min? (b) What is the largest amount of water
that could be vaporized at 100°C in 1.0 min by the heat conducted Jhrough the
bottom of the kettle?
8. A copper rod whose diameter is 2.0 cm and whose length is 50 cm has one
end in boiling water and the other in a block of ice. The thermal conductivity of the
copper is 1.02 cal/(cm^ sec °C/cm). How much ice will be melted in 1.0 hr if 25 % of
the heat escapes during transmission? Ans. 220 gm
9. A ship has a steel hull 2.54 cm thick whose thermal conductivity is 0.11
cal/(cm^ sec °C/cm). A layer of insulating material 5.0 cm thick having a thermal
conductivity of 10 X 10'^ cal/Ccm^ sec °C/cm) lines the hull. When the temperature
inside the ship is 25.0°C and the temperature of the surrounding water is 5.0°C,
what is the. temperature on the inside surface of the steel hull? What is the difference
in temperature between the inside and outside of the insulating layer? How many
calories are transmitted through each square meter of the hull per minute?
10. What will be the rise in temperature in 30 min of a block of copper of 500-gm
mass if it is joined to a cylindrical copper rod 20 cm long and 3.0 mm in diameter when
there is maintained a temperature difference of 80°C between the ends of the rod?
The thermal conductivity of copper is 1.02 cal/(cm^ sec °C/cm). Neglect heat losses.
Ans. 11.3°C
11. The temperature of the sun is about 6000°K and when the sun is directly
over head its radiation is equivalent to about 2.0 cal/(cm^ min). Calculate the de-
crease in this rate of heat transfer if the sun's temperature should drop 500 centigrade
degrees.
12. A tungsten filament in a lamp reaches a temperature of 2000°K when its
power consumption is 16 watts. Assuming that the filament radiates heat as a "black-
body," what power must be supplied to maintain a filament temperature of 3000°K?
Ans. 81 watts
13. At what rate does the sun lose energy by radiation? The temperature of the
sun is about 6000°K, and its radius is 4.3 X 10^ mi.
14. The operating temperature of a tungsten filament in an evacuated lamp bulb
is 2450°K. Find the surface area of the filament of a 25-watt lamp, if the tungsten
radiates at 0.30 the rate of an ideal (blackbody) radiator. Ans. 0.40 cm^
15. The earth receives energy from the sun at an average rate of 0.135 watt/cm^.
The mean temperatute of the earth's surface is 15°C. Assuming the earth to radiate
as a blackbody, compute the temperature of interstellar space. Comment on the
result.
16. A blackened sphere of copper (density 8.9 gm/cm^, specific heat 0.093
cal/gm °C) of diameter 10.0 cm is cooled in an evacuated enclosure whose walls are
kept at 0°G. How long does it take for the sphere to cool from 228° to 227°G? Take
f = 1.36 X 10-12 cal/cm^ sec {°K.Y. Ans. 18 sec
17. The wall of an industrial refrigerator is made of concrete 8.0 in. thick which
has a conductivity of 7.5 Btu/(ft2 hr °F/in.), lined with 2.0 in. of corkboard having a
conductivity 0.32 Btu/(ft^ hr °F/in.). The temperature inside the refrigerator is
maintained at 40°F while the outside temperature is 80°F. Find (a) the temperature
of the outer surface of the corkboard, and (A) the heat conducted through each square
foot of wall in one day.
18. Heat is conducted through a slab composed of parallel layers of two different
conductivities, 0.0050 and 0.0025 cal/(cm^ sec °C/cm) and thicknesses 0.36 and
0.48 cm, respectively. The temperatures of the outer faces of the slab are 96° and 8°C.
Find (a) the temperature of the interface, and (b) the temperature gradient in each
material. Arts. 72°C; 66°C/cm; 130°C/cm
19. Derive an equation for converting a thermal conductivity in cal/(cm^ sec
°C/cm) to Btu per square foot per hour for a temperature gradient of l°F/in. *
20. An insulated chest for storing "dry ice" consists of a pine box lined with glass
wool. The outside dimensions of the cubical box are 2 ft 4 in. The wood is 0.50 in.
thick and has a conductivity of 0.78 Btu/(ft^ hr °F/in.). The layer of glass wool is
1.5 in. thick and has a conductivity of 0.29 Btu/(ft^ hr °.F/in.). How much heat is
conducted into the box ( —97°F) from the room (72°F) in one day? Ans. 17,000 Btu
21. If the thermal conductivity of oak is 1.02 Btu/(ft^ hr °F/in.), how much heat
will pass through a door 3.0 by 7.0 ft whose thickness is 1.5 in. in 24 hr, when the
inside and outside temperatures are 72° and 10°F, respectively?
22. When one end of a copper rod 30 cm long,and 8.0 mm in diameter is kept in
boiHng water at 100°C and the other end is kept in ice, it is found that 1.2 gm of ice
melt per minute. What is the thermal conductivity of the rod?
Ans. 0.95 cal/(cm^ sec °C/cm)
23. The thermal insulation of a woolen glove may be regarded as being essen-
tially a layer of quiescent air 3 mm thick, of conductivity 5.7 X 10~^ cal/(cm^ sec
°C/cm). How much heat does a person lose per minute from his hand, of area
200 cm^ and skin temperature 35°C, on a winter day at — 5°C? ^
24. A copper rod whose diameter is 2.0 cm and length 50 cm has one end in
boiling water, the other end in a jacket cooled by flowing water which enters at lO^G.
The thermal conductivity of the copper is 1.02 cal/(cm^ sec °C/cm). If 200 gm of
water flow through the jacket in 6.0 min, by how much does the temperature of this
water increase? Ans. 10°C
25. How much heat per hour passes throiigh a layer of ice 4.0 cm thick covering
a pool 12 m^ in area, if the water below it is at 0°C and the air above it is at — 15°C?
The conductivity of ice is 5 X 10~^ cal/(cm^ sec °C/cm).
^4r
/
« /
MAX
t:*^
PLANCK
1 8 5 8 to 1 9 4 7
BORN IN KIEL. SUCCEEDED KIRCHHOFF AT THE UNIVERSITY OF

BERLIN. RECEIVED THE I 9 1 8 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS
CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICS BY HIS DIS-
COVERY OF THE ELEMENT OF ACTION ( Q , U A N T U M T H E O R Y ) .
22. Thermodynamics
The invention and improvement of the steam engine raised practical

questions regarding the relations between heat and mechanical
energy. The science of thermodynamics originated in the attempts of
Sadi Carnot (1796-1832) to improve the efficiency of steam engines.
Thermodynamics deals with the quantitative relations between heat
and other forms of energy, particularly mechanical energy.
A steam engine converts the heat energy of the steam, the work-
ing substance, into useful mechanical energy. We wish to know the
17S
relationship between heat energy a n d work or mechanical energy.
We also wish to know how much of the original energy of the stqam
can be converted into useful work. These questions are answered by
two laws of thermodynamics. Both laws are simple and general. They
apply not only to heat engines but to many processes such as chemical
reactions and electrical processes where temperature changes take
place. They are independent of any particular assumptions about the.
exact mechanisms by which energy is exchanged.
Work and Heat. In many familiar processes work is done
against friction and heat is produced. Brakes become heated in stop-
Fio. 1.—Joule's apparatus for demonstrating equivalence of heat and energy.
ping an automobile or a train. A tool held against a grinding wheel

becomes hot.
The continuous evolution of heat during the boriiig of a cannon
suggested to Count Rumford (1753-1814) the idea of a definite rela-
tionship between the mechanical energy expended in the process and
the heat produced. About 1800 he m a d e some measurements.and
compared the mechanical work, expended in turning a blunt drill, with
the heat produced as measured by the warming of water. H e found
that the two quantities were in a constant ratio and concluded that
heat is a form of energy, obtained in his experiments by a transfor-
mation of n;echanical energy.
Rumford's insight* into the true nature of heat as a form of energy
was confirmed by experiments of improved accuracy performed
THERMODYNAMICS 277
during the 50 years that followed by Joule, Rowland, and Callendar
and Barnes. Joule (1843) arranged a set of paddles, which could be
rotated in water by a pair of falling bodies (A and B, Fig. 1). T h e
churning of the water produced heat. T h e heat produced was calcu-
lated from the rise in temperature of the water and its container. T h e
mechanical work performed in driving the paddles was calculated
from the weights of the falling bodies and the distance they descended.
In a series of experiments with this apparatus. Joule found that the
ratio of the number of units of work to the number of units of heat
produced was always the same.
T h e number of units of work per unit of heat is called the mechanical
equivalent of heat. Thus, if work W is converted into heat H,
W = JH (1)
where j ' is a constant, independent of the magnitude of W or H, but

whose value depends on the units in which W and H are expressed.
Experimentally determined values for J are 4.18 joules/cal and 778
ft-lb/Btu. These values give the following relationships for the con-
version of mechanical energy to heat:
4.18 X 10^ ergs = 1 calorie

4.18 joules = 1 calorie
1 joule = 0.239 calorie (2)
778 foot-pounds = 1 Btu
1055 joules = 1 Btu
Example: Ribbon Falls, in Yosemite, has a height of 1612 ft. What would be the
rise in temperature of the water in this fall if its potential energy were converted into
heat without loss?
Energy transformed per pound of water = (1.00 lb)(1612 ft) = 16f0 ft-lb
Heat produced = 770 f^ ih/Rt ^ '^'^^ ^ ' ^

H 2.06 Btu
Rise m temperature A; = ^ = (1,00 lb) (LOO^Btu/lb °F) = 2-06 F
Example: A lead bullet moving 0.40 km/sec strikes a concrete wall. If one-fourth
of its kinetic energy is converted into heat in the bullet, by how much is its tempera-
ture raised on impact? The specific heat of lead is 0.030 cal/gm °C.
KE = iAMv-"
Heat produced = -^pr
Heat remaining in bullet = -^^ — MS At
Kf_]L^ (40,000 cm/sec)^ ^ _

%JS 8(4.18 X 10' ergs/cal)(0.030 cal/gm °C)
First Law of Thermodynamics. When heat is added to a sub-

stance, there is an increase in the internal energy. This increase in
internal energy is manifest indirectly by a rise in temperature, an
increase in pressure, or a change in state. If at the same time the
substance is allowed to perform external work,. by expanding, for
example, the total heat H required will be the heat necessary to
change the internal energy by an amount A t / plus the heat equiva-
lent to the external work W performed.
JH = d.U -\-W (3)
The first law of thermodynamics states that when heat is transformed

into any other form of energy, or when other forms of energy are con-
verted into heat, the total amount of energy (heat plus other forms)
is constant. T h e first law of thermodynamics is extended to apply to
interchanges of all forms of energy, and thus extended becomes the
law of the conservation of energy. This means that kinetic energy,
gravitational potential energy, heat, electric and magnetic energy,
and energy of chemical reaction are convertible into one another, and
that in all such transformations no energy is lost or gained. While the
law of the conservation of energy cannot be proven directly, it is in '
accord with a wide range of experience and the many scientific con-
clusions based on this principle have been confirmed by experiment.
Specific Heats of a Gas. T h e heat necessary to raise the tem-
perature of a gas depends on how the gas is confined. If the gas is
held at constant volume as indicated in Fig. 2a, the heat received is
converted,, entirely into internal energy, in the form of molecular
kinetic energy, thus raising the temperature. T h e heat per unit mass
per degree required to raise the temperature of the gas under these
conditions is called the specific heat at constant volume, Sv • ^
When the gas is confined in a cylinder under a piston that main-
tains constant pressure' (Fig. 2b) the gas will expand on being heated.
THERMODYNAMICS 279
It does work in moving the piston. Hence heat must be supplied to
change the internal energy of the gas a n d to perform external work.
T h e heat per unit mass per de-
gree required to raise the tem-
p e r a t u r e of t h e gas under
constant pressure is called the
specific heat at constant pressure, Sp.
Since the change of internal
energy is the same in both cases,
the specific heat at constant
pressure Sp is greater than the
specific heat at constant volume
S^ because external work is also
performed when the gas expands
at constant pressure. For air and FIG. 2.—Specific heat of a gas (a) at con-
for diatomic gases such as hy- stant volume; (b) at constant pressure.
drogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, the ratio of the specific heats Sp/S-^
is 1.40.
T h e work done by a gas in moving a piston a distance s against a
constant pressure P (Fig. 2b) is
W =r Fs = PAs (4)
But As is the change in volume AV of the gas. Hence the work done
by a gas expanding at constant pressure is
W = PAV (5)
Example: Compressed air at a constant pressure of 50 lb/in.^ is admitted into a
cylinder 2.0 in. in diameter in which it moves the piston a distance of 10 in. Calculate
the work done by the gas during this process.
W = PAV
P = 50 lb/in.2
AV = irrh = ^(1.0 in.)^ X 10 in. = lOir in.'
W = (50 lb/in.2)(107r in.^ = 1600 in.-lb = 130 ft-lb *
Isothermal and Adiabatic Processes. A process that takes place

at constant temperature is called an isothermal process. For a gas ex-
panding isothermally the general gas law becomes
PV = MET = constant (6)

a8o COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
which states that the pressure decreases as the volume increases

(Boyle's law).
When the expansion or compression of a gas takes place without
transfer of heat to or from the gas, the process is called adiabatic. An
ideally adiabatic process would have to be carried out in a container
whose walls were perfect thermal insulators. T h e practical cases in
which the expansion or compression of the gas takes place so rapidly
that there is negligible heat transfer may be treated as adiabatic
processes. T h e pressure and volume of a gas undergoing an adiabatic
change are related by the equation
PV = constant • (7)
where 7 is the ratio Sp/S^, whose value lies between 1.0 and 1.67 and
depends on the gas used.
Equation (3) applied to an adiabatic process states that
Û -^W = JH = Q (8)
Thus an adiabatic expansion of a gas results in the performance of

external work W at the expense of a decrease in internal energy,
evidenced by a decrease in the temperature of the gas.
Reversible and Irreversible Processes. Any process that can
be m a d e to go in the reverse direction by an infinitesimal change in
the conditions is called a reversible process. No actual change is fully
reversible, but many processes when carried out slowly are practically
reversible.
T h e slow compression of a spring is practically a reversible process.
If the compressing force is slightly decreased, the spring expands and *
performs work equal to the work done in compressing it. T h e slow
evaporation of a substance in an insulated container is practically
reversible, for if-the temperature is slightly lowered condensation can
be made to occur returning energy to the heater until both it and the
substance are in their original condition. The slow compression of a
gas can be altered to expansion by a slight decrease in the force
applied to the piston; hejice this process, too, is reversible.
Any process that is not reversible is irreversible. All changes which
occur suddenly or which involve friction or electrical resistance are
inherently irreversible.; An explosion is a highly irreversible change.
Another type of irreversible process is represented by the. following
THERMODYNAMICS 281
experiment. Let a flask containing air at atmospheric pressure be con-

nected through a tube and stopcock with a second flask, which has
been evacuated. If now the stopcock is opened, air rushes into the
evacuated flask until the pressures in the two flasks become equal.
No external work is done by the gas in expanding under these con-
ditions, yet the gas cannot be restored to its original container a n d
condition without energy from an outside source. T h e process is
irreversible.
A cycle is a succession of changes that end with the return of the
body or system to its initial state. A reversible cycle is a cycle all of
whose changes are reversible.
STEAM ENTERS
]SLIDE VALVE
CONDENSER
COOLING WATER
ENTERS
FIG. 3.—Steam engine.
The Steam Engine. I n a modern form of steam engine (Fig. 3)

steam from the boiler is admitted to a cylinder in which it drives a
piston forward. As the piston nears the end of its stroke, a slide valve
opens an exhaust port and at the same time connects the other end
of the cylinder to the steam chest. Fresh steam drives the piston back-
ward, forcing the spent steam out the exhaust pipe. T h e slide valve
then returns to its first position and the cycle is repeated. A con-
necting rod and crosshead translate the reciprocating motion of the
piston into rotational motion of a flywheel, or the driving wheels in
the case of a locomotive.
A valve shifter permits the operator to vary the point at which
the steam is cut off during each stroke of the piston. When the engine
is starting a heavy load, steam may be admitted during the entire
stroke, escaping under high pressure at the end of the stroke with the
familiar puff. When the engine is running under lighter load or at
high speed, the steam is cut off after the piston has moved only a
short distance and the expansion of
the steam already in the cylinder
provides the force to complete the
stroke. The spent steam then leaves
the cylinder at lower pressure and
temperature with less waste of energy.
T h e processes in this cycle can
be represented advantageously in
a diagram in which steam pressure
ML K P is plotted against the volume V
FIG. 4.—Ideal cycle for a steam
engine. swept out by the piston. In this
diagram (Fig. 4) AB represents ex-
pansion at constant pressure while steam is being admitted to, the
cylinder. At B the slide valve closes and the steam, expands with de-
creasing pressure along BC. Ideally this curve should continue until
the pressure reaches atmospheric pressure, in practice the opening of
the exhaust port decreases the pressure suddenly along CD. During the
return stroke DE, steam is exhausted
and the admission of live steam EA
restores the original pressure. T h e
work done by the steam on the engine
during the expansion stroke is repre-
sented by the area under the curve
ABC (area ABCKMA). During the V
compression stroke, the engine does FIG. 5.—Indicator diagram for a
work on the steam of amount repre- steam engine.
sented by the area under DE (area DKMED). Hence the net work
obtained from the steam is indicated by the area enclosed in the
cycle ABCDEA.
With a mechanism called a steam-engine indicator, a steam engine,
can be m a d e to draw its own pressure-volume diagram (Fig. 5). T h e
indicator diagrams obtained in practice differ from the ideal diagram
of Fig. 4 in having the, corners rounded owing to the time required
THERMODYNAMICS 283
to actuate the valves. Such diagrams are useful in studying the input
or indicated horsepower.
T h e Car not Cycle. Garnet naade important thermodynamic
studies using an ideal, reversible heat engine, which operated through
a sequence of isothermal and adiabatic steps now known as a Carnot
SOURCE OF HEAT RESERVOIR OF HEAT

AJTEMPERATURE T, INSULATING PAD AT TEMPERATURET2
FIG. 6.—Steps in the operations of a Carnot cycle.
cycle. Consider a cylinder (Fig. 6) fitted with a piston and filled with
any substance that expands with rising temperature and decreasing
pressure. T h e initial state of this working substance is represented by
point A in Fig. 7. As a first step, the cylinder is placed in contact
with a reservoir of heat and the gas allowed to expand at constant
K L M N
FIG. 7.—Carnot cycle.
temperature Ti taking in heat Hi, this change being represented by

the isothermal curve AB. Next, the cylinder is insulated and expansion
allowed to continue. This expansion is adiabatic, along BC, and the
temperature drops from Ti to T^. T h e cylinder is then placed on a
heat reservoir at temperature T2, and the gas is compressed isother-
mally, along CD, the "heat of compression Hi being transferred to the
low temperature reservoir. Finally the cylinder is again insulated and

the compression continued adiabatically, along DA, the gas now
being heated to its original temperature Ti.
Let us examine the significance of the Carnot cycle diagram
(Fig. 7).
T h e area ABMKA represents the energy Hi taken from the hot
source and converted into work W in moving the piston.
T h e area BCNMB represents the energy taken from the working
substance in cooling it from Ti to T.i.
T h e area CJVLDC represents the energy taken from the external
machinery and given as heat H2 to the cool reservoir.
T h e area ADLKA represents the energy taken from the external
machinery and given to the working substance, heating it from Ti
to Ti.
T h e area BCNMB equals the area ADLKA, since it requires the
same amount of heat to raise the temperature of the working sub-
stance as is given off in lowering its temperature a like amount. Hence
area ABMKA — area CJVLDC = area ABCDA = the net useful work
done by the heat engine during one cycle. This work is the difference
between H\ the energy received from the hot reservoir and Hi the
energy given to the cool reservoir.
_ output work _ area ABCDA _ Hi — Hi
~ input work ~ area ABMKA ~ Hi ^^
Second Law of Thermodynamics. In each of the heat engine

cycles described, we have seen that not all of the heat supplied to the
engine is converted into useful work; some heat is always rejected to
some outside reservoir. This is true of all heat engines and leads to
an important generalization known as the second law of thermodypamies:
It is impossible for an engine unaided by external energy to transfer heat from
one body to another at a higher temperature.
H e a t of its own accord will alwa.ys flow from high temperature
to low temperature. It is impossible to utilize the immense amount
of heat im the ocean, for example, to" 'run, an engine unless there can
be found & reservoir at a lower temperature into which the enginq
can discharge heat.
Whenever heat is transferred from low temperature to higher tem-
perature, an expenditure of energy is required from some external
THERMODYNAMICS 285
source. This takes place in a refrigerator in which electrical energy is

used to p u m p heat from the cool interior to the warmer room.
It follows from the second law of thermodynamics that a Carnot
(reversible) heat engine has the maximum efficiency of any heat
engine operating between the same temperature limits. If we assumed
the contrary, then the more efficient engine could be used to run the
reversible engine as a heat pump and we would have a self-acting
pair transferring heat from low to high temperature. But this is con-
trary to experience. As a result of this type of reasoning we may con-
clude that the efficiency of a Carnot (reversible) engine represents
the maximum efficiency any heat engine can have with the given
temperatures.
The Absolute or Kelvin Temperature Scale. In each of the
methods for measuring temperature that were discussed in earlier
chapters, the results depend on the particular thermometric sub-
stance used. Most of the phenomena of heat depend on the properties
of the particular substances involved. T h e 'efficiency of an ideal heat
engine is unique in that it does not depend on the working substance
or the particular mechanical device used.
Lord Kelvin (1827-1907) recognized the possibility of using an
ideal heat-engine cycle to define a temperature scale which would be
"absolute" in the sense that it did not depend on the thermometric
substance. He suggested that temperatures on the absolute scale be
defined from the relation
Hi — Hi Tx - Ti
Eff. - ^^ Y~ (10)
giving
Hi __ Tj
(11)
Hx" n
This equation states that any two temperatures are in the same ratio
as the heat quantities absorbed and ejected in a Carnot cycle oper-
ated between those two temperatures.
Consider a Carnot cycle operating between two fixed tempera-
tures, say, the boiling point of water (373°K) and the freezing point
(273°K). There will be a certain area representing useful work (Fig. 8).
We can define the temperature (323°K) midway between the boiling
point and the freezing point as the temperature such that a Carnot
engine operating between the boiling point and the mid-point does
the same work, represented by area A, as the work represented by
area B, done by a Carnot engine operating between the mid-point
and the ice point. Obviously the interval so defined can be subdivided
in the same manner, and the scale can be extended to higher or lower
temperatures. T h e temperature at
•^7J'K which a Carnot engine ejects no heat
\ -^
•—\J2J°K would be the zero on the absolute
B V temperature scale.
sOT'/r
T h e Kelvin or thermodynamic tem-
perature scale is the same as the abso-
17 lute scale determined by a perfect gas.
FIG. 8.—Definition of absolute Temperatures on this absolute scale are
temperaturefi-oma Carnot cycle. , . . . . . , ,
' determined m practice with a gas ther-
mometer, the readings being corrected for the deviation of the par-
ticular gas from the ideal gas law as calculated from certain other
experiments.
The Efficiency of Heat Engines. T h e ideal or thermodynamic
efficiency of a heat engine is defined from Eq. (10)
Ti —. Ti T2
Ideal efficiency = Tf^ = 1 —^^ • (12)
i 1 J1
Owing to heat Josses and friction, no actual engine ever attains the
efficiency defined by Eq. (12). T h e ideal efficiency remains as an upper
limit to the efficiency of any heat engine.
Example: A simple steam engine receives steam from the boiler at 180°C (about
150 Ib/in.^ gauge pressure) and exhausts directly into the air at 100°G. What is the
upper limit of its efficiency?
Tj , ^ • (180 +'273)°K - (100 + 273)°K „, , ,^

Ideal efficiency = ^ (ik + 273)^ " ^'^^^ = ^^•^'^°
The Steam Turbine. Efforts to improve steam engines led

to the invention of jhe turbine which in principle is simpler than a
reciprocating engine. I t consists of a casing in which is fitted a set of
curved blades and a shaft which carries a series of curved blades'
which move between the stationary blades}of the housing (Fig. 14,
Chap. 16). The steam j n expanding frorn-one ring of blades to the
next pushes on the movable blades and rotates the shaft.
^•
THERMODYNAMICS 287
T h e substitution of a rotation for the to-and-fro motion of a
reciprocating engine avoids the disadvantages of the latter, such as
vibration and sliding bearings, and results in improved efficiency.
However, for high efficiency a turbine must be operated at high speed
and in one direction. Only by the use of elaborate gears or by the
use of an electric generator and a motor does one attain sufficient
flexibility of control for the operation of a ship or locomotive. Still
higher efficiencies are obtained by using mercury and steam turbines
in combination.
FIG. 9.—The four stages in one cycle of a 4-cycle gasoline engine.
Internal-combustion Engines. I n a modern automobile engine,

combustion of the fuel takes place within the engine instead of in a
separate boiler. A gasoline engine (Fig. 9) is usually of the four-stroke-
cycle type, four strokes of the piston being required to complete a
cycle of operations in any one cylinder. O n the intake stroke (a) air
and vaporized fuel are drawn into the cylinder. O n the return stroke
(b) the piston compresses this mixture to about one-sixth its original
volume. A properly timed spark then ignites the fuel mixture and the
rapidly burning gases expand almost adiabatically forcing the piston
down in the power stroke (c). At the end of the power stroke, the
exhaust valve opens and remains open during the exhaust stroke (d) in
which the piston sweeps the burned gases from the cylinder. In most
engines of this type a number of cylinders are used and the power
strokes of the pistons follow in a regular sequence so as to give a
reasonably steady torque to the crankshaft to which the connecting
rods are attached. A flywheel attached to the crankshaft further
minimizes the pulsations in speed.
In a four-stroke-cycle diesel engine, air alone is compressed adia-
batically to about one-sixteenth of its original volume, its temperature
thus being raised sufficiently to ignite the oil which is then sprayed
into the cylinder. T h e piston moves down while the oil is being in-
jected into the cylinder, thus keeping the pressure practically con-
stant during the burning of the fuel. T h e oil supply is shut off when
the power stroke is partly completed, and the gases continue to ex-
p a n d adiabatically to the end of the stroke when the exhaust valve
opens. During the exhaust stroke, the gases are forced out by the u p -
ward motion of the piston and the cylinder is ready to receive a new
charge and begin another cycle. T h e combustion in a diesel engine is
less violent than in a gasoline engine and the efficiency is higher.
Greater weight per horsepower and a rather limited range of efficient
operating speeds has restricted the diesel engine to stationary engine
service or to engines of comparatively large power.
SUMMARY
Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but it may be transformed

from one form into another.
T h e first law of thermodynamics states that when mechanical energy
is converted into heat, the amount of heat is proportional to the energy
transformed,
W = JH
where J is called the mechanical equivalent of heat. Values oi J are 4.18

joules/cal and 778 ft-lb/Btu.
T h e specific heat of a ga^ at constant pressure is greater t h a n its
specific heat at constant volume.
An isothermal process is one occurring at constant temperature.
An adiabdtic process is one in which there is no exchange of energy
with the surroundings.
THERMODYNAMICS 289
A reversible process is one that is in equilibrium at each instant. -

T h e second law of thermodynamics states that a heat engine pannot
transfer heat from a body to another at higher temperature unless
external energy is supplied to the engine.
Work can be obtained from a source of heat energy only by a
process t h a t transfers some of the heat to a reservoir at a temperature
lower t h a n t h a t of the source.
T h e Kelvin or absolute temperature scale is independent of the
thermorhetric substance, being based on the efficiency of an ideal
heat engine.
H e a t engines transform heat into mechanical energy.
T h e m a x i m u m efficiency of a heat engine supplied with heat a t
temperature Ti and delivering heat to a reservoir at T^. is
Eff. = ^ ^ ~ ^'
J1
QUESTIONS
1. When is the conduction of heat a reversible process? when an irreversible
process?
2. Why does air released through a tire valve feel cool to the hand?
3. Heat is transferred from the cool interior of an electric refrigerator to warmer
surroundings. Show that this is not a violation of the second law of thermodynamics.
4. Trace the successive transformations by which sunlight is changed into the
energy of an electric lamp.
5. What becomes of wasted energy?
6. What becomes of work done by a pump in compressing air?
7. It is said that 3000 kilogram calories in food are required every day for an
average adult. What becomes of this energy?
8. What determines the efficiency of heat engines? Why is it generally so low?
9. Discuss the reasoning which leads to the idea of an absolute temperature.
Explain the steps needed in defining an absolute scale. Can there be more than one
absolute scale of temperature?
10. It has been asserted that the temperature of interstellar space is 2°K. What
meaning is to be attributed to this statement?
11. Describe the condition of a "gas" at the absolute zero of temperature.
12. Explain how very low temperatures can be obtained with compressed gases.
13. In making a freezing bath or vapor trap, why does one put acetone or alcohol
on the "dry ice"?
14. Of what practical value is liquid air? liquid helium?
15. How hot can a given mass be heated? How cold can a given mass be cooled?
SgO COLLEGE T E C H N I C A L PHYSICS
PROBLEMS
1. A 3000-lb car traveling at 50 mi/hr is stopped without skidding by the action
of the brakes alone. How much heat is developed at the brakes?
2. A calorimeter of copper, specific heat 0.10 cal/gm°C and mass 300 gm,
contains 120 gm of ice water and 50 gm of ice. The mixture is stirred by a rotating
paddle which requires a torque of 10* cm-dynes to drive it. What would be the number
of revolutions necessary to bring the mixture to 25°C? Ans. 600 rev
3. (a) What is the kinetic energy of a 2000-lb automobile moving 30 mi/hr?
(i) How much heat is produced when it stops?
4. How many Btu of heat are produced when a 3600-lb car traveling at
40 mi/hr is brought to rest in 75 ft by the application of the brakes? Ans. 250 Btu
5. From how high must a piece of ice be dropped in order to be just melted by
friction and the heat of impact? Comment on any assumptions made.
6. A 5.0-lb lead ball of specific heat 0.032 Btu/lb°P' is thrown downward from a
50-ft building with an initial vertical speed of 20 ft/sec. If half of its energy at the
instant of impact with the ground is converted to heatând absorbed by the ball,
what will be its rise of temperature? Ans. 1.1 °F
7. A lead bullet moving with a speed of 25,000 cm/sec hits a stone wall. Assume
that half of its kinetic energy is converted into heat, which is used to warm the bullet.
By how many degrees is its temperature raised? (Specific heat of lead is 0.031 cal/gm
°C.)
8. A 1.0-kg block slides down a rough plane 2.5 m long inclined at 30° to the
horizontal. If the time of descent is 4.0 sec, how much heat is generated by friction?
Ans. 2.7 cal
9. The brakes are set on a car weighing 2.5 tons so that it coasts down a hill
at a uniform speed. How much heat is developed in the brakes if the car descends
a vertical distance of 400 ft?
10. A 200-ton train has its speed reduced from 40 to 30 mi/hr in 0.50 jnin. If the
whole of the work done against the frictional resistance of the brakes is converted
into heat, find the heat developed. Ans. 12,000 Btu
11. An iron plate weighing 12.6 kg and having a temperature of 0°C falls 360 cm
onto a block of ice. If all the energy developed by the impact were effective, how much
ice would be melted? v
12. A solid disk has a diameter of 1.0 m and is rotating at 120 rpm when a brake is
applied. If 85% of its kinetic energy goes into heat in the disk, what would be its
temperature rise if it were made of iron of specific heat 0.11 cal/gm°C? Ans. 0.018°G
13. In drilling a hole in a casting, power is supplied at the rate of 0.40 hp for
2.5 min. How many Btu of heat are developed?
14. A noncondcnsing steam engine (Fig. 3) has a circular piston 10 in. in diameter
and a stroke of 2.0 ft. It is supplied with steam at a constant working gauge pressure of.
75 lb/in.2 When making 240 rpm, what power is being developed? Ans. 170 hp
15. Calculate the horsepower of a" double-Stroke steam engine having the follow-
ing specifications: cylinder diameter, 12 in.; length of stroke, 2.0 ft; speed, 300 rpm;
average steam pressure, 66 Ib/in^.
THERMODYNAMICS 291
16. What horsepower is required to melt 60 gm of ice in 15 min?
Am. 0.030 hp
17. An iron ring of radius 30 cm has its mass largely concentrated in the rim. It is
rotating at 360 rpm when a brake is applied. If two-thirds of its kinetic energy goes
into heat in the ring, what will be its temperature change?
18. How many tons of coal per hour are consumed by a locomotive working at
the rate of 3000 hp if the heat of combustion of the coal is 12,000 Btu/lb and the
over-all efficiency is 9.0%? Ans. 3.5 tons
19. What is the cost of the coal needed to produce a kilowatt hour of electrical
energy, if the coal costs 1.0 cent per kilogram, the heat of combustion is 9500 cal/gm,
and the over-all efficiency is 25 %?
20. A steam engine operates at an over-all efficiency of 15%. How much heat
must be supplied per hour in order to develop 3.0 hp? Ans. 5.1 X 10^ Btu
21. A steam engine operates between a boiler temperature of 200°C and a con-
denser temperature of 105°C. What is its theoretical maximum efficiency?
22. The design of an electric refrigerator requires that 100 cal be removed each
second. This is accomplished by a motor of 90% efficiency running continuously.
What power motor is required? Ans. 0.62 hp
23. A volume of 1500 cm^ of air at 20°G and 76 cm of mercury pressure is
confined in a cylinder provided with a frictionless piston. How much external work is
done by the trapped air in expanding at constant pressure as its temperature is raised
to 100°C? Of the heat which must be supplied to effect this change, how much goes
into external work? The specific heat of air at constant pressure is 0.237 cal/gm °C.
24. 'Consider an ideal, reversible heat engine which transfers heat from a room
at 17°C to the outdoors at — 5°C. (a) What is the maximum efficiency of this engine?
(b) If the heat engine is reversed and is used to pump heat from outdoors into the
room, energy being supplied by an.electric motor, how many joules of heat will be
delivered to the room for the expenditure of 1.0 joule of electric energy?
Ans. 0.076; 13 joules
25. Consider a mechanical refrigerator as a heat engine transferring heat from
the cooling coils at — 10°C to the room whose temperature is 20°C. How many
kilowatt-hours of electrical energy are needed to form 4.0 lb of ice at — 10°C from
water at 20°C?
26. The density of steam at •212°F is 0.0373 lh/k\ What is the heat equivalent
of expanding water (density 65 Ib/ft^ at 212°F) into steam against the force due to
atmospheric pressure? What fraction of the total heat of vaporization does this
represent? Ans. 73 Btu/lb; 7.4%
27. A portable power plant develops 15 kw-hr of electrical energy, while its
gasoline engine consumes 2.0 gal of fuel whose heating value is 13 X 10^ Btu/gal.
What is the efficiency of the power plant?
28. A combination mercury-steam turbine takes saturated mercury vapor from a
boiler at 875°F and exhausts it to heat a steam boiler at 460°F. The steam turbine
receives steam at this temperature and discharges it to a condenser at 100°F. What
is the maximum efficiency of the combination? Ans. 58.0%
29. What is the actual efficiency of a gas engine which consumes 22 ft^ of gas
per hour when dehvering 1.1 hp, the gas having a heating value of 550 Btu/ft'?
30. In a mechanical refrigerator the low-temperature coils are at a temperature
of -37°C, and the compressed gas in the condenser has a temperature of 62°C.
What is the theoretical maximum efficiency? Ans. 30 %
31. What quantity of butter (6000 cal/gm) would supply the energy needed for
a 160-lb man to ascend to the top of Mt. Washington, elevation 6288 ft?
32. If the energy of the fuel were fully utilized, how many gallons of gasoline of
heat of combustion 2T,000 Btu/lb would be needed to propel a 3600-lb car to the top
of a 5000-ft mountain? The weight of 1.0 gal of gasoline is 6.2 lb. Ans. 0.18 gal
33. A certain quantity of air at 76 cm of mercury pressure is compressed adia-
batically to two-thirds of its initial volume. Calculate the final pressure.
34. A quantity of air at a pressure of 76 cm of mercury is suddenly compressed to
half its volume, (a) Calculate the new pressure, (b) What would the pressure be if the
change were isothermal? Ans. 200 cm of mercury; 150 cm of mercury
35. Mercury falls from a height of 12 m on a nonconducting surface. How much
is the temperature of the mercury raised? The specific heat of mercury is 0.033
cal/gm °C.
36. At what speed must a lead bullet at 20°G strike an iron target in order that
the heat produced on impact be just sufficient to melt the bullet? Lead has a specific
heat of 0.032 cal/gm °G, its melting point is 327°C, and the heat of fusion is 5.4
cal/gm. Ans. 360 m/sec
37. A cylindrical brass tube closed at the ends has an internal length of 50 cm.
The tube contains 36 gm of lead shot and is filled with water. Starting from the
vertical position, the tube is rapidly reversed end for end 250 times. Find the rise in
temperature of the water. Neglect the thermal capacity of the brass and the space
occupied by the lead.
38. On test a steam plant was found to use 2.0 lb of coal (12,000 Btu/lb) for every
horsepower-hour supplied by the engines. What proportion of the heat obtained from
the coal was turned into work? What became of the rest of the heat? " Ans. 11 %
/
!-
V
I \
'i'
JOHANNES
\ t
STARK
\ \ I 874 —
BORN IN SCHICKENHOF, BAVARIA. PROFESSOR AT GOTTINGEN AND

wiJRZBURG. AWARDED THE I 9 I 9 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR
HIS DISCOVERY OF THE DOPPLER EFFECT IN CANAL RAYS, AND OF
THE SEPARATION OF SPECTRAL LINES IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD.
23. Meteorology
Meteorology is the study of weather and the atmospheric conditions
that contribute to it. The phenomena of weather are subjects not only
of never-ending interest but of great importance, since weather is one
of the chief elements in man's life. Although foreknowledge of weather
will not enable us to make any change in the conditions that eventu-
ally arrive, we can, in many cases, so adjust our activities that adverse
weather will produce a minimum of ill effect. This is the main
293
reason the Weather Bureau was estabhshed to observe and fore-
cast weather conditions. For many years these reports have been of
great value to those engaged in agricuhure or marine navigation. At
the present time, however, the most important apphcation of meteor-
ology is in connection with airplane flight. T h e great dependence of
the airplane upon the weather makes accurate observation and fore-
cast essential. This need has caused great extension in the n u m b e r of
stations reporting and in the scope of the observations.
The Ocean of Air. T h e h u m a n race lives at the bottom of
an ocean of air. Just as the inhabitants of the ocean of water are sub-
ject to pressure and water currents, so are we subject to air pressure
,and air currents. As the pressure in the ocean of water increases with
increasing depth (P = hD), so also the pressure of the atmosphere
increases as the depth below its "surface" increases. But as one rises
from the bottom of the ocean of air, the decrease of pressure with
altitude is not uniform, as it would be under water, because the den-
sity of the air diminishes with decreasing pressure. T h e atmosphere
is held to the earth by gravitational attraction and therefore has
weight, which is evidenced by atmospheric pressure. T h e height of
the earth's atmosphere is estimated from the duration of twilight as
40 mi; meteors indicate the presence of gases at a height of 200 mi;
and auroras at 300 mi. Actually there is no definite upper limit to
the earth's atmosphere. But it is calculated that the pressure 50 mi
above the surface is less than 0.03 m m of mercury. So great is the
compressibility of air that the top of M t . McKinley (20,300 ft) is
above more than half of the atmosphere.
T h e pressure of air is measured by means of a barometer, de-
scribed in Chap. 17. T h e most reliable kind is the mercury type and
this instrument is commonly used in weather observation. T h e aneroid
barometer is used when the instrument must be portable. Normal
barometric pressure at sea level is about 1013 millibars or 29.92 in.
of mercury.
T h e variation in pressure with altitude is a phenomenon with
which all are somewhat familiar. If one rides rapidly up a hill, he
can feel the change in the pressure at the eardrums—for the pressure.
inside the ear fails to chaiige as rapidly as that outside. Table 1 shows
the way the atmospheric pressure varies with height above sea level.
Note that, although the decrease in pressure as the altitude increases
METEOROLOGY 295
TABLE I. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE AND HEIGHT
Altitude in feet Pressure in inches Pressure in

above sea level of mercury millibars
Sea level 29.92 1013.2

1,000 28.86 977.2
2,000 27.82 942.0
3,000 26.81 907.8
4,000 25.84 874.9
5,000 24.89 842.8
6,000 • 23.98 812.0
7,000 23.09 781.8
8,000 22.22 752.4
9,000 21.38 723.9
10,000 20.53 696.8
15,000 16.88 571.6
20,000 13.75 465.6
is not quite uniform, it is approximately 1 in. of mercury per 1000 ft.

This is a convenient figure to remember for rough calculation. For
purposes of comparison, observations taken at different levels are
always reduced, to the equivalent
reading at sea level before they are
reported.
This variation of pressure with
altitude is the basis of the common
instrument for measurement of alti-
tude, the altimeter (Fig. 1). It is
simply a sensitive aneroid barometer
whose dial is marked off in feet
above sea level rather than in inches
of mercury.
At a single elevation the baro- FIG. 1.—A sensitive altimeter. The
metric pressure varies from day to three hands read in hundreds, thou-
day and from time to time during sands, and ten thousands of feet,
respectively.
the day. T h e lowest sea-level pres-
sure ever recorded is 26.16 in. of mercury (892 millibars), while the
highest is 31.7 in. (1078 millibars). This variation greatly affects the
use of an altinaeter. If the altitude reading is to be at all reliable,
the instrument must be set for the current pressure each time it is to
be used. For example, an airplane in taking off from a field at which

the pressure is 29.90 in. has an altimeter that is set correctly at the
altitude of the field. If it then flies to another field where the pressure
is 29.50 in., the altimeter will read 400 ft above the field when the
plane lands. Such an error would be disastrous if the pilot were de-
pending upon the instrument for safe landing. I n practice the pilot
must change the setting en route to correspond to the pressure at the
landing field.
Solar Radiation. Heat comes from the sun to the earth by
radiation. A part of the solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere,
a part is reflected or absorbed by clouds, and about half is absorbed a t
the earth's surface. The earth gives u p this heat mostly as radiation of
longer wavelength, which is largely absorbed as it passes through the
atmosphere. Owing to the absorption, the temperature of the earth
and its atmosphere rises much above that of surrounding space (2°K).
If no heat were radiated by the earth, the temperature rise would
continue indefinitely. However, on the average, over a long period
of time and for the earth as a whole, as much energy is radiated as
is received. Certain parts of the earth, for example the equatorial
regions, receive more energy than they radiate. Others, such as the
polar regions, radiate more than they receive. T h e balance is main-
tained by the transfer of heat from one region to the other by con-
vection. T h e convection currents are set up by unequal heating of
the different parts of the surface of the earth.
T h e unequal heating of adjacent areas may be the result of un-
equal distribution of the radiation or of unequal absorption of radi-
ation. If the radiation strikes a surface perpendicularly, the amount
of energy per unit area is greater than it would be for any other
angle. Thus regions (equatorial) where the sun is overhead receive
more energy for each square foot of area than do the polar regions
where the angle that the rays make with the ground is smaller. In
equatorial regions the surface temperature is, on the average, higher
than in surrounding regions. T h e layer of air adjacent to the ground
is heated by conduction and expands, becoming less dense than the
surrounding air at the same level. T h e lighter air is then, forced
upward, its place being taken by surrounding colder air; this in turn
is heated and is pushed upward. The unequal heating sets up a circu-
lation that constitutes the major air movement of the world.
METEOROLOGY 297
Circulation of the Atmosphere. T h e major circulation of the
atmosphere is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 2. Over the equatorial
region heated air rises, causing a low-pressure area of calm or light
fitful winds, called doldrums. Both north and south of the doldrums
air rushes in to take the place of the rising air, thus forming the trade
winds. If the earth were not rotating, these would be from the north
in the Northern Hemisphere and from the south in the Southern
Hemisphere. T h e rotation of the earth, however, causes a deflection
of the moving air: to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, to the
left in the Southern. Thus the trade winds blow almost constantly
EQUATOR-
OOL D R U M S
FIG. 2.—General circulation on a uniform earth.
from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the south-
east in the Southern.
T h e air that rises in the doldrums moves out at high altitude and
about 25° from the equator begins to descend. This region of descend-
ing air is a n area of calm or light winds and high pressure and is
called the horse latitudes. Part of the descending air moves back toward
the equator while the remainder continues to move away from it near
the surface. Again the rotation of the earth causes a deflection to the
right (in the Northern Hemisphere), hence the wind comes mostly
from the west or southwest. T h e winds of this region are known as
prevailing westerlies. A part of the air moving out from the equator
continues at high level until it reaches the polar area. As it returns
toward the equator, it is deflected by the rotation of the earth to form
the polar easterlies.
Since the atmosphere is principally heated from below, the tem-

perature normally decreases as the altitude increases for several thou-
sand feet; above this region there is little further change. T h e region
of changing temperature is known as the troposphere; the upper region
of uniform temperature is known as the stratosphere, and the surface of
separation is the tropopause. T h e altitude of the tropopause varies from
about 25,000 ft to 50,000 ft in different parts of the earth, the highest
values being above the equatorial regions and the lowest over the poles.
The rate at which the temperature decreases with altitude is called
the lapse rate. T h e value of the lapse rate varies over a wide range
depending upon local conditions, but the average value is about 3.6°F
per 1000 ft in still air.
If air rises, the pressure to which it is subjected decreases, and it
expands. I n this process there is little loss of heat to the surroundings
or gain from them. In accordance with the general gas law (Chap. 19),
the temperature decreases as the air expands. Such a change is called
an adiabatic change, the word implying "without transfer of heat."
In a mass oi rising air, the temperature decreases faster than the normal
lapse rate. If the air is dry, this adiabatic rate of decrease is about 5.5°F
per 1000 ft. If the air rises because of local heating, as occurs over a
plowed field, it will rise until its temperature is the same as that of
the surrounding air at the same level.
Example: The temperature of air at the surface of a plowed field is 80°F, while
that over adjacent green fields :is 70°F. How high will the air current rise?
The rising air must cool 80° — 70° = 10°F more than the still air. For each
1000 ft the rising air cools 5.5° — 3.6° = 1.9°F more than the still air. The number
of 1000 ft at which their temperatures will be the same is
1.9°F
A = 5.3 X 1000 ft = 5300 ft
If condensation occurs in the rising air, there is a gain in heat

from the heat of vaporization, and therefore the change is no longer
adiabatic. iDuring the condensation, therefore, the rising saturated air
cools at a smaller moist-adiabatic rate.
Cyclones and Anticyclones. As large masses of air mo.ve along
the surface of the earth, areas of low pressure and other areas of high
pressiure are formed. T h e air moves from the high-pressure areas
METEOROLOGY 299
toward the low-pressure areas. As in larger air currents, the rotation
of the earth causes the wind to be deflected (to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere) so that the air does not move in a straight line
from high to low but spirals out from the high and spirals into the low.
The low-pressure area with its accompanying winds is called a cyclone;
the high-pressure area with its winds is called an anticyclone. T h e de-
flection to the right causes the winds to move counterclockwise in the
cyclone and clockwise in the anticyclone. These high- and low-pressure
regions cover very large areas, having diameters of from 200 to 600 mi.
T h e presence of cyclones and anticyclones is shown on weather
maps. Lines called isobars are drawn connecting points of equal pres-
sure. Figure 3 is a reproduction of a weather map. Where the isobars
are close together, the pressure is changing rapidly and high winds
are expected. Where they are far apart, the pressure is more uniform
and there is usually less wind.
Humidity. At all times water is present in the atmosphere in one
or more of its physical forms—solid, liquid, and vapor. T h e invisible
vapor is always present in amounts that vary over a wide range while
water drops (rain or cloud) or ice crystals (snow or cloud) are usually
present.
If a shallow pan of water is allowed to stand uncovered in a large
room, the liquid will soon disappear although the water will still be
present as invisible vapor. If a similar pan of water is placed in a
small enclosure, evaporation begins as before but after a time stops
or becomes very slow and droplets begin to condense on the walls of
the enclosure. The air is said to be saturated. When this condition has
been reached, the addition of more water vapor merely results in the
condensation of an equal amount. T h e amount of water vapor re-
quired for saturation depends upon the temperature; the higher the
temperature the greater is the amount of water vapor required to
produce saturation. If the air is not saturated, it can be m a d e so either
by adding more water vapor or by reducing the temperature until
that already present will produce -saturation. The temperature to
which the air must be cooled, at constant pressure, to produce satu-
ration is called the dew point. If a glass of water collects moisture on
the outside, its temperature is below the dew point.
When the temperature of the air is reduced to the dew point, con-
densation takes place if there are present nuclei on which droplets
may form. These may be tiny salt crystals, smoke particles, or other
particles that readily take up water. I n the open air such particles are
almost always present. In a closed space where such particles are not
present, the temperature may be reduced below the dew pqint with-
out consequent condensation; T h e air is then- said to be supersaturated.
In a mixture of gases, such as air, the pressiit-e exerted by the gas
METEOROLOGY 3OI
is the sum of the partial pressures exerted by the individual gases.

The portion of the atmospheric pressure due to water vapor is called
its vapor pressure. When the air is saturated, the pressure exerted by
the water vapor is the saturated vapor pressure. Table 2 in the Appendix
lists the pressure of saturated water vapor at x^rious temperatures.
T h e mass of water vapor per unit volume of air is called the absolute
humidity. It is commonly expressed in grains per cubic foot or in grams
per cubic meter. Specific humidity is the mass of water vapor per unit
mass of air and is expressed in grams per kilogram, grains per pound,
etc. Specific humidity is more useful since it remains constant when
pressure and temperature change, while the absolute humidity varies
because of the change in volume of the air involved.
Relative Humidity. Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of
the actual vapor pressure to the saturated vapor pressure at that tem-
perature. I t is commonly expressed as a percentage. At the dew point
the relative humidity is 100 per cent. From a knowledge of the tem-
perature and dew point the relative humidity can be readily deter-
mined by the use of the table of vapor pressures.
Example: In a weather report the temperature is given as 68°F and the dew point
50°F. What is the relative humidity?
To use Table 2 (Appendix) we must change the temperatures to the centigrade
scale.
C=%{F- 32°)
Ci = %(68° - 32°) = M(36°) = 20°C
C2 = %{SQ° - 32°) = %(18°) = 10°C
From the table we find the vapor pressures
Pi =17.6 mm of mercury = pressure of saturated vapor
P% = 9.2 mm of mercury = actual vapor pressure
„ , . , ... P2 9.2 mm of mercury „ _^ _^„
Relative humidity = -=r = T^r7 ? = 0.52 = 52%
' P\ 17.6 mm of mercury
Whenever the temperature of the air is reduced to the dew point,
condensation occurs. When the dew point is above the freezing point,
water droplets are formed; when it is below, ice crystals are formed.
T h e formation of dew, frost, clouds, and fog are examples of this
process. T h e cooling may be caused by contact with a cold surface,
by mixing with cold air, or by expansion in rising air. If the droplets
are sufficiently small, the rate of fall is very slow and there is a cloud.
When the cloud is in contact with the earth's surface, we call it fog.
O n e of the most common causes of cloud formation is the expansion

a n d consequent cooHng of a rising air column. Each of the small fair-
weather clouds of a bright summer day is at the top of a column of
rising air. Its base is flat, at the level at which the dew point is reached.
T h e glider pilot may use these clouds as indicators to show the position
of the rising currents. Clouds form on the windward side of mountains
where the air is forced to rise, while on the leeward side where the air
is descending the clouds evaporate.
Whenever the temperature and dew point are close together, the
relative humidity is very high and cloud or fog formation is very
probable. T h e pilot, in planning a flight, avoids such areas because
of the low visibility and ceiling to be expected there.
Air Masses. Modern methods of weather analysis and forecast-
ing are based upon the fact that in the general circulation of the
atmosphere huge bodies of air acquire fairly uniform (horizontal)
physical properties, notably temperature and humidity. Such a homo-
geneous body of air is called an air mass.
Initially the properties of an air mass are determined by the char-
acteristics of the region in which it forms. As the air mass moves away
from its source area, it is modified by the conditions of the surface
over which it passes. If it passes over a warm surface, its temperature
is increased; if over a cold surface, it is decreased. The humidity is
usually increased if the air mass passes over water or a snow-covered
region.
An air mass is designated by its source region and by the temper-
ature relative to the surface over which it passes. The weather in
North America is influenced by polar; and tropical air masses. As the
names indicate, the polar masses are formed in the north while the
tropical masses are formed in the south. Both these classes of air
masses are divided into continental and maritime, depending upon
whether the source area is over land or over sea. In addition to these
two distinctions, the air masses are classified as warm or icold. A mass
is called warm if it is warmer than the surface over which it passes
and cold if its temperature is lower. Thus an air mass whose source is
the north Pacific Ocean might be classified as "maritime polar cold" ,
(mPk). Another air mass formed over t h e Gulf of Mexico may be
called "maritime tropical w a r m " (mTw).Ôn the map (Fig. 3) are
shown several air masses with their appropriate designations.
METEOROLOGY 303
Fronts. The boundary between two air masses is ealled 3. front.
In North America polar air masses usually travel southeast, while
the tropical air masses travel northeast. As two such masses come
together, the warm tropical air is lifted by the denser cold air. The
COLD
W/IRM
WARM
mRM
FIG. 4.—Horizontal profile showing development of a wave cyclone.
COLD FRONT WARM FRONT

FIG. 5.—Vertical profile showing warm and cold fronts. The cold front overtakes the
warm front, forming an occlusion.
WARM WARM
COLD WM- COLDER COLDER COLD
(a) (b)
FIG. 6.—Vertical sections through occlusions: (a) warm-front type occlusion; [b)
cold-front type occlusion.
rising air currents result in a low-pressure area, and air spirals in to

take the place of the rising air. This constitutes a cyclone (Fig. 4).
Air masses do not travel at uniform speeds. The boundaries are
consequently changing as one mass overtakes or draws away from
another. A front is named from the overtaking mass. If a warm air
mass overtakes a cold air mass, it overruns the cold mass and is
gradually forced upward (Fig. 5). As the warm air rises gradually,
it is cooled and reaches the dew point where clouds are formed. Such
a front is likely to produce steady precipitation just ahead of it, with
clearing skies as it passes. As a cold front approaches (Fig. 5), the
warm air is lifted, causing condensation. T h e cold front tends to
become steeper as it advances, and the warm air is lifted quickly,
causing high winds and sudden violent squalls.
If one cold air mass overtakes another, the warm mass between
them may be lifted away from the ground. This results in an occlusion
as shown in Fig. 6. When an occlusion occurs, intense storms are
probable.
SUMMARY'
Meteorology is the study of weather and the atmospheric conditions
that contribute to it.
Important factors in the weather are barometric pressure, temperature,
wind, and humidity.
T h e barometric pressure, which is measured in inches of mercury or
millibars, decreases with increase in altitude. T h e decrease is about
1 in. of mercury per 1000 ft in the lower levels.
T h e temperature of the air is normally highest at the surface of
the earth. The rate at which it decreases with increase in altitude is
called the lapse rate. Its average value is about 3.6°F per 1000 ft.
Rising air is cooled by expansion, its temperature decreasing about
5.5°F per 1000-ft rise for dry air.
A cyclone is a low-pressure area with its accompanying winds while
an anticyclone is a high-pressure area and its winds. In the Northern
Hemisphere winds spiral counterclockwise into a cyclone and clockwise
out of an anticyclone.
Isobars are lines on the weather m a p connecting points of equal
barometric pressure.
Absolute humidity is the niass of water vapor per unit volume of air.
Specific humidity is the mass of water vapor per unit mass of air.
Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the actual vapor pressure
to the saturated vapor pressure at that temperature.
The dew point is the temperature to which the air must be cooled,
at constant pressure, to produce saturation.
METEOROLOGY 305
Water vapor condenses to form a cloud or fog whenever the tem-

perature is reduced to the dew point.
An air mass is a homogeneous body of air.
T h e boundary between two air masses is called a. front.
An occlusion occurs when one cold air mass overtakes another and
the warm air mass between them is lifted away from the ground.
QUESTIONS
1. When side by side, over which will the stronger up-current be found during a
period of sunshine, a plowed field or a meadow? Why?
2. What is actually meant by the term "falling barometer"?
3. Why is it impossible to use an altimeter intelligently without knowledge of
the terrain and the weather map? Explain fully.
4. What may be the result of flying over mountains, in "thick" weather, if the
altimeter is reading too high?
5. Would an altimeter show increase in altitude if there were no decrease in
barometric pressure during a climb? Why?
6. Discuss factors affecting the temperature at a given locality.
7. How can a bird soar without beating its wings?
8. Discuss the effect of the rotation of the earth on the general circulation of the
atmosphere.
9. What precisely is the dew point and what does it indicate? Is the dew point a
fixed point in the sense that the freezing point is?
10. Why is summer heat often oppressive before a shower?
11. What kind of weather would you expect to find where the dew point and the
air temperature are the same?
12. How are variations in pressure indicated on the weather map?
13. For the conditions shown in Fig. 3 in this chapter, what weather would you
forecast for New York City a day later?
14. Why are the bases of several neighboring cumulus clouds usually at about the
same height? How is such a cloud formed?
15. In a heating system that circulates hot air in a house, it is usually desirable to
add moisture to the air. Explain why this is necessary.
16. What scientific basis has each of the following weather proverbs:
1. Weather varies every hundred miles.
2. A mackerel sky, not twenty-four hours dry.
3. Rain before seven, clear before eleven.
4. Rainbow in morning, sailors take warning;
Rainbow at night, sailors delight.
5. Evening red and morning grey
Cheers the traveller on his way;
Evening grey and morning red
Brings down rain upon his head.
6. The number of stars within the moon's halo denotes the number of days until
rain.
PROBLEMS
1. The total window area in a room is 300 ft^. If during a storm the
barometer reading outside suddenly decreased 0.50 in., what force would tend to
push the window glass out if no air escaped?
2. What is the atmospheric pressure in millibars on Mt. Hood (11,245 ft)
when the mercury barometer indicates 510 mm? Ans. 680 millibars
3. A decrease of 1.06 in. of mercury in barometric pressure will cause what
change of altitude reading on an altimeter at rest on the ground?
4. Atmospheric pressure diminishes exponentially with altitude, half the
atmosphere (by weight) is below 18,000 ft, half the remainder is left behind in the
next 18,000 ft, etc. At what elevation will 95 % of the atmosphere be left behind?
Ans. 78,000 ft
5. If the temperature is 40°F at the surface of the earth, (a) what will it be at
30,000 ft altitude under normal conditions? (b) at 15,000 ft?
6. The temperature of the air at the surface of a landing field is 92°F, while that
over adjacent wooded land is 78°F. Ideally, how high will the air current rise over
the field? Ans. 7400 ft
7. In which case does the air hold more water vapor: (a) temperature 32°F,
dew point 32°F, (b) temperature 80°F, dew point 50°F? What is the relative humidity
in each case?
8. In a room where the temperature is 24°G an experiment shows the dew point
to be 12°G. What is the relative humidity? ' Ans. 47%
9. The relative humidity in a certain room is 60% at 20°C. (a) Calculate the
relative humidity if the temperature drops to 15°C. (i) What is then the dew point?
10. How many grams of water must be evaporated into a room 20 by 40 by 6.0 m
to raise the relative humidity from 10% to 60%, with the temperature constant at
20°C? The density of saturated water vapor at 20°C is 17.3 gm/m'. Ans. 42 kg
11. How many pounds of water must be'evaporated in an auditorium 50 ft by
20 ft by 100 ft to raise the relative humidity from 20% to 60%, the temperature
remaining constant at 70°F? The density of saturated water vapor at 70°F is 0.00112
lb/ft».
12. Calculate the pressure due to dry air when the relative humidity/s 85%, the
temperature 22°C, and the barometric reading 745.5 mm of mercury.
Ans. 728.7 mm of mercury
13. Air at a temperature of 22°C and relative humidity 70% is cooled to 15°C.
What is theii 'its relative humidity?
14. Outdoor air at 30°C and 90% relative humidity is drawn into an air-condi-
tioning system where it is first chilled to 12°G in a water spray and then allowed to
warm to 22°G without the addition of moisture, (a) What is the relative hUmidity of
the conditioned air? {b) How much moisture is removed from each cubic meter of
air treated? Ans. 53%; 17 gm/m^
4^ ' :" %';. '••• I V
V '•v,/.:- CHARLES •
EDOUARD
GUILLAUME
\ I 86 I t o 1938
BORN IN FLEURIER, SWITZERLAND. DIRECTOR OF THE INTER-

NATIONAL BUREAU OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, SEVRES.
AWARDED THE I 9 2 O NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS DIS-
COVERY OF THE ANOMALIES OF NICKEL-STEEL ALLOYS (INCLUDING
I N V A R ) AND THEIR IMPORTANCE IN THE PHYSICS OF PRECISION.
24. Wave Motion

O n e of the problems of modern industry is the transportation of
energy from tlie place at which it is available to the place at which
it can be used most effectively. T h e principle methods by which
energy is transferred from place to place are by motion of particles,
by a bodily motion of large masses of material, and by wave motion.
307
Each of these types of transmission is of great importance in its.

proper place.
The transfer of electrical energy by wire is an example-of particle
transmission. Charged particles (electrons) move through the wire to
supply energy to any point in the circuit. Heat energy is conducted
through a metal bar by the collisions between molecules as they are
agitated in the metal. Air currents set up by unequal heating of the
surface of the earth transmit energy that can be harnessed at any
place the wind blows. T h e ocean tides are another source of energy
of a fluid body.
Energy from the sun reaches us in large amounts. By farrthe
greatest part of this comes as a wave motion. Radiant energy traverses
the space between sun and earth with neither particles nor bodily
motion of a fluid. Sounds reach our ears by means of waves in the
air around us. Radio signals are waves that are used to transmit
music or speech. Waves in strings or air columns are used in pro-
ducing musical sounds. All waves have certain properties in common.
Waves. If a stone is dropped into a quiet pool of water, a
disturbance is created where the rock enters the liquid. However, the
disturbance is not confined to that place alone but spreads out so that
it eventually reaches all parts of the pool.
When the stone enters the water, it sets into motion the partid^s
of water with which it comes in contact. These particles set mto
motion neighboring particles. They in turn produce similar motion
in others and so on until the disturbance reaches particles at the edge
of the pool. In all this disturbance no particle moves far from its
initial position. Only the disturbance moves through the water. This
behavior is characteristic of all wave motions. T h e particles move over
short paths about their initial positions and as a result a wave moves
through the medium. A wave is a disturbance that moves through
a medium. T h e medium as a whole does not progress in the direction
of motion of the wave.
There are several types of waves, their classification being m a d e
in accordance with the moti6n of the individual particles. T h e most
common types are transverse waves a n d longitudinal waves but other
types are frequently observed.
Transverse Waves.' W h e n the motions of the individual peirticles
of the medium are perpendicular to the direction in which the wave
WAVE MOTION 309
advances, the wave is called a transverse wave. Such a wave travels
along a stretched cord if one section is displaced slightly in a direction
at right angles to the cord and then released. In Fig. 1 are depicted
several successive stages in the motion of the particles of a medium
through which a transverse wave is passing. Each particle is assumed
to be vibrating with simple harmonic motion about its equilibrium
position on the straight line, the path of vibration being perpendicular
to that line. T h e arrows indicate the magnitude and direction of the
FIG. 1.—Particle motion in a transverse wave.
velocity of each of the particles pictured. I n Fig. \a the position and ve-
locity of selected particles of the medium are shown at a given instant.
Starting at the left, the first three particles shown are moving down-
ward, the fourth is at the end of its path and momentarily at rest,
the next five are moving upward, and so on. In Figs. \b, c, and d are
shown the positions and velocities of these same particles at successive
equal intervals of time after a. We note that while no single particle
moves to the right, the shape of the medium, that is, the wave, moves to
the right. As the up-and-down motion of the particles continues, the
wave moves farther and farther to the right. T h e wave is thus a
transverse wave.
It is only when the particles are close enough to exert relatively
large forces on one another that they are able to set each other into
this type of vibration. In a gas the molecules are too far apart to
transmit such motion, and hence a trcinsverse wave does not travel
through a gas.
Longitudinal Waves. When the motions of the individual
particles of the medium are parallel to the direction in which the wave
travels, the wave is called a longitudinal wave. In Fig. 2 successive
positions of selected particles are shown. In a the particles are in their
.equilibrium positions. Their positions at a some instant after they
start to vibrate with simple harmonic motion are shown in b. Suc-
cessive positions after equal intervals of time are shown in c, d, and e.
We note that while each particle merely vibrates about its equilibrium
(a) . — • — . — . — . — . — . — . — • — . — . — ^ — . — — . - — ^ — . • • — r - . — . — • — « •
lb)
(c) . . . . — . — . — » • « — . — . — • — — . . - — • • — • — . — . — • — •
(d). • .• _
. — • — I .• .— — . — • • .. .
. •
• •
« . •—— .• /
(Q) .• •. •. • • •. — *• ~ »
1 1 •— * - *—
—>> I •I — II I • • — .. — ««
FIG. 2.—Particle motion in a longitudinal wave.
position a configuration, or arrangement of particles, moves steadily to

the right. The longitudinal wave moves to the right through the
medium.
In b, c, d, and e the distribution of particles is not uniform. In
places they are closer together than normal and in others they are
farther apart than normal. These compressions and rarefactions follow
each other through the medium. This type of wave is also called a
compressional wave. Sound waves are longitudinal or compressional
waves.
Any elastic medium is able to transmit a compressional wave.
Solids, liquids, and gases are all suitable mediums for the propaga-
tion of compressional waves. Elastic waves in gases and liquids are
longitudinal; in solids they may be either longitudinal or transverse,
or both.
Water Waves. In a liquid the motion of the particles may be
neither purely transverse nor purely longitudinal but a cornbination
of the two. In the latter case the path followed by the particle is
WAVE MOTION 3I I
either a circle or an ellipse. In Fig. 3 are shown the paths of selected

particles, their positions and the wave shape at two different times,
the wave having traveled to the right between these instants. Waves
in deep water are of this type.
QQQO
FIG. 3.—Â water wave.
Wave Properties. In observing waves, we note several of their

characteristics. Waves travel uniformly with a definite speed through
the medium. Also, if we watch a single spot we see that waves pass
that spot at regular intervals of time. In the wave motion such factors
as wave speed, frequency, phase, wavelength, and amplitude must be
considered.
Wave Speed. The speed of a wave is the distance it advances
per unit time. The speed depends upon the type of wave, properties
of the ipedium, and, in some cases, the frequency of the wave. A few
cases are of sufficient interest to warrant consideration of the factors
that determine the wave speed.
One common type of wave is a transverse wave in a flexible cord.
The speed of this type of wave is determined by two factors, the
tension in the cord and its mass per unit length.
Where v is the speed of the wave, T is the tension in the cord, and
m/l is the mass per unit length of the cord. In the metric system of
units, T is expressed in dynes, m/l in grams per centimeter, and hence
V is in centimeters per second. In the usual British system, m is re-
placed by w/g, and the equation becomes
where T is expressed in pounds, w/l in pounds per foot, g in feet per

second per second, and v in feet per second.
From Eqs. (1) and (2) we note that increasing the tension in-
creases the speed, while increasing the mass per unit length, that is,
using a heavier cord, decreases the speed. These effects may be ob-
served by experiments with cords, one end fixed, the other arranged
so that the tension may be varied.
Example: A cord 80 cm long has a mass of 0.288 gm. What is the speed .of a
transverse wave in this cord when it is stretched by a load of 2.0 kg?
n/l
m
n _ 0.288 igm
T ~ 80 CI
T = •Mg = 2000 gm X 980 cm/sec"
/2000~gm X 980 cm/sec'' o , v in4 / oin /
V= ^ „ „„-, 7 = 2.3 X 10< cm/sec = 230 m/sec
A/ 0.0036 gm/cm
The speed of a compressional wave in an elastic medium depends
only on the modulus of elasticity E of "the medium and its density d.
The speed is given by the expression
-4 (3)
For an extended medium (solid, liquid, or gas), E represents the

bulk modulus. For a solid rod E represents Young's modulus. In the
metric system, if E is expressed in dynes per square centimeter and d
in grams per cubic centimeter, Eq. (3) gives the speed in centimeters
per second. In the British system, E is expressed in pounds per square
foot rather than pounds per square inch. If the common weight den-
sity D is used, Eq. (3) must be modified to
»=s «
where D is the weight-density in pounds per cubic foot, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity. . ''
Example: Find the speed of a compressional wave in an iron rod whose specific
gravity is 7.7 and whose Young's modulus is 27.5 X 10^ Ib/in^.
WAVE MOTION 313
E = (27.5 X 108) lb/in.2 = (27.5 X 10« X 144) lb/ft"

D = (7.7 X 62.4) lb/ft'
g = 32 ft/sec^
/27.5 X 10« X 144 Ib/ft^ X 32 ft/sec^ ,rc^c^c^f.l
" = V 7.7 X 62.4 lb/ft3 = 16,000 ft/sec
Phase, Frequency, Period, and Wavelength. All the particles

of the medium in which there is a wave motion vibrate about their
respective positions of equilibrium in the same manner, b u t they
reach corresponding positions in their paths at different times. These
relative positions represent the phase of the motion. Two particles are
in the same phase if they have the same displacement and are moving
in the same direction. In Fig. la the second and the fourteenth par-
ticles are the same distance above the axis and both are moving
downward and hence they are in the same phase. I n the successive
diagrams, these two particles are always in phase. Similarly the third
and fifteenth are in phase, the fourth and sixteenth, etc. T h e twelfth
particle is the same distance from the axis as the second but is below
the axis rather than above. Hence these particles are not in the same
phase. If two waves are moving through the same medium, they are
said to be in phase if the motions of the particles due to the two waves
are in phase.
If we observe the waves as they pass a point, we note that they
are regularly spaced in time. T h e number of waves which pass a
point in unit time is the frequency f of the wave motion. T h e time
required for a single wave to pass is called the period T of the wave
motion. T h e frequency is thus the reciprocal of the period
/ =y (5)
T h e phase of the vibrating particle can be expressed in terms of
the period of vibration. It is that fraction of the period that has
elapsed since the particle passed through its position of equilibrium
moving in the positive direction. Phase may be expressed in time,
that is, as a fraction of a period, or in angular measure where one
complete cycle represents 360° or lir radians. Thus in Fig. la the
seventh and nineteenth particles are passing through the equilibrium
position and moving in the positive direction. T h e phase of each of

these particles is zero. One-twelfth of a period has elapsed since the
sixth particle was in the equilibrium position. Its phase is thus one-
twelfth period or 30° or 27r/12 radians ahead of the seventh in phase.
Similarly particle four has a phase of one fourth period or 90° or 7r/2
radians. The eighth particle is one-twelfth period behind the seventh
in phase. Its phase would be negative one-twelfth period or —30° or
—7r/6 radians.
T h e displacement of the particle can be expressed in terms of the
phase angle. If j represents the displacement of a given particle and
A the maximum displacement,
'y = A sin 6 (6)
T h e angle 6 is zero when the phase is zero as defined above. Since 6

changes from 0 to 2-K in the time of one period T, we may write
^=T' f
iv 6 = lirjt. Then
27r
y = A sm -~ t = A svn lirfi (7)
where t is the time in seconds after zero phase.

T h e wavelength is the distance between two successive particles that
are in the same phase. In Fig. 1, the wavelength is the distance from
the second to the fourteenth particle, from the third to the fifteenth,
etc. We shall represent wavelength by the Greek letter X (lambda).
There is a simple relationship between speed, frequency, and
wavelength, which holds true for all types of waves. I t is given by the
equation
V =/X (8)
If the wave passes from one medium into another, the speed
changes. In this process the frequency remains the same, but the
wavelength will change in proportion to the speed; if v increases,
X also increases. , -
Example: What is the wavelength in the iron rod of the preceeding example for a
compressional wave whose frequency is 250 per sec? What will be its "wavelength when
it emerges into air where the speed is 1100 ft/sec?
•>
WAVE MOTION 315
In iron
V = 16,000 ft/sec
/ = 250/sec
16,000 ft/sec
A = oi-n / = 0 0 It
250/sec
In air
V = iTOO ft/sec
/ = 250/sec
1100 ft/sec , , ,
Amplitude; Transmission of Energy. T h e amplitude of a wave

is identical with the amplitude of vibration of the particles of the
medium. T h e amplitude is the maximum displacement of the par-
ticle from its equilibrium position. In a study of wave motion, con-
sideration of amplitude is important because of its relation to the
transmission of energy.
In all waves energy travels through the medium in the direction
in which the wave travels. T h e transfer of energy per second per unit
area perpendicular to the direction of motion is called the intensity
of the wave. T h e intensity / is proportional to the square of the
amplitude.
7 = M2 • (9)
The value of k depends upon the system of units used and also upon
the frequency of the wave. For compressional waves a more complete
expression for the intensity is
I = iTT^vfdA^ (10)
where v is the speed of the wave, / is the frequency, and d is the
density of the medium. When these factors are given in the customary
cgs units, I is in ergs per square centimeter per second.
When a wave travels out from a point source, the energy at some
instant is passing through the surface of a sphere. At a later instant
the same energy is passing through a larger spherical surface. T h e
amount of energy per square centimeter per second is less at the
second surface than at the first. I n fact, since the total energy per
second is the same at the two surfaces, that per square centimeter is
inversely proportional to the area ATTT^ of the surface
j _ _ki^ _k2 _
T h e amplitude A is inversely proportional to the distance from the

source
^ = ^ (11)
If in place of a point source we have a line source, the energy is

spread over a cylindrical surface. Again the energy spreads over
successively larger surfaces and the energy per square centimeter per
second is inversely proportional to the area I-KTI of the cylindrical
surface
r
and
i'
A = ^ (12)
•Vr
that is, the amplitude is inversely proportional to the square root of

the distance from the line source.
If the source is large, that is, large compared to the distance from
the source, the surface over which the energy spreads is a plane, and
the areas of successive planes are the same. I n this case the energy
per square centimeter per second, and hence the amplitude, is inde-
pendent of the distance.
As a wave passes through any material medium, energy is a b -
sorbed by the medium. Thus the energy passing through each surface,
a n d hence the amplitude, decreases faster than is expected from the
change in area. This decrease in amplitude due to absorption is called
damping a n d a wave whose amplitude decreases for this reason is
called a damped wave. • ; .
Interference. If disturbances are created at twjo points in a
single medium, a wave starts out from each point. Each of the waves -'
travels out through the medium. T h e motion of any given particle
in the mediuin is a combination of the motions involved in each of
the waves. T h e two waves are said to interfere.
WAVE MOTION 317
T h e behavior of a particle as the two waves pass is determined by
the relative phases of the waves. If the two waves are in the same
phase as they reach the particle, the amplitude of motion is increased
and the interference is said to be constructive. If the two waves are 180°
out of phase, the amplitude is decreased and the interference is
destructive. T h e resultant amplitude will be decreased to zero if the
two waves have equal amplitudes.
When the two waves have the same frequency, a stationary inter-
ference pattern is set up. In Fig. 4 is a dfagram of this type of pattern.
The two sources S\ and Si are in
phase with each other. At all points
equidistant from Si and ^2 the
waves will also be in phase, since
there will be the same number of
waves between each source and the
point in question. Thus at every
point along the perpendicular bi-
sector of the line joining the two
sources, the two waves are in phase
and there is maximum disturbance.
Similarly the two waves will be in
phase if the paths from Si and Si
differ by one wavelength or by two
wavelengths or by any other whole
number of wavelengths. In Fig. 4
the lines cd are drawn through
points whose distances from the
two sources differ by one wave- e c a c e
length, the lines ef through points FIG. 4.—Interference of waves from
whose distances differ by two wave- two sources.
lengths, and so on. At all points on the lines, the disturbances always
add to produce maximum disturbance. I n between the lines, the waves
are out of phase and the disturbance is lessened. T h e disturbance is
least approximately midway between the lines. There the difference in
path is one-half wavelength or three halves wavelength or some odd
number of half wavelengths. At these points, the waves differ in phase
by 180° and hence produce the least disturbance.
When there are more than two sources, the pattern becomes much
3l8 C O L L E G E TECHNICAL PHYSICS
more complicated but at every point the resultant motion is the sum
of the individual motions. '
If the two sources do not have the same frequency, no stationary
pattern will be produced. The waves continue to interfere; but at
any one point although the waves are in phase at one instant, a little
later they are 180° out of phase. Thus the disturbance increases to a
maximum, then decreases to a minimum, and then the process is
repeated.
Reflection and Refractio'n. When a wave reaches the boundary
of a medium, it cannot continue to travel as before. The effect of the
boundary on the wave depends upon the properties of the two
mediums. T h e wave may continue to travel into the second medium
b u t with a new speed and wavelength; or it may be reflected into the
first medium and travel without change in speed or wavelength, or
the energy may be absorbed in the second medium. Usually, if the
second medium is able to transmit the wave,
NORMAL 2I1 three of these phenomena occur, f a r t of
the energy is reflected, part is transmitted
into the new naedium, and part is absorbed.
In discussing reflection of waves, it is
convenient to use the idea of rays. A ray is
a line drawn in the direction in which the
wave is traveling. Within a single homo-
„ ~ I ^ ~ geneous medium, the waves do not chanste
FIG. 5.—Regular reflection ,. . , ' . , ,.
of waves direction; hence the rays are straight lines.
Only at the boundary or in a region where
the properties of the medium are changing do the rays deviate from
the straight line.
Suppose a line is drawn perpendicular to the boundary surface.
T h e angle between an incoming ray and this normal is called the
angle of incidence i (Fig. 5). The angle which the reflected ray makes
with the normal is called the angle of reflection r. Whenever any wave
is reflected, it is reflected in such -a direction that the. angle of inci-
dence is equal to the angle of reflection. If the reflecting surface is
rough, small sections of the surface reflect according to this law but,
since these surface areas have normals in various directions, the wave
is scattered in many directions.
While we frequently think of light when we speak of reflection.
WAVE MOTION 319
it is equally common in other waves. For example, echoes are caused
by reflection of sound waves. Reflected waves in water are common,
and waves in strings are reflected at the ends.
I n some cases of reflection of waves there is an abrupt change of
phase of 180°. For example, if a compressional wave in a tube of air
reaches a closed end, it is reflected as a compression. However, if it
reaches an open end of the tube, it is reflected as a rarefaction rather
than as a compression. Similarly light waves are reflected without
change of phase as the wave reaches a boundary passing from a more
dense medium to a less dense one, b u t suff'ers a 180° change at a
surface where it goes from the less dense to the more dense, medium.
T h e wave that is transmitted through the boundary into the new
medium proceeds with a new speed, a new wavelength and, except
when the rays are normal to the
siu-face, a new direction. T h e
change in direction of propaga-
tion caused by a change in speed
of the wave is called refraction. I n
Fig. 6, two rays ab and eg are
"shown'in the first medium. T h e
edge of the wave at the left
reaches the boundary first and is
slowed down as it goes into the ' V
second medium. While the wave î°- 6.-Refraction of a wave,
travels the distance Jg in the first medium, it travels the smaller
distance be in the second medium. T h e result is that the wave is
turned into a new direction. The refracted ray bd makes a smaller
angle with the normal than the incident ray does. If the wave is
traveling from the medium of slow speed to that of larger speed, the
ray will be bent away from the normal.
DifFraction. Waves travel in straight lines in a homogeneous
medium. However, if an obstacle is inserted into the medium, the
wave will bend around the obstacle. This is called diffraction.
If we draw a surface through points all of which are in the same
phase, the surface is called a wave front. Each point on such a wave
front may be thought of as a new source of disturbance sending out
wavelets. T h e new wave front is tangent to all these wavelets. Such a
construction is shown in Fig. 7. T h e surface AB is a wave front with
the small arcs representing the wavelets from AB. T h e new ^ a v e
front CD is drawn tangent to all the wavelets. This construction was
devised by a Dutch physicist, Christian Huygens (1629—1695) and
hence is called Huygens' construction.
If an obstacle is interposed as in Fig. 8, the wavelets below O are
cut off but the wavelets near 0 continue to advance behind the
obstacle. Thus the wave front is bent into the "shadow" region behind
the obstacle. The bending is due to interference between wavelets,
and the amount of bending depends upon the wave length. Very
FIG. 7.—Huyghens' construction. FIG. 8.—Diffraction.

short waves are turned only slightly while long ones are bent much
more. Diffraction of light waves will be discussed in Chap. 48.
Polarization. Thus far the wave properties we have discussed
have been common to all types of waves. Other properties are char-
acteristic of only certain particular types of waves and hence can be
used to distinguish one type from another. O n e such property is
polarization.
We noted that in a transverse wave, the individual particles vibrate
in a direction at right angles to the direction in which the wave moves.
There are, however, many paths in which the particle may vibrate
and yet always be moving perpendicular to the direction of the wave.
If the motion of the particle is confined to a single path, the wave is
said to he polarized. In Fig. 9 we represent some of these possible modes
of vibration as we look in the direction the wave is moving. If, how-
WAVE MOTION 321
ever, we force the particles to vibrate in only one plane (Fig. 10), the
vâve is said to be plane polarized. Only one single plane can be selected
that includes both the line of travel of the wave and the paths of
vibration of the particles.
I n a longitudinal or compressional wave, the path of vibration of
the particle is parallel to the direction of travel of the wave. Hence
the path does not serve to orient a plane passed through the line of
advance. Any number of planes can be selected that include both
the line of advance and the path of vibration. T h e compressional wave
cannot be polarized.
F I G . 9.—Possible FIG. 10.—Vibra-

paths of vibration in a tion in a plane polar-
transverse wave. ized transverse wave.
If there is doubt as to whether a wave is transverse or longitudinal,

the test of polarization may be applied. If the wave can be polarized,
it is transverse.
Standing Waves. If two waves of the same frequency and
amplitude move in opposite directions through a medium, standing
waves may be set up. As the waves move through the medium, they
interfere. At certain points they are in the same phase while at others
they are 180° out of phase. Since the amplitudes are equal, when the
two waves act in opposite directions on a particle there will be no
motion of the particle. Therefore, in the standing or stationary wave,
at certain points there is no vibration. These points are called nodes.
At other points called antinodes, the two waves reinforce and produce
maximum vibration.
Standing waves can be set up by waves from two separate sources
traveling in the, same medium. They are more common, however,
when waves from a single source are reflected. For example, one may
tie an end of a string to a hook in a wall and set up waves in the
String by moving the free end. T h e waves travel to the fixed end of
the string and are reflected there. If the frequency is properly adjusted,
standing waves are set up. A section of the string is diagrammed in
Fig. 11. At the points marked N (nodes), the initial and reflected
waves always cancel the effects of each other, while at the points
marked A (antinodes) the two waves add up to give maximum dis-
turbance. T h e distance between successive nodes (or between suc-
cessive antinodes) is a half wavelength.
Most vibrating bodies normally vibrate in such a m a n n e r that
standing waves are set up in the body. In musical instruments the
A A • A
FIG. 11.—Standing wave in a string.
Strings or the air columns or other vibrating members have sets of
standing waves with their nodes and antinodes.
SUMMARY
A wave is a disturbance that travels through a medium.
Energy is transmitted by waves.
In transverse waves, the particles of the medium vibrate in paths
perpendicular to the direction the wave moves. In longitudinal wayes,
the paths in which the particles vibrate are parallel to the direction
of motion of the wave.
The speed of a wave is the distance it moves per unit time. T h e
speed depends upon the kind of wave and the properties of the
medium. For a transverse wave in a string
' = 4w.
n.
For a longitudinal or compressional wave.
Frequency is the num.ber of waves per second which pass a point.

Period is the time required for one wave to pass the point in
question.
WAVE M O T I O N 323
Wavelength is the distance between two adjacent particles in the
same phase.
T w o particles are in the same phase if they have the same displace-
ment from the equilibrium position and are moving in the same
direction.
Speed V, frequency / , and wavelength X are related by the ex-
pression
V =fX
Amplitude is the maximum displacement of a particle in the wave

motion. T h e rate at which energy is transmitted is proportional to
the square of the amplitude.
When two waves travel through the same medium, they interfere.
T h e displacement of any particle is the vector sum of the displace-
ments for the two waves.
At the boundary of a medium, the wave may be reflected, or
refracted.
Waves are diffracted by obstacles in the medium.
A wave is said to be polarized if the vibrations of its particles are
confined to certain paths that are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
Transverse waves can be polarized but longitudinal waves cannot.
Standing waves may be set up when two waves of equal frequency
and equal amplitude travel in opposite directions through a medium.
I n the standing wave, there are nodes and antinodes. A node is a point
of no vibration, while an antinode is a point of maximum vibration.
T h e distance between successive nodes (or antinodes) is a half
wavelength.
QUESTIONS
1. Describe a simple experiment that illustrates longitudinal or transverse waves.
Of what does such a wave consist?
2. Wind blowing over a wheat field sets up a series of waves. Describe the motion
of the waves and that of the heads of grain.
3. Draw a diagram representing some form of wave motion and indicate five
characteristics of a wave. Define each.
4. Draw a diagram showing two transverse waves (a) having the same wave-
length but amplitudes in the ratio of 2 to 1, (b) with the same amplitudes but wave-
lengths in the ratio of 1 to 2, and (c) with the same amplitude and the same wave-
length but differing in phase by 90°.
5. If a single disturbance sends out both transverse and longitudinal waves that
travel with known speeds in a medium, how could the distance to the point of the
disturbance be determined?
6. Could a wave motion be set up in which the parts of the medium vibrate with
angular simple harmonic motion? If so, describe such a wave.
7. In discussing transverse and longitudinal waves it was assumed that the
particles vibrate in simple harmonic motion. Could either of these types of wave
exist if the vibratory motion were not simple harmonic?
8. When two waves interfere, does one change the progress of the other? Explain.
9. Assuming that the solid wall between two rooms will not transmit a sound
wave, is it possible for sound produced in one room to be heard in the other? If so,
what wave processes are involved?
10. What happens to a wave motion when it comes to the boundary of a medium?
Distinguish between the effects at a "free" and at a "fixed" boundary.
11. How are standing waves produced?
PROBLEMS
1. A wave has a frequency of 25/sec and an amplitude of 2.0 in. Assuming the
motion of the particles of the medium to be simple harmonic, find the displacement
and the speed of the particle 0.40 sec after it is in the equilibrium position.
2. A wave has a period of 0.030 sec and an amplitude of 0.50 in. Assuming the
particle motion to be harmonic, find the displacement and speed of the particle when
the phase is 60°. Ans. 0.43 in.; 52 in./sec
3. A 50-ft rope that weighs 2.0 lb is stretched by a force of 150 lb. A wave ts
started down the rope by plucking it. What is the speed of the wave?
4. A piano string is 2.5 ft long and weighs 2.0 oz. If it is stretched by a force of
1000 lb, what is the speed of the wave set up when the hammer strikes the string?
Ans. 800 ft/sec
5. An explosion of powder set off in rock sends out a compressional wave that
travels with a speed of 5.3 km/sec. Find the effective modulus of elasticity if the
specific gravity is 2.7.
6. What is the speed of a compressional wave in water? Ans. 4700 ft/sec
7. Compute the speed of a compressional wave in hydrogen at standard tem-
perature and pressure.
8. Find the speed of a compressional wave in an aluminum rod.
Ans. 16,000 ft/sec
9. What is the wavelength in water of a compressional wave whose frequency is
400/sec?
10. What is the wavelength in air under standard conditions of a compressional
wave whose frequency is 250/sec? Ans. 4.35 ft
11. Two waves whose freqiiencies are 20.0 and 30.0/sec travel out from a common •
point. How will they differ in phaseât the end of 0.75 sec? «
12. A string 2.0 ft long weighs 1.0 oz. Find the speed of the wave in'the string
when the tension is 100 lb. If the wavelength is twice the length of the string, what
. is the frequency of vibration?' Ans. 320 ft/sec; 80/sec
h-
i *^
ALBERT
EINSTEIN
1879 —
BORN IN ULM, IN WURTEMBERG. DIRECTOR OF THE KAISER

WILHELM INSTITUTE FOR PHYSICS, BERLIN. LIFE MEMBER OF THE
INSTITUTE FOR ADVANCED STUDY PRINCETON, SINCE 1 9 3 3 .
AWARDED THE 1 9 2 I NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS ATTAIN-
MENTS IN MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS AND ESPECIALLY FOR HIS DIS-
COVERY OF THE LAW OF THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT.
25. Sound Waves

We learn much about the world around us through the reception of
minute amounts of energy in soiyid waves. The vibration of objects
causes waves in the air and many of these waves act on the drums
of our ears, which transmit the vibrations to the nerves that give us
the sensation of sound. There is a physical basis for sound in the pro-
duction and transmission of waves in a medium, and there is a
325
physiological or psychological aspect in the interpretation of sounds
by the brain. We are here concerned chiefly with the physical nature
of sound in its production, propagation, and detection.
Nature of Sound. All sounds originate from vibrating bodies.
When a bell is struck, or a violin string plucked, or an organ pipe
sounded, a material body (bell, string, or air column) is set into vibra-
tion and transmits pulses to the surrounding air.
As an aid in visualizing the production of sound, suppose a small
rubber balloon is partly inflated and attached to a bicycle pump. If
the piston is pushed downward quickly, the balloon expands and the
layer of air next to it is compressed. This .layer of air will, in turn,
•J^?--«!*vSV™
FIG. 1.—Compressional waves produced by an expanding and contracting balloon.

compress the layer beyond it and so on. The compression that was
started by the expansion of the balloon will thus travel away from
the source in the surrounding medium. If the piston is drawn upward,
the balloon contracts and the adjacent layer of air is rarefied. As
in the case of the compression, the rarefaction travels out from the
source. If the piston is moved up and down at regular intervals, a
succession of compressions and rarefactions will travel out from the
source (Fig. 1). Such a regular succession of disturbances traveling
out from a source constitutes a wave motion. The compression and
the following rarefaction makfe up 4 compressional wave.
If the up-and-down motion of the piston is made rapid enough,
an observer in the neighborhood will be able to hear, a sound as the
disturbance reaches his ^ ear. These compressional waves are able to
.cause the sensation of hearing and are referred to as sound waves.
SOUND WAVES 327
The Medium'. Since a sound wave' involves compression and
expansion of some material, sound can be transmitted only through a
material medium having mass and elasticity. No sound can be trans-
mitted through a vacuum. This fact can be demonstrated experi-
mentally by mounting an electric bell under a bell jar and pumping
the air out while the bell is ringing (Fig. 2). As the air is removed,
the sound becomes fainter and fainter until it finally ceases, b u t it
again becomes audible if the air is allowed to reenter the jar.
Sound waves will travel through any elastic material. We are all
familiar with sounds transmitted through the windows, walls, and
floors of a building. Submarines are detected by the underwater
3 TO AIR PUMP
FIG. 2.—Sound is not transmitted through a vacuum.
sound waves produced by their propellers. T h e sound of an approach-

ing train may be heard by waves carried through the rails as well as
by those transmitted through the air. In all materials the alternate
compressions and rarefactions are transmitted in the same manner as
they are in air.
Speed of Sound. If one watches the firing of a gun at a con-
siderable distance, he will see the smoke of the discharge before he
hears the report. This delay represents the time required for the
sound to travel from the gun to the observer (the light reaches him
almost instantaneously). The speed of sound may be found directly
by measuring the time required for the waves to travel a measured
distance. T h e speed of sound varies greatly with the material through
• which it travels. Table I shows values for the speed of sound in
several common substances.
TABLE 1. SPEED OF SOUND AT 0°C (32°F) IN VARIOUS MEDIUMS
Medium ft/sec m/sec
Air 1,087 331.5

Hydrogen 4,167 1,270
Carbon dioxide. 846 258.0
Water 4,757 1,450
Iron 16,730 5,100
Glass 18,050 5,500
Since sound waves are longitudinal, or compressional waves, the

speed V is given by Eqs. (3) and (4), Chap. 24:
^ = vf (1)
or
V = iM)
where E is the volume coefficient of elasticity for fluids and extended
solids, or Young's modulus for solid rods, d is the density of the
medium, and D is its weight-density.
FIG. 3.,—^Representation of a sound wave.
If E is expressed in. dynes per square centimeter, and d in grams

per cubic centimeter, Eq. (1) gives the speed in centimeters per second.
If £ is expressed in pounds per square foot, D in pounds per cubic foot,
and g in feet per second per second, Eq. (la) gives the speed in feet
per second.
SOUND WAVES 329
In a gas at constant temperature the volume coefficient of elasticity
(Chap. 17) is the pressure P of the gas. When sound waves travel
through a gas the compressions and rarefactions (Fig. 3) occur so
rapidly that the changes are practically adiabatic. The adiabatic
coefficient of elasticity is 7 times the isothermal coefficient P, where
7 is the ratio of the specific heat of the gas at constant pressure to
the specific heat at constant volume (7 = 1.40 for air and other
diatomic gases). For gases, then
- ^ . -
73 (2)
Example: Compute the speed of sound in the steal rails of a railroad track. The
density of steel is 490 lb/ft' and Young's moduhis for steel is 29 X 10« Ib/in^
_ AXl _ J{29 X 10" lb/in.^)(144 in.Vft'')(32 ft/sec^

" ~ ^ P ~ ^ 490 Ib/ft^
V = 16,000 ft/sec
Example: Find the theoretical speed of sound in hydrogen at standard atmos-

pheric pressure and 0°C.
From the table on page 203 the density of hydrogen is 0.090 gm/liter.
d = 0.090 gm/liter = 0.000090 gm/cm'
P = 76.0 cm of mercury = 76.0 cm X 13.6 S ^ X 980 - ^ = 1.01 X 10" ^ ^
1.40(1.01 X 10« dynes/cm")
V.-5d = A^
^ 0.000090 gm/cm'
V = 120,000 cm/sec = 1200 m/sec
The speed of sound varies with the temperature of the medium

transmitting it. For solids and liquids this change in speed is small
and usually can be neglected. For gases, however, the change is rather
large. The general gas law gives a relation between pressure, tempera-
ture, and density
^ -
By substituting this for P/d in Eq. (2) we find that the speed of sound
in a gas at constant pressure varies according to the relation
- VT! P)
where Vi and Vi are the speeds at the absolute temperatures Ti and
7^2, respectively.
Example: What is the speed of sound in air at 25°C?
From Table I the speed at 0°C is 1087 ft/sec.
P25°c _ J27i'' + 25° ^ ,/29r°
,1087 ft/sec ~ ^ 273° ^273°
1298°
v^.'o = (1087 ft/sec) yl^ff' =1^40 ft/sec
For small differences in temperature we can consider the change

in speed to be a constant amount for each degree change in1:empera-
ture. In air this is about 2 ft/sec per °G (1.1 ft/sec per °F) for tem-
peratures near 0°C. The change is to be added if the temperature
increases and subtracted if the temperature decreases.
Resonance. The phenomenon of resonance already mentioned
in connection with mechanical vibrations (Chap. 13) is especially
important in increasing the loudness of sounds. Whenever a source .
of sound is coupled to a body whose natural frequency of vibration is
the same as the frequency of the source, the sound is greatly reinforced.
The amplification of sound by resonance is so marked as to sug-
gest an inquiry into the source of the additional energy. The energy
must come from the vibrating body, which is the source of the sound.
Whenever a vibrating body is coupled to a resonator, the vibrator
releases more energy per unit time. Hence the external power sup-
plied to the vibrator in a resounding system must be increased, other-
wise its vibrations will be quickly damped.
The reinforcement of sound by resonance with its accompanying
release of large amounts of energy has many useful and many ob-
noxious consequences. Resonance of a radio loud-speaker to certain
frequencies produces an objectionable distortion of speech or music.
But the resonance of the air column in an organ pipe amplifies the
otherwise almost inaudible sound of the vibrating air jet.
Sources of Sound. Any vibrating body that has the proper
frequency niay be a source 'df sound. All elastic substances can sup-
port such vibrations. The vibration may be descr.ibed,in terms of one
or more sets of standing waves produced in the medium of which
the body is composed., These waves may be either longitudinal or
transverse.
SOUND W A V E S . 33I
One of the common sources of sound is a vibrating string. If a
stretched cord is plucked, waves travel along the string and are
reflected at the ends. Many sets of standing waves can be estab-
lished; in fact, all standing waves are possible for which the two ends
are nodes. In Fig. 4 are shown
three such waves. For each there (a} •^•z.'ZS""' ~"^-::^
is a node at each end. In a there •
is no other node and hence the (b) <r.^ ~;:>''' "";;:>
length of the string is a half wave-
length. In b there is a node in the (c) <ZZ~Z>^^Z~~->^Î~S>^ZS~S>
middle as Well and the length of FIG. 4.—Modes of vibration of a string,
the string is a whole wavelength,
while in c it is two wavelengths. The length of the string determines
the wavelengths of the standing waves that can be set up in it. These
wavelengths are those for which the length / of the string is an
integral number of half wavelength segments.
/ = «^ -^' (4)
where n is any whole number.

Since the speed is the same for all the waves
v=fX
f — " — " _ ^^
•J ~ \ ~ Tlfn ~ 21
The possible frequencies of vibration are a lowest frequency v/2l,

when n is 1, and all multiples of this lowest frequency. Many of these
frequencies are present simultaneously when a string vibrates to pro-
duce sound.
The frequencies represented by the lowest frequency, called the
fundamental, and all its rriultiples are called harmonics. They are
called first, second, third, etc., harmonics in accordance with the
number of the multiple n. The fundamental is the first harmonic.
The higher harmonics are called overtones. In the case of the vibrating
string the first overtone is. the second harmonic.
Another comnion source of sound is a vibrating air column. Such
a column may be open at one end and closed at the other or it may
be open at both ends. Organ pipes and wind instruments are common
examples of vibrating air columns.
When an air column vibrates, waves are reflected at both open
and closed ends and standing waves are set up. In the pipe the closed
end must be a node while an open end must be an antinode. In Fig. 5
(a)
'-'I
(a)
'~:xC /=/f
" .2/
^ - V ^ - ' ^^X-^' /'2J

^^4 . . - ' ' - ^ . ,.-'^-^.
(b) (i»
^s -'' -s .'' ^x • '

\/ V ^/ /=jl
A A. A
.y
' ^^^ _^
/ V^ ^ ^
/ sV
fc) CO
FIG. 5.—Vibration of air FIG. 6.—Vibration of air
coliyjin in a closed tube. column in an open tube.
are shown several possible sets of nodes and antinodes for a pipe
closed at one end. In a there is a node at one end and an antinode
at the other. Since the distance from a node to the adjacent antinode
is a quarter wavelength,
/ = T or X = 4/
4
In b the length is three-fourths the wavelength, in c five-fourths. Since
^ I w r ^ y j - S y
/ = 47 °' -^ = 4 / ""' -^ = 4 /
The possible frequencies are a lowest value v/4l and the odd multiples
of this lowest frequency. Only odd harmonics are present and the
first overtone is the third harmonic.
For an air column that is open at both ends there must be an
antinode at each end (Fig. 6). In a the length is one-half wavelength
/ =I X = 2/
In b the length is two half wavelengths and in c three half wavelengths.
As in the case of the vibrating string a lowest frequency and all its
multiples are possible.
SOUND WAVES 333
I n each vibrating body whether string, air column, rod, plate,
bell, or other body a set of nodes and antinodes are present in the
body.
Refraction of Sound. In a uniform medium at rest sound travels
with constant speed in all directions. If, however, the medium is not
uniform, the sound will not spread out uniformly but the direction
of travel changes because the speed is greater in one part of the
mediimi. T h e bending of sound due to change of speed is called
refraction.
T h e spreading of sound in the open air is an example of this effect.
If the air were at rest and at a uniform temperature throughout, the
I SOUND
H/ARMSURFACB
(O)
SOUND
COLD SURFACE
(b)
F I G . 7.—Refraction of sound due to temperature difference.
sound would travel uniformly in all directions. Rarely, if ever, does

this condition exist, for the air is seldom at rest and almost never is
the temperature uniform. O n a clear summer day the surface of the
earth is heated and the air immediately adjacent to the surface has a
much higher temperature than do the layers above. Since the speed
of sound increases as the temperature rises, the sound travels faster
near the surface than it does at higher levels. As a result of this differ-
ence in speed the wave is bent away from the surface, as shown in
Fig. la. T o an observer on the surface, sound does not seem to travel
very far on such a day since it is deflected away from him.
O n a clear night the ground cools more rapidly than the air above,
hence the layer of air adjacent to the ground may become cooler than
that at a higher level. As a result of this condition sound travels faster
at the higher level than at the lower level and consequently is bent
downward, as shown in Fig. lb. Since the sound comes down to the
surface, it seems to travel greatqr distances than at other times.
Wind is also a factor in refraction of sound. In discussing the speed «•
of sound in air, we assume that the air is stationary. If the air is
moving, sound travels through the moving medium with its usual
speed relative to the air but its speed relative to the grovmd is increased
or decreased by the amount of the speed of the air, depending upon
whether the air is moving in the same direction as the sound or in
the opposite direction. If the air speed is different at various levels,
the direction of travel of soiind is changed, as shown in Fig. 8. Friction
m/vo
W/ND
Fio. 8.—Refraction of sound due to wind.
causes the wind speed to be lower at the surface than at a higher

level, hence sound traveling against the wind is bent upward and
leaves the surface while that traveling with the wind is bent down-
ward. As a result, the observer on the surface reports that sound travels
farther with the wind than against the wind.
Combinations of the two phenomena just discussed may cause
some effects that seem very peculiar. Sound may carry over a moun-
tain and be heard on the other side while similar sounds are not
transmitted in the opposite direction. Frequently sound "skips"-a
region, that I's, it is audible near the source and also at a considerable
distance but at intermediate distances it is not audible. Such an effect
is quite troublesome in the operation of such devices as foghorns.
Refraction effects increase the difficulties in locating airplanes, guns,
or submarines by means of sound waves.
SOUND WAVES 335
Reflection of Sound Waves. Sound waves are reflected from
surfaces such as walls, mountains, clouds, or the ground. A sound is
seldom heard without accompanying reflections, especially inside a
building where the walls and furniture supply the reflecting surfaces.
The "rolling" of thunder is largely due to successive reflections from
clouds and land surfaces.
The ear is able to distinguish two sounds as separate only if they
reach it at least 0.1 sec apart; otherwise, they blend in the hearing
mechanism to give the impression of a single sound. If a sound of
short duration is reflected back to the observer after 0.1 sec or more,
he hears it as a repetition of the original sound, an echo. In order that
an echo may occur, the reflecting surface must be at least 55 ft away,
since sound, traveling at a speed
of 1100 ft/sec, will go the 110 ft
from the observer to the reflector
and back in 0.1 sec.
Use is made of the reflection of
sound waves in ^& fathometer, an
instrument for determining ocean RECEIiÊR
depths '(Fig. 9). A sound pulse is
sent out under water from a ship.
After being reflected from the sea
bottom, the sound is detected by
' yJavj{ J^./-* W^—"W
an u n d e r w a t e r receiver also
FIG. 9.—Measuring ocean depth by
mounted on the ship, and the time means of a fathometer,
interval is recorded by a special
device. If the elapsed time and the speed of sound in water are known,
the depth of the sea at that point can be computed. Measure-
ments may thus be made almost continuously as the ship moves
along.
Sound waves may be reflected from curved surfaces for the pur-
pose of making more energy travel in a desired direction, thus making
the sound more readily audible at a distance. The curved sounding
board placed behind a speaker in an auditorium throws forward some
of the sound waves that otherwise would spread in various directions
and be lost to the audience. In the same way, a horn may be used
to collect sound waves and convey their energy to an ear or other
detector.
Interference of Waves; Beats. Whenever two wave motions pass

through a single region at the same time, the motion of the particles
in the medium will be the result of the combined disturbances of the
two sets of waves. The effects due to the combined action of the two
sets of waves are known in general as interference and are important in
all types of wave motion.
If a shrill whistle is blown continuously in a room whose walls
are good reflectors of sound, an observer moving about the room will
notice that the sound is exceptionally loud at certain points and un-
usually faint at others. At places where a compression of the reflected
FIG. 10.—Two waves of different frequency combined to cause beats.

1
wave arrives at the same time as a compression of the direct wave

their effects add together and the sound is loud; at other places where
a rarefaction of one wave arrives with a compression of the other their
effects partly or wholly cancel and the sound is faint.
Contrasted with the phenomenon of interference in space, we may
have two sets of sound waves of slightly different frequency sent through
the air at the same time. An observer will noje a regular swelling and
fading of the sound, a phenomenon called beats. Since the compressions
and rarefactions are spaced farther apart in one set of waves than in the
other, at one instant two compressions arrive together at the ear of the
observer and,the sound is loud. A little later a conipression-of one
set of waves arrives with the rarefaction of the other and the sound is
.faint. The number of beats occurring each second is equal to the
SOUND W A V E S 337
difference of the two frequencies. Thus, in Fig. 10, two sets of waves
of frequency 10 vib/sec and 12 vib/sec, respectively, combine a n d
give a resultant sound wave that fluctuates in amplitude 12 minus 10,
or 2 times per second. Beats are readily demonstrated by sounding
identical tuning forks, one of which has been loaded by placing a bit
of soft wax on one prong, thus slightly reducing the frequency of this
fork.
Absorption of Sound. As a wave motion passes through a
medium, some of the regular motion of particles in the wave motion
is converted into irregular motion (heat). This constitutes absorption
of energy from the wave. In some materials there is very little absorp-
tion of sound as it passes through, in others the absorption is large.
Porous materials, such as hair felt, are good absorbers of sound, since
much of the energy is changed to heat energy in the pores. Whenever
it is necessary to reduce the sound transmitted through walls or floors
or that reflected from walls, a material should be used that is a good
absorber. Rugs, draperies, porous plasters, felts, and other porous
materials are used for this purpose.
Doppler's Principle of Frequency Shift. Anyone who has
stood tiy the track and heard the bell or vyhistle of a passing train or
who has listened to the horn of a passing automobile may have
noticed the remarkable fall in pitch that occurs as the source of sound
passes him. It is the relative motion of the source of sound and the
observer that causes this change in pitch. Doppler (1845) clarified the
principles underlying this effect for sound. T h e Doppler effect can
occur in any wave motion, and indeed it leads to particularly im-
portant consequences in the study of light.
T h e relative motion responsible for the Doppler effect may be
produced by motion of the sound source or by motion of the observer
(or by both). If source and observer approach each other, the ap-
parent frequency is increased while if they recede from each other
it is decreased.
SUMMARY
Sound is a disturbance of the type capable of being detected by the
ear. It is produced by the vibration of some material body.
Sound is transmitted through air or any other material in the form
of longitudinal (compressional) waves.
The speed of sound waves in air at ordinary temperatures is about

1100 ft/sec. The speed of sound in a gas depends on the particular g'As
and the temperature. It is independent of pressure and frequency.
^ = \ d
T h e speed of sound in a gas is proportional to the square root of

the absolute temperature. ^
T h e increase in loudness when a source of sound is coupled to a

body of the same natural frequency is the result of resonance.
Bodies may vibrate in such a m a n n e r that there is a fundamental
frequency and certain overtones. T h e fundamental and its overtones
are called harmonics.
A sound wave may be refracted if the speed is not the same in all
parts of the medium or if parts of the medium are moving. It may
also be refracted as it passes from one medium to* another.
An echo occurs when a reflected sound wave returns to the observer
0.1 sec or more after the original wave reaches him, so that a distinct
repetition of the original sound is perceived.
T w o sets of waves of the same frequency may mutually reinforce
or cancel each other at a given place. This is called interference.
Beats occur when two sources of slightly different frequency are
sounded at the same time. T h e resultant sound periodically rises and
falls in intensity as the waves alternately reinforce and cancel each
other.
Absorption occurs when the regular motion of the particles in a
wave is converted into irregular motion (heat).
The apparent frequency of a source of sound is changed if there
is relative motion between source and observer. It is raised when
source and observer approach, lowered if they recede.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain how the distance, in miles, of a thunder,storm may be found approxi-
mately by counting the number of seconds elapsing between the flash of lightning
and the arrival of the sound of the thunder and dividing the result by five.
SOUND WAVES 339
2. Explain why stroking the tip of a fingernail across a linen book cover produces
a musical tone.
3. Why does the speed of a sound wave in a gas change with temperature?
4. (a) If a person inhales hydrogen and then speaks, how will the characteristics
of his voice be changed? (b) How would the situation be changed if carbon dioxide
were used?
5. Why does sound travel faster in solids than in gases?
6. Is it true that we can hear better on a cool, damp day than on a hot, dry day?
Explain.
7. How can the energy of a sound wave be brought to a focus?
8. In Statuary Hall of the Capitol at Washington, a person standing a few feet
from the wall can hear the whispering of another person who stands facing the wall
at the corresponding point on the opposite side, 50 ft away. At points between, the
sound is not heard. Explain.
9. Give some common examples of sympathetic vibrations.
10. Explain the vibration of an organ pipe.
11. Mention some illustrations of the importance of resonance in musical instru-
ments. ,
12. Explain how windows may be broken by an explosion several miles away.
FIG. 11.—Doppler's principle of frequency shift.

1
13. From a consideration of Fig. 11a, show that the apparent frequency/' of a
source moving with speed v^ toward a stationary receiver is
/' = (-^)f
where ô is the speed of sound.
14. Show that for an observer moving with speed Vr away from a stationary
sound source (Fig. H i ) the apparent frequency is
PROBLEMS
1. The sound of the firing of a gun is heard by an observer 6.0 sec after the flash
of the gun is seen. Calculate the distance from the gun to the observer. Temperature
is 20°C.
2. A stone is dropped into a mine shaft.400 ft deep. How much later will the
impact be heard? Ans. 5.4 sec
3. Thunder was heard 2.0 sec after the lightning. If the temperature was 24°C,
how far away was the lightning?
4. A plane flies east through clouds at 250 mi/hr at a height of 8000 ft. At a
certain instant the sound of the plane appears to an observer on the ground to come
from a point directly overhead. What is the approximate position of the plane?
Ans. 2700 ft east of observer
5. If the earth's atmosphere extended uniformly as far as the moon, how long
would it take sound to travel that distance? Take the distance to be 240,000 mi, and
use 1100 ft/sec as the speed of sound. What actually happens to a sound in the earth's
atmosphere?
6. A column of men 550 ft long keeps in step with a drum carried by the first
man. If the men take 120 steps per minute, by how much is the last man out of step
with the first man? ' Ans. 1 step
7. In foggy weather a lighthouse sends sound signals simultaneously under water
(0°C) and through the air (10°C). A vessel is 1000 m from the lighthouse. How much
later does one signal arrive than the other?
8. The sound of the torpedoing of a ship is received by the underwater detector
of a patrol vessel 18 sec before it is heard through the air. How far away was the ship?
Take the speed of sound in sea water to be 4800 ft/sec. Ans. 4.8 mi
9. A depth-measuring device emits a signal of frequency 36,000 vib/sec in water.
The sound impulse is reflected from the ocean bed and returned to the device 0.60 sec
after the signal is emitted, (a) What is the depth of the water? (b) What is .the wave-
length of the sound in water? (c) What is the frequency of the sound wave in air?
(d) What is the wavelength of the sound wave in air?
10. A track worker pounds on a steel rail at the rate of one blow per second. A
flagman some distance up the line hears the sound through the rails at the same instant
that he hears the previous blow through the air. How far away is he? Ans. 1180 ft
11. A boat approaches a high vertical cliff. When'the Anchor is dropped an echo
is heard 1.5 sec later. How far is the boat from the cliff?
12. The density of oxygen is 16 times that of hydrogen. For both 7 = 1.40. If the
speed of sound is 1041 ft/sec in oxygen at 0°C, what is the speed in hydrogen?
Ans: 4160 ft/sec
13. By means of Eq. (3) verify the statement that the speed of sound in air in-
creases about 2 ft/sec for each centigrade degree rise in temperature from 0°C.
14. It is desired to determine indirectly the temperature of the interior of a
hydrogen-filled experimental furnace by measuring the speed of sound v in it,
using the relation vo/v = •\fT^[T where ,»o = 1270 m/sec when To = 273°K.
If V is measured as 3810 m/sec + 3%, what is the uncertainty in the calculated value
of the furnace temperature? Ans. ± 147°C
15. What will be the wavelength in air of the note emitted by a string vibrating at
440 vib/sec when the temperature is 59°F? r
16. (a) Compute the frequency of the tone produced when air is blown through
the holes in a rotating disk if there are 20 holes and the disk is turning at the rate of
SOUND WAVES 341
1800 rev/min. (b) What is the wavelength of this sound in air when the speed of
sound is 1120 ft/sec? Ans. 600 vib/sec; 1.87 ft
17. The end of a rod, which is vibrating at a rate of 190 vib/sec, touches the sur-
face of water. The distance between the successive ripples thus produced is 5.0 cm.
With what speed do the ripples travel over the surface of the water?
18. A tuning fork vibrates 200 times per second and sends out a compressional
wave that travels with a speed of 1100 ft/sec. Find (a) the period and {b) the wave-
length. Ans. 0.00500 sec; 5.50 ft
19. A voice-recording machine consists of a wax cylinder 6.0 in. in circumference
which rotates at a uniform speed of 2.0 rev/sec and a needle which makes a sound
track in the wax. If the needle makes a depression in the wax 0.01 in. deep every
0.10 in., what is the corresponding frequency of the sound?
20. An experimenter connects two rubber tubes to a box containing an elec-
trically driven tuning fork and holds the other ends of the tubes to his ear. One tube
is gradually made longer than the other, and when the difference in length is 7.0 in.
the sound he perceives is a minimum. What is the frequency of the fork? (Use v =
1100 ft/sec.) Ans. 940 vib/sec
21. A musical instrument produces a fundamental tone C = 264 vib/sec. Assum-
ing the speed of sound to be 336 m/sec, what is the shortest closed tube that will
resonate to the first overtone (secoisj harmonic) C emitted by the instrument?
22. An electrically driven tuning fork is mounted vertically. A horizontal string
of mass 1.50 gm/m has one end attached to a prong of the fork, and a stretching
force of 1,025 gm is applied to the other end of the string. The string, 215 cm long, is
observed to vibrate in two segments. What is the frequency of the fork if it makes two
vibrations for each complete vibration of the string? Ans. 76 vib/sec
23. A sounding tuning fork is held over a vertical glass tube into which water is
slowly poured. The shortest column of air in the tube which produces resonance is
found to be 6.0 in. (a) What is the wavelength of the sound produced by the fork?
(b) What is the frequency of the tuning fork?
24. A pipe open at one end is closed at the other end by a movable plunger. A
vibrating rod is held near the open end. The air column resonates when the plunger
is at any of several positions spaced 11.0 cm apart. The velocity of sound in air is
333 m/sec at the temperature of observation. What is the frequency of vibration of
the rod? Ans. 1510 vib/sec
25. A signaling bell produces a tone of 440 vib/sec. A resonance tube closed at
one end is used to reinforce the sound, (a) What is the wavelength of the sound pro-
duced by the bell? (6) What is the length of the resonant air column in the closed
tube?
26. A brass wire of density 8.5 gm/cm^ and diameter 0.040 cm is stretched be-
tween two clamps 100 cm apart while subjected to an extension of 0.050 cm. What
is the lowest frequency of transverse vibrations in the wire, assuming Young's modulus
for the brass to be 9.0 X 10^' dynes/cm^? Ans. 36 vib/sec
27. What is the approximate number of octaves in the frequency range to which
the normal human ear responds?
28. An electrically-driven tuning fork is mounted vertically so that its prongs
vibrate along the attached string. A horizontal string of mass 1.50 gm/m has one end
attached to a prong of the fork and a stretching force due to a 1050-gm suspended
body is applied to the string at the other support, 215 cm away. The string is observed
to vibrate in four segments. What is the frequency of the fork? Ans. 152/sec
29. When a sound wave enters a medium of different acoustical density, its
speed changes, but the frequency remains constant. What will be the change in wave-
length when sound of frequency 1000/sec passes from air into carbon dioxide?
30. The prong of a tuning fork vibrates 50.0 times per second in a direction at
right angles to a string attached to the prong, causing the string to vibrate in one
segment when it is under the tension supplied by a 400-gm body suspended at the
other end. (a) What stretching force would be needed to give four segments in the
vibrating string? (6) What would be the stretching force and frequency of the string
if it were vibrating in one segment when attached to the fork at right angles to the
prong? Ans. 24,500 dynes; 98,000 dynes; 25/sec
31. Calculate the displacement, speed, and acceleration of a particle executing
simple harmonic motion of frequency 180/min, amplitude 15 mm, and having a
phase of 30° with respect to the equilibrium position.
32. (a) What is the period of a harmonic motion in which the displacement is
7.07 mm 0.200 sec after the particle passes through the equilibrium position, if the
amplitude of the motion is 1.00 cm? {b) What is the acceleration at this instant?
(c) What is the maximum speed of the particle?
Ans. 1.60 sec; 10.9 cm/sec^; 3.93 cm/sec
33. Calculate the displacement, speed, and acceleration for a particle in a sound
wave when its displacement is equal to one-fourth the wavelength, the time is zero,
the amplitude 1.00 X 10~^ cm, the wavelength 34.5 cm, and the period 1000
microseconds.
34. Calculate the tension in a stretched cord which is vibrating with a frequency
whose third overtone is equal to the frequency of the second overtone produced
when the tension is 12 lb. Ans. 6.8 lb
35. Calculate the tension in a stretched string when the frequency of the funda-
mental vibration equals the frequency of the second overtone when the tension is
4.96 X 10» dynes.
* ^
^^
, • *
u /
BORN IN COPENHAGEN, DENMARK. DIRECTOR, INSTITUTE FOR

THEORETICAL PHYSICS, COPENHAGEN. THE 1 9 2 2 NOBEL PRIZE
FOR PHYSICS WAS CONFERRED ON BOHR FOR THE VALUE OF HIS
STUDY OF THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS AND OF THE RADIATION
EMANATING FROM THEM.
26. Acoustics
The science of acoustics includes the production and transmission of
sound and their relation to our sense of hearing. We have already
discussed problems in production and transmission of sound and are
now primarily interested in these phenomena in so far as they affect
our sense of hearing.
The hearing mechanism is able to receive compressional waves
343
within the range to which it is sensitive and to convert the stimulus
into a sensation of hearing. T h e ear is able to analyze the waves that
come to it, distinguishing between two or more sounds that arrive
simultaneously when the sounds differ in one or more of the charac-
teristics: pitchy quality (timbre), and loudness. Each of these character-
istics is closely associated with the physical characteristics of the sound
wave that comes to the ear. Pitch is primarily associated withfrequency,
quality with the complexity of the wave, and loudness with the rate at
which energy is transmitted to the ear. These are the principal associ-
ations between characteristics of sound and those of the waves. How-
ever, each of the three sound characteristics depends to a lirhited
extent upon the other two physical characteristics not primarily re-
lated to it.
Not all compressional waves are able to excite the sensation of
hearing. Some waves may not transmit sufficient energy to excite the
sensation although this threshold is remarkably low. Others may
transmit too much energy and the sensation becomes one of pain
rather than one of sound. If the frequency is too low, no sensation
of sound is produced but one can feel the changes in pressure. O n
the other hand, if the frequency is too high, no sensation of sound is
produced. It is possible to detect these high-frequency waves by means
other than the ear and extensive studies of them have been made.
These waves are called supersonic waves.
Musical Tones; Noise. As the compressions and rarefactions cf
the longitudinal wave come to the ear, they produce the sensation of
sound but not necessarily a musical tone.
T h e sensation that we describe as a musical
tone is produced by* a regular succession of
compressions and the following rarefactions
coming to the ear. If, however, the com-
pressions are irregularly spaced, the sensa-
tion produced Is not a musical tone b u t a
noise. If a jet of air is directed toward the
outer^ ring of holes in the disk shown
FIG. 1. A siren disk. [^ îg. 1, a regular succession of puffs
of air will come through the holes as the disk is rotated. A, sound
wave is produced that will give rise to a musical tone. If the air jet is
directed toward the inner pircle where the holes are irregularly spaced,
ACOUSTICS 345
*
a noise is produced. Sounds of such short duration that the ear is
unable to distinguish a regular succession of pulses are also classed
as noises. Such sounds as that produced by a rifle shot or a sharp
blow on a table top with a ruler are in this class of noise. There is no
sharp dividing line between musical tone and noise. When a single
small piece of wood is dropped on the table, there is little evidence
of tone, b u t -when a succession of sticks of varying lengths is dropped
one after the other, the ear readily detects the variation in sound.
Sometimes noise is defined as any undesired sound, musical or other-
wise. I n contrast, that which we have called noise in the paragraph
above is referred to as an unpitched sound.
Pitch and Frequency. Pitch is the characteristic of sound by
which the ear assigns it a place in a musical scale. T h e ear assigns
such a place to each musical tone b u t not to a noise. When a stretched
string is plucked, sound is produced which causes a given pitch sensa-
tion. If the tension in the string is increased, the pitch becomes higher.
We have found that increasing the tension in a string increases its
frequency of vibration. T h e physical characteristic associated with
pitch is the frequency of the sound wave.
T h e range of frequency to which the h u m a n ear is sensitive varies
considerably with the individual. For the average normal ear, it is
from 20 to 20,000 vib/sec. These limits are determined by testing a
large number of seemingly normal individuals. T h e upper limit de-
creases, in general, as the age of the individual increases.
T h e satisfactory reproduction of speech and music does not re-
quire a range of frequencies as great as that to which the ear is sensi-
tive. T o have perfect fidelity of reproduction a range from 100 to
8000 vib/sec is required for speech and from 40 to 14,000 vib/sec for
orchestral music.
T h e frequency range of most sound-reproducing systems, such as
radio, telephone, and phonograph, is considerably less than that of
the hearing range of the ear. A good radio transmitter and receiver
in the broadcast band will cover the range from 40 to 8000 vib/sec.
This limited range allows it to reproduce speech faithfully but it does
detract from the quality of orchestral music. If the frequency range
is further restricted, the quality of reproduction is correspondingly
reduced.
Although pitch is associated principally with frequency, other fac-
tors also influence the sensation. Increase in intensity of the sound
causes a decrease in pitch for a fixed frequency, especially at low fre-
quencies. T h e complexity of the sound wave also influences pitch.
Quality and Complexity. It is a fact of experience that a tone
of a given pitch sounded on the
piano is easily distinguished from
one of exactly the same pitch
sounded, for example, on the clari-
net. The difference in the two tones
FIG. 2.—When pressure is plotted is said to be one of tone quality. This
against time for a sound wave of a characteristic of sound is associated
single frequency, a simple sine curve is
obtained. with the complexity of the sound
wave that arrives at the ear.
We have found (Chap. 25) that sound waves are produced by
vibrating bodies. In a few cases the body vibrates with a single fre-
quency but most bodies vibrate in a very complex manner. T h e
sound wave that is sent out from such a vibrating body is a combina-
tion of all the frequencies present in the vibration. If we plot a curve
of change in pressure (that is, difference between the pressure in the
wave and the normal pressure in the air) against time for the wave"
PIG. 3.—Compounding of two simple waves a and b to form a complex wave c.
sent out by a tuning fork, the curve is that shpwn in Fig. 2. Since
the tuning fork vibrates with only a single freqjaency, the curve is a
simple sine curve whose fre-quency is the same as that of the fork.
If a second fork whose' frequency is three times as great as the first
but amplitude only half as great is sounded with the first, the two
waves combine as shown in Fig. 3. The pressure at each point is the
algebraic sum of the individual pressures. 'By adding the ordinates of
a and b at every point, we get the ordinate'of the complex wave c.
ACOUSTICS 347
Every body that vibrates with more than one frequency sends out
a complex wave. The complexity, which determines the quality of
the sound, is controlled by the number and relative intensity of the
overtones that are present. A "pure" tone (no overtones) may not
V? 500 WOO 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

PIANO C" FREQUENCY
u 500 1000 ISOO 2000 2500 3000 3S00

CLARINET C' FREQUENCY
FIG. 4.—Wave forms and frequency distribution in sounds produced by musical
instruments.
be as pleasing as the "rich" tone of a violin, which contains ten or

more overtones. Any complex wave can be resolved into a number of
simple waves. The more complex the wave, the greater is the number
of overtones that contribute to it.
In Fig. 4 are shown the wave forms of sound produced by differ-
ent instruments. Such representations of the wave forms can be pro-
FiG. 5.—Schematic diagram of a Phonodeik.
duced either photomechanically or electrically. The former is the

simplest in construction of apparatus but the latter is now more con-
venient. The mechanical instrument developed by D. C. Miller
(1866-1940) is called the Phonodeik. It is shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 5. The sensitive receiver is a diaphragm placed at the end of a
horn. A very fine thread is attached to the center of the diaphragm,

passed once around a spindle S, a n d fastened to a spring to keep it
taut. A very Hght mirror M is attached to the spindle so that it rotates
with the spindle. Light from a pinhole P falls on the mirror, is reflected,
and focused on a film that moves with uniform speed. As the pressure
at the diaphragm varies the diaphragm moves in and out making the
mirror turn. T h e spot of light therefore moves up and down in accord-
ance with the pressure changes a n d traces a record on a moving
photographic film.
It is now more convenient to use an electrical oscilloscope to ob-
tain similar records. The sound wave is received by a microphone,
which converts the pressure changes into electrical impulses. These
in turn are amplified and cause motion of a spot on a sensitive screen
to make a record of the wave form.
Loudness and Intensity. T h e loudness of a sound is the magni-
tude of the auditory sensation produced by the sound. The associated
physical quantity, intensity, refers to the rate at which sound energy
flows through unit area. Intensity may also be expressed in terms of
the changes in pressure, since, the rate of flow of energy is propor-
tional to the square of the pressure change.
T h e loudness of sound depends upon both intensity and frequency.
For a given frequency an increase in intensity produces an increase in
loudness b u t the sensitivity of the ear is so different in the various fre-
quency ranges that equal intensities produce far different sensations
in the different regions. In Fig. 6 is shown a diagram giving the rela-
tions between frequency, intensity, and hearing: Intensities below the
line indicating the threshold of hearing are insufficient to produce
any sensation of hearing. The curve indicates that the normal ear is
most sensitive in the frequency range 2000 to 4000 vib/sec, that is,
in this range it requires the least energy to cause a sensation of sound.
T h e intensity necessary for hearing in the regions near the high and
low limits of audibility is many times as great as that necessary in
the region of greatest sensitivity.
T h e smooth threshold curve, represents the average of many indi-
viduals. For a single person the curve would not be smooth b u t would
show numerous dips and peaks. T h e threshold curvetin Fig. 6 -is one
for the most sensitive ears. Of a large group tested only 1 per cent
were able to hear sounds of intensity less than this threshold. T h e
ACOUSTICS 349
broken line indicates thresholds below which 50 per cent of the group
were unable to hear.
If the intensity becomes too great, the sensation becomes one of
feeling or pain rather than of hearing. This is indicated by the upper
curve showing the threshold of feeling. Only in the region of intensity
and frequency bounded by the two curves is there a sensation of
hearing.
In the region of maximum sensitivity, the ear is able to hear
sounds over an extremely wide range of intensity. At the threshold
of audibility the intensity at the ear is almost unbelievably small,
1 1 1. 1 1 -
10 •* 120 , 1 LIN j
^—/nf tc bhOL0 01- <-tt ^ ^ 200
1 1
10'^ V, 100
1 120
1
\
\
2
1
I ^
t
\ 1 <5>
\1 10.2
^ K f
\, • ^
|3 X
1 y^
0.02 %
% > / 50% 1 S;
Q-
<^ "^^^ - , >
0.002
^^
'M ^^ // y/%
10''" 0 ^ 0.0002
20 100 mo lOflOO
FREQUENCY
FIG. 6.—Limits of audibility. Only within the region of frequency and intensity
enclosed by the curves is the sensation of sound excited.
about 10""^^ watt/cm^. At the threshold of feeling, the maximum in-
tensity that me ear records as sound is about 10""^ watt/cm^. The
maximum intensity in this range is thus a thousand billion times the
minimum. The sensitivity of the ear to pressure changes is very great.
At the threshold of audibility the pressure in the wave varies from
normal only by about 0.0002 dyne/cm^, and for the most intense
sounds by about 200 dynes/cm^. For the most intense sounds the
pressure change is about a million times as great as for the least intense.
In a sound wave the particles of air that take part in the vibra-
tion move neither far nor fast. Using Eq. (10), Chap. 24, we can cal
culate the amplitude of the particles at a moderate frequency, say
2000 vib/sec. For the most intense sounds (threshold of feeling) the
displacement is only about 5.4 X 10~^ cm, while at the threshold of

hearing it is about a millionth of this value. The corresponding maxi-
mum speed calculated from simple harmonic motion is about 68
cm/sec.
The measurement of loudness is important for practical purposes
but is a difficult one to achieve. There is an approximate law of psy-
chology, which states that the magnitude of a sensation is propor-
tional to the logarithm of the intensity.
S = logj (1)
where S represents the magnitude of the sensation' (for sound loud-
ness), / the intensity, and /o the intensity at a reference level. This
law is called the Weber-Fechner law. It does not exactly represent
the relationship between loudness and intensity for sound, but is a
fair approximation for pure tones at most frequencies. For complex
notes, however, there is no simple relationship. If, in place of the
sensation S, we use intensity level a,
« = log f . (2)
There is a gain of one unit in intensity level when the actual power
of the second sound is 10 times as great as the first. Hence it is now
customary to state the differences in the intensity levels of two sounds
as the exponent of 10, which gives the ratio of the powers. This expo-
nent is called the bel, in honor of Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922),
whose researches in sound are famous. If one sound has 10 times as
much power as a second sound of the same frequency, the difference
in their intensity levels is 1 bel. The bel is an inconveniently large unit
and hence the decibel (0.1 bel) is the unit that is generally used in
practice. A 26 per cent change in intensity alters the level by 1 db
(decibel). This is practically the smallest change in energy level that
the ear can ordinarily detect. Under the best laboratory conditions a
10 per cent (0.4 db). change is detectable.
Intensity "level is measured from an arbitrarily chosen intensity.
An intensity of 10~'" microwatts/cm^ is chosen as a zero level or 0 db. It
is roughly the intensity of the threshold of audibility for tones beiween
500 and 2500/sec. The intensity levels of familiar sovmds are given in
Table I.
ACOUSTICS 351
TABLE I. INTENSITY LEVELS O F CERTAIN SOUNDS

Decibels
Barely audible sound 0
Calm evening in country 10
Ordinary conversation 60
Trolley car 80
Boiler factory 100
Threshold of pain 120
For any disturbance carried by waves spreading uniformly In all
directions in space, the intensity is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance from the source. Thus at a point 3 yd from a small
source of sound, the intensity will be one-ninth (H^) of its value at a
distance of 1 yd. If the source of sound is not small the intensity
decreases less rapidly than predicted by the inverse square law. Also
in actual practice, reflected sounds ûally contribute to the intensity,
especially indoors.
Example: At what rate must a small source of sound emit energy if the intensity
12 m away is to be 4.5 microwatts/cm^ Neglect reflections.
The energy is spread over the surface of a sphere 12 m in radius. The area is
A = Arr^ = 4x(1200 cm)^ = 18 X 10" cm^
watt
P = IA = 4.5 X 10-6 X 18 X lO^cm^ = 82 watts
The Ear. The ear is essentially a machine which transmits and

magnifies the pressure changes which come to it in sound waves. It
consists of three sections, the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner
ear (Fig. 7). The outer section consists of the external ear or pinna
and the canal. The canal is separated from the middle ear by a mem-
brane called the ear drum T. In the middle ear are three small bones,
the hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup, which transmit the pressure
changes to the inner ear. The hammer is attached to the ear drum, the
stirrup to a membrane 0 that separates the middle and inner ear.
The three bones make up a system of levers that is so arranged as to
increase the force. In addition, the area of the stirrup bearing on the
membrane at the inner ear is much smaller than the ear drum. By
these means the pressure changes are increased 30 to 60 times. The
inner ear is filled with liquid. The semicircular canals S are organs of
balance and take no part in hearing. The cochlea C is really the end
organ of hearing where the nerve enters. Here the pressure changes in
vibrations excite the sensation of sound.
It is possible for sound vibrations to by-pass the outer and middle
ear and be conducted through the bone directly to the inner ear.
One type of hearing aid is designed to make use of such bone trans-
mission. Others are amplifiers that increase the energy that reaches
the ear drum.
FIG. 7.—Diagram of the ear. The parts of the ear are not drawn to scale.
Voice Sounds. Voice sounds are formed by passage of air

through the vocal cords, lips, and teeth. As the air stream passes
through the vocal cords, they are set in vibration. The cavities of the
nose and throat impress resonant characteristics on these vibrations
to produce speech sounds. All the vowel sounds and some of the con-
sonant sounds are produced in this manner. Other sounds called un-
e as in eat
" 2S6
1 1
11 1 1
500 WOO 1500
12000 2500
FREQUENCY
1
3000
•
3500
140001 4500
FIG. 8.—^Frequency chart for a vowel sound.
voiced soimds, for example, f, s, th, sh, t, and k are produced by.
passage of air over the teeth and tongue without use of the vocal
cords. Voiced consonants, such as b, d, g, j , v, and z, are combina-
tions of the two processes.
The various- vowel sounds are made by changing the shape of the
resonant chamber so that different frequencies are enhanced. Each of
ACOUSTICS 353
the vowel sounds has certain characteristic frequency groups as shown
in the frequency chart in Fig. 8 and in Table I I .
TABLE II. CHARACTERISTIC FREQUENCIES OF VOWEL SOUNDS
Vowel sound High frequency
a (tape). 2100
a (father) 1200
e (eat) . . 2400
e (ten). . 1900
i (tip). . . 2200
o (tone). 850
u (pool). 800
The values given are average values and there is considerable vari-
ation for different individuals and for a single individual at different
times. If one of these speech sounds is passed through a sound filter
that absorbs frequencies in the neighborhood of one of the charac-
teristic frequencies, the vowel sound is no longer recognizable.
Musical Scales, T h e simplest music consists of a succession of
musical tones of the same or different pitches. This constitutes a
melody. Any succession of pitches can be chosen b u t it is found that
the effect is most pleasing if the ratio of the frequencies of succeeding
tones is a ratio of small integers. By use of this fact we construct a
musical scale a n d in the melody only frequencies that appear in the
scale are used.
T w o tones sounded in succession or together constitute an interval.
T h e ear recognizes intervals in the musical scale by ratios of fre-
quencies rather t h a n by differences in frequency. T h e interval be-
tween frequencies 600 a n d 1200/sec is the same as the interval
between 150 a n d 300/sec since the ratio in each case is ^f. This is
the simplest ratio other than J-f. Other simple ratios used in our
common musical s c a l e n e %, fi, %, ^-i, %, and i^^.
A Diafonic Scale. A diatonic scale is naade u p of eight notes,
which have frequencies such that the intervals between the first note
and the others are those just given. T h e frequency of the first note
may be chosen arbitrarily. The others are then fixed. Suppose middle
C on the piano is fixed at 256 vib/sec. T h e n , the frequencies a n d
intervals are those given in Table I I I .
TABLE III. FREQUENCIES AND INTERVALS IN THE DIATONIC SCALE
Note. D B c
Frequency, scientific pitch. . . . 256 288 •320 341 384 427 480 512
concert pitch 264 297 330 352 396 440 495 528
Ratio to C 1 %4 2
Ratio to preceding frequency. 9^
1K5
5
Triads.
(6)
We note that there are three intervals between successive notes,

% the major tone, ^% the minor tone, and ^^{5 the semitone. In-
tervals between the basic frequency and the other frequencies are
also given names. Since the ratio î occurs at the eighth note this
interval is called the octave. Similarly, the ratio ^^ is called the major
third, j'i the fourth, % the major fifth, and î the major sixth.
The ear recognizes as harmonious three notes when the frequencies
are proportional to the three numbers, 4, 5, and 6. This combination
is called a major triad. The diatonic scale is made up of three major
triads as indicated in Table III.
Consonance and Dissonance. When two notes are sounded
together or consecutively, they seem pleasing if the interval is a
simple ratio. Such a combination is a consonance. All other combina-
tions are dissonances. There is no sure test as to whether the ratio of
frequencies is "simple" since the decision depends upon the past
training of the observer. What seems dissonance to one observer may
seem consonance to another.
Dissonances appear when beat frequencies between about 10 and
50 are formed as the two notes are sounded together. The beat fre-
quency may be formed by the fundamental frequencies or by anj>
pair of overtones present in the complex tones. Dissonances thus will
not be present in pure tones except at low frequencies. Consonance'
represents the absence of dissonance.
Evenly Tempered Scale. The intervals of the diatonic scale are
larger than is desirable in much music. However, if we try to -split
the larger intervals by semitones, it is not possible to find a single
frequency that will divide the interval satisfactorily. For example, the
ACOUSTICS 355
semitone above G would not have the same frequency as the semi-
tone below A. I n other words, on this scale G* would differ from A''.
T o overcome this difficulty a scale of 12 equal intervals or semitones
is set up. If X represents the semitone interval, then (x)^^ = 2 or
X = 2^'' = 1.059 approximately. This scale of even intervals is called
the evenly tempered scale and is that actually used in music at the present
time. Bach wrote his compositions for the "well-tempered clavichord"
to demonstrate the usefulness of the evenly tempered scale in chang-
ing from one key to another. Only a very acute ear will recognize the
difference between the evenly tempered and diatonic scales. In
Table I V is a comparison of the intervals.
TABLE IV. FREQUENCY INTERVALS IN MUSICAL SCALES
Note
Db Eb Gb Ab Bb
C D E F G A B C
0* D# G*
Diatonic
interval... 1.000 1.125 1.200 1.250 1.333 1.500 1.600 1.667 1.895 2.000
Tempered
interval... 1.000 1.059 1.122 1.189 1.260 1.335 1.414 1.498 1.587 1.682 1.792 1.888 2.000
Sound Production. Any vibrating body whose frequency is

within the audible range will produce sound provided that it can
transfer to the medium enough energy to reach the threshold of
audibility. Even though this limit is reached it is frequently necessary
to amplify the sound so that it will be readily audible where the lis-
tener is stationed. For this purpose sounding boards and loud-speakers
may be used, the purpose of each being to increase the intensity
of the sound.
When a sounding board is used, the vibrations are transmitted di-
rectly to it and force it to vibrate. T h e combined vibrations are able
to impart greater energy to the air than the original vibration alone.
If the sounding board is to reproduce the vibrations faithfully, there
must be no resonant frequencies, for such resonance will change the
quality of sound produced.
T h e loud-speaker is used to increase the intensity of sound sent
out, either by electrical amplification or by resonance. Two general
types are used: the direct radiator, such as the cone loud-speaker com-
monly used in radios, and the horn type. T h e direct radiator is used
more commonly because of its simplicity and the small space required,
and is usually -combined with electrical amplification. T h e horn
speaker consists of an electrically or mechanically driven diaphragm
coupled to a horn. T h e air column of the horn produces resonance
for a very, wide range of frequencies and thus increases the intensity
of the sound emitted. T h e horn loud-speaker is particularly suitable
for large-scale public address systems.
Sound Detectors. T h e normal h u m a n ear is a remarkably
reliable and sensitive detector of sound, but for many purposes
mechanical or electrical detectors are of great use. T h e most common
of such detectors is the microphone in which the pressure variations
of the sound wave force a diaphragm to vibrate. This vibration, in
turn, is converted into a varying electric current by means of a change
of resistance or generation of an electromotive force. For true repro-
duction the response of the microphone should be uniform over the
whole frequency range. Such an ideal condition is never realized
but a well-designed instrument will approximate this response.
Microphones are used when it is necessary to reproduce, record, or
amplify sound.
Parabolic reflectors may be used as sound-gathering devices when
the intensity of sound is too small to affect the ear or other detectors
or where a highly directional effect is desired. T h e sotmd is concen-
trated at the focus of the reflector and a microphone is placed there
as a detector. Such reflectors should be large compared to the wave-
length of the sound received and hence they are not useful for low
frequencies.
Location of Sound. Although a single ear can give some
information concerning the direction of a source of sound, the use of
two ears is necessary if great accuracy is desired. T h e judgment of
direction is due to a difference between the impression received at the
two ears, these differences being d u e to the differences in loudness or
in time of arrival. This is sometimes called the bintiural effect. Certain
types of sound, locators exaggerate this effect by placing two listening •
trumpets several feet apart and connecting one to eSch ear. T h e de-
vice is then turned until it is perpendicular to the direction of the
sound. In this way the accuracy of location is increased.
Reverberation; Acoustics of Auditoriums. A sound, once
started in a room, will persist by repeated reflection from the walls
ACOUSTICS 357
until its intensity is reduced to the point where it is no longer audible.
If the walls are good reflectors of sound waves—for example, hard
plaster or marble—the sound may continue to be audible for an
appreciable tin:ie after the original sound stops. T h e repeated reflec-
tion that results in this persistence of sound is called reverberation.
In an auditorium or classroom, excessive reverberation may be
highly undesirable, for a given speech sound or musical tone will
continue to be heard by reverberation while the next sound is being
sent forth. T h e practical remedy is to cover part of the walls with
some sound-absorbent material, usually a porous substance like felt,
compressed fiberboard, rough plaster, or draperies. The regular mo-
tions of the air molecules, which constitute the sound waves, are con-
verted into irregular motions (heat) in the pores of such materials, and
consequently less sound energy is reflected.
Suppose a sound whose intensity is one million times that of the
faintest audible sound is produced in a given room. T h e time it takes
this sound to die away to inaudibility is called the reverberation time
of the room. Some reverberation is desirable, especially in concert
halls; otherwise the room sounds too " d e a d . " For a moderate-sized
auditorium the reverberation time should be of the order of 1 to 2 sec.
For a workroom or factory it should, of course, be kept to much smaller
values, as sound deadening in such cases results in greater efficiency
on the part of the workers, with much less attendant nervous strain.
T h e approximate reverberation time of a room is given by the
expression,
where T is the time in seconds, V is the volume of the room in cubic

feet, and ^kA is the total absorption of all the materials in it. T h e total
absorption is computed by multiplying the area A, in square feet,
of each kind of material in the room by its absorption coefficient k (see
Table V) and adding these products together.
T h e absorption coefficient is merely the fraction of the sound energy
that a given material will absorb at each reflection. For example, an
open window has a coefficient of 1, since all the sound that strikes it
from within the room would be lost to the room. Marble, on the other
hand, is found to have a value of 0.01, which means it absorbs only I per
cent of the sound energy at each reflection. Equation (3) usually gives
satisfactory results except for very large or very small halls, for rooms
with very large absorption, or for rooms of peculiar shape.
TABLE V. ABSORPTION COEFFICIENTS FOR SOUNDS

OF MEDIUM PITCH
Open window 1.00
Ordinary plaster, 0.034
Acoustic plasters 0.20-0.30
Carpets 0.15-0.20
Painted wood 0.03
Hair felt, 1 in. thick 0.58
Draperies 0.40-0.75
Marble 0.01
By means of Eq. (3) we can compute the amounts of absorbing

materials needed to reduce the reverberation time of a given r o o m to a
desirable value. T h e absorbing surfaces may be placed almost any-
where in the room, since the waves are bound to strike them many
times in any case. I n an auditorium,
however, they should not be located
too close to the performers.
In addition to providing the opti-
m u m amount of reverberation, the de-
signer of a n auditorium should make
certain that there are no undesirable
FIG. 9.—Ripple-tank model of effects due to regular reflection or
an auditorium showing reflections focusing of the sound waves. Curved
from the walls. surfaces of large extent should in gen-
eral be avoided, but large flat reflecting surfaces behind and at the
sides of the performers may serve to send the sound out to the audi-
ence more effectively. Dead ^ o t s , due to interference of direct
and reflected sounds, should be elinainated by proper design of the
room.
The acoustic features of the design of an auditorium may be
investigated before the striicture is built by ekperimenting with a
sectional model of the enclosure in a ripple lank (Fig. 9). In. this way
the manner in which waves originating at the stage are reflected can
be observed and defects iri the design remedied before actual con-
struction is xmdertaken.
ACOUSTICS 359
SUMMARY
Sounds differ in pitch, quality and loudness.
The pitch of a sound is associated witfi the physical characteristic
oifrequencyof vibration. The average human ear is sensitive to fre-
quencies over a range of 20 to 20,000 vib/sec.
The quality of a sound depends upon the complexity of the wave, that
is, upon the number and relative prominence of the overtones.
The loudness of sound is the magnitude of the auditory sensation.
The intensity of sound is the energy per unit area per second. For
direct sound from a small source, the intensity varies inversely as the
square of the distance from the source.
Intensity level is the logarithm of the ratio of the intensity of a sound
to an arbitrarily chosen intensity. The bel and decibel are units of in-
tensity level. One bel is the change in intensity level which represents
a tenfold ratio oi power,
a = log y-
•'0
A musical scale is a succession of tones, which bear a simple re-

lation to each other.
Reverberation is the persistence of sound in an enclosed space,
due to repeated reflection of waves. It may be reduced by distributing
sound absorbent material about the enclosure.
QUESTIONS
1. Not all compressional waves can be called sound waves. In what respects
can they differ from sound waves?
2. If two pure tones have the same frequency and amplitude can the ear distin-
guish one from the other?
3. Draw a simple wave and its first harmonic overtone along the same axis,
making the amplitude of the latter half as great as that of the fundamental. Combine
the two graphically by adding the ordinates of the two curves at a number of dif-
ferent points, remembering that the ordinates must be added algebraically. If the
resulting curve is taken to represent a complex sound wave, what feature of the
curve reveals the quality of the sound?
4. Draw a simple wave and its first harmonic overtone, making the latter 45°
out of phase with the fundamental and the amplitude half that of the fundamental.
Combine the two graphically by adding ordinates at a number of different points.
Compare the curve obtained with that of question 3. Is the wave form the same? Is
the complexity the same? Will the two combinations ordinarily be distinguishable?
5. What is the purpose of the horn that is sometimes used as a hearing aid?
6. A noise meter is calibrated in decibels. What does the meter measure?
7. What advantages has the evenly tempered scale over the diatonic scale?
8. In an auditorium with wooden seats how does the presence of a large audience
affect (a) the reverberation, (b) the average loudness of the sound?
9. Why is the absorption of sound waves an important consideration in archi-
tecture? What is the physical meaning of absorption? How is it accomplished? What
becomes of the energy of the sound wave absorbed?
PROBLEMS '
1. What are the wavelengths in air of the lowest and highest pitched sounds
that the average ear can hear?
2. What is the wavelength in air of sound to which the ear is most sensitive?
Ans. 0.36 ft
3. Calculate the amplitude in air under standard conditions of a sound wave
whose frequency is 400 per sec at (a) the threshold of audibility, (J) the threshold of
feeling.
4. Calculate the amplitude in air under standard conditions of a sound wave
whose frequency is 1200 per sec at the intensity level of ordinary speech.
Ans. 0.94 X lO-^ cm
5. The intensity level at unit distance from a small source is 50 db. Assuming
that the sound travels uniformly in all directions, what will be the intensity level at
a distance of 10 units? Neglect absorption.
6. For ordinary conversation the intensity level is given as 60 db. What is the
intensity of the wave? Ans. 10"^" watt/cm''
7. At a certain point the power received from one loud-speaker is 100 times as
great as that from a second. What is the difference in intensity level between the two
sounds at that point?
8. The first note of a diatonic scale hzis a frequency of 480 per sec. Compute the
frequencies of the other seven notes. Ans. 540, 600, 640, 720, 800,-900, 960/sec
9. Compute the frequencies of the diatonic scale based on E' as 320 per sec
What notes of this scale are common to the scale based on C as 256?
10. What is the reverberation time of a hall whose volume is 100,000 ft' and
whose total absorption is 2000 ft^? How many square feet of acoustic wall board of
absorption coefficient 0.60 should be used to cover part of the present walls (ordinary
plaster) in order to reduce the reverberation time to 2.0 sec, assurhing that Eq. (3)
holds for this hall? Ans. 2.5 sec; 880 ft=
11. A concert hall whose volume is 30,000 ft' has a reverberation time of! .50 sec
when empty. If each member of an audience has a sound absorption equivalent to
4.0 ft^ of ideal absorbing material (absorption coefficient unity), what will the
reverberation time be when 200 people are in the hall, assuming that Eq. (3) holds
for this hall?
V
\
ROBERT
ANDREWS
MILLIKAN
1868 —
BORN AT MORRISON, ILLINOIS. DIRECTOR, NORMAN BRIDGE

LABORATORY OF PHYSICS, CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECH-
NOLOGY. PRESENTED THE 1 9 2 3 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR
HIS WORK ON THE ELEMENTARY ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ON THE
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT.
27. Magnetism
Magnetism is not only among the oldest but today it is probably one
of the most vital fields of science. The Electrical Age, with all the
conveniences which it has brought to our lives, was made possible by
OUT increasing knowledge of magnetism and of the magnetic effects
of electric currents. Economical ways of generating and transmitting
huge quantities of electric energy became feasible when we learned
the relationships between the older laws of magnetism and the more
361
q62 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
recently discovered facts relating to the phenomena of electric cur-

rents. Most electrical measuring instruments depend upon magnetic
forces. H u g e electromagnets and tiny permanent magnets are com-
monplace in modern industry. We shall therefore introduce the sub-
ject of electricity with some consideration of the laws of magnetism.
Classes of Magnets. Several centuries before the beginning of
the Christian era it was known that a certain iron ore possessed the
peculiar and then mysterious property of attracting small bits of
iron. This material became known as a natural magnet. Such a sub-
stance, called magnetite (Fe304), retains its magnetic qualities almost
indefinitely and is therefore an example of a permanent magnet.
Artificial permanent magnets are made in a variety of ways, one of
the simplest being to stroke a steel rod with another natural or arti-
ficial magnet. Temporary magnets, such as electromagnets and induced
magnets, will be described later.
Magnetic Poles. When a magnetized steel bar (bar magnet) is
rolled in iron filings, bunches of the filings cling to the bar at and
near the ends (Fig. 1). Few filings
adhere to the middle of the bar. T h e
external magnetic effects of the bar
are concentrated at regions near the
ends. These regions are called magnetic
poles. If the bar magnet is suspended so
that it is free to turn,- it will always
take a position with its axis along an
approximate north and south line
with the same end always toward the
north. The pole that turns toward the
FIG. 1.—Bar magnet that has been north is called a north-seeking, N, pole,
dipped in iron filHngs. ^ j ^ - j ^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ -^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^^^_
seeking, S, pole. The steel bar acts as a compass needle; in ,fact, most
magnetic compasses are essentially magnetized steel bars.
Attraction and Repiiision. If the JVpole of a magnet is brought
near the JV pole of another magnet, it is found that the like poles repel
each other. But if the S pole of one magnet is presented to the JV pole
of the other magnet, there is a force of attraction. T h e general, rule
correlating these observations is one of the oldest laws of science. It
may be stated: Unlike magnetic poles attract each other while like poles
MAGNETISM 363
repel one another. A popular example of these forces between magnets is

illustrated in a modern " M o h a m m e d ' s coffin" (Fig. 2).
Forces Between Poles; Coulotab's Law. A quantitative study
of the force between magnetic poles by the French physicist Coulomb
(1736-1806) showed that this force is directly proportional to the strengths
of the respective poles and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the poles. This basic law of magnetism is known as Coulomb's law.
If F is the force between poles, m is the magnetic pole strength of one
pole, m' the magnetic pole strength of the
second pole, and s is the distance between
the points where the poles may be assumed
to be "localized," Coulomb's law of mag-
netism may be written symbolically
. mm
F = r (1) FIG. 2.—Magnetic repul-
1^^ sion. The upper magnet re-
mains suspended by the mag-
where the symbol /x designates a quantity netic repulsion of the hke
called the permeability, which depends on poles of the lower magnet,
the medium in which the poles interact. ^^J ^'^^ g"^^<^^ ^''^ merely
rr., , ... » . „ to keep the magnets from
T h e perifteabihty of empty space is usually ^^^-^^^ sideways.)
arbitrarily assigned a value of 1. For air jii
differs from 1 by only a few parts in a million and other "nonmagnetic"
substances also have permeabilities very close to 1. But for iron, steel,
and many special alloys yu has values u p to the thousands.
Unit Magnetic Pole. From Coulomb's law (Eq. 1) it is possible
to define a unit pole. A unit pole is one of such strength that it exerts a
force of 1 dyne when placed a distance of 1 cm from another unit pole in a medium
of unit permeability (vacuum, or air approximately).
Electromagnetic Units. No particular names have thus far been
chosen for the units of either magnetic pole strength or for permea-
bility, although both are dimensional quantities and not pure num-
bers. Hence it is customary to refer to such units by their "family"
name as electromagnetic units. T o minimize this difficulty of naming
units, the designation unit pole (u.p.) will be used, for example,
" a pole of strength 100 u . p . "
Example: A magnetic pole of strength 50.0 u.p. exerts a force of 200 dynes upon
a second pole placed 5.00 cm, in air, away from the first pole. What is the strength of
the second pole?
3^4
mm
50.0 X m'
1.00 X (5.00)''
m' = 100 u.p.
Example: A north-seeking pole A of strength 10 u.p. is placed midway between

an S pole B of strength 300 u.p. and an jV pole C of strength 500 u.p. Poles B and C
are 20 cm apart in air. What force does pole A experience?
Force on A due to B = < „ ^^ ^(^9 = 30 dynes (toward B)

1.0 X 102
10 X 500
Force on A due to C • = 50 dynes (toward B)
1.0 X 102
Since these two component forces are in the same direction the net force is their sum,
namely, 80 dynes in the direction toward the pole B.
Magnetic Fields. A magnetic field is a region in which a force

is exerted upon a magnetic pole introduced into that space. Such
fields exist around magnets. They also exist in the vicinity of electric
currents.
The direction of a magneticfieldis specified as the direction of the
force on an JV pole at the point considered.
FIG. 3.—Magnetic field around a bar magnet.
A piece of iron placed in a magnetic field is found to become

magnetized temporarily. This process is known as magnetization by
induction. For example, when iron filings are introduced into a mag-
netic field, each little piece of iron becomes a magnet by induction.
The J\f and S poles of these small magnets ar^_ acted upon by forces
in accordance with Coulomb's law. Since the filings are easily moved,
they tend to line up, like a compass needle in a magnetic field. The
direction of a field at various points may be shown by moving a small
MAGNETISM 365
compass from place to place or by the way iron filings would arrange
themselves when sprinkled on a glass plate laid over a bar magnet
(Fig. 3). Note the way in which the filings cluster near the poles,
indicating the fact that the magnetic field is more potent in that sec-
tion. The appearance of magnetic fields in other typical cases is
shown in Fig. 4.
FIG. 4.—Magnetic field around a bar magnet: (a) unlLke poles; (b) like poles.
Magnetic Field Strength. The strength (or intensity) of a magnetic

field is expressed in terms of the force that the field exerts upon an
JV magnetic pole in the field. Magneticfieldstrength H is defined as the
force per unit JV pole that the field exerts on the pole.
H=- m
m '
The name oersted is now generally accepted as the unit of magnetic
field strength. An oersted is the strength of that field in which a force
of 1 dyne is exerted upon a unit pole at that point. It should be
noted that field strength is a term which applies to a particular point
in the field; the strength usually varies greatly from point to point
in any given field. Field strength is a vector -quantity, since it has both
magnitude and direction. When there are several poles or other factors
that set up a magnetic field, the resultant field strength at any par-
ticular point is the vector sum,of all the component field strengths.
Example: A force of 1000 dynes is exerted upon a magnetic pole of strength
250 u.p. placed at a point in a magnetic field. What is the strength of the magnetic
field at that point?
„ F 1000 dynes
^ " m = 250 u.p. = ^-0° "^""^^^^^
. Example: What force is exerted upon a magnetic pole of strength 500 u.p. when
it is placed in a magnetic field of strength 0.800 oersted?
F = Hm = 0.800 oersted X 500 u.p. = 400 dynes
Field Strength Near an "Isolated" Pole. ' While it is impossible

to have completely isolated poles, they may be approximated in
practice and are a very convenient academic fiction. One may obtain
the measure of the magnetic field strength near an isolated pole
by figuratively placing a unit N pole mi at the point considered and
applying Eqs. (1) and (2).
TT _ F_ _ mmi/ixs'^ m
Ml fXS^ (3)
m\
Example: What is the magnetic field strength 4.0 cm, in air, from an isolated
pole of strength 320 u.p.?
320
IM" 1.0 X 4.02 = 20 oersteds
Example: A bar magnet 8.0 cm long has poles of strength 250 u.p. Deter-
mine the magnetic field strength at a point P which is 5.0 cm distant from each pole
• (Fig. 5).
m2=250u.p. m,=2S0u.p.
FIG. 5.—Resultant field intensity in terms of components.

MAGNETISM 367
The field intensity Hn due to the pole N is represented by the vector PB and is
given by
m_ _ 250
HN — MJ2
r7~9- —1.0
A nX^^5.0^
c nt = 10 oersteds
The field Hs due to the S pole is also 10 oersteds in magnitude but has the direction
along PS as represented by the vector PC. The resultant field H is represented by the
vector PA, in accordance with the usual parallelogram construction. Since triangles
NSP and PAB are similar, the following proportion may be written
PA_NS H _ 8.0 cm
PB ~ NP °^ 10 oersteds ~ 5.0 cm
H = -^ X 10 oersteds = 16 oersteds
Magnetic Lines of Force. A small magnetic compass will

assume a definite position in a magnetic field. If the compass be
FIG. 6.—Lines of force around a bar magnet.
moved always in the direction its N pole points, the path traced is
c a l l e d ^ line of force. More technically, a magnetic line of force is a line so
drawn that it shows at every point the direction of the field. A tangent to the
line at any point gives the direction of the force on an JV-pole at that
point, namely, the direction of the magnetic field. The. general ap-
pearance of the lines of force around a bar magnet is shown in Fig. 6.
Terrestrial Magnetism. M a n y centuries ago it was observed
that a compass needle aligns itself in a north-south position. About
1600 William Gilbert, physician to Queen Elizabeth, published re-
sults of his experiments which indicated that the earth acts as a
great magnet and gave the first satisfactory evidence for the existence
of terrestrial magnetism. The'observed magnetism of the earth can
be roughly portrayed by imaging it to be due to a huge bar magnet
within the earth with its axis displaced about 17° from the earth's
axis and considerably shorter than the earth's diameter. T h e two
magnetic poles of the earth are located in northern Canada and in

Antarctica, both at considerable distances from the geographical
poles.
O n his first voyage to America, Columbus observed that a com^
pass needle does not point directly north and that it does not every-
where point in the same direction. This variation oi the compass
from the true north is called magnetic declination. Lines drawn on a
map through places that have the same declination are called isogonic
lines. On the map in Fig. 7 are shown a series of isogonic lines. T h e
Easterly variation WeSidr/y vanarion

20° IS' 10° 5° 0° S° 10° 15° 20'
FIG. 7.—Isogenic chart of the United States.
line drawn through places that have no declination is known as an

agonic line. In the United States places east of the agonic line have
west declination and those west of this line have east declination. T h e
navigator who uses a magnetic . compass must continiially make
allowance for this variation of the compass.
The actual direction of the magnetic field of the earth at most
places is not horizontal and only the horizontal component of the
field is effective in the indications of the ordinary compass. If a -
magnetized needle is mounted ori a horizontal axis through its center
of gravity, the needle will dip from thfe horizontal. I n the vicinity of
New York City t]ie needle would come to rest dipping at an angle of
about 72° below the horizontal. Such a needle, as shown in Fig. 8,
is known as a dip needle.
MAGNETISM 369
T h e strength a n d direction of the earth's magnetic field not only
vary from place to place but also vary in time. There is a very small
and periodic daily variation, an even smaller annual variation, b u t
a very material, though erratic, secular varia-
tion, or long-time change. For example, at
London, England, the declination in 1580
was 11°E, in 1655 it was zero, in 1810 it be-
came 24°W, and in 1940 was about 8°W.
Large a n d very erratic variations occur at
certain times. These are known as magnetic
"storms." T h e y do not necessarily occur si-
multaneously with meteorological storms, but
are probably related to variations in electric
currents in the earth's atmosphere. There is
correlation in time between magnetic storms
and the occurrence of sunspots and it is gener-
FIG. 8.—Dip needle.
ally agreed that the two are intimately related.
The facts of terrestial magnetism are so complex and the observed
data are comparatively so meager and contradictory that theories as
to the origin and nature of the earth's magnetism are not at present
on a firm basis.
SUMMARY
Magnets may be xlassified as natural or artificial and as permanant
or temporary.
^ Magnetic poles are the regions, usually near the ends of magnets,
where their magnetic effects are most evident. T h e end of a freely
suspended magnet, which turns toward the north, is called a north-
seeking or N pole while the south-seeking end is designated the S
pole.
Like poles repel; imlike poles attract.
Coulomb's law for the force between magnetic poles is expressed
F = mm
fis'^
A unit pole is one of such strength that it exerts a force of 1 dyne

when placed 1 cm in empty space from another unit pole.
A magnetic field is a region possessing such properties that a force

is exerted on a magnetic material placed in the region.
Magnetic field strength is force per unit pole
T h e unit of magnetic field strength is called the oersted.

T h e magnetic field strength near a n isolated pole is given by
fxs-'
«
Magnetic lines of force are d r a w n so as to indicate at all points the
direction of the field.
T h e earth acts as a great magnet. A magnetic compass indicates
the direction of the magnetic north; this differs from the geographic
north by a n angle known as the declination. I n works on navigation this
angle is frequently called the variation.
QUESTIONS
1. How could one demonstrate that the two poles of a magnet are of equal
strength?
2. A red-hot iron rod when allowed to cool while lying in a north-south position
in the earth's magnetic field is found to be left weakly magnetized. What will its
polarity be? Describe the reasons the bar becomes a magnet.
3. Why are gyrocompasses and radio compasses now so commonly used in
navigation instead of the conventional magnetic compass? '
4. Sketch a rough curve showing the variation of the magnetic field intensity
near an isolated pole as a function of the distance away from the pole.
5. If a magnetic compass needle is mounted on a cork and floated on water, will
the needle as a whole move toward the north or south if the field is uniform? Why?
Is your statement still true if the field is nonuniform? Why?
6. Is m.agnetic attraction as satisfactory a test for polarity as magnetic repulsion?
Why?
7. Explain why it is that if the north pole of a strong magnet is brought near the
north pole of a weak magnet, the initial force of repulsion changes to one of attraction
when the poles are very near each other.
8. Why are the tops of steam radiators S magnetic poles, as prQved by their
repulsion of the S pole of a compass?
9. Sketch the resultant magnetic field when a bar magnet is placed with its
axis parallel to the field of the .earth with its JV pole to the north. Indicate regions in
which the field strength is zero.
MAGNKTISM 37I
10. Sketch the resuhant magnetic field when a bar magnet is placed parallel to
the earth's field with the S pole toward the north. Indicate neutral regions.
11. Sketch the resultant magnetic field when a bar magnet is placed perpendicular
to the field of the earth, indicating neutral regions.
PROBLEMS
1. An jV magnetic pole of strength 50 u.p. is 25 cm, in air, away from an 5 pole
of strength 200 u.p. What is the direction and magnitude of the force on the JV pole?
on the S pole?
2. An isolated magnetic pole exerts a force of 40 dynes upon a second pole of
strength 100 u.p. when the poles are 30 cm apart, in air. What is the strength of the
first pole? ' Ans. 360 u.p.
3. Two magnetic poles each of strength 40 u.p. repel each other with a force of
12 dynes when 10 cm apart in a certain medium. What is the permeability n for this
medium?
4. A bar magnet 16 cm long has pole strengths of 80 u.p. Calculate the magnitude
and direction of the force on an S pole of 20 u.p. placed at a point in line with the axis
of the magnet and 4.0 cm away from its jV pole. Ans. 96 dynes
5. At a point in central Pennsylvania the earth has a field strength of 0.82 oersted
and the angle of dip is 70°. What are the horizontal and vertical components of the
field strength at this place?.
6. At a certain point the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field has a
strength of 0.35 oersted and the vertical component a strength of 0.50 oersted, (a)
What is the angle of dip at this point? (b) Calculate the total strength of the earth's
field at this place. Ans. 55°; 0.61 oersted
7. An isolated JV magnetic pole A exerts a force of 40 dynes upon an isolated S
pole B of strength 100 u.p., situated 30 cm from ^ . What is the magnetic field strength
at a point which is on the line joining A and J5, 10 cm from A and 20 cm from B?
8. How far from an isolated JV pole of strength 20 u.p. must one go in order that
its field will just neutralize the earth's magnetic field, which has a strength of 0.80
oersted? Sketch the arrangement. Ans. 5.0 cm
9. An N pole of strength 300 u.p. is situated 6.0 cm in air away from an S pole of
similar strength. What is the magnetic field strength midway between these poles?
What would be the strength midway between the poles if they were both JV poles?
10. A magnetic pole A when placed 10 cm in air away from a pole B of strength
20 u.p. experiences a force of 8.0 dynes. If A is acted upon by the earth's field at
another point with a force of 30 dynes, what is the earth's field strength at that place?
Ans. 0.75 oersted
11. Determine the strength of the magnetic field at a point 10 cm directly below
the center of a bar magnet 20 cm long if the magnet has a pole strength of 40 u.p.
and is placed horizontally with the JV pole toward the right.
12. A bar magnet is 10 cm long and has poles of strength 300 u.p. What is the
strength of the magnetic field at a point 5.0 cm from the JV pole measured along a
line normal to the axis of the magnet?
Ans. 11 oersteds, at 79° with axis of magnet
13. Two bar magnets are placed 10 cm apart, with their JV poles facing each other
and their axes in line. One magnet is 25 cm long and its poles have strengths of
100 u.p. The other magnet is 35 cm long and its poles have strengths of 200 u.p.
What is the direction and magnitude of the force on an ^ pole of strength 30 u.p. and
which is midway between the two N poles?
14. Two bar magnets P and Q,each 10 cm long are placed horizontally so that P
is above Q,, and 7.5 cm away. The JV pole of P is vertically over the S pole of Q, and
the S pole of P is vertically above the JV pole of Q.. If P has a pole strength of 25 u.p.
and Q, a pole strength of 40 u.p., find the total force between the magnets.
Ans. 28 dynes
15. Tw6 cobalt steel magnets each have pole strengths of 300 u.p. If each magnet
weighs 200 gm, at what distance above it will either magnet support the other? The
magnets are 6.0 cm long. Assume the poles are separated by five-sixths the lengths
of the magnets.
16. A pair of identical bar magnets, each 15 cm long and weighing 60 gm, are
suspended from a common point at their S pole ends. The JVpole ends hang
down and are kept 5.00 cm apart by their mutual repulsion. Calculate the pole
strengths of the magnets. Ans. 351 u.p.
17. Two similar bar magnets, 25 cm long, are suspended about an axis through
their N poles. The S poles repel each other so that the magnets are kept 3.0 cm apart
at their lower ends. The magnets have equal pole strengths of 500 u.p. What is the
weight of each magnet?
18. A bar magnet of moment 200 u.p.-cm is placed horizontally in a stirrup which
is supported by a, fine wire attached to a torsion head. The head is turned until the
magnet lies in the meridian. When the head is now turned through 100° the magnet
is deflected 20°. (a) Through what angle must the head be turned to deflect the
magnet 30°? {b) What is the moment of another magnet for which the head riiust be
turned 180° to cause a deflection of 20°? Ans. 147°; 360 u.p.-cm
19. The earth's magnetic field in a certain laboratory is 0.82 oersted, and the
angle of the dip is 70°. Find the number of magnetic lines per square centimeter
passing through (a) the floor, {b) an east-west wall, and (c) a north-south wall.
20. At a certain point the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field is
0.30 oersted, and the vertical component is 0.40 oersted. Calculate the total intensity
and the dip. Ans. 0.50 oersted,'53°
21. A magnet 25 cm long has pole strengths of 20 u.p. What torque acts on the
magnet when it is placed at an angle of 45° with the magnetic lines in a field of
4.0 oersteds?
22. The poles of a bar magnet NS have strengths 160 u.p. and are 8.0 cm apart.
Calculate the field strength at a point 6.0 cm from N and 10.0 cm from S.
Ans. 3.7 oersteds, at 69.9° to magnet
KARL
MANNE
GEORG
SIEGBAHN
1886 —
BORN IN OREBRO, SWEDEN. PROFESSOR AT THE UNIVERSITY OF

UPSALA, LATER DIRECTOR OF THE RESEARCH INSTIT/UTE FOR
PHYSICS, STOCKHOLM. THE I 9 2 4 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS WAS
CONFERRED ON SIEGBAHN FOR HIS RESEARCH AND DISCOVERIES
IN X-RAY SPECTROSCOPY.
28. Electricity at Rest

Gasoline trucks dangle a chain along the road to prevent static elec-
tric charges from accumulating to dangerous proportions. Lightning
rods are effective in discharging the electricity from low-hanging
clouds and thus minimizing damage caused by lightning Huge
static machines are today used for building up high voltages for
"atom-smashing" experiments. Electricity stored temporarily in
373
condensers may be removed in a. millionth of a second and replaced
in the next instant, thus giving rise to electric and magnetic disturb-
ances, which hurtie out through space with the speed of light and
actuate our radio receivers. The phenomena of electricity at rest are
both historically and practically of great significance in the develop-
ment of science.
Electrification. If a piece of sealing wax, hard rubber, or one of
many other substances is brought into intimate contact with wool
or cat's fur, it acquires the ability to attract light objects such as bits
of cork or paper. The process of producing this condition in an object
is called electrification, and the object itself is said tq be electrified or
charged with electricity.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.—A charged body brought near a Ught insulated conductor causes charges
in the conductor to separate. This results in an attraction of the conductor by the
charge.
There are two kinds of electrification. If two rubber rods, elec-

trified by being brushed against fur, are brought near each other,
they will be found to repel each other. But a glass rod rubbed with
silk will attract either of the rubber rods, although two such glass rods
will repel each other. The charge on the glass is evidently unlike that
on the rubber. These facts suggest the first law of electrostatics: objects
that are similarly charged repel each other; bodies with unlike charges attract
each other. ,
The electrification produced in a glass rod by stroking it with silk
is arbitrarily called/'o.rzto'electrification, while that produced in the
rubber rod by contact with wool is called negative electrification. It
is ordinarily assumed that uncharged objects contain equal amounts
of positive a n d negative electricity. When glass and silk are rubbed
together, some negative electricity is transferred from the glass to
ELECTRICITY AT R E S T 375
the silk, leaving the glass rod with a net positive charge, and the silk
with an equal net negative charge. Similarly, hard rubber receives
negative electricity from the wool with which it is in contact, causing
the rod to be negatively charged and leaving the wool positive. T h o u g h
a similar explanation could be made by assuming a transfer of positive
electricity, it has been shown that in solids only negative electricity
is transferred.
T h e effect of a charged object on one that is uncharged is illus-
trated in Fig. 1. Separation of positive and negative electricity within
the uncharged object is produced by the charged object, which exerts
a force of repulsion on the like portion of the charge and an attraction
on the unlike. At a the negatively charged rubber rod causes the
adjacent side of the uncharged object to become positively charged,
while the opposite side becomes negatively charged. Because the
unlike charge is, nearer the rod, the force of attraction will exceed
that of repulsion and produce a net attraction of the uncharged
object by the rod. At b is shown the case in which a positively elec-
trified -glass rod is used. It should be remembered that the changes
described here do not alter the total amounts of positive and negative
electri'city in the uncharged object. No charge is gained or lost; all
that occurs is a shift of negative electricity toward one side of the
object, making that side predominantly negative and leaving the
other side predominantly positive.
T h e Electron Theory. According to modern theory all matter
is composed of atoms, tiny particles that are the building blocks of
the universe. There are many kinds of atoms, one or more for each
chemical element. Each atom consists of a nucleus, a small, tightly
packed, positively charged mass, and a number of larger, lighter,
negatively charged particles called electrons, which revolve about the
nucleus at tremendous speeds (Fig. 2). T h e centripetal force necessary
to draw these electrons into their circular or elliptical paths is sup-
plied by the electrical attraction between them and the nucleus.
The nucleus consists of a number oiprotons, each with a single positive
charge, and (except for hydrogen) one or more neutrons, which have
no charge. T h u s the positive charge on the nucleus depends upon the
number of protons that it contains. This number is called the atomic
number of the atom. A neutral atom contains equal numbers of elec-
trons and protons. Each electron carries a single negative charge of
3^6 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
the same magnitude as the positive charge of a proton, so that the

attraction between the nucleus of an atom and one of the electrons
will depend on the number of protons in the nucleus. An electron
has a mass of 9.105 X 10~^* gm. Since the mass of a proton or a
neutron is about 1,840 times that of an electron, the mass of the atom
is concentrated in the nucleus. T h e chemical properties of the a t o m
are determined by the number of protons in the nucleus.
A solid piece of material consists of an inconceivably large number
of atoms clinging together. Though these atoms may be vibrating
about their normal positions as a result of thermal agitation, their
arrangement is not permanently altered by this motion. Also present
in solids are numbers oijree electrons, so called because they are tem-
c ® ) cj.^ 10 c M3'
FIG. 2.—Each atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by elec-
trons. The three simplest atoms, hydrogen, helium, and lithium, are represented
diagrammatically.
porarily detached from atoms. T h e number and freedom of motion

of these electrons determine the properties of the material as a con-
ductor of electricity. A good conductor is a material containing many
free electrons whose motion is not greatly impeded by the atoms of
which the material is composed. As a result of the repulsive forces
between them, free electrons spread throughout the material, and
•any concentration of them in any one region of the material will tend
to be relieved by a motion of the electrons in all directions away from
that region until an equilibrium distribution is again reached.
In the best conductors the outer electrons of the atoms can easily
be removed, so that a free electron collidmg with an ^tom often
causes an outer electron to leave the atom. When this happens, the
ejected electron becomes a free electron, moving on, while its place
in the atom is taken by another free electron that encounters the
atom. An insulator, or poor conductor, is a substance that contains
ELECTRICITY AT REST 377
very few free electrons and whose atoms have no loosely held orbital
electrons.
In Table I some common substances are arranged roughly in the
descending order of their electrical conductivities.
TABLE I
Good conductors Poor conductors Insulators
Silver Water Glass

Copper Moist earth Mica
Other metals Moist wood Paraffin
Carbon (graphite) Dry wood Hard rubber
Certain solutions
T h e reason for describing electrification as occurring through the

transfer of negative electricity now can be seen. An uncharged object
contains a large number of atoms (each of which normally contains
an equal number of electrons and protons), but with some electrons
temporarily free from atoms. If some of these free electrons are re-
moved, the object is considered to be positively charged, though
actually this means that its negative charge is below normal. If extra
free electrons are gained by an object, it is said to be negatively
charged, since it has more negative charge than is normal.
Electric Charge. T h e quantity of electricity or charge Q, possessed
by a body is simply the aggregate of the amount by which the electrons
exceed (or are less than) the positive charges in the body. T h e phe-
nomena of charges at rest constitute the subject of electrostatics. Later
it will be noted that charges in motion constitute electric currents,
with their varied effects. It must be clearly understood that charges
and magnetic poles are very different concepts. For example, positive
charges are not in any way to be confused with N poles. Firrthermore
a charge at rest in a magnetic field experiences no force.
Force b e t w e e n Charges. Coulomb (1736-1806) was the first
investigator to place the law of force between electrostatic charges
upon an experimental basis. His relatively rough experiments estab-
lished the law, now known as Coulomb's law of electrostatics, that
the force F between two charges Q, and Q^ varies directly with each
charge, inversely with the square of the distance s between the charges.
and is a function of the nature of the medium surrounding the charges

I n symbols Coulomb's law is
Ks . (1)
where the factor K is introduced to take care of the nature of the

medium. This quantity is called the dielectric constant. For a vacuum,
K is arbitrarily assigned a value of 1 in the electrostatic system of
units (esu). For air, K is approximately 1. f o r other common di-
electrics, iT ranges u p to 10.
Unit Quantity of Electricity, or Charge. A definition of the
electrostatic unit (esu) of charge, often called the "statcoulomb," is
readily available from Coulomb's law. From Eq. (1), Q^ and (/
are each unity when F, K, and s are unity. The statcoulomb is a charge
of such a magnitude that it is repelled by a force oj 1 dyne ij placed 1 cm away
from an equal charge in a vacuum. This charge is exceedingly tiny, in
terms of practical values. For industrial work a charge known as the
coulomb is used. O n e coulomb is approximately 3 X 10' statcoulombs.
Example: What is the force between two charges, one of 60 statcoulombs, the
other of 80 statcoulombs when they are 20 cm apart, in air?
QCX 60X80
^ = A ? = 1.0 X 20^ = ^2 dynes
Example: A charge A of +250 statcoulombs is placed on a line between two

charges B of +50.0 statcoulombs and C of —300 statcoulombs. The charge A is 5.00
cm from S and 10.0 cm from C. What is the force on A?.
250 X 50.0
Force on A due to B = Fi = •, r.r. ^ c nni ~ ^^^ dynes (toward C)
250 X 300
Force on A due to C = F2 = 1 nn v 10 n^ ~ ^^'^ dynes (toward C)
Since these two component forces are in the same direction the resultant force is
their arithmetical sum.
Fi + ii'2 = 1250 dynes (toward C)
t
Electric Fields. T h e region in the vicinity of a charged body_

possesses special properties because of the presence of the charge.
For example, another charge brought into this region will experience
a force. Such a space is known as an electric field. An electric field
is defined as any region in which there would be a force upon a charge brought
into the region. •
The direction of an electric field at any point is defined as the direction of
the force upon a positive charge placed at that point.
Lines of Force. T h e direction of electric fields at various points
may be represented graphically by lines of force. A line of force in* an
electric field is a line so drawn that a tan-
gent to it at any point shows the direction
of the electric field at that point.
As an example of these definitions con-
sider the isolated positive charge Q, placed
at A in Fig. 3. A small, positive charge ()'
at b would experience a force of repulsion.
Hence the region at b is an electric field.
From symmetry it is evident that the direc-
tion of the force upon a positive charge any- FIG. 3.—Electric field near a
charge.
where near A would be radially away from
A. Hence the lines of force are drawn in these directions. If A were
the location of an isolated negative charge, the electric field would
extend everywhere radially toward A.
T h e diagram of Fig. 4 shows a plane section of the electric field
near a pair of charges equal in magnitude but of opposite sign.
FIG. 4.—Electric field near two equal charges of opposite sign.
T h e field at any point is the resultant of the superposition of the two

component fields due to the charges at A and B. For example, at
point b the direction of the resultant force on a positive charge would
be along the vector drawn tangent to the line of force at that point.
T h e similarities in the discussions of electric and magnetic fields
are worth emphasizing. Indeed, most of the statements about mag-
netism would become correct statements about electrostatics if the
following word substitutions were m a d e : electric field for magnetic
field; electric charge for magnetic pole; electric field intensity for
magnetic field strength; electrostatic lines of force for magnetic lines
of force; and dielectric constant for permeability.
Electric Field Intensity. This concept is analogous to magnetic
field strength in magnetism. The intensity {or strength) of the electrostatic
field at a point is defined as the force per unit charge at that point. The sym-
bolic defining equation is
F
8 = ^ (2)
where 8 is the electric field intensity and F is the force exerted upon
the charge Q. Note that field intensity is a vector quantity.
Electric Field Intensity Near an Isolated Charge. From a
combination of the definition of 8 and Coulomb's law it follows that
the electric field intensity near an isolated point charge Q^ is given by
8 =
Ks^ (3)
When a point is situated near a number of charges, the field

intensity at that point is the vector sum of all such component intensities.
Example: What is the electric field intensity in
oil of dielectric constant 2.0 at a point 4.0 cm from a
charge of 960 statcoulombs?
A - 960
S = = 30 dynes/statcoulomb
Example: Equal positive charges are placed at

the corners of an equilateral triangle. What is the
electric field intensity at a point equidistant from
each corner?
B The component field intensities are shown in^Fig.
FIG. 5.—Electric field 5. From the symmetry of the figure it may be seen
intensity equidistant from that the vector sum of the three components of the
three equal charges. field is zero.
Electric Potential and Potential DiflFerence. T h e difference

of electric potential (PD) between two points is measured by the
work done per' unit quantij:y of electricity transferred between the
points in question. T h e difference of potential across which 1 coulomb
of electric charge can be transferred by 1 joule of energy is called the

volt. When the difference of potential between two points is expressed
in volts, it is often referred to as the voltage between these points.
Thus if an electric line has a voltage of 120 volts it follows that 120
joules of work have to be expended for each coulomb of electricity
which is transferred through any apparatus connected between the
two wires.
T h e defining equation for potential difference is
W
V = ~ (4)
a
where V is the potential difference, H^the work done, and Q the charge
moved. In the "practical" system
of units V is expressed in volts
when W is in joules and Q, in
coulombs. In the absolute electro-
static system V is expressed in stat-
volts when W is in ergs and Q, in
statcoulombs.
Potential Difference in Elec-
tric Fields. Consider the simple
electric field illustrated in Fig. 6.
The charge + Q, produces an elec-
tric field with lines of force extend-
ing radially outward. A small test FIG. 6.—Potential difference in
electric field.
charge -\-q at any point in the
field will be acted upon by a force. Hence it will be necessary to do
work to move q between any such points as B and C. T h e work
done per unit charge is a measure of the potential difference between
these points.
Example: Two points in an electric field have a potential difference of 3.0 volts.
What work is required to move a charge of 5.0 coulombs between these points?
W
F = or PK = F X ? = 3.0 volts X 5.0 coulombs = 15 joules
Absolute Potential. If the test charge g' is at a point very far

from A (Fig. 6) the force on q is practically zero. Under these cir-
cumstances the PD between B and this point at an infinitely large
distance away is called the absolute potential of the point B. T h e

absolute potential of a point in an electric field is the work per unit
charge required to bring a small positive charge from a point outside
the field to the point considered. If, for example, it requires 20
ergs of work to bring 1.0 statcoulomb of charge from a point outside
the field u p to B, the absolute potential of B is 20 statvolts. If,
similarly, the absolute potential of C were 30 statvolts, it is obvious
that the PD between B and C would be 10 statvolts.
Potential Difference Independent of Path. From conservation
of energy principles it must follow that the work done in moving a
charge from one point to another in an electric field is independent of
the path over which the charge is transported. Otherwise energy
could be created or destroyed by moving a charge from one point
such as B in Fig. 6 to C by path a, requiring an amiount of work a n d
returning by path b requiring a different amount of work.
Since both work and charge are scalar quantities it follows that
potential is a scalar quantity. The potential near an isolated positive
charge is positive in the sense that work must be done by an external
source to move a positive test charge from a point outside the field
up to any point near the first charge. T h e potential near an isolated
negative charge is negative, since energy is supplied by the field in
moving a positive test charge from a point outside the field to any
point near the negative charge.
Electric Potential N e a r an Isolated C h a r g e . It may be shown
that the absolute potential F of a point near an 'isolated charge Q, is
given by the equation
where s is the distance from the point in question to the charge that
produces the field. T h e resultant potential of a point situated near a
number of charges would be the algebraic sum of all such component
potentials; in symbols this may be stated
-=i;(i) (6)
Example: In Fig. 7 is shown'a charge A of +800 statcoulombs situated 30 cm

fronj a charge B of —300 statcoulombs. (a) What is the potential at point D which
is 10 cm from B and 20 cm from ^? (A) What is the potential at point C which is
5.0 cm from A and 25 cm from B?
(l\ _ . 800 300
°-^ - + r o ^ o - ra^ - +•» - " - +'» -•""'
0 ^ i [B
I* 20c/77 4- lOcm -
V^Scm -A* 2Scm
FIG. 7.—Potentials of points near two charges.
Example: How much work is required to move a charge of +50 statcoulombs

from Z) to C in the example above?
W =Vq
where V is the PD between D and C.
F = 150 statvolts — 10 statvolts = 140 statvolts

Hence
W = 140 statvolts X 50 statcoulombs = 7000 ergs.
Equipotential Surfaces. It is easily possible to find in an electric

field a large number of points all of which have the same potential.
If a line or a surface is so drawn that it includes such points only, the
line or surface is known as an equipotential line or surface. An
equipotential surface is defined as a surjace all points of which have equal
potentials.
Lines of Force Perpendicular to Equipotential Surfaces.
Equipotential surfaces in an electric (or magnetic) field are always
perpendicular to the lines of force. This must be true because of the
fact that the line of force shows, by definition, the direction of the
force upon a test charge and there can be no force normal to this
direction. Hence there is no work done in producing a small dis-
placement of a test charge normal to a line of force, and this normal
is therefore an equipotential line. Hence, if the equipotential lines
can be dr.awn the lines of force can be immediately constructed,
they being at all points perpendicular to the equipotential lines which
they intersect. For example, in Fig. 8, there are shown the Knes of
force (with the arrows) and the equipotential lines in a plane surface
containing two charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign.
I
FIG. 8.—Lines of force and equipotential lines near two equal charges of unlike signs.
SUMMARY
Objects may be electrified or charged either positively or negatively
by the removal or addition of electrons.
Like charges repel, \inlike charges attract.
Coulomb's law for the force between charges is expressed by
^ Ks^
T h e electrostatic unit charge (statcoulomb) is one that will act

upon a similar charge with a force of 1 dyne when the charges are
1 cm apart, in empty space.
An electric field is a region in which a force is exerted upon a
charge placed in the field.
Electric field intensity is force per unit charge
F •
T h e electricfieldintensity hear ah isolated charge is given by

1^.2
8 — Ks^
Electric potential or voltage is work per unit charge
W
V = ~
Q.
T h e potential difference between two points is independent of the

path.
T h e absolute potential at a point is the work per tinit charge neces-
sary to bring a positive charge from "infinity" to that point.
T h e electric potential of a point near a n isolated charge is given
by
Ks
An equipotential surface is a stirface on which all points have the

same potential. T h e surface is everywhere perpendicular to the lines
of force. A charge may be moved anywhere on an equipotential
surface without work being performed on or by the field.
QUESTIONS
1. A positively charged rod is brought near the terminal of a charged electroscope
and the leaves collapse as the rod approaches the terminal. When the rod is brought
still closer (but not touching), the leaves again diverge. What is the sign of the charge
on the electroscope? gxplain its action.
2. Given a positively charged, insulated sphere, how could you charge tviô other
spheres, one positively, the other negatively, without changing the charge on the first
sphere? What is the source of the energy represented by the charges acquired by the
spheres? t^
- 3. Distinguish between electric field, magnetic field, and gravitational field.
4. Sketch an approximate curve to show how the electric field intensity near an
isolated charge varies as the distance away from the charge is increased.
5. When one gets out of an automobile, he sometimes gets a "shock" when he
touches the car. Why is this? Is it likely to happen on a rainy day? Why?
6. What determines where lightning will strike? Explain how lightning rods
usually protect a building from lightning.
7. Is a house in the city any more or less likely to be struck by lightning than a
similar house in the country? Why?
8. Can two lines of force cross in an electric field? Why? Can two equipotential
lines intersect? Why?
9. A gqld-leaf electroscope might be fitted with a calibrated scale. What are
some of the quantities which might be measured by such an instrument? Would the
scale be uniform? Why?
10. Draw a curve to portray the variation of electric potential with distance for
points near an isolated electric charge.
11. What is the principle underlying the operation of electrostatic machines?
What is the source of energy of the electric charge produced by an electrostatic
machine?
12. Will a solid sphere hold a larger electric charge than a hollow sphere of the
same diameter?
13. Can a difference of potential exist between any two points in a region where
there is no electric field?
PROBLEMS
1. Two concentrated charges of 300 statcoulombs and 500 statcoulombs are
12.5 cm apart, in air. What force is there between them?
2. Two similar insulated, spherical conductors have charges of +25 and —10
statcoulombs, respectively. They are placed in contact and then separated until their
centers are 8.0 cm apart. What is the force between them at this position?
Ans. 0.88 dyne
3. Two small conducting spheres of equal radii carry charges of +60 statcou-
lombs and —40 statcoulombs, respectively. If the spheres are brought into contact
and their centers are then separated by 10 cm in air, what force is exerted by one
sphere on the other?
4. A small charged body, placed 3.0 cm vertically over a concentrated charge
of +100 statcoulombs, has its apparent weight increased by 50 milligrams. What is the
sign and magnitude of the charge on the body? Ans. —4.4 statcoulombs
5. When a charged pith ball is hung 15 cm above a charge of +300 statcoulombs,
its apparent weight is reduced 125 milligrams. What is the sign and magnitude of the
charge on the pith ball? m
6. Two small spheres weighing 300 milligrams each and having equal charges are
suspended from the same point by silk strings 100 cm long. When the spheres arc
kept 15.0 cm apart by repulsion, what is the charge on each?
Ans. 70.5 statcoulombs
7. Two metal spheres are supported from a .common point by insulating cords
75 cm long. The spheres are charged with 600 statcoulombs each. Their electro-
static repulsion forces them to remain apart a distance of, 1.5 cm between the centers
of the spheres. Calculate the weight of the spheres.
8. What electric field intensity will just support a water droplet weighing 10
micrograms and having a charge of 3.0 X 10~* statcoulomb?
Ans. 33 dynes/statcoulomb
9. A charge of — 50 statcoulombs is situated in an electric field of intensity.
3.0 dynes/statcoulomb, directed horizontally toward the right. What is the magnitude
and direction of the force on this charge?
10. Calculate the electric field intensity at a point midway between two charges,
one of +500'statcoulombs, the other of —200 statcoulombs, placed 50.0 cm a'part,
in air. What force would be exerted upon a charge of +20.0 statcoulombs at that
point? Ans. 1.12 dynes/statcoulomb; 22.4 dynes
11. Two similar charges of 250 statcoulombs are situated on small spheres 15 cm
apart. What is the electric field intensity midway between the spheres? What is the
potential at this point?
12. Three points A, B, and C are on the corners of an equilateral triangle. At A
there is a point charge of +300 statcoulombs. What is the magnitude of the electric
field intensity at a point midway between B and C, if BC is 10.0 cm?
Ans. 4.0 dynes/statcoulomb
13. Two unlike charges, each of strength 300 statcoulombs, are placed 40.0 cm
apart, in air. What is the electric field intensity at a point midway between tfie
charges? What is the potential at that point?
14. At point A there is a charge of 400 statcoulombs. At point B, 80.0 cm away,
there is a charge of — 800 statcoulombs. What is the electric field intensity and the
potential at point C situated midway between A and B? Point D is 30.0 cm away
from C, on a line perpendicular to AB. How much work is required to move a charge
of 50 statcoulombs from D to C?
Ans. 0.75 dynes/statcoulomb toward B; —10 ergs/statcoulomb; —100 ergs
15. Calculate the electrostatic field intensity and potential at a point midway
between two charges, one of +500 statcoulombs, the other of —200 statcoulombs,
placed 50.0 cm apart, in air. What work would be required to bring a charge of
+20.0 statcoulombs to this point from a very distant point?
16. Charges of 1.00, 2.00, 3.00, and —4.00 statcoulombs, respectively, are placed
at the corners of a square, taken in order. If the length of each side of the square is
2.00 crn, find the potential at the middle point of the side joining charges 1 and 2.
Ans. 2.55 statvolts
17. At each corner of a square 20 cm on a side is a small charged body. Going
around the square, these charges are +60, —30, + 6 0 , and —30 statcoulombs. Find
(a) the field intensity, and (b) the electrostatic potential, at the center of the square.
18. The distance between charges of 125 statcoulombs and 150 statcoulombs is
changed, from 25.0 cm to 75.0 cm. How much work is done? Ans. 500 ergs
19. A hollow spherical conductor in air, having a radius of 2.0 cm, carries a
charge of +200 statcoulombs. How much work is done in moving a unit positive
charge from a point 50 cm from the center of the sphere to a point 10 cm from the
center of the sphere?
20. What is the difference of potential between A, and B if 1200 ergs of work
must be done to carry a charge of 6.0 statcoulombs from B to A? Ans. 200 statvolts
21. Two small spheres, each weighing 0.15 gm and having equal charges, are
suspended from the same point by silk threads 25 cm long. If the threads make an
angle of 10° with each other, what is the charge on each sphere?
22. Two small bodies A and B, having charges of +1000 and —216 statcoulombs,
are 16.0 cm apart in air. (a) What is the electric-field intensity at a point 20.0 cm
from A and 12.0 cm from B? (b) What is the potential at that point?
Ans. 2.0 dynes/statcoulomb parallel to AB; 32 ergs/statcoulomb
23. A charge of 8.00 statcoulombs is moved 30.0 cm against a field which increases
uniformly from 12.0 to 50.0 dynes/statcoulomb over that distance. How much work
is done on the charge?
24. Two pith balls each weighing 0.100 gm are suspended in air by threads
30.0 cm long attached to a common point. When the balls are given equal charges,
they are repelled to a distance of 1.80 cm from each other, (a) What is the force of
repulsion? (b) What is the charge on each ball? Ans. 2.94 dynes; 3.1 statcoulombs
25. Calculate the position of the point in the neighborhood of two point charges
of +50 and —18 statcoulombs situated 40 cm apart, where a third charge would
experience no force.
26. Two small conductors 25 cm apart have charges of 10 and 20 statcoulombs,
respectively. Calculate (a) the electric-field intensity, and (A) the potential at a point
midway between them.
Ans. 0.064 dyne/statcoulomb, toward the 10 statcoulomb charge; 2.4 statvolts
27. Two point charges of + 2 4 and —36 statcoulombs, respectively, are 5.0 cm
apart in air. What is the electric-field intensity and what is the potential at a point
3.0 cm from the former point and 4.0 from the latter?
28. Compute the work required to bring a charge of 5.0 statcoulombs from a
point 24 cm from a charge of 60 statcoulombs to a point 3.0 cm from it.
Ans. 88 ergs
29. Charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign are placed at two points x cm
apart. Compare the field intensity midway between the points with that at a distance r
from the center (a) on the extension of the line joining the points, (b) at right angles
to the line joining the points.
30. Determine the potential in empty space midway between two charges 24 cm
apart when the charges are (a) + 6 0 and —60, (b) + 6 0 and +60, (c) +80 and —60,
statcoulombs, respectively. Ans. 0; 10 ergs/statcoulomb; 1.7 ergs/statcoulomb
jtj *•'> ^
L.r^K *' i l l P .:>J-j?." K
\ -
\
n
JAMES
FRANGK
•^ -X
1882 —
BORN IN HAMBURG. DIRECTOR OF THE PHYSICAL INSTITUTE, UNI-

VERSITY OF GOTTINGEN. PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY,
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. THE 1 9 2 5 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS
WAS SHARED BY FRANCK AND HERTZ FOR THEIR DISCOVERY OF
THE LAWS GOVERNING THE COLLISION OF AN ELECTRON AND AN
ATOM.
29. The Electric Current

We live in an age of electricity. Homes and factories are lighted by
electricity; communication by telegraph, telephone, and radio de-
pends upon the use of electricity; and the industrial applications of
electricity extend from the delicate instuments of measurement and
control to giant electric furnaces and powerful motors. People seek
recreation at theaters which utilize electric current in many ways, and
389
it is possible that television in future years will be as commonplace

as is the radio of today. Electricity is a useful servant of man—a
practical means of transforming energy to the form in which it serves
his particular need. T h e effects of electricity both a t rest and in
motion are well known, and the means to produce these effects are
readily available.
Electric C u r r e n t s , C h a r g e s in M o t i o n . I n C h a p . 28 the
phenomena of electricity at rest were considered. W h e n there is a
flow of electricity through a substance, such as a copper wire, a n
electric current is said to exist in the wire. Such a current constitutes one
of the most widely used means of transmitting energy in the modern
world. T h e effects of electric currents are quite different from those
of static electricity, just as the phenomena of water in motion differ
from those of water at rest, as in a dammed-up stream. A famous
American physicist Henry Rowland (1889) was the first to prove that
electric charges in motion produce the characteristic effects of electric
currents, m a n y of which were known at the time of his experiments.
Some of the ways of producing electric currents a n d the effects of
such currents are described in this chapter.
In Chap. 28, the electron theory of the constitution of matter was
discussed. This theory enables us to describe in very simple terms the
main phenomena associated with electric currents. Conductors differ
from insulators in the ease with which electrons leave their " p a r e n t "
atoms and move through the conductor to constitute a n electric
current. Some of the details of the exact mechanism of the flow of
electricity in solid conductors are not yet entirely clear. But in general
modern physicists are agreed that the main facts of current electricity
are elegantly described in terms of the flow of electrons through the
conductor.
Electric C u r r e n t . Consider a circular loop of copper wire. T h e •
wire consists of a tremendous number of copper atoms along with a
large number of free electrons. If energy is supplied to make these
free electrons move around the circuit continuously, a n electric current
is said to be produced in the wire. It is to be emphasized that a
source of electric current is simply a device for causing electrons to move around
a circuit. T h e electrons themselves are already in the circuit, hence a
source of electric current merely causes a motion of electrons b u t does
not produce them. Since electrons repel each other, a motion of those
THE ELECTRIC CURRENT 391
in one part of the circuit will cause those next to them to move, re-
laying the motion around the circuit. T h e individual electrons in a
current-carrying wire move with a relatively low speed (about 0.01
cm/sec for a current of 1 a m p in a copper wire 1 m m in diameter),
but the impulse of the electron movement travels around the circuit
with a speed approaching that of light (186,000 mi/sec).
Sources of Electric Current. Let us consider some of the
methods by which electrons can be caused to move around a circuit.
In Figs. 1 and 2 is shown an electric circuit consisting of a dry cell, a
push button, and a rheostat. The electrons are forced out of the nega-
RHEOSTAT RHEOSTAT
PUSH -iP
BUTTON
DRY
C£LL
FIG. 1.—A simple electric circuit. FIG. 2.—A schematic diagram of

the simple circuit.
tive terminal of the cell and around the circuit, returning to the posi-
tive terminal of the cell to be again " p u m p e d " through. Since the elec-
trons leaving the cell must push those just ahead (and thus those on
around the circuit), the cell furnishes the driving force for the, elec-
trons throughout the circuit by propelling each as it comes through.
T h e cell thus does work on the electrons, communicating to them the
energy released in the interaction of chemicals within it.
There are m a n y types of these chemical sources of electric current.
Cells that must have their elements renewed after they have supplied
a given amount of energy to an external circuit are called primary
cells. Such sources of electric energy are quite expensive. This fact
greatly hampered the industrial utilization of electric currents until
other and vastly more economical electric "generators" were invented.
392 C O L L E G E TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Direction of Electric Current. The modern picture for the
mechanism of an electric current in a metallic conductor postulates
a flow of electrons in the circuit. Since they are negatively charged,
their direction of motion, in the aggregate, is from the negative
terminal of the source, through the external circuit, and back into
the positive terminal. Unfortunately, for many years before this
NEGATIVE POSITIVE
PLATE , PLATE
iCONVENTIONAL
CURRENT
ELECTRONJLOW^
AAAAAAAAAAAr
FIG. 3.—^Directions of electron flow and conventional current.
picture became established, the flow was assumed to be that of

positively charged particles moving in the opposite sense. Following
the still common custom, we will regard the direction of the conven-
tional current as the direction of fictitious flow of positive charges.
T h e electron flow and the conventional current are schematically
represented in Fig. 3.
Thermoelectric Source of Electric Current. A commonly used
source of electric current in which heat is transformed into electric
•ealmnomekr
energy is shown in the thermocouple
illustrated in Fig. 4. In the diagram
Copper" -Copper there is shown a loop consisting of a
piece of iron wire joined to a piece of
copper wire. One of the junctions is
heated by a flame, causing electrons
11 Bunsen
\\ flame. to flow around the circuit. T h e flow
will continue as long as one jimction
-A thermocouple. is at a higher temperature than the
other junction. Such a device, consisting of a pair of junctions of dis-
similar metals,, is called a thermocouple. The main commercial use of
thermocouples is for the measurement and control of temperature.
Electromagnetic Generators of Current. The principle upon
which the main source of electric currents depends is illustrated by
the following. If one end of a bar magnet is plunged into a loop of
THE E L E C T R I C CURRENT 393
wire, the electrons in the wire are caused to move around the loop
though their motion continues only while the magnet is moving
(Fig. 5a). If the magnet is withdrawn, the electrons move around the
loop in the opposite direction. The discovery of this means of pro-
ducing an electric current with a moving magnet led to the develop-
ment of the electric generator. A very simple generator is shown in
Fig. Sb. It consists of a stationary magnet between whose poles a
coil of wire is rotated. The two ends of the coil are joined, through
rotating contacts, to an incandescent lamp. During one-half of a
FIG. 5.—(a) An electric current is produced by thrusting a magnet into a loop of wire;
(b) a simple generator.
rotation of the coil the electrons move in one direction through the
lamp filament, while during the next half rotation they move in the
opposite direction. Such a generator is said to produce an alternating
current. In the commercial generator many coils of wire are used
to make up the armature, while the magnetic field is supplied by
electromagnets.
Photoelectric Sources of Electric Current. If light falls on a
clean surface of certain metals, such as potassium or sodium, electrons
are emitted by the surface. This phenomenon is called the photo-
electric effect. If such a metallic surface is made a part of an electric
circuit, such as that in Fig. 6, the electric current in the circuit is
controlled by the light. If the light is bright, the current will be
larger than if the hght is dim. This device is known as a photoelectric

cell and serves as a basis for most of the instruments that are operated
or controlled by light such as television, talking motion pictures, wire
or radio transmission of pictures, and many industrial devices for
counting, rejecting imperfect pieces, and control.
EJECTED •POTASSIUM
ElECTRONSs, COATING
F I G . 6.—A photoelectric cell.
Electrification by contact, as described in Chap. 28, can bring

about transfers of small quantities of electricity; yet it is not com-
mercially important as a means of sustaining an electric current.
I n all these sources of electric current some type of energy is used
to set the electrons in motion. Chemical, mechanical, thermal, or
radiant energy is transformed into electric energy.
F I G . 7.—A circuit showing three effects of an electric current.
Effects of Electric Current. T h e circuit in Fig. 7 consists of .a

battery E in series with a piece of high-resistance wire R\ an incan-
descent lamp L; a cell ^ containing metal electrodes {a and 6) i m -
mersed in water to which a few drops of sulphuric acid have been
added; and a key K, which opens and closes the circuit. A magnetic
compass C is directly over the wircv
If the key K\% closed, the battery produces a flow of electrons from
its negative terminal through ^, L, R, K, and back to the positive
terminal of the battery. As a result of the flow, several changes occur

in the various parts of the circuit. T h e wire R becomes warm, and
the filament of wire in the incandescent lamp becomes so hot that it
begins to glow. T h e water in ^ presents a very interesting appear-
ance. Bubbles of gas come from the surfaces of the electrodes a and b
(twice as much from a as from b). Tests show that hydrogen gas is
being given off at a, and oxygen at b. Since oxygen and hydrogen
are the gases that combine to form water and since the water in ^
is disappearing, it is natural to conclude that the water is being
divided into its constituents (hydrogen and oxygen) by the action of
the electric current. This device ^ is called an electrolytic cell.
T h e compass C, which points north (along the wire in Fig. 7)
when the key is open, is deflected slightly when the key is closed.
This indicates that a magnetic eSect is produced in the vicinity of an
electric current. A phenomenon so simple as the deflection of a
compass needle hardly indicates the importance of the magnetic
effect of an electric current, for it is this magnetic effect that makes
possible the operation of electric motors as devices by means of which
electric currents perform mechanical work. T h e magnetic effect
makes possible also the radio, telephone, telegraph, and countless
other important electric devices. It is therefore apparent that the
magnetic effect of electric current is vastly more vital in our everyday
lives than the heating effect or the chemical effect.
T h e heat produced in R and L, the decomposition of water in the
cell ^ , and the deflection of the compass needle can be accomplished
only by the expenditure of energy. By means of the electrons that it
drives around the circuit, the battery E communicates energy to the
various parts of the circuit. Electrons forced through R and L en-
counter resistance to their motion because of their collisions with the
atoms of the material in R and L. These collisions agitate the atoms,
producing the atomic-molecular motion whose energy we call heat.
In ways that will be discussed later, the electrons cause the decom-
position of the water in ^ and the deflection of the compass C, and the
energy that they expend in these processes is furnished by the battery.
Various other effects of electric currents might be mentioned, b u t
they can be classified as combinations of the three main effects. For
example, the optical effect observed in light sources such as electric
lamps, advertising signs, and fluorescent lights is caused chiefly by
heating effects. The physiological effects that one experiences when he

receives an electric "shock" are caused by a combination of heating
and chemical effects.
Unit of Electric Current. The ampere, the practical unit of
electric current, is legally defined in terms of the rate at which the
current causes silver to be deposited in a standard silver electrolytic
cell (0.00111800 gm/amp-sec).
Since the ampere is a unit of current, or rate of flow of electricity, a
logical unit oi quantity of electricity is the amount transferred in 1 sec by a
current of 1 amp. The coulomb is the quantity of electricity which
in 1 sec traverses a cross section of a conductor in which there is a con-
stant current of 1 amp. The total quantity of electricity Q, (in cou-
lombs) that passes through a source of electric current in a time t is _
(1 = It (1)
where / is the current in amperes and / is the time in seconds.

Difference of Potential, Voltage. The concept of potential
difference, usually called voltage, was considered in Chap. 28. The
volt is the potential difference between two points which are so situated
that 1 joule of work per coulomb of charge is required to transport
electricity from one point to the other. Familiar examples of voltage
are those between the terminals of the dry cell, about 1.5 volts, and
household electric circuits of about 110 to 120 volts.
Resistance. The electric resistance i? of a conductor is the ratio
of the potential difference between its terminals to the current pro-
duced in it.
The practical unit of electric resistance is the ohm, which is the

resistance of a conductor in which a current of 1 amp can be main-
tained by a potential difference of 1 volt. The ohm therefore, is
merely another name for the volt per ampere. '
Ohm's Law. One of the most widely used^principles of practical
electricity is known as Ohm's law. This la:w is the statement qf the
observed fact that, if the temperature and other physical conditions
of a metallic conductor are unchanged; the ratio oj the voltage to the
THE E L E C T R I C CURRENT 397
current is a constant. In symbols
V
-J = R (a constant) (2)
This relation and its derived forms

V
/ = -b
R (3)
and
V =- IR (4)
are commonly referred to as forms of O h m ' s law.
Example: The difference of potential between the terminals of an incandescent
lamp is 6.0 volts. If the current is 1.5 amp, what is the resistance?
V 6.0 volts
From the definition i? = -5; it is seen that R <= T~E = 4.0 ohms.
I 1.5 amp
Now suppose that one wishes to determine what current will be maintained in the
lamp if the difference of potential is increased to 8.0 volts. Ohm's law indicates that
the resistance R will remain the same (4.0 ohms) when the voltage is increased; hence
we can write
, V 8.0 volts
^ = S = 4 : 0 ^ ^ = 2.0 amp
Note that it is impossible to solve this problem without using Ohm's law, that is, the
fact that R is constant.
Example: It is desired to maintain a current of 5.00 amp in an electric iron of
24.0 ohms resistance. What voltage is required?
V ^ IR = 5.00 amp X 24.0 ohms = 120 volts
Systems of Electrical Units. T h e group of electrical units used in

this chapter and generally throughout the section on electricity is
known as the practical system. This family of units is usually based upon
the arbitrarily selected unit of current, the ampere. T h e ampere is
legally defined in terms of the deposition of silver in electrolysis.
The coulomb, the volt, the ohm, and all other electric quantities
are then defined in terms of this standard of current.
I n Chap. 1 it was pointed out that a complete set of units for
mechanics could be developed in terms of three arbitrarily chosen
fundamental units. Also mention was made of the mks system of
units, which has gained international recognition. For mechanics the
basic mks units are the meter, the kilogram, and the second. By
adding one fundamental electrical unit to these three a complete set
of electrical units can be established. Either the ampere or the ohm
serves nicely for this additional unit and has the advantage of making
the practical system identical with the mks system.
A complete system of magnetic and electrical units has been built
up in terms of the centimeter of length, the gram of mass, the second
of time, and the permeability of empty space being arbitrarily estab-
lished as unity. T h e n unit pole, unit magnetic field strength, and
other magnetic and electrical units are defined in terms of these
arbitrary fundamental units. This family of units is called the elec-
tromagnetic system of units (emu). I t is not used in this book outside
of Chap. 27 on magnetism.
For some purposes there is used a system of electrical units based
upon the usual cgs units plus the dielectric constant of empty space
taken as unity. This family of units is known as the electrostatic system
of units (esu). I n this book its use is restricted to Chap. 28, Electricity
at Rest.
Both the electromagnetic and the electrostatic systems of units
are cgs systems. T h e practical units are convenient multiples or frac-
tions of the units established in the electromagnetic or the electro-
static systems.
SUMMARY
An electric current exists when there are charges in motion.
In metallic conductors the current is essentially a stream of elec-
trons forced through the circuit by the ôurce.
Cells are commonly used as 1 sources of currents when limited
amounts of energy are required.
Thermocouples transform heat energy intO' electric energy. They
are used extensively in thermoelectric thermometers.
T h e most important source of electric current is the electromagnetic
generator.
Photoelectric cells transform light energy into electric energy.
T h e chief effects of electric currents are the magnetic, heating, and
chemical effects.
T h e ampere, is the unit of electric current.
T h e coulomb is the unit of quantity of electricity, or charge.
Potential difference, or voltage, between two points is the work per

unit charge expended in moving a quantity of electricity between the
points considered.
Electric resistance is the ratio of the voltage to the current,
Ohm^s law may be stated in the symbolic forms
V V
-J - R, I = ^' or V = IR
• QUESTIONS
1. What is it that flows in an electric circuit?
2. Describe the difference between the conventional direction of electric current
and the direction of actual movement of the electrons.
3. Explain why a source of electric current should not be thought of as a source
of electricity.
4. Why do not bends in a wire affect the current in a direct current circuit?
5. Two isolated and initially charged bodies are connected by a wire. What
determines the direction of the conventional current? How long will it continue?
6. In a research laboratory a sign reading, "Danger! Ten thousand ohms," was
placed upon some apparatus. Comment upon the scientific appropriateness of this
sign.
7. Although the cost of electric energy from cells is very high such sources are
widely used. Why is this true?
8. Is Ohm's law applicable to all types of conductors under all conditions? If not,
what are its limitations?
9. Why is it more dangerous to touch a 500-volt line than a 110-volt line?
Why is it dangerous to have an electric switch within reach of a bathtub?
10. A person standing on damp earth sometimes gets a shock by touching electric
apparatus. Why is this?
11. Which is likely to be more dangerous, touching an automobile battery
terminal when it is delivering a current of 200 amp, or touching a 200-volt generator
terminal? Why?
12. Arrange the following sources of electric energy in the order of relative costs:
(a) electrostatic generator, (b) electromagnetic generator, (c) battery, (d) thermo-
couple, (e) photoelectric cell, (/) piezoelectric source. Will the order depend on the
amount of energy demanded?
13. Explain how it is possible to connect several conductors so that their joint
resistance is less than the smallest individual resistance.
PROBLEMS
1. A charge of 3600 coulombs passes through an electric lamp in 3.0 min. What
is the current in the lamp?
2. A charge of 600 coulombs flows through a rheostat in which a steady current
is maintained for 120 sec. What is the current? Ans. 5.0 amp
3. A current of 1.25 amp is maintained in a wire for 5.00 min. What quantity of
electricity flows through the wire?
4. The current in a common electric lamp is 0.50 amp. What quantity of
electricity flows through the lamp in 8.0 min? Ans. 240 coulombs
5. It requires 2880 joules of work to maintain a current of 3.00 amp in a circuit
for 4.00 min. What is the voltage of the circuit?
6. A charge of 15.0 coulombs is sent through an electric lamp when the dif-
ference of potential is 120 volts. What energy is expended? Ans. 1800 joules
7. An incandescent lamp is designed for a current of 0.60 amp. If a potential
difference of 110 volts is necessary to maintain that current, what is the resistance of
the lamp?
8. In a certain resistor there is a current of 0.45 amp when the difference of
potential between the terminals is 60 volts. What is the resistance? Ans. 130 ohms
9. A 6.00-volt battery is connected to a rheostat of 30 ohms resistance. .What
quantity of electricity flows in 10 min?
10. A battery which has a terminal voltage of 6.00 volts is connected in series
with a rheostat and an ammeter which reads 5.00 amp. Neglecting the resistance of
the ammeter, what must be the resistance of the rheostat? Ans. 1.20 ohms
11. A uniform wire 2.00 m long and having a resistance of 11.0 ohms is con-
nected in series with a battery having a terminal voltage of 6.00 volts and a rheostat
that has a resistance of 1.00 ohm. What is the reading of a voltmeter that is placed
across 60.0 cm of the wire? '
12. A simple series circuit consists of a cell, an ammeter, and a rheostat of resist-
ance R. The ammeter reads 5 amp. When an additional resistance of 2 ohms is added
the ammeter reading drops to 4 amp. Determiiie the resistance of the rheosta't R.
Ans. 8 ohms
13. A battery having a voltage of 3.00 volts is coiinected through a rheostat to a
uniform wire 100 cm long. The wire has a resistance,',of 2.00 ohms/ What must the
resistance of the rheostat be in order that the voltage* per millimeter of the wire'
shall be exactly 1 millivolt?
(DiTl
GUSTAV
HERTZ
1887 —
BORN IN HAMBURG. HEAD OF THE PHYSICAL INSTITUTE AT HALLE

UNIVERSITY. SHARED THE 1 9 2 5 NOBEL PRiZE FOR PHYSICS WITH
FRANCK FOR THE RESULTS OF THEIR ELECTRON IMPACT EXPERI-
MENTS IN THE LIGHT OF B O H R ' S ATOMIC; THEORY.
30. Electric Circuits

The practical applications of electricity are almost entirely those
which depend upon the effects produced by the flow of electricity,
that is, electric current. In order to apply and to control the heating,
chemical, or magnetic effects the engineer rhust control the current.
One of the most widely used of the laws related to electric current is
Ohm's law. From this law and its extensions vital circuit relationships
can be determined. From the point of view of practical electricity,
series and parallel circuits are of primary importance. The electrician
401
the electrical engineer, the physicist, and many others are concerned
with the relationships involved in the series and parallel connection
of various pieces of equipment.
Ohm's Law. In Chap. 29 Ohm's law was discussed briefly. This
law is a basis for study of an entire circuit or a part of a circuit. For
example, consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1. Suppose that the po-
tential difference between the terminals of the battery is 24 volts
ÂAAAA/VWWWYWW
c
<rT
FIG. 1.—Ohm's law applied to a circuit.
and that the resistance of the conductor AB is 6 ohms. Ohm's law

applied to this part of the circuit gives
^ V^^ 24 volts ^
When this current is maintained in the resistor, there is a fall of

potential or potential drop from A to B. The,point A has a higher
potential than C, C higher than D, and D higher than B. If the resist-
ance between C and D is 2 ohms
Vc. IcD X ROD = 4 amp X 2 ohms = 8 volts
The current in CD is the same as that in AB. A voltmeter connected
across CD would read 8 volts while one across AB would read 24
volts. Whenever there is a current in a resistor, there is a resultant
drop in potential.
Emf and Internal Resistance. A battery or other source
supplies a potential difference for the circuit to which it is connected.
Every such source has within it some resistance called internal resist-
ance. When there is no current in the battery, the potential difference
E between its terminals is a maximum that is called its emf, or no-
load" voltage. The abbreviation emf represents electromotive force,
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 403
but the use of "force" in this term is so misleading that it is desirable
to use the abbreviation emf without any thought of the original term.
When a current is being maintained by a battery, the voltage
across its terminals is less than the emf by the amount of the drop in
potential across the internal resistance,
V = E - Ir (1)
where V is the terminal potential difference and r is the internal re-
sistance of the battery. For any battery or other source of constant
emf the terminal voltage decreases as the current increases. However,
a battery of low internal resistance can supply a large current without
much decrease in its terminal'voltage.
Example: A battery whose emf is 6.0 volts and whose internal resistance is 0.5C
ohm supplies a current of 4.0 amp. What is its terminal voltage?
From Eq. (1)
V = E - Ir
V = 6.0 volts - (4.0 amp X 0.50 ohm)
^ = (6.0 - 2.0) volts = 4.0 volts
Ohm's Law i n Complete and Partial Circuits. Ohm's law is

applicable either to an entire circuit or to any part of a circuit that
does not include a source (or sink) of energy.
Whenever the law is applied to a complete circuit, the voltage
used is the emf E and the resistance is the entire resistance R of the
circuit.
f=- (2)
Whenever only part of the circuit is considered, the voltage V is the

drop in potential across that part and /^ E=24.0voifs
the resistance R is the resistance of F\
that part only.
r=0.20 ohm
(3)
"1--
-5.8 ohms •
This Eq. (3) can never be applied to
a part of a circuit that contains a
^WWWWWWWV-
B D 2.0 ohms C ' A
battery, generator, motor, or other FIG. 2.—Ohm's law applied to a part
device that supplies an emf. of a circuit.
I n Fig. 2 the circuit is similar to that of Fig. 1 except for the fact
that part of the resistance in the circuit is in the battery itself. Con-
sidering the entire circuit, Eq. (2) gives

^ E 24.0 volts
^ = ^ = 6 : o ^ h ^ = ^-^ ^"^P
For the part of the circuit AB, Eq. (3) gives ^ ^
VAB = IRAB = 4.0 a m p X 5.8 ohms = 23 vdhs
or for CD
VcD = IRcD = 4.0 a m p X 2.0 ohms = 8.0 volts
In the part of the circuit from F to G there is a battery a n d E q . (3)
cannot be applied. However Eq. (1) can be used here
F,g = E - /r = 24.0 volts - (4.0 a m p X 0.20 ohm)
= 24.0 volts - 0 . 8 volt = 23.2 volts
Whenever a reverse current is maintained in a battery by a source
of higher voltage, the voltage across the terminals of the battery is
given by the equation
V = E-Îr (4)
This is the arrangement that is referred to above as a sink of energy.

By the use of O h m ' s law, Eqs. (2) and (3), and its extensions,
Eqs. (1) and (4), a complete simple circuit or any of its parts can be
studied.
Resistors i n Series. Suppose that a box contains three coils of
wire whose resistances are ri, r^, and rz, respectively, and which are
connected in series as shown in Fig.
3. If one were asked to determine
the resistance of whatever is inside
<Z> the box without opening it, he would

probably place it in the circuit
shown, measuring the current 1 in
< ^
„ , ,„ . . . the box and the voltasfe V across
tiG. 3.^=-Kesistors m series. , . ^
it. H e would then write R = V/I,
where R is the resistance, of the part of the circuit inside the box. '
Let us now determine the relation of R, the combined resistance,
to the individual resistances ri, r2, and rz. The current in each of the
resistors is /, since the current is not divided in the box. T h e voltages
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 4O5
across the individual resistors are
vi = Iri, vi = hi, and V3 = Ir^
T h e sum of these three voltages must be equal to V, the voltage across

the box; thus
F = ^1 + &2 + z's or V = Iri + Ir^ + Irz
This can be written

V
V = I{rx + ra + ^'s), or ri + ra + rj = -r
b u t this is identical with R = V/I, so that
i? = ri + r2 + rs (5)
7The following facts may therefore be noted for series connection of

resistors;
1. T h e current in all parts of a series circuit is the same.
2. T h e voltage across a group of resistors connected in series is
equal to the sum of the voltages across the individual resistors.
3. Xhe total resistance of a group of conductors connected in series
is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
Example: The resistances of four incandescent lamps are 10.0, 4.0, 6.0, and 5.0
ohms, respectively. These lamps are connected in series to a battery, which produces
a potential difference of 75 volts across its terminals. Find the current in the lamps
and the voltage across each.
Using Ohm's law, it is assumed that the resistances of the lamps will remain the
same when they are placed in the new circuit (in reality, the resistance of a lamp
changes somewhat when the current in it is changed, since this changes its
temperature). This gives
•i? = (10 + 4 + 6 + 5) ohms = 25 ohms
so that
^ V 75 volts
^ = S = 2 5 ^ h ^ s = 3-0 amp
The voltage across each lamp is the product of its resistance and the current. Thus
vi = (3.0 amp) (10 ohms) = 30 volts
V2. = (3.0 amp)(4.0 ohms) = 12 volts
Vi = (3.0 amp)(6.0 ohms) = 18 volts
V4 = (3.0 amp)(5.0 ohms) = 15 volts
Resistors i n Parallel. Suppose that a box contains a group of
three resistors in parallel, of resistances ri, r^, and rz, as shown in
Fig. 4. T h e resistance of the combination will be
R = F/7, where Fis the voltage across the termi-
nals of the box and / is the total current in it.
Since the voltage across each of the resistors is F,
the voltage across the terminals of the box,
the currents in the individual resistors are,
respectively, '
V V
ii = —) tz =
FIG. 4.—^Resistors in r2
para e. "Yh.^ sum of these three currents must be the

total current 7, so that
I = h -\- ii + ii
DX
V V V
. ri ri r-i
This can be written
\ri Ti rz)
or
V n^ rt^ rz
Since F / 7 = R, we know that 7 / F = 1/7?, so that
5
R = r\- + Ti
' + -rz (6)
For parallel connection of resistors the following statements are

true: '
1. T h e currents in the various resistors are different and are in-
versely proportional Jo the .resistances. T h e total current is the sum of
the separate currents. .
2. T h e voltage across each resistor of a parallel combination/is
the same as the voltage across'any other resistor. Moreover, .the voltage
across each separate'resistor is identical with the voltage across the
vulwle group considered as a unit.
T h e statement above may become clearer from a consideration

of the fact that terminals of each resistor are connected to a com-
mon point, that is, each conductor has its beginning at a common
potential and its end at another (different) common potential.
Hencerthe PD across all conductors in parallel must be identical.
This fact provides the basis of the best method we have for calcu-
lating the currents in the separate branches of a parallel group of
resistors. Consequently, its importance is emphasized for this type
of problem is one of the most common in elementary electricity.
3. T h e reciprocal of the total resistance of a number of resistors
connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the
separate resistances.
Example: The values of thfee resistances are 10, 4.0, and 6.0 ohms, respectively.
What will be their combined resistance when connected in parallel?
1, '^ ,]^,]^ _ 1 , 1 1
R ri rj rs 10 ohms 4.0 ohms 6.0 ohms
= (0.10 + 0.25 + 0.17)/ohm = 0.52/ohm
-fz = 0.52/ohm, R = ^TVTS ohm = 1.9 ohms
Note that the resistance of the combination is smaller than any one of the individual
resistances.
It is important to note that connecting additional resistors in

series increases the total resistance, while connecting additional re-
sistors in parallel decreases the total resistance. For example, in a n
ordinary house installation, when we " t u r n o n " more lamps, we are
inserting additional resistors in parallel. We thus reduce the total re-
sistance of the house circuit, and hence (since the voltage is constant)
we increase the current in the mains.
As exercises and as an aid in the solution of problems involving the series and
parallel arrangement of resistors the student may derive the following relations:
1. The total resistance offered by n equal resistors arranged in series is equal to nr,
where r is one of the resistances.
2. The total resistance offered by n equal resistors arranged in parallel is equal
to r/n, where r is one of the resistances.
NOTE: It should be borne in mind that (1) and (2) apply only in the exceptional
cases of equal resistances. >
3. The total resistance offered by two (and only two) separate resistors of resist-
ances Tx and r2 when arranged in parallel is given by iJ = rir2/{ri -\- r^), that is, their
product divided by their sum. This statement is not true for three or more resistances.
Example: Determine the current in each of the resistors in Fig. 5.

For the parallel group, Eq. (6) gives
1 1 1 1 6.0
+ •
RBC 6.0 ohms +
9.0 ohms ^ 18.0 ohms 18.0 ohms
18 0
RBC — V n' ohms = 3.0 ohms
o.U
RAC = RAB + RBC = 4.0 ohms + 3.0 ohms = 7.0 ohms
The current / ( i n the circuit is obtained from
, VAC
RAO volts = 5.0 amp
35 ohms
7.0 (7)
This total current is the same as that in the 4-ohm resistor.

JS volts The voltage across the parallel
group VBO is equal to the resistance of
the entire parallel group multiplied by
the curreiit in the entire parallel group,
that is,
4.0 ohms VBO = RBOIBO = Rsclt = 3.0 ohms

X 5.0 amp = 15 volts (8)
IB.Oohms
Note that Ohm's law vifas applied
in Eq. (7) to the total current, total
Fio. 5.—Currents in a divided circuit.
voltage, and total resistance; while in
Eq. (8) the law was applied cqnsistendy to the current, voltage, and resistance, all
of the part BC.
Since the voltage across BC is identical with that across FG, HK, and LM, the
currents in each of these resistors may be calculated, namely,
Vpa 15 volts
IFO — Ria ~ '^jOdb^ = 2.5 amp
, _ VHR _ 15 volts
^'"'"RTK' 9:o^hi^s = ^-^ ^""p
Fijtf - 15 volts
^^^ = 5 ^ = WOoi^ = 0-83 amp
Note that
7, = (2.5 + L.7 + 0.8) amp = 5.0 amp
Applications to an Entire Circuit. If one traces completely any'

closed path in a circuit, returning to the starting point, the sum of the
various emf s of the batteries (or generators) in the path (counted
negative if they oppose the current) is equal to the sum of the voltages
ELECTRIC. CIRCUITS. 409
across the resistors in the path; that is,
S £ = X(IR) (9)
2 £ = £1 + £2 + £3 + . . .
and
S(/i?) = hR^'+ hR^ + hR^ + . . •.
Consider the circuit of Fig. 6. Let us begin at A and follow the path
of the current through E^, Ri, R2, Ei,
and i?3, returning to A.
S £ =^^(IR), or
^1 + £2 = hRi + hR2 + hRi
where, 7i is the current in Ri, etc. Since
FIG. 6.—A series circuit,

El +£2= Ii{Ri +R2+ Rs) 2 £ = i:iR.
Note that £2 will be a negative number, since it is the voltage across a
reversed battery.
Example: Find the current in the circuit of Fig. 6 if £1 = 6 volts, £2 = — 2 volts,
Ri = 2 ohms, Ri = 4 ohms, R3 = 2 ohms.
From the preceding discussion
-El + £2 = /i(-Ri + i?2 + iJs)
so that
Ei + Ei (6 - 2) volts
h Ri + R^ + R3 (2 + 4 + 2) ohms
4 volts
Batteries. A group of cells may be connected together either

+ _ 4. _ 4. in series or in^parallel, or a series-parallel
arrangement may be made. Such a
grouping of cells is known as a battery,
although this word is often loosely used
to refer to a single cell.
\AA/WVWV- Cells In Series. Cells are said
FIG. 7.—Ceils in series. to be connected in series when the
positive terminal of one cell is connected to the negative terminal of
the next, the positive of the second to the negative of the third, etc.,
the negative of the first and the positive of the last being joined to
the ends of the external resistance (see Fig. 7).
T h e laws governing a series arrangement of cells are as follows:
1. T h e emf of the battery is equal to the sum of the emf s of the
various cells.
2. T h e current in each cell is the same and is identical with the
current in the entire series arrangement.
3. T h e total internal resistance is equal to the sum of the indi-
vidual internal resistances.
Example: If each of the cells in Fig. 7 has an emf of 2 volts and an internal
resistance of 0.4 ohm, what will be the current in the middle cell when the battery is
connected to an external resistance of 18.8 ohms?
The emf of the battery is 2 + 2 + 2 = 6 volts. The internal resistance of the
battery is 0;4 + 0.4 + 0.4 = 1.2 ohms.
total emf 6 volts
Total current 0.3 amp
total resistance (18.0 + 1.2) ohms
Since the current in each of the cells is the same and is identical with the current
in the entire series arrangement, it follows that the current in the middle c'ell is also
0.3 amp.
Cells in Parallel. Cells are connected in parallel when all the

positive poles are connected together and
all the negative poles are connected together.
Connection is made to an external resistor
from the positive and negative terminals at
any point along the wires connecting the
various cells (Fig. 8).
T h e laws governing the parallel arrange-
ment of cells are as follows:
'-^wwvwwv—' 1. T h e -emf of the battery is the same
FIG. 8.^—Cells in parallel. as the emf of a single cell (when all of the
cells have the same individual emf's.) , /
2. T h e reciprocal of the total internal resistance is equal to the
sum of reciprocals of the resistances of the individual cells.
3. T h e current in the external resistor is divided between the
cells in the inverse ratio of their respective internal resistances. For
the exceptional case oi'n identical cells in parallel, the ctirrent per cell
is 1/wth of the total current. I
Example: Compare the currents' mainta,ined in a 3.0-ohm resistor by each cell
of the following arrangements: (a) a single cell^ '(*) three cells in series, and (c) three
cells in parallel. Each cell has an emf of 2.0 volis-and a negligible internal resistance.
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 41I
The emf of the first arrangement is 2.0 volts; of the second, 6.0 volts; and of the
third, 2.0 volts. Hence, the total current in each case is given by
, -Etotai J 6.0 volts
^ ' - -^R:^., ^' = 3 T 3 h S i = 2.0 amp
2.0 volts „ ^., , 2.0 volts ^ ^^
^^ = 3:0^hSs = °-^^ ^"'P ^' = 3 T ^ t o s = °-^^ ^'"P
Note that the total current in case (a) is the same as that in case {c). Since there is
only one cell in arrangement (a), the current in that cell is the same as the current in
the entire circuit, namely 0.67 amp. Since the cells in case (6) are all joined in series,
and are in jeries with the external resistor, the currents in the various cells must be
identical and equal to the total current, namely, 2 amp. In case (c), the total current
is divided equally among three cells, hence the current in any single cell is 0.67/3
amp = 0.22 amp.
Cells may be connected in series regardless of the emf s of the

individual cells, but this is not true for a parallel connection. In
the latter case, the cells should have exactly the same emf's, otherwise
there will be currents circulating in the local branches formed by the
cells. These currents do not contribute to the current in the external
resistance and serve only to waste away the cells.
Cejls are connected in series when it is desired to have a current
in a comparatively high resistance; they are connected in parallel,
when large currents are to be maintained in a low resistance. For
example, suppose it is necessary to maintain a current of 0.20 a m p in
a resistor of 50 ohms resistance using cells each of emf 2 volts and
neglible internal resistance. By Ohm's law the required voltage is
'^ V = RI = 50 "ohms X 0.20 a m p = 10 volts
Hence five cells in series could be used.

Next suppose it is desired to produce a current of 20 a m p in a
silver-plating cell, which has a resistance of 0.1 ohm. By Ohm's law,
the required voltage is
V = RI = 0.\ ohm X 20 a m p = 2 volts
Hence one 2-vblt cell could be used. But not all cells could maintain
a current of 20 a m p without being damaged. It would be better,
therefore,-to use, say four 2-volt cells in parallel. In this case, each
cell would deliver 5 amp, a current which could reasonably be carried
by one cell.
In general, if a maximum current is to be maintained in a given ex-

ternal resistor by a given number of cells, the cells should be arranged
in such a manner that their total internal resistance v^'ill most nearly
equal the external resistance. This may frequently necessitate a series-
parallel arrangement, that is, groups of cells in series may be con-
nected in parallel with a similar series group. ^
SUMMARY
T h e maximum potential difference generated by a cell or gen-
erator is called its emf. When the cell is maintaining a current its
terminal voltage is reduced according to the equation
V = E - Ir
O h m ' s law may be applied either to an entire circuit or to a part
of a circuit containing resistance only, provided that the proper volt-
ages, currents, and resistances are used. For the entire circuit
and for a p a r t of a circuit

-I
'-i
Whenever there is a reverse current in a battery the terminal
voltage is given by
V = E + Ir
For resistors in series
I = ii = H = H = • • •
V = vi + V2 + V3 +"• • •
i? = n + r2 + rs + v ;, • - '
When resistors are connected in parallel
I = ii + H + J3 + • ••
V = Vl = Vi =^3 =: • • •
i'=iii+l, ...
R ri ^2^r3 7
For an entire series circuit
S£ = 2(//?)
W h e n cells a r e c o n n e c t e d in series
E = ei + 62 + €3 + • • •
For i d e n t i c a l cells in p a r a l l e l
E = ei = 62 = 63 = • • •
QUESTIONS
1. State clearly the difference between the terms emf and potential difference. When
a dry cell is connected to an external resistor what happens to its terminal voltage?
Why?
2. A resistor forms part of a series circuit. How is the resistance of the circuit
affected if a second resistor is connected (a) in series with the first? (6) in parallel with
the first?
3. .A battery is connected to a long resistance wire. One terminal of a voltmeter
is connected to one end oi the wire. The other terminal oi the voltmeter is connected
to a sliding contact, which is then moved along the wire. Describe the way in which
the voltmeter reading varies as the contact is placed at different points on the wire.
4. Resistors A, B, and C are connected in series to a battery. To find the current
in resistor A is it satisfactory to divide the terminal voltage of the battery by the
resistance of Al Why?
5. Resistors A, B, and C are connected in parallel to a battery. To find the cur-
rent in resistor A is it satisfactory to divide the terminal voltage of the battery by the
resistance of Al Why?
• 6. As one turns on more' lamps in an ordinary household circuit what happens
to the line current? to the line voltage?
7. A string of Christmas-tree lights is frequently made of miniature lamps
connected in series. For an 8-lamp, .120-volt set what is the voltage across each lamp?
If one lamp were removed, what would the voltage be across the empty socket?
8. A piece of copper wire is cut into 10 equal parts. These parts are connected
in parallel. How will the joint resistance of the parallel combination compare with
the original resistance of the single wire?
9. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of series vs. parallel
strings of miniature lamps used for Christmas trees?
10. Compare the "short circuit" current of (a) a single cell, [b) two cells in series,
and (c) two cells in parallel. (Assume identical cells of appreciable resistance.)
11. An external resistor is to be connected to one or more identical cells each
having an internal resistance equal to the external resistance. Which arrangement
furnishes the largest current (a) 1 cell, ib) 10 cells in series, or (c) 10 cells in parallel?
12. In connecting two identical cells in parallel, by error one of the cells is con-
nected with polarity reversed from the normal direction. How would this affect
the total internal resistance? What other effect would be observed?
13. Four 1.5-volt dry cells connected in series have a total emf of 6.0 volts.
Could they be substituted satisfactorily for the 6.0-volt lead storage battery in an
automobile? Explain.
PROBLEMS
1. Three rheostats havmg resistances of 5.0, 10.9, and 21.3 ohms, respectively,
are connected in series. What is their combined resistance?
2. Find the resistance of a combination formed by 5.0 ohms and 7.0 ohms in
parallel. Ans. 2.9 ohms
3. Three conductors whose resistances are 20 ohms, 30 ohms, and 40 ohms,
respectively, are connected in parallel. What is the effective resistance of this group?
4. Five identical lamps are connected in parallel on a 100-volt house lighting
circuit. If the resistance of each lamp is 400 ohms, what current is there in the group?
Ans. 1.25 amp
5. A wire of resistance 41.2 ohms is connected in series with a group of three
rheostats in parallel whose resistances are 5.0, 10.0, and 30.0 ohms, respectively.
What is the resistance of the combination?
' 6. A pair of resistors of 5.0 ohms and 7.0 ohms, respectively, ^re cortnected in
parallel. This group is connected in series with another pair in parallel whose resist-
ances are 4.0 and 3.0 ohms. What is the total resistance. ' Ans. 4.6 ohms
7. A cell of emf 3.0 volts and internal resistance 0.10 ohm is connected through
an ammeter of resistance 0.05 ohm to a 5.00-ohm rheostat by wires having a total
resistance of 0.85 ohm. What is the current in the circuit? What percentage error is
made by neglecting all the resistance except that of the rheostat?
8. A battery of 12.0 volts terminal PD is connected to a group of three resistors,
joined in series. One resistance is unknown, the others are 3.00 ohms and 1.00 ohm.
A voltmeter connected to the 3.00-ohm resistor reads 6.00 volts. Determine the value
of the unknown resistance. Ans. 2.00 ohms
9. A wire 200 cm long has a resistance of 16.0 ohms. It is conriected in series
with a resistance box of 8.00 ohms to a battery having a terminal PD of 8.00 volts.
A poorly calibrated voltmeter connected across 150 cm of the wire reads 3.84 volts.
What is the per cent error of the reading of the voltmeter?
10. A battery has an emf of 10 volts and an internal resistance of 3.0 ohms. When
connected across a rheostat of resistance 12 ohnis, what current will it furnish?
Ans. 0.67 amp
11. The terminal voltage of a battery is 9.0 volts when supplying a current of
4.0 amp, and 8.5 volts when supplying 6.0 amp. Find its internal resistance and emf.
12. A 12-volt battery having an internal resistance of 1.0 ohm is connected in
series with the following: a 10.0-ohm coil and a parallel group consisting of three
branches having resistances of 2.0, 3.0, and 6.0 ohms, respectively. Find (a) the cur-
rent in the 3-ohm coil, and (b) the PD at the terminals of the battery.
• , Ans. 0.33 amp; 11 volts
13. Two lamps need 50 volts and 2.0 amp each in order to operate at a desired
brilliancy. They are to be connected in series across a 120-volt line. What is the
resistance of the .rheostat which must be placed in series with the lamps? ,
14. A 4.0-ohra conductor, and a. 6.0-ohm conductor are connected in parallel.
This combination is connected in series with a conductor of resistance 12 ohms. In
parallel with the 12-ohm resistor are conductors of 6.0 and 8.0 ohms, connected in
series. Calculate the net resistance of the group. Ans. 8.9 ohms
15. A battery having a terminal PD of 5.0 volts and internal resistance of 0.20 ohm
is connected to a combination of two resistors in parallel whose resistances are 5.0 and
7.0 ohms. Find the current in the battery and that in each resistor.
16. A dry cell when short-circuited will furnish a current of about 30 amp. If its
emf is 1.5 volts, what is the internal resistance? Ans. 0.05 ohm
17. Three cells of emf 2.0, 4.0, and 6.0 volts with internal resistances 0.10, 0.20,
and 0.30 ohms, respectively, are connected in series and the resulting battery is con-
nected to an external circuit of resistance 23.4 ohms. What is the terminal PD of
the 4.0-volt cell?
18. Two rheostats of resistances 10.0 and 3.00 ohms are connected in parallel
and joined to a battery of negligible internal resistance. There is a current of 0.200
amp in the 10.0-ohm resistor. Determine (a) the current in the 3.00-ohm resistor,
(b) the emf of the battery. Ans. 0.667 amp; 2.00 volts
19. A bank of three resistors in parallel is connected in series with a 3.00-ohm
resistor and a battery of negligible internal resistance. The parallel group has re-
sistances of 5.00, 8.00, and 12.0 ohms, respectively. If there is a current of 0.250 amp
in the 12.0-ohm resistor, what must be Jhe emf of the battery?
20. Two resistors of 6.00 and 2.00 ohms are connected in parallel. This arrange-
ment is connected in series with a 4.00-ohm resistor and a battery having an internal
resistance of 0.500 ohm. The current in the 2.00-ohm resistor is 0.800 amp. Deter-
mine the emf of the battery. Ans. 6.40 volts
21. A storage battery consists of 12 lead cells connected in series. Each cell has an
emf of 2.1 volts and an internal resistance of 0.050 ohm. (a) What external voltage
must be impressed on the terminals of the battery in order to charge it with a 15-amp
current? (b) What is the PD between the terminals of the battery when it is being
discharged at a rate of 30 amp?
22. A battery ot 1.5 ohms internal resistance is connected to two resistors in
series of 2.0 and 3.0 ohms. The voltage across the 2.0-ohm resistor is 8.0 volts. What
is the emf of the battery? Ans. 26 volts
23. A cell of internal resistance 0.20 ohm is connected to two coils of resistances
6.00 and 8.00 ohms, joined in parallel. There is a current of 0.200 amp in the 8.00-ohm
coil. Find the emf of the cell.
24. A cell of emf 2.00 volts and internal resistance 0.500 ohm is joined in series
with a cell of emf 1.00 volt and internal resistance 0.300 ohm. These are connected
in series with a parallel battery of three cells, each of emf 1.50 volts and internal
resistance 0.600 ohm. In series with this arrangement there is connected a group of
three parallel resistors of 4.00, 5.00, and 6.00 ohms, respectively. The circuit is closed
through a 2.88-ohm resistor. Determine (a) the current in the top 1.50-volt cell,
(A) the current in the 5.00-ohm resistor, and (c) the terminal PD of the 2.00-volt cell.
Ans. 0.273 amp; 0.265 amp; 1.59 volts
25. Twelve storage cells, each of emf 1.00 volt and internal resistance 0.10 ohm,
are arranged in two rows, each row having six cells in series and the rows being con-
nected in parallel. In scries with this arrangement is connected three cells joined in
4l6 COLLEGE T E C H N I C A L PHYSICS
series, each of emf 2.00 volts and of negligible internal resistance. The entire battery
is connected by wires of 2.00 ohms total resistance to a parallel group of three re-
sistors of 2.00, 5.00, and 10.0 ohms, respectively. Calculate the current in one of the
cells in the parallel group, and the current in the 5.00-ohm resistor.
26. A battery is made up of two parallel groups, each of six cells connected in
series. Each cell has an emf 2.0 volts and an internal resistance of 0.40 ohm. The bat-
tery is connected to an external circuit comprising an 8.8-ohm resistor connected in
series with a group of three resistors of 20, 30, and 60 ohms, respectively, connected
in parallel. Calculate (a) the external resistance, (b) the total resistance, (c) the total
current, {d) the current in the 20-ohm resistor, (e) the current in one cell, and (/)
the terminal PD of the battery.
Ans. 19 ohms; 20 ohms; 0.60 amp; 0.30 amp; 0.30 amp; 11 volts
27. Two cells have emf's of 2.00 and 1.50 volts, respectively, and internal resist-
ances of 0.050 and 0.200 ohm, respectively. If connected in parallel with each other,
what current will there be in the "series" circuit? What will be the terminal PD of
each cell? (Note that the "series" circuit consists of two cells in series with the cur-
rent reversed in one of them.)
28. It is desired to illuminate a building with 300 lamps, operating in parallel.
The lamps have a hot resistance of 200 ohms each and should operate at 110 volts.
A battery of storage cells is to be used, each of which has an emf of 2.20 volts and an
internal resistance of 0.00400 ohm. The cells should discharge continuously at the
rate of about 28.0 amp. What is the minimum number of cells that can be used and
how should they be arranged? Ans. 6 rows of 53 cells each
29. Sketch the outline of a cube. Imagine that each of the 12 edges represents a
conductor having a resistance of 1.0 ohm. What is the resistance between corners
diagonally opposite each other?
30. A 12.0-volt battery is to be charged from a 110-volt line, (a) If the internal
resistance of the battery is 0.500 ohm, how much resistance must be put in series
with the battery in order that the charging current shall be 5.00 amp? (b) What will
be the difference in potential between the terminals of the battery?
Ans. 19.1 ohms; 14.5 volts
31. A current of 10 amp is to be maintained in an external circuit of 0.40-ohm
resistance by the use of similar batteries. The batteries may be connected either all in
series or all in parallel. Each battery has an emf of 6,0 volts andan internal resistance
of 0.40 ohm. What is the minimum number of batteries required and how should they
be arranged?
32. A small generator gives a potential reading of 100 volts when a voltmeter
is placed across a resistor of 100.0 ohms resistance connected in series with the
generator. When the lOO.O-ohm resistor is replaced by a 200.0-ohm resistor, the volt-
meter reads 105.0 volts. Calculate the internal resistance and the emf of the generator.
Ans. 10.5 ohms; 111 volts
\ .
\ 'Y^ k JEAN
V ^- r PERRIN
1870 to 1942
BORN IN LILLE. PROFESSOR AT THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS. GIVEN

THE I 9 2 6 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS WORK ON DISCON-
TINUITY IN THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER, AND IN PARTICULAR
FOR HIS DISCOVERY OF THE EQUILIBRIUM OF SEDIMENTATION.
31. Magnetic Effects of Electric Currents

The fact that there is a magnetic field around an electric current
was discovered by the Danish physicist Oersted in 1819. This basic
phenomenon has led to some of the most fruitful achievements in the
entire history of science. Many of the modern developments and
practical applications to electrical apparatus have resulted from the
utilization of the magnetic effects of electric currents. These effects
are employed in motors, in most electric meters, in electromagnets,
and in practically all electromechanical apparatus.
417
4i8 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Magnetic Field around a Straight Current. In a classical

experiment, Oersted noted that a compass needle placed near an
electric current was deflected from its normal position, as shown in
Comfisss neecfje fio/n/s ^/

right ang/es fo current in Wire
IVorfh-seeking Pole
FIG. 1.—A compass needle assumes a position at right angles to a wire carrying
direct current. , ^
Fig. 1. He proved that this was caused by the magnetic field that
accompanies every electric current. This eflfect also may be demon-
strated by a very simple experiment. If a vertical current-carrying
wire is passed through a horizontal sheet of
paper and iron filings are sprinkled on the paper,
it will be observed that the filings arrange them-
selves in concentric circles around the current.
The direction of the magnetic field around
a straight current is given by the following right-
hand rule: When the wire is grasped by the right
hand so that the, extended thumS points in the
F I G . 2.—Magnetic direction of the (conventional) current, the direc-
field near a straight tion of the magnetic field is the same as the direc-
current-carrying con- tion of the fingers which are curled around the
ductor.
wire (Fig. 2).
Magnetic Field of a Solenoid. When a number of turns of wire
are wound in a tight spiral, the arrangement is called a helix or a
solenoid. A Current, in Such, an arrangement produces a magnetic
field the resultant characteristic of which is illustrated in Fig. 3.
Such a solenoidal current develops a magnetic field which resembles
that of a bar magnet. Fjor a very long solenoid the field within the
M A G N E T I C E F F E C T S OF E L E C T R I C CURRENTS 419
helix is fairly uniform, except for the region near the ends. But the
field varies greatly outside the solenoid; the lines of force flare out
at the ends.
Another right-hand rule is sometimes used to determine the
polarity of a current-carrying solenoid. This rule is: When the helix
is grasped by the right hand with the fingers encircling the solenoid
in the direction of the current in the wire, the
extended t h u m b will point in the direction of / "^v
the JV pole of the electromagnet. -^^ôiJ^ri^^ctXrtiL--^'
Electromagnets with Iron Cores, A bar »I»I5il
of soft iron or other highly permeable material V y ^'
placed within a solenoid will greatly increase
the strength of the electromagnet for a given
current. A pioneer in the making of strong
-]H
electromagnets was Joseph Henry (1797-1878) ^'°- 3.-Magnetic field
° J r 1 \ I about a solenoid.
one of the most famous of the early American
physicists. Electromagnets are made in a variety of shapes, one of the
most common being the familiar horseshoe or U-type as, for example,
those used for electric bells. Electromagnets are used extensively in tele-
phone a n d telegraph apparatus, in motors and generators, for elec-
trical measuring instruments, such as ammeters, voltmeters a n d
galvanometers, and for lifting-magnets around steel mills and rail-
road yards.
Magnetic Field Strength Near a Long, Straight Current, T h e
strength of the magnetic field near a long, straight current is given
by the equation
where H is the magnetic field strength (in oersteds), / the current

(in amperes) a n d s the distance from the wire (in centimeters). It will
be observed that the field strength near a long, straight current is
directly proportional to the current and is inversely proportional to the first
power of the distance from the wire to the point in question. This
idealized equation is valid only, for a n infinitely long current, but it
applies satisfactorily to shorter wires if the distance from the wire is
not great.
42 O COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Example: A long straight wire has a current of 25 amp in it. What is the magnetic
field strength at a point 3.0 cm from the wire?
_27_ _ 2 X 25 amp
H = 1.7 oersteds
10.J ~ 10 X 3.0 cm
Magnetic Field Strength at the Center of a Circular Current.

If there is a current / in a circular loop of wire or a closely wound coil
of a few turns the resultant field strength H at the center of the coil
is given by
^ - Tor • ^^^
where jV is the n u m b e r of turns in the coil and r is the radius of the
circular coil. \
Example: There is a current of 30 amp in a I5-turn circular coil of radius 20 cm.
What is the magnetic field strength at the center of.
this coil?
I-KNI 27r X 15 X 30 amp
H = = 14 oersteds
lOr 10 X 20 cm
As indicated by the sketch in Fig. 4, the

field of a circular coil is not at all uniform,
and the value given by Eq. (2) is valid only
at the center of the coil.
Magnetic Field Strength within a
FIG. 4.—Magnetic field of a Long Solenoidal Current. For a very
circular current.
long helix, or solenoid, the magnetic field
strength at a point near the center of the solenoid and on its longi-
tudinal axis is given by the equation
ATVNI
H = (3)
10/
where N is the number of turns in the helix and / is the axial length
of the solenoid. T h e number of turns per unit length along the axis
is frequently used in equations for the design of electromagnets
and electrical machinery. T h e symbol n (where n = N/l) may be used
for the number of!' turns per imit length and Eq. (3) may be written
Airnl
H = (4)
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF E L E C T R I C CURRENTS 421
Example: There is a current of 6.0 amp in a solenoid of 200 turns closely wound
along an axial length of 50 cm. What is the strength of the magnetic field at the center
of this coil?
47rJV7 _ 47r X 200 X 6.0 amp
H • — 30 oersteds
10/ 10 X 50 cm
In problems dealing with the design of electromagnetic machinery
Eqs. (3) and (4) are highly important. Although it should be clearly
understood that these equations apply strictly
to an infinitely long solenoid, it is found that
reasonably satisfactory results are obtained for
shorter solenoids if the radius of the circular
turns is small in comparison with the axial
length of the helix. The equations are almost
exactly valid for a closed- solenoid such as the
riijg-wound toroid illustrated in Fig. 5, if /
means the mean circumference of the toroid,
2'irR. Here the field is nearly uniform within
the coils and does not flare out anywhere FIG. 5.—A coil wound in
the form of a toroid.
as it does at the ends of an open solenoid.
Such polls are frequently used for laboratory measurements where a
calculable uniform field is desired.
Example: A toroidal coil has 3000 turns. The inner and outer diameters are
22 cm and 26 cm, respectively. Calculate the field strength inside the coil when there
is a current of 5.0 amp.
The mean radius if is 12 cm.
AvNI _ ATT X 3000 X 5.0 amp
H = 250 oersteds
10/ ~ 10 X 27r X 12 cm
Force on a Current in a Magnetic Field. In Fig. 6 a magnetic

field of strength H is shown directed hori-
zontally toward the right. A current / is
directed vertically downward in this field.
- It is found experimentally that a force is
// - exerted on this current tending to move
the current directly toward the observer.
If either the direction of the field or the
direction of the current were reversed, the
FIG. 6.—Force on a cur- thrust on the current would be directed
rent normal to a magnetic . , ,
gjgjj away from the observer.
Viewed from above, the conductor and field of Fig. 6 appear as in

Fig. 7. Conventionally the symbol O is used to represent a current
toward the reader while a current away from the reader is indicated
©. In Fig. 7 above the conductor the clockwise magnetic field
due to the electric current is in the same direction as the externally
applied field H. T h e magnetic field
above the wire is therefore strength-
ened. Below the wire the field due
to the current is opposite in direction
to the external field H. T h e field
below the wire is therefore weak-*
FIG. 7.—Force on a current in a ened. It is found by experiment that
magnetic field.
a current in a magnetic field experi-
ences a force directed from the strong part of the field toward
the weak part of the field. It is seen that the result is a force
downward on the wire. T h e force is at right angles both to the ciirrent
and to the field. ' i .
In any problem involving an electric current in a magnetic field
the direction of the side push on the conductor can be predicted
by analyzing the fields, as has been done for Fig. 7.
The Left-hand Rule. This rule, sometimes called ythe motor rule
gives the relative directions of magnetic field, current, and motion
caused by the force of a field on a ctirrent.
T h e rule is as follows: Point the index finger
of the left hand, and extend the t h u m b and
middle finger so that they are mutually at right
angles to the index finger. Fig. 8. If the t h u m b
is placed in the direction of the field and the
index finger in the direction of the ciirrent, then F/£LD
the middle finger shows the direction of the
force on the current. This rule is important in
predicting, for example, the direction the
FIG. 8.—The left-
rotor of a motor will turn for a given direc- liand (motor) rule for
tion of a r r n a t u ^ e currentj and magnetic, the force on a current
field. in a magnetic field.
Force bet^^veeh Current and Magnetic Field; Ampere',s Law.

T h e quantitative measure of the force which a current-carrying
conductor experiences in a magnetic field is given by a principle
known as Ampere's law. This law states that the force is directly pro-
portional to the current, to the strength of the field in which the wire
is situated, to the length of the wire normal to the field, and to the
magnetic permeability of the medium. I n symbols,
F = CtxHIl sin d
where F is the force (in dynes) on the current, C is a constant whose

value depends only upon the units in
which the various quantities are ex-
pressed, /i is the permeability of the
medium surrounding the current, H is
the magnetic field strength (in oersteds)
in which the current is placed, / is the
length (in centimeters) of the current ele-
ment, a n d d is the angle between the
direction of the current and the magnetic FIG. 9.—^Force on a current
field. T h e constant C has the value H o "°* ^*.^ "^ht angle with a
, ^1 i 7• • Ti magnetic field,
when the current 1 is in amperes. Hence °
the equation expressing Ampere's law is
_ iiHIl sin e , ,
10 ^ '
It will be noted that the force is a maximum when the current is

normal to the field and zero when it is parallel to the field.
Example: In Fig. 9 is shown a current of 25 amp in a wire 30 cm long, in air,

and at an angle oi 60° to a magnetic field oi strength 0.80 oersted. What is the force
on this wire?
liHIl sin e 1.0 X 0.80 oersted X 25 amp X 30 cm X 0.87 ^^ ,
F = ^^3Q— = ^ ^ = 5 2 dynes
Torque on a Current-carrying Coil i n a Magnetic Field. Con-

sider the case of a rectangular coil in a magnetic field, Fig. 10, when
the plane of the coil is parallel to the direction of the field. Applying
the left-hand rule it will be observed that the wire ab is urged upward
while wire cd is forced downward. These forces, equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction give rise to a couple, the net torque being
the product of one of these forces b y the perpendicular distance be-
tween their lines of action. By Ampere's law, the force is

„ liHI (ab) sin 90°
10
and hence the torque is
IJ.HI{ab)(ac)
10
FIG. 10.—Torque on a coil in a magnetic field.
But (ab) (ac) is the area of the coil and hence

IxHIA
L = (6)
10
where A is the area of the coil. When the plane of the coil makes an
angle (j> with the field the torque is
IxHIA cos <^
L = (7)
10
In general a coil will tend to rotate in a field until its plane is normal to
the field. This is the position where the coil links the maximum flux.
It may therefore be stated that a coil freely suspended in a magnetic '
field will align itself so as to include a maximum number of lines of
force through the cross section of the coil. Equation (7) is a basic
formula for electric motors. The torque L is expressed in centimeter-
dynes when H is in oersteds, I in amperes and A in square centi-
meters. If the coil has more than one turn the torque will be increased
in proportion to the number'of turns JV. The general equation is
•_ fjiHmA cos (j)
L - Jo . (8)
Example: A rectangular coil is 30 cm long and 10 cm wide. It is mounted, in air,

in a uniform field of strength 0.75 oersted. There is a current of 20 amp in the coil,
which has 15 turns. When the plane of the coil makes an angle of 45° with the direc-
tion of the field, what is the torque tending to rotate the coil?
fiHNIA cos e 1.0 X 0.75 X 15 X 20 X 30 X 10 X 0.71
L = = 4800 cm-dynes
10 10
Forces between Currents. When parallel current-carrying con
ductors are adjacent each exerts a force
on the other. We may think of one of the
currents with its accompanying magnetic
field as being situated in the field caused
by the other current. By Ampere's law
this "will result in a force. In Fig. 11 the
field around the long conductor A, carrying
current away from the observer, is shown
as a series of concentric circles. Conductor
B, with a current also directed away from FIG. 11.—Parallel cur-
the observer, is situated in this field. It is rents exert forces on each
therefore acted upon by a force which, other.
from the left-hand rule, is directed toward A. The field of current /,
in^wire A is given by
From Ampere's law the force on current IB in wire B is therefore
^ 10^ 10 100.y (9)

where s is the distance from A to B and / is the length of wire B.
Example: Two straight, parallel wires each 90 cm long are 1.0 mm apart, in air.
There are currents of 5.0 amp in opposite directions in the wires. What is the
magnitude and sense of the force between these currents?
2^1JBI 2 X 1.0 X 5.0 X 5.0 X 90
i? = = 450 dynes
IOOJ 100 X 0.10
From the reasoning given above the sense of this force is one of repulsion.
The general law for the sense of the force between adjacent currents
is as follows: Currents that are in the same direction experience forces of
attraction, while currents in opposite directions exert forces of repulsion.
SUMMARY
There is a magnetic field associated with every current. The direc-
tion of this field is given by a right-hand rule: with the thumb in the
direction of the current the encircUng fingers show the direction of the
field.
The field of a solenoidal current resembles that of a bar magnet.
Electromagnets are made by placing an iron core within a solenoidal
current.
The field near a very long, straight conductor is given by
The field a t the center of a circular current is given b;
The field at the center of a long solenoid is given by

ATTJVI AirnI
H =
10/ 10
There is a force on a current situated in a magnetic field. This
force is normal to both the direction of the field and the current.
These relative directions are sometimes indicated by the left-hand
(motor) rule.
Ampere's law, giving the force on a current in a magnetic field,
is expressed by
J-, _ fiHIl sin 6
ro~"
The torque on a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field is given
by ^ • .
liHIA cos (^
L =
10
Adjacent currents in the same direction experience forces of at-
traction. Currents in opposite directions exert forces of repulsion.
The force between two long, straight currents is given by
lOOj .^
QUESTIONS.^ '
1. The current in a conductor is directed eastward. What is the direction of the
magnetic field (a) above the conductor? (i) below the conductor? (c) to the north?
•(d) to the south?
M A G N E T I C E F F E C T S OF E L E C T R I C CURRENTS 427
2. If one looks in the direction of a current will the associated magnetic lines be
clockwise or counterclockwise?
3. The current in a vertical helix is counterclockwise as one looks down on it.
What is the direction of the field inside the helix? outside the helix?
4. A wire in the north-south direction has maintained in it a current directed
north. Describe what happens to a compass needle, of the conventional type, mounted
on vertical bearings, as the needle is placed {a) above the wire, (i) below the wire,
and (c) at the right side of the wire.
5. Sketch a curve showing how the magnetic field strength near a long, straight
current varies with distance away from the current.
6. A compass needle is placed near a wire in which an alternating current is
maintained. Describe the action of the compass.
7. A current in a conductor directed eastward is in a magnetic field that is
directed vertically upward. What is the direction of the force on the conductor? •
8. A helical coil of wire tends to change its length when a current becomes
established in it. Does the helix-tend to lengthen or shorten? Explain.
9. A loosely wound helix made of stiff wire is mounted vertically with the lower
end just touching a dish of mercury. When a current is started in the coil it executes
an oscillatory motion with the lower end jumping out of and into the mercury.
Explain the reasons for this behavior.
10. A piece of flexible wire is wrapped loosely around a strong cylindrical bar
magnet. When there is a heavy current in the wire, it entwines itself around the
magnet. If the current is reversed, the wire uncoils and winds itself around the
magnet in the opposite sense. Explain the reasons for this behavior.
11. Make a sketch of the essential parts of an electric doorbell and describe
briefly the physical principles involved in its operation.
12. Two wires very close together are connected in series. An alternating current
is maintained in the wires. What force is observed between these wires? Explain.
13. Describe the operations of a magnetic crane. What are some of the advantages
which it has over the conventional derrick?
14. On the basis of modern theory as to the electrical nature of atoms, suggest a
possible explanation for the magnetic nature of certain materials. Why are other
materials nonmagnetic?
PROBLEMS
1. A long, straight, vertical wire carries a current of 30 amp directed upward.
What is the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field due to this current at a
point 1.5 cm directly in front of the wire?
2. Two long, straight, parallel wires in which there are currents of 2.0 and 3.0
amp, respectively, in the same direction are 10 cm apart. Find the magnitude and
the direction of the magnetic field strength at a point halfway between them.
Am. 0.040 oersted
3. An upward current of 7.2 amp is maintained in a long, straight wire in a
place where the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field is 0.25 oersted.
Calculate the resultant magnetic field at a point 8.0 cm from the wire (a) due north
of the wire, (b) due west of the wire.
4. Two long, straight, parallel wires in which there are currents of 5.0 amp and
10.0 amp in opposite directions are 10 cm apart. Find the magnitude anti direction
of the magnetic field strength at a point halfway between them. Ans. 0.60 oersted
5. There is a current of 15 amp in a closely wound circular coil of 60 turns and
radius 30 cm. What is the strength of the magnetic field at the center of the coil?
6. A circular coil of 50 turns has a diameter of 30 cm. Its magnetic field exerts a
force of 1950 dynes on a magnetic pole having a strength 300 u.p. placed at its center.
What is the current in the coil? Ans. 3.1 amp i
7. What current would there have to be in a circular coil of wire of 50 turns and
25 cm radius in order to just cancel the effect of the horizontal component of the
earth's magnetic field at a place in the northeastern United States where the hori-
zontal component of the earth's field is 0.20 oersted? How must the coil be set up?
8. Two concentric circular loops of wire having radii of 9.42 and 6.28 cm,
respectively, are connected in series. What field strength is produced at the center
of the coils when there is a current of 30.0 amp in them (a) in the same direction?
(i) in opposite directions? • Ans. 5.00 oersteds; 1.00 oersted '
9. A circular coil has 300 turns wound closely on a radius of 18.5 cm. A small
compass needle is mounted on a vertical axis at the center of the coil. The coil is
adjusted until its plane is parallel to the earth's magnetic field, which at that place
has a strength whose horizontal component is 0.215 oersted. There, is a current of
3.58 amp in the coil. Through what angle will the compass needle be deflected?
10. What is the force on a magnetic pole of strength 300 u.p., placed at the center
of a solenoid 100 cm long, wound with 600 turns of wire in which there is a current of
0.500 amp? Ans. 1130 dynes
11. A solenoid 100 cm long is wound with 350 turns of wire. Another layer of 200
turns is wound over the central 50 cm of the first solenoid. There is a current of
15 amp in the longer solenoid. In the shorter helix there is a current of 25 amp in a
sense opposite to that of the longer solenoid. What is the strength of the resultant
magnetic field at the center of these solenoids?
12. A solenoid is wound in the form of a toroidal ring. The average radius of the
ring is 30.0 cm and the solenoid has 1000 turns. There is a current of 2.50 amp in the
solenoid. What is the field strength inside the solenoid? Ans. 16.7 oersteds
13. What force would act on a pole of strength 60 u.p. placed inside an air-core
toroid (ring solenoid) of 30 cm average radius, having 1000 turns and in which there
is a current of 0.25 amp?
14. A conductor 80 cna long carrying a current of 20 amp is perpendicular to a
uniform magnetic field of 5.00 oersteds. What is the magpitudc of the force on the
conductor? If the field is directed east and the current is directed upward what is the
direction of the force? Ans. 800 dynes; north
15. A current of 60 amp is maintained in astraight wire 100 cm long. The wire is
situated in a uniform magnetic field of strength 3.00 oersteds, directed toward the
north. The direction of the current is from northeast to southwest. What is the
magnitude and the direction tif the force on the wire?
ARTHUR
HOLLY
GOMPTON
1892 —
BORN IN WOOSTER, OHIO. PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF

CHICAGO, AND LATER DEAN, DIVISION OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
THE 1 9 2 7 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS WAS AWARDED JOINTLY TO
COMPTON AND WILSON, TO THE FORMER FOR HIS DISCOVERY OF
THE COMPTON EFFECT, WHICH CONFIRMED THE QUANTUM THEORY
OF RADIATION AND ASSIGNED MASS AS WELL AS ENERGY TO LIGHT
QUANTA.
32. Electric Instruments

Practically all electric measurements involve either the measurement
or detection of electric current. The measurement of electric current
can be accomplished by means of any one of the three principal
effects of current: heating effect, chemical effect, or magnetic effect.
429
For the sake of accuracy and convenience the magnetic effect is
utilized almost universally in electric measuring instruments.
Galvanometers. T h e basic electric instrurnent is the galva-
nometer, a device with which very small electric currents can be
detected a n d measured. T h e d'Arsonval, or permanent-magnet-
moving-coil type of galvanometer, is shown in Figs. 1 and 2. I n
Fig. l a the coil C is suspended between the poles JVand Soia U-shaped
magnet by means of a light metallic ribbon. Coimections are made to
the coil at the terminals marked t. T h e cylinder of soft iron B and
the pole faces N and S are skilfully shaped so as to produce a radial
magnetic field in the air gap. This has the virtue of giving a field
(a) (6)
FIG . 1.—Permanent-magnet, moving-coil type of galvanometer.
that is constant in magnitude and always paraillel to the plane of the

coil as the coil revolves. These conditions are necessary if the instru-
ment is to have a scale with uniform graduations. T h e mirror M is
used to indicate the position of the coil, either by reflecting a beam
of light onto a scale or by producing an image of a scale to be viewed
through a low-power telescope.
When a current is set up in a coil which is between the poles of a
magnet, the coil is acted upon by a torque, which tends to turn it into
a position perpendicular to the line joining the poles. If a current- is
set u p in the coil (as viewed frdm above) in Fig. 1 b, the coil will turn
toward a position at right angles to the position shown. In turning,
however, it must twist the metallic ribbon that Supports it; hence it
turns to the position in which the torque exerted on it by the magnet
is just neutralized by the reaction of the twisted ribbon.
ELECTRIC INSTRUMENTS 431
The torque exerted on the coil by the magnet is proportional to
the current in the coil, and the torque of reaction of the ribbon is
proportional to the angle through which it is twisted. Since these
torques are equal in magnitude and opposite in sense when the coil
reaches the equilibrium position, the angle through which the coil
turns is proportional to the current in it; that is 0 oc 7, where 6
FIG. 2.—Laboratory galvanometer with telescope and scale.
is the angular deflection of the coil. This condition is realized only in

well-designed instruments, in which case the galvanometer scale is
properly made with equally spaced divisions. In practice, readings
are made on a linear scale, since the deflection s read on the scale is
proportional to the angle of deflection 6.
Galvanometer Sensitivity. The deflection caused by a given
current depends upon the design of the instrument. This character-
istic is known as the sensitivity of the galvanometer. There are nu-
merous ways of expressing galvanometer sensitivity, each involving
a statement of the electrical conditions necessary to produce ajstand-
ard deflection. This standard deflection in galvanometers having
attached scales is assumed to be one scale division. I n galvanometers
not equipped with scales (for example, galvanometers read with
auxiliary telescope and scale) the standard deflection is assumed to
be 1 m m for a scale distance of 1 m. Some of the most used methods of
expressing galvanometer sensitivity follow.
Current Sensitivity. As previously stated the galvanometer
deflection s is proportional to the current / . . r'
s oc I
whence
I = ks
or
* = ' • «
where k, the current per unit deflection, is called the current sensitivity
of the galvanometer.
For sensitive galvanometers of the type shown in Fig. 2, which
are read with telescope and scale, the current sensitivity k is expressed
in microamperes per millimeter deflection on a scale 1 m from the
mirror. T h e current sensitivity is nuraerically equal to the current
in microamperes (millionths of an ampere and commonly abbreviated
fxa) required to cause a 1-mm deflection of the image on a scale 1 m
distant. For the highly sensitive types of d'Arsonval galvanometers,
k is about 0.00001 jua/mm, or 1 0 ~ " a,mp/mm. Other'expressions of
galvanometer sensitivity are derived' from the current sensitivity.
It should be carefully noted that the t e r m serisitivity is a technical word
meaning the reciprocal of sensitiveness. A< sensitive' galvanometer
has a low sensitivity k.
Voltage Sensitivity, T h e voltage sensitivity is the potential differ-
ence that must be impressed on the galvanometer terminals (including
any external' damping resistance) in order to produce the standard
deflection. It is equal to the product of the resistance of the galvanom-
eter and the. current sensitivity.
Megohni Sensitivity. T h e megohm sensitivity of a galvariometer
is the n u m b e r of megohms (meg = million) resistance which must
be put in series with the galvanometer in order to give the standard
deflection for a potential difference of 1 volt across galvanometer
and resistor. Consideration of Ohm's law shows that when the resist-
ance of the galvanometer coil is negligible the megohm sensitivity of
the galvanometer is numerically equal to the reciprocal of the cur-
rent (in microamperes) required to produce the standard deflection.
Other Galvanometer Characteristics. The choice of a galva-
nometer is not made on the basis of sensitivity alone. Much depends
on the purpose for which it is to be used. The period of the swing
and.the quickness with which the coil comes to rest are important.
Permanent
Magnet
Upper
Control Sprind
.Moving
Coil
Magnetic
Core
LiOvtrer ^^
Canirol Spring
FIG. 3.- -Diagrammatic representation of a portable-type galvanometer.
Also the resistance of the galvanometer should have the proper relation
to the resistance of the circuits with which it is connected.
Portability, ruggedness, and convenience of operation are ob-
tained in the d'Arsonval galvanometer by mounting the moving coil
on jeweled pivots, attaching a pointer to the coil, and replacing the
metallic ribbon suspension by two spiral springs as shown in Fig. 3.
The springs, besides balancing the magnetic torque exerted on the
coil, provide its external connections. The current sensitivity of an
instrimient of this type may be expressed in microamperes per divi-
sion of the scale over which the pointer moves.
Example: A galvanometer of the type shown in Fig. 2 has a current sensitivity of
0.002 ;ua/mm. What current is necessary to produce a deflection of 20 cm on a scale
1 m distant?
I = ks, where s is in millimeters (on a scale 1 m away), so that
I = (0.002 ;ita/mm)(200 mm) = 0.4 â.
This is equivalent to 0.0000004 amp. On a scale twice as far away, the d;?flection
would be twice as great.
Example: A current of 2.0 X lO"'' amp causes a deflection of 10 divisions on the
scale of a portable-type galvanometer. What is its current sensitivity?
/ 0.00020 amp 200 ^ta „„ ,,. . .

A = - = -„ .. . . = ^„ -1- • • = 20 ua/division
s 10 divisions 10 divisions '^ '
Example: If the moving coil of the galvanometer of the first example has a
resistance of 25 ohms, what is the potential difference across its terminals when the
deflection is 20 cm?
V = IR= (0.0000004 amp) (25 ohms) = 0.00001 volt
Example: What current will cause a full-scale deflection (100 divisions) of a
portable galvanometer for which k = 20 jua/division?
1= ks = (20 /ia/diyision)(100 divisions) = 2000 /la = 0.0020 amp
Example: Calculate {a) the voltage sensitivity and {b) the megohm sensitivity R,
of the galvanometer in the preceding example if its resistance'is 5.0 ohms.
a. V = kR= (20 ,. ^^ ) (5.0 ohms) = 100 ^.'^^.

\ division/ ' division
b. R, = J = -^ = 0.050 megohm
Galvano-volt-ammeter. A galvanometer is often used merely

to indicate the presence and direction of a current or its absence.
In fact the most common use of a galvanometer is as a null-indicating
instrument, that is, as an instrument which indicates when a current
is reduced to zero (Chap.; 33). For this purpose the galvanometer
scale need not be calibrated in terms of current. A galvanometer that
is not very sensitive, usually of the the pointer type, can be used
interchangeably either as a galvanometer, an ammeter, or a volt-
meter. For instance, for the galvanometer of the last' two examples
above, the potential difference for full scale deflection would be
V = IR = (0.0020 amp) (5.0 ohms) = 0.010 volt.
This means that the instrument can be thought of as a voltmeter with
which voltages up to 0.010 volt can be measured. Since deflection,
current, and potential difference are in direct proportion, each
division represents either 0.00010 volt or 2.0 X 10"** amp.-If this
meter were intended to' be used primarily in measuring potential
difference, it would be called a millivoltmeter, and its scale would be
marked 0 to 10 mv (millivolts), each 10 divisions representing 1 mv or
0.001 volt.
O n the other hand, if it were intended primarily for use in meas-
uring current, it would be called a milliammeter, and its scale might
FIG. 4.—A galvano-volt-ammeter.
be marked 0 to 2 m a (milliamperes) in 100 divisions, each 5 divisions

representing 0.1 m a or 0.0001 amp. A typical galvano-volt-ammeter
is shown in Fig. 4.
Voltmeters. T h e voltage across the usual galvanometer is
exceedingly low. If higher voltages are to be measured, it is necessary
to insert a resistor of high resistance in series with
the moving coil of the instrument. Most of the
potential drop will then occur across the multiply-
ing resistor. By properly choosing this resistance
any desired voltage may be measured. For instance,
with the galvano-volt-ammeter described above,
the maximum voltage that is measurable is 10 mv.
3 VVV\
In order to use this galvanometer as a voltmeter FIG. 5.—Circuit
registering to 10 volts, it is necessary only to in- of a voltmeter, show-
crease its resistance until a potential difference of ing the multiplying
10 volts is jiist sufficient to produce in it a current resistance.
of 0.0020 a m p , or enough for a full-scale deflection. Hence
F _ 10 volts
= 5000 ohms
J ~ 0.0020 a m p
"j-f;^
^^rrs^'
r 436 COLLEGE T E C H N I C A L PHYSICS
SO that the resistance of the meter (5 ohms) must be increased by the

t -
addition of a series resistance r of 4995 ohms, as in the diagram of Fig.
5. The scale of the instrument should be labeled 0-10 volts, so that
each division represents 0.1 volt. If a potential difference of 5 volts is
applied to the terminals of this instrument, the current is
V 5 volts
k Since 0.002 a m p is the full-scale current, the deflection will be just

half scale, or 50 divisions, indicating 5 volts on the 0-10 volt scale.
T*'t , w .
Wy/A/6
COIL -SHUNT
- i -Si? - .••• .J^^
FIG. 6.—^The coil of an ammeter is shunted by a low resistance. The photograph

shows details of the construction of a typical ammeter.
It should be noticed that the resistance of the voltmeter is /? = r -\- Rg,

where r is the series resistance and Rg is that of the galvanometer.
Example: What series resistance should be used with the galvanometer just
discussed in order to employ it as a voltmeter of range 0 to 200 volts?
V 200 volts
R = = 100,000 ohms
0.002 amp
total resistance, obtained by making r = 99,995 ohms. Each division on this instru-
ment will represent 2 volts, and its scale will be labeled 0-200 volts.
Ammeters. It was pointed out that the portable galvanometer of

5 ohms internal resistance and requiring 0.0020 amp for a full-scale
deflection can be used as a milliammeter for measurements of 0 to
2.0 ma, since 2.0 ma = 0.0020 amp. I n order to use it as an ammeter
for measurements up to 5.0 amp, it is necessary to connect a low
4 ^:>M',. * '
.A..C''
resistance, called a shunt, across its terminals, as in Fig. 6. In order to
be deflected full scale, the galvanometer must carry just 0.0020 a m p ;
hence the shunt S must carry the remainder of the 5.0-amp current, or
4.998 a m p .
The potential difTerence across the galvanometer is
F = 7i? = (0.002 amp) (5 ohms) = 0.01 volt,
which must be the same as that across S, thus
V 0.01 volt ^ ^^^ ,
K, = -r — A i^cn = 0.002 ohm
" Is 4.998 a m p
This resistance is so small that a short piece of heavy strip or wire
might be used for S in this case. Some commercial shunts for ammeters
are shown in Fig. 7.
FIG. 7.—Ammeter shunts.

In practice, since it is very difficult to make the resistance R
exactly a certain value when it is to be very low, one commonly
obtains a shunt whose resistance is slightly larger than is needed,
inserts a comparatively large resistance r in series with the coil (Fig.
8<z), and then adjusts the value of the resistance r to make the meter
operate as desired. For example, in the case of the meter discussed
previously a shunt of 0.002 ohm was needed. However, if a shunt of
resistance 0.008 ohm were available, one could utilize it by increasing
r. A current of 4.998 a m p in a shunt of 0.008-ohm resistance
results in a potential difference of (4.998 amp)(0.008 ohm) = 0.03998
volt. This potential difference must cause a current of 0.002 a m p
in the galvanometer and r combined. Their combined resistance
must be
0.03998 volt
= 19.99 ohms.
0.002 a m p
yjfr ,-&-
t^"'
Since the resistance of the meter is 5.0 ohms, that of r must be adjusted
to (19.99 — 5.0) ohms = 14.99 ohms. T h e accurate adjustment of a
resistance of this size is not difficuk.
A galvanometer may be employed as an ammeter of several
different ranges through the use of a number of removable shunts,
+ 5 - + H/G/f MED LOW

(a) (b)
Fio. 8.—Ammeter circuits.
I'iG. y.—Commercial type of ammeter.
or by the use of a circuit such as that in Fig. 86. Connection is made

to the + terminal and to one of the three terminals marked high,
medium, and low, respectively. T h e advantage of this circuit is that
the shunt connections are permanently made, eliminating the error
due to the variation of contact resistance when a removable shunt is
used. A typical commercial d-c ammeter is illustrated in Fig. 9.
Meter-range Formulas. In order to increase the range of a
voltmeter by a factor N, one introduces in series with it a resistance
Rm given by
Rr. = {N - \)R, (2)
in which i?„ is the resistance of the voltmeter.
Example: A voltmeter has a resistance of 250 ohms and a range of 0 to 10 volts.
What series resistance will provide it with a range of 0 to 50 volts?
Since N = SO volts/10 volts = 5
Rr. = (N - l)i?„ = (5 - 1)(250 ohms) = 1000 ohms.
In order to increase the range of an ammeter by a factor M, one

connects in parallel with it a resistance Rg given by
Rs = y ^ '• (3)
Example: What shunt resistance should be used with an ammeter whose resist-
ance is 0.048 ohm in order to increase its range from 0 to 1 amp to a range of 0 to
5 amp?
i?„ 0.048 ohm „„,.,,
R, = jTzri = 4 = 0.012 ohm
Effects of Meters in the Circuit. W h e n an ammeter is inserted

into a circuit the current to be measured is changed by the introduction
of the ammeter. It is essential that the change in current thus caused
shall be a very small fraction of the current itself, that is, the resistance
of the ammeter must be a small fraction of the total resistance of the
circuit.
Similarly, when a voltmeter is connected between points whose
potential difference is to be measured, the potential difference is
changed by the presence of the voltmeter. When the voltmeter is placed
in parallel with a portion of the circuit, the resistance is reduced,
hence the potential difference across that part of the circuit is de-
creased and the total current is increased. T h e voltmeter introduces two
errors: changing the current in the circuit and reducing the potential
difference that is to be measured. In order that these errors shall be
small, it is essential that the resistance of the voltmeter shall be very
large in comparison with the resistance across which it is connected.
This will ensure also that the current in the voltmeter will be small
in comparison with that in the main circuit.
SUMMARY
The galvanometer is the basic instrument for the detection or
measurement of currents and related quantities. T h e d'Arsonval
galvanometer consists of a permanent magnet, a movable coil, and an
indicating device.
The current sensitivity of a galvanometer is the current per unit
deflection,
The voltage sensitivity is the voltage required per unit deflection.

The megohm sensitivity is numerically equal to the reciprocal of the
current sensitivity, in microamperes.
A galvanometer may be converted into a voltmeter by the use of a
series resistance multiplier.
A galvanometer may be converted into an ammeter by the use of
a low-resistance shunt in parallel with the meter.
T o increase the range of a voltmeter one uses a series multiplier of
resistance
To increase the range of an ammeter one uses a shunt of resistance
Rs =
N - 1
QUESTIONS
1. In what respects are the actions of a galvanometer and a motor similar?
2. Describe the way in which a radial magnetic field is approximated in d-c
instruments. Why is this type of field important? ,
3. Make a conventional wiring diagram to show the essential parts of a meter
that can be used either as a (a) galvanometer, {b) multirange ammeter, or (c) multi-
range voltmeter.
4. What essential differences are there between the common types of galvanome-
ters and ammeters? between ammeters and voltmeters? How are ammeters connected
in a circuit? How are voltmeters connected? Is it desirable for an ammeter to have a
high resistance or a low one? Should a voltmeter have a high resistancev or a low one?
5. Give the logical reasoning to show why the deflections of a well-designed d-c
voltmeter are directly proportional to the voltage at the terminals of the instrument.
6. An ammeter and a voltmeter of suitable ranges are to be used to measure the
current and voltage of an electric lamp. If a mistake were made and the meters inter-
changed, what would happen?
7. Some types of fuses used to protect electric meters have resistances of several
ohms. Is this objectionable in (a) voltmeter circuits and {h) in ammeter circuits? Why?
8. Most ammeter terminals are made of heavy, bare metal while voltmeter
terminals are usually much lighter and well insulated. Explain why this is desirable.
9. Suppose a perfect galvanometer could be built in which the angular deflection
would be directly proportional to the current. If such an instrument were used with a
lamp and straight scale, plot a rough curve to show how the scale readings would vary
with the current.
10. State some ways in which the sensitivity of a galvanometer may be increased.
Describe the limitations of each of these methods, that is, why may not the instrument
be made infinitely sensitive by each change?
11. Explain why the difference in potential indicated by a voltmeter may not be
the PD between the points before the voltmeter is connected.
12. Derive the formula that gives the resistance of the multiplier necessary to
increase JV-fold the range of a voltmeter, namely,
Rm = C'V - l)fi.
13. Derive the formula that gives the resistance of the shunt necessary to increase
jV-fold the range of an ammeter, namely,
- ' • . :: V R, ^"
JV- 1
PROBLEMS
1. A portable galvanometer has a zero-center scale and 20 divisions on each
side of zero. A pointer attached to the coil deflects 15 divisions for a current of 38(xa.
What is the current sensitivity of this instrument?
2. What is the current sensitivity of a galvanometer that is deflected 20.0 cm
on a scale 250 cm distant by a current of 3.00 X 10"^ amp? Ans. 0.375 /xa/mm
3. The galvanometer of problem 2 has a resistance of 150 ohms. What is the
voltage sensitivity?
4. What is the megohm sensitivity of the galvanometer of problem 2?
Ans. 2.67 megohms
5. A portable galvanometer is given a full-scale deflection by a current of 0.00100
amp. If the resistance of the meter is 7.0 ohms, what series resistance must be used
with it to measure voltages up to 50 volts?
6. It is desired to employ the galvanometer of problem 5 as a milliammeter of
range 0 to 50 ma. What is the resistance of the shunt which should be placed across
it? Ans. 0.14 ohm
7. If the lowest shunt resistance available in problem 6 is four times as large as
desired, what can be done to achieve the desired result?
8. In a simple series circuit a battery is connected through an ammeter to an
electric lamp. A voltmeter is connected in parallel with the lamp. The ammeter
indicates 0.75 amp and the voltmeter 50 volts. V/hat is the resistance of the lamp,
neglecting the fact that the voltmeter carries a small part of the current?
. • Ans. 67 ohms
9. In problem 8 the current is incr^sed to 1.00 amp. What will now be the
reading of the voltmeter?
10. If the current in the voltmeter of problem 8 is 0.0010 amp for each volt
indicated by it, what is the actual current in the lamp and the corrected value of its
resistance? Ans. 0.70 amp; 71 ohms
11. What is the resistance of the voltmeter of problem 8?
12. A certain 3.0-volt voltmeter requires a current of 10 ma to produce full-scale
deflection. How may it be converted into an instrument with a range of 150 volts?
Ans. 14^700 ohms
13. An ammeter with a range of 5.0 amp has a voltage drop across it at full-scale
deflection of 50 mv. How could it be converted into a 20-amp meter?
14. A certain meter gives a full-scale deflection for a potential difference of
0.050 volt across its terminals. The resistance of the instrument is 0.400 ohm. (a) How
could it be converted into an ammeter with a range of 25 amp? {b) How could it be
converted into a voltmete^with a range of 125 volts? Ans. 0.00201 ohm; 999.6 ohms
15. A millivoltmeter with a resistance of 0.800 ohm has a range of 24 mv. How
could it be converted into (a) an ammeter with a range of 30 amp? {b) a voltmeter
with a range of 12 volts?
16. An ammeter has a resistance of 0.0090 ohm and reads up to 10 amp. What
resistance shunt is needed to make full-scale''deflection of the meter correspond to
100 amp? Ans. 0.0010 ohm
17. A milliammeter has a resistance of 5.00 ohms, and shows a full-scale deflection
when there is a current of 10.0 ma. (a) What resistor should be connected in series
with the milliammeter in order that a full-scale deflection may correspond to 150
volts? (A) What is the resistance of a shunt that can be connected across the terminals
of the milliammeter in order that a full-scale deflection may correspond to 10 amp?
18. What part of the total current will pass through an instrument of resistance
0.60 ohm when a 0.20-ohm shunt is connected across dts terminal? Ans. 25 %
19. A dry cell, anadjustable calibrated resistor;, and a voltmeter are connefted in
series. With the resistor set at zero resistance, the voltmeter reads 1.48 volts. When the
resistor is adjusted 150 ohms, the voltmeter reads 0.79 volt. What is the resistance
of the voltmeter?
20. It is desired to determine accurately the resistance of a coil R of approximate
resistance 20 ohms by connecting it in a circuit with an ammeter and voltmeter.
The voltmeter has a range'of 150 \?olts and a resistance of 15,000 ohms. The ammeter
has a range of 1.5 amp and resistance of 0.033 ohm. Should the meters be connected
so that (a) the voltmeter measures the p.d. across both R, and the ammeter, or (b) so
that the ammeter measures the total current in R and the voltmeter? What per cent
error is introduced in each case by the effect of one instrument on the readings of
the other? ' ^«j. 0.16; 0.13%
•v,*
i
• ^ . - ,
CHARLES
xl *»MR<-jV":
THOMAS
REES
y fV WILSON
\ 1869 —
BORN IN GLENCORSE, NEAR EDINBURGH. PROFESSOR AT CAM-

BRIDGE. SHARED THE 192 7 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS WITH
COMPTON FOR HIS DISCOVERY OF A METHOD OF RENDERING
DISCERNIBLE THE COURSE OF ELECTRICALLY CHARGED PARTICLES
BY THE CONDENSATION OF VAPOR.
33. Electrical Measurements

Much of the rapid advance in the understanding and user of electricity
is the result of the precision and definiteness with which electrical
measurements can be made. These measurements have provided a
quantitative basis for determining and utilizing important electrical
phenomena. Also, electrical measurements frequently serve as con-
venient and accurate means of measuring other physical quantities
such as temperature, pressure, distance, and time. Certain electric
443
444 COLLEGE TECHNICAL, PHYSICS
instruments or circuits designed primarily to measure a specific
electric property have become versatile methods of measuring a
variety of important related quantities.
^ The electric quantities most frequently measured are current,
voltage, and resistance. From the measurement of these quantities
and their variations man-pother physical properties may be determined.
The Wheatstone Bridge. One of the most convenient, precise,
and widely used instruments for measuring resistance is the Wheatstone
bridge. It consists essentially of a network of four resistors, three of
which are known and the fourth to be determined. In Fig. 1, the con-
ventional diagram of a Wheatstone bridge is
illustrated. The combination is called a bridge
because the galvanometer circuit is bridged
across the two parallel branches MAN and
MBN. In general, the current divides unequally
between the two branches. By adjusting the
values of the resistances the current in the galva-
nometer is made zero as indicated by zero
FIG. 1.—Conven- deflection. The bridge is then said to be balanced,
tional diagram of a that is, the points A and B are at the same poten-
Wheatstone bridge.
tial. When the bridge is balanced, the fall in
potential from M to A is the same as that from M to B and similarly
the potential difference between B and JV is identical with that
between A and N.
For the balanced bridge, let the current in the resistors Rx and R^
be called /i, and the current in the resistors R-i and R^ be called 1%.
Since the fall of potential over MA equals the fall over MB,
i?i/i = -^3/2 (1)
Similarly,
Rdx = R,h (2)
Dividing Eq.- (2) by Eq. (1) gives
Ri Ri
' (3)
Ri •Rz
or
R, = R ^' (4)
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 445
Hence, if any three resistances are known, the fourth resistance can be
computed.
The Box Form of Wheatstone Bridge. From Eq. (4) it will be
noted that it is not necessary to know the values of R4, and R3 but
merely their ratio in order to determine R^. Commercial bridges are
built with a known adjustable resistance that corresponds to Ri and
r
-•*;^t"i??r^^V*™-
FIG. 2.—Commercial form of box type Wheatstone bridge.
ratio coils that can be adjusted at will to give ratios that are con-
venient powers of 10, usually from 10~^ up to 101 In some instruments
both battery'and galvanometer are built into the same box as the
resistances, with binding posts for connection to the imknown
resistance.
A very convenient type of box to manipulate is the dial-decade
form (Fig. 2). In this type of box, the ratio coils R4 and R3 are so
arranged that the value of R^/R^ can be varied from 1000 to 0.001 in
powers of 10 by manipulating only one dial. It will be seen that R2
will equal Ri multiplied by some convenient decimal ratio. For
instance, if a resistance of about 200 ohms were being measured, Ri/Rs
could be made 0.1, and hence, if Ri were found to be 2138 ohms,
Ri would equal 213.8 ohms. This is the value shown by the box in
Fig. 2.
Example: A typical commercial Wheatstone bridge, illustrated in Fig. 2, has the
dial-decade resistance Rx variable from 1.00 to 9999 ohms and the ratio Ri/R^ variable
from 0.00100 to 1000. What are the maximum and minimum values of unknown
resistances that can be measured by this bridge? Are these values feasible in practice?
Why?
iJj = -Ri D^ = 9999 X 1000 = 9,999,000 ohms
4
i?2 = 1.00 X 0.00100 0.00100 ohm
Neither of the extreme values in the example above is feasible in

practice. Insulation leakage resistance limits 4he accuracy of the
higher range, and contact and lead wire resistances introduce serious
errors in the lower ranges. In practice the bridge is most suitable for
measuring resistances in the range from 1 to 100,000 ohms.
Ri R,
/WWWj tf^M\N^
M - ^ N
^^'/''^^'f''^^^W'/^^ff<f'f'f'N^N*f^J'tihN-t't^^
-CJf—>j-«- b'-~
4
FIG. 3.—Slide-wire form of Wheatstone bridge.
Slide-wire Wheatstone Bridge. In the slide-wire form of the

Wheatstone bridge sliown Schematically in Fig. 3, the branch MEN
is a uniform resistance wire of manganin, usually 1000 mm long, so
that the ratio of R^ to i?3 is simply the ratio of the two lengths BN to
MB. The point A iS' fixed, and the galvanometer contact is moved
along MN until the proper point B is found. The working equation
then becomes
R. = R.'^ (5)
where b is the length of the slide-wire from N to B and a is the length

from M to B.
Example: In the slide-wire bridge shown in Fig. 3 the wire MBN is 100 cm long
and the slider is at the 30 cm mark when the galvanometer reads zero for Ri equal
to 50 ohms. What is the unknown resistance?
i?2 = ^1 - = 50 ohms -^r^ = 120 ohms

a '30 cm
Factors upon Which the Resistance of a Conductor Depends.
Georg Simon O h m , who formulated the law that bears his name,
also reported the fact that the resistance of a conductor varies directly
with its length, inversely with its cross-sectional area, and is a characteristic oj
the material of which it is made.
From the study of resistances in series, one would expect that to
change the length of a piece of wire would change its resistance, as it
can be thought of as a series of small pieces of wire whose total resist-
ance is' the sum of the resistances of the individual pieces,
R = ri + r2 + rs + . . .
The resistance of a piece of uniform wire is directly proportional to its
length.
Consider a wire 1 ft in length and having a cross-sectional area of
0.3 in.^ By thinking of this as equivalent to three wires (1 ft in length)
having cross-sectional areas of 0.1 in.^ connected in parallel^ we may infer
that
1=1+1+1
R ri^r2^r^
or, since ri = ra = rz,
-?: = — and ri = 2)R

R ri
showing that the resistance of one of the small wires is three times as
great as that of the large wire. This suggests (but does not prove) that
the resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to the cross section, a
_ fact that was verified experimentally by O h m himself.
Using R cc I and R cc I/A, as indicated at the beginning of this

section, we can write R cc l/A, where / is the length and A the cross-
sectional area of a uniform conductor. This relation can be written
in the form of an equation
^ R - ^ ^ (6)
where p is a constant, characteristic of the material of the conductor.

This constant p is called the resistivity or sometimes the specific
resistance.
Solving Eq. (6) for p gives
p = Rj 0)
If A and / are given values of unity, itîs seen that p is niamerically

equal to the resistance of a conductor having unit cross section and
unit length. j
If R is in ohms, A in square centimeters, and / in centimeters, then
p is expressed in ohm-centimeters.
Example: The resistance of a copper wire 2500 cm long and 0.090 cm in diameter
is 6.7 ohms at 20°C. What is the resistivity of copper at this temperature?
From Eq. (7)
A (6.7 ohms) ir(0.090 cm)
P = ^J= 2500 cm 4 = ^"^ >< ' ° ''ohm-cm
Example: What is the resistance of a copper wire (at 20°C) which is 100 ft in
length and has a diameter of 0.024 in.?
(0.024 in. •= 0.0020 ft.)
From the preceding example
,„_ , 1.7 X 10-6 ohm-cm 1.7 X (lO-e)
p = 1.7 X 10 6 ohm-cm = ^QJ^^^ = 30:5 ohm-ft.
/ 1.7 X (10-6) .(100 ft) , „ .
^ = " I = — 3 0 : 5 — °^'^-^' ^^Kotoo20ft)V4 = ^-^°*'"''
T h e unit of resistivity in the British engineering system of units
differs from that just given, in that different units of length and area
are employed. T h e unit of area is the circular mil, the area of a circle
1 mil (Cl.OOl in.) in diameter, and the unit of length is the foot. T h u s
the resistivity of a substance is numerically equal to the resistance of a
E L E C T R I C A L MEASUREMENTS 449
sample of that substance 1 ft long and 1 circular mil in area, and is
expressed in ohm-circular mil per foot. Since the area of a circle in
circular mils is equal to the square of its diameter in mils (thousandths
of an inch), R = p{l/d'^), where d is the diameter of the wire in mils,
/ its length in feet, and p the resistivity in ohm-circular mils per foot.
Example: Find the resistance of 100 ft of copper wire whose diameter is 0.024 in.
and whose resistivity is 10.3 ohm-circular mils/ft.
d = 0.024 in. =,24 mils

£ _ (10.3 ohm-circular mils/ft)(100 ft) _ . „ ,
^ (P 24^ circular mils
This agrees with the result of the preceding example.
Change of Resistance with Temperature. The electric resist-

ance of all substances is found to change more or less with changes of
temperature. Three types of change are observed. The resistance may
increase with increasing temperature. This is true of all pure metals
and most alloys. T h e resistance may decrease with increase of tem-
perature. This is true of carbon, glass, and m a n y electrolytes. T h e
resistarice may be independent of temperature. This is approximately
true of many special alloys, such as manganin (Cu 0.84, Ni 0.12,
M n 0.04).
Experiments have shown that the change of resistance with tem-
perature of conductors can be represented by the equation
Rt= Ro^ Roat = Roi\ + at) (8)
where Rt is the resistance at temperature t, Ro is the resistance at 0°,

and a is a quantity characteristic of the substance and known as the
temperature coefficient of resistance. T h e defining equation for a is
obtained by solving Eq. (8) giving
The temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the change in resistance per

unit resistance per degree rise in temperature, based upon the resistance at 0°.
Although Eq. (8) is only approximate, it can be used over medium
ranges of temperature for all but very precise work.
45° COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Since (Rt — RQ) and RQ have the same units, their units will cancel
in the fraction of Eq. (9), and, hence, the unit of a depends only upon
the unit of t. For example, for copper a = 0.004 per °C, but only
% X 0.004 per °F. \
It should be clearly understood that Ro in the above equations refers^
to the resistance at 0° and not at any other temperature. A value of a
based upon room temperature, for example, is appreciably different
from the value based upon 0°.
It is interesting to note the fact that the vadue of a for all pure
metals is roughly the same, namely, ^73) or about 0.004, per degree
centigrade. Observe that this value is the same as the coefficient of
expansion of an ideal gas. It suggests that at the absolute zero of
temperature (—273°C), a conductor would have zero resistance, that
is, a current once started would continue indefinitely without the
expenditure of any energy to keep it going. It has been shown by
recent investigators who have produced temperatures .,as low as
0.04°K that at this temperature a current once started continues for
several hours without an applied potential.
TABLE I. RESISTIVITIES AND TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS
Temperature coeffi-
p at 20°C, p at 20°G, ohm- cient of resistance
Material
microhm-cm circular mil/ft (based upon resist-
ance at 0°C) per °C
Copper, commercial 1.72 10.5 0.00393

Silver 1.63 9.85 0.00377
Aluminum 2.83 17.1 0.00393
Iron, annealed 9.5 57.4 0.0052
Tungsten 5.5 33.2 0.0045
German silver (Cu, Zn, Ni) 20-33 122-201 0.0004
Manganin 44. 266. 0.00000
Carbon, arc lamp 6000. -0.0003
Paraffin 3 X W*
Resistance Thermometer. On account of the accuracy and ease

with which resistance measurements may be made and the well-
known manner in which resistance varies with temperature, it is
common to use this variation to indicate changes in temperature.
Devices for this purpose are called resistance thermometers. Platinum
wire is frequently used as the working material because it does not
react with chemicals and because of its high melting temperature. A
coil of fine platinum wire contained in a
porcelain tube is placed in the region whose
temperature is to be measured. The resistance I
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of the coil is measured by a Wheatstone

bridge. Often these instruments are made to
record temperatures on a chart and they are
also frequently linked with devices to control
temperatures at predetermined values. They
can be made to measure temperatures with BULB
I i VVWWtfNr-'
great precision from exceedingly low temper- FIG. 4.—^Resistance ther-

atures to about 1200°C.' The circuit of a mometer.
resistance thermometer is shown in Fig. 4.,
The Potentiometer Principle. The potentiometer, as the name
implies, is a device for measuring potential differences. The essential
principle of the potentiometer is the balancing of one voltage against
another in parallel with it. In the simplified diagram of Fig. 5a a
branched circuit is shown in which the deflection of the galvanometer
indicates a current, because of the PD along the slide-wire AC to
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(a) (b)
FIG. 5(a).—Simplified circuit to illustrate the potentiometer principle. (6) A simple
slide-wire potentiometer.
which it is connected. In Fig. Sh a cell has been introduced into the

lower branch. Depending upon the voltage of this cell the current in
the lower branch may now be in either direction, as indicated by the
arrows. As a very special case the current in the lower branch may be
zero when the emf of the cell just equals the PD between A and B
and the positive terminal of the cell is connected to the same end of
the slide-wire as the positive terminal of the working battery W.
In the actual potentiometer the unknown emf, which is to be meas-
ured, is balanced against a potential drop along a calibrated slide-wire.
Direct-reading Slide-wire Potentiometer. The arrangement
shown in Fig. 5b furnishes the essentials of an elementaryj b u t prac-
tical, form of direct-reading slide-wire potentiometer. A storage
battery serves as a working source of emf to maintain a constant drop
of potential along the slide-wire resistor AC. A standard cell of known
emf is connected to the slide-wire, the position of the sliding contact
B being chosen carefully so as to make the reading on the scale at B
equal to the emf of the cell. For example, anemfof 1.018 volts might be
represented by 1018 scale divisions. By means of the rheostat R the
current in the slide-wire is then adjusted so that the PD between A
and B is just equal to the emf of the standard cell, this Condition
being indicated by zero deflection of the galvanometer. T h e PD per
scale division is then 1 mv and the potentiometer is said to be direct
reading. A cell of unknown voltage is then inserted instead of the
standard cell and the sliding contact B is adjusted until the poten-
tiometer again is balanced The emf of the unknown cell can then be
read directly on the scale.
Precision Potentiometers. A typical form of precision poten-
tiometer is shown in Fig. 6. The instrument is direct reading. In it the
straight slide-wire of Fig. 5 is replaced by a set of carefully matched
resistances and a slide-wire wound spirally on a drum. An emf is read
in tenth-volt steps on the dial that adjusts the contact on the fixed
resistances. T h e fractions between these steps are read from the posi-
tion of the continuously variable rotating contact on the slide-wire.
By this means voltages may be determined to six significant figures
with a compact and convenient potentiometer. The control rheostats
of the instrument shown are in the case and are manipulated by
rotating the knobs shown at the right. External connections are made
to the working battery, the standard cell, the unknown emf, and the '
galvanometer. The small push buttons in the lower left of the picture
are the galvanometer keys, arranged for increasing the sensitivity. In
some portable potentiometers the working battery, standard cell, and
galvanometer are also contained in the case.
M a n y potentiometers are used in automatic indicating, recording,
and control devices for the measurement and control of a wide variety
of industrial processes. A typical case would be the measurement and
[regulation of the temperature of a group of furnaces at a distance
ffrom the control station. -1,1.1
A great advantage of the potentiometer is that at the moment oi
balance there is no current in the cell under test. Hence the lead wires
do not carry any current, so that errors due to line drop or contact
resistances do not occur. But even more important is the fact that the
true emf of the cell is obtained and not just the terminal PD, which 'P'ii
FIG. 6.—A precision potentiometer.
differs from the true emf by the drop of potential over the internal
resistance of the cell in accordance with the equation,
V = E - Ir
where V is the terminal PD of the cell of emf E and internal resistance

r when there is a current / in the cell. At the momtnt of balance
7 = 0 and hence V = E, regardless of the value of the internal resist-
ance of the cell. For instance, an old dry cell may have such a high
internal resistance that its apparent emf as read by a voltmeter m a y
be very small, while the potentiometer will give an emf as high as 1.4
volts in many cases. ^
By the use of comparatively simple additional apparatus the
potentiometer may be utilized to make measurements not only of
emf b u t also of current, resistance, and power. Such devices are
therefore widely used in commercial laboratories for the calibration
of a wide variety of electrical meters and instruments.
• SUMMARY
A Wheatstone bridge is a device for the comparison of resistances.
T h e working equation is
Ri = i?i -5-
For a slide-wire bridge the ratio R^/Rz equals the ratio of the two
lengths b/a of the portions of the slide-wire. In the box form of bridge
the ratio Ri/Rz is obtained by means of ratio coils adjustable in
powers of ten.
T h e resistance of a conductor
1. Varies directly with the length
2. Varies inversely with the area of cross section
3. Depends upon the nature of the material and the temperature
T h e resistance of a wire is given by
T h e defining equation for resistivity is
P=Rj
Resistivity is measured in ohm-centimeters in the metric system

a n d in ohm-circular mils/foot in the British system.
T h e resistance of a conductor varies with temperature.,For many
materials this variation may be expressed by
Rt = Ro. + Real
T h e temperature coefficient of resistance is defined by
Rt "~ Ro'
a = Rot
For all pure metals a is roughly }-273 per °G. Near absolute zero
many metals have negligible resistance.
T h e basic potentiometer principle is the balancing of one voltage
against another. A slide-wire potentiometer may be calibrated to read
directly voltages to be measured. M a n y commercial potentiometers
are made to register pr control voltages or other phenomena that are
dependent upon voltage.
An advantage of the pote'ntiometer over a voltmeter is the fact
that the potentiometer takes no current from the source being meas-
ured and hence gives a reading of terminal voltage equal to the emf.
QUESTIONS
1. A Wheatstone bridge is balanced in the usual manner. The galvanometer and
the working battery are then interchanged. Describe how the galvanometer then
would behave when the switches are closed.
2. Sketch a wiring diagram for the auxiliary circuit to a potentiometer, which
is needed to calibrate an ammeter by the use of a potentiometer and a standard
resistor.
3. Does the resistivity of copper vary with temperature? If so, in what manner?
4. Show how one might compute the area in circular mils of a bus bar if the
length and width of the rectangular cross section are known.
5. Why is copper or silver used in electric bus bars rather than a less expensive
material such as iron?
6. When the current in the filament of an electric lamp is varied, the resistance
is found to change. Is this because of the-change in the physical condition of the wire
(for example, temperature) or merely on account of the increased current? How would
the resistance be affected by the current change if the wire could be kept at a con-
stant temperature?
7. Two electric lamps, each of rating 120 volts, 100 watts, are simultaneously
connected to the power line. One lamp has a tungsten filament, the other a carbon
filament. Which lamp will first reach its equilibrium temperature? Give reasons
for your answer.
8. Sketch approximate curves to show the variation of resistance of copper with
temperature when the temperature is plotted (a) in degrees centigrade, (b) in degrees
Kelvin.
9. In defining the temperature coefficient of resistance, the resistance at 0°G is
usually taken as the reference base. What change, if any, would be made in the value
of this coefficientif the base temperature were taken as 20°G instead of 0°C?
PROBLEMS
1. A meter form of slide-wire Wheatstone bridge is balanced with the known
resistance at 450 ohms and the slider at the 42.8 cm mark. What is the value of the
unknown resistance? (The bridge is arranged as in Fig. 3.)
2. What is the resistance of a wire 238 ft long and 0.0500 in. in diameter, the
wire being made of copper of resistivity (specific resistance) 10.5 ohm-circular mils/ft?
Ans. 1.00 ohm
3. Find the resistance of 5000 ft of copper wire of diameter 0.0110 in. The
resistivity of the copper is 10.3 ohm-circular mils/ft.
4. How much copper wire of radius 0.0250 in. and having a resistivity of 10.5
ohm-circular mils/ft will be needed to make a coil of resistance of 2.23 ohms?
Ans. 530 ft
5. It is desired to maintain a current of 40.0 amp in a JOOO-ft wire with a maxi-
mum of 5.00 volts line drop. Gopper of resistivity 10.5 ohm-circular mils/ft is to be
used. What is the minimium diameter wire that can be used?
6. A certain wire has a resistivity of 1.750 microhm-cm. Calculate its resistivity
in the usual British units, namely, ohm-circular mils per foot.
Arts. 10.55 ohm-circular mils/ft
7. Show that a resistivity of 10.5 ohm-circular mils/ft is equivalent to approxi-
mately 1.70 microhm-cm.
8. A column of mercury 106.3 cm long with a cross-sectional area of 1.00 (mm)^
has a resistance of 1.00 ohm at 0°G. What is the resistance between the opposite
faces of an inch cube at the same temperature? Ans. 37.0 microhms
9. A copper tube has an inside diameter of 1.00 cm and an outside diameter of
1.10 cm. Its length is 100 cm and its resistivity at 0°C is 10.0 ohm-circular mils/ft.
Determine its resistance.
10. What is the temperature of a furnace in which the coil of a platinum ther-
mometer has a resistance of 1020 ohms if the resistance at 0°C iS 300 ohms? The
temperature coefficient of resistance of platinum is 0.00392 per °G. Ans. 613°C
11. At 0°C the resistance of the armature of a motor was 0.500 ohm. After operat-
ing the motor the resistance increased to 0.600 ohm. What was the rise in temperature
of the copper wire in the armature?
12. A platinum thermometer has a resistai^ce of 25.00 ohms at 0°C. What is the
approximate value of the temperature of the thermometer when it has a resistance
32.20 ohms if the temperature coefficient of resistivity of platinum is 0.00392 per °C?
•Ans. 73.4°C
13. Wire having a radius of 0.0300 in. and resistivity 10.8 ohm-circular mils/ft
at 40°C is used to make a coil having a resistance of 7.00 ohms at 100°C. What is the
resistance of this copper wire at 0°C? How much wire is used?
14. What is the resistivity of a wire 20 m long and 0.030 cm in diarrfeter if it has
a resistance of 25 ohms at 0°C? What would be the resistivity of this wire at 70°C if it
has a temperature coefficient of resistance of 0.0050 per °C?
Ans. 8.8 microhm-cm; 12 microhm-cm
15. Copper wire of radius 0.0250 in. and resistivity 10.3 ohm-circular mils/ft at
0°C is to be used to make a wire of resistance of 4.46 ohms, (a) How long a wire is
necessary? (b) What would be the resistance of the wire at 70?C?
16. How much wire of radius 0.0300 lin. and resistivity 10.8 ohm-circular mils/ft
at 40°G is needed to make a coil having a resistance of 7.00 ohms at 100°C, the tem-
perature coefficient of resistance being 0.00400, per °C? ^ , Ans. 1940 ft
17. A copper wire has a diameter of 0.500 mhi and a resistivity of 2.00 X 10"°
ohm-cm at 0°C. How much of this wire would be necessary to make a 10.0-ohm coil? '
If heated from 0 to 100°C, what would be its resistance?
18. In the circuit of a potentiometer, which is not direct reading, AB and BC
(Fig. 5b) are adjusted to 64.0 and 36.0 cm, respectively, in order to produce zero
deflection of the galvanometer w.hen a standard' cell of emf 1.0183 volts is in the cir-
cuit. When the terminals are connected to the grid and cathode, respectively, of a
radio vacuum tube (in operation), AB is changed to 95.0 cm.in order to reestablish
the condition of zero deflection. What is the potential difference between the ele-
ments of the radio tube? ' Ans. 1.51 volts
SIR
OWEN
WILLANS
RICHARDSON
1879 —
BORN IN DEWSBURY, YORKSHIRE. DIRECTOR OF THE PHYSICAL

LABORATORY AT K I N G ' S COLLEGE, LONDON. AWARDED THE I 9 2 8
NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS WORK ON THERMIONIC
PHENOMENA AND FOR DISCOVERY OF THIi LAW WHICH BEARS HIS
NAME.
34. Chemical Effects of Electric Current

The chemical eflfects of electric currents have \videspread and impor-
tant applications. Chemical action provides a convenient source of
electric current in places where power lines are impractical, for there
batteries can be substituted. Dry cells in many sizes provide energy for
portable electric instruments, and storage batteries are available for
purposes that require considerable amounts of energy.
4S7
O n the other hand, electric energy is used to produce desirable

chemical change. Plating of metals to increase attractiveness or to
reduce wear or corrosion is common in industry. T h e purification of
copper by electrolytic deposition has long been an established pro-
cedure. Aluminum was a laboratory curiosity until a n electrical
method of extraction was developed to reduce the cost of production.
T h e ever-increasing use of electrical refining methods makes available
m a n y new and valuable materials.
Liquid Conductors; Electrolytes. Liquids that are good con-
ductors of electricity are of two classes. Mercury and other metals
in the liquid state resemble solid metals in that they conduct elec-
tricity without chemical change. Pure water, oils, and organic
compounds conduct electricity to only a very small extent. Salts,
bases, and acids, fused or in solution, are decomposed by the current
and are called electrolytes.
T h e difference between liquid conductors and liquid insulators
may be illustrated by an experiment using the apparatus of Fig. 1. A
t vessel A wi?h electrodes of metal or car-
bon, a battery B, and an incandescent

j lamp C are connected in series, ^f the
8 vessel contains pure water, there will be
practically no current, nor will there be a
FIG. 1.—Circuit to show the current if sugar solution or glycerin is
conductivities ofliquids.; placed in A. If, however, a solution .of
salt or sulphuric acid is placed in the vessel A, a current in the solution
will be indicated by the lighting of the lamp C.
We have previously discussed ,the picture of ah electric current in
a metal as a swarm of electrons migrating slowly from the negative
pole of a battery to the positive pole, t h a t is, in a direction opposite,
to that assumed for the conventional current. I n many nonmetallic/
conductors the currents are not swarms of drifting electrons b u t
rather of charged atoms and groups of atoms called ions.
Electrolytic Dissociation. I n the experiment just proposed, the
salt solution differs from the sugar solution in that it has present m a n y
ions while the sugar solution does not. When common salt (NaCl) is
dissolved in vyater, its molecules break u p or dissociate into sodium ions
and chlorine ions. T h e molecule as a whole has no net charge b u t
in the process of dissociation the chlorine atom takes with it a n extra
C H E M I C A L E F F E C T S OF E L E C T R I C CURRENT 459
electron giving it a single negative charge, while the sodium atom is
thus left with a deficit of one electron, that is, with a single positive
charge. If electrodes are inserted into the solution and a battery con-
nected as shown in Fig. 2, the nega-
tively charged chlorine ions are attracted III
to the positive terminal while the posi-
tively charged sodium ions are attracted 1
to the negative terminal. T h e current ANOD£ CATHODE
that exists in the cell is the result of the - • — ^
net motion of the ions caused by these -©•^ * © '

attractions. This conduction differs from -^© * ©
-ê ® -
that in a solid in that both negative a n d
©— © -
positive ions move through the solution.
T h e electrode at which the conventional
ElBCTROLYTE
current enters the cell is called the anode,
FIG. 2.—Migration of ions in
that by which it leaves is called the electrolytic conduction.
cathode.
All acids, salts, and alkalies dissociate when dissolved in water a n d
their solutions are thus electrolytes. Other substances, including sugar
and glycerin, do not dissociate appreciably and hence their solutions
are not conductors.
OT'
D&
Oz
^H,
H,S04
^ ^ ^ = ^ r ^ ' CUSO4
-Î|I1I|I|K AAAAAA/
FIG. 3.—Circuit to show decomposition of electrolytes by an electric current.
Electrolytic Decomposition, Electrolysis. When an ion in the

electrolytic cell reaches the electrode it gives u p its charge. If it is a
metallic ion such as copper, it is deposited as copper on the negative
460 COLLEGE TKCHNICAL PHYSICS
terminal. Chlorine or hydrogen will form bubbles of gas when

liberated. Other materials, such as the sodium already mentioned,
react with the water and release a secondary product. Thus the elec-
trolytic cell containing salt solution yields chlorine and hydrogen
gases as the products of the decomposition. T h e chemical action
associated with the passage of electricity through a conducting solu-
tion is called electrolysis. In Fig. 3 a battery is connected through a
rheostat to a cell C containing water to which a little sulphuric acid
has been added and a second cell D containing copper sulphate
(CUSO4) into which copper electrodes have been placed. When the
switch is closed, bubbles of gas appear at each of the termirials of
cell C. If the gases are tested, it is found that hydrogen is set free at the
cathode and oxygen at the anode. In the cell D a bright deposit of
copper soon appears at the cathode while copper is removed from the
anode.
When one material is deposited upon another by electrolysis, the
process is known as electroplating. This process is very commonly used
to produce a coating of silver, nickel, copper, chromium, or other
metal. T h e success of the process in producing a smooth, even layer
of metal depends upon such factors as the cleanness of the surface, the
rate of deposition, the chemical nature of the solution and the tem-
perature. For each metal there are optimum conditions, which must
be set up with the skill born of experience if the best results are to be
obtained.
Faraday's Laws of ElcQtrolysis. Quantitative measurements
made by Faraday (1833) contributed to the understanding of the
processes occurring in electrolytic cells and showed a striking relation
between the electrolytic behavior and the chemical properties of
various substances. Faraday established by experiment the following
two laws, which are known, respectively, as Taraday's first and second
laws of electrolysis:
FIRST L A W : T h e mass of a substance separated in electrolysis is
proportional to the quantity of electricity that passes.
SECOND LAW^; Thfe massi of a substance deposited is proportional
to the chemical equivalent of the ion, that is, to the atomic mass
of the ion divided by its valence. T h e chemical equivalents of some
common ions are illustrated in Fig. 4. Faraday's laws may be ex-
pressed by the following symbolic statements:
CHEMICAL E F F E C T S OF E L E C T R I C C U R R E N T 461
/ _ atomic massN
\ ~ valence /
ma: Q (Q^ = It)
Whence
m = kcQ = zQ, = zit {Z = kc) (1)
where A: is a proportionality constant, whose value depends only upon

the units involved; m is the mass deposited and ^ is a constant for a
A B C D E
Hy- —0- —i^
HCl NaCl ZnCli
- ^ > - —0^
ZnS04 CUSO4
H CI Na Zn Cu SO4
K008 35.46 . 23.00 65.38 63.57 96.06
/ / / Z 2 ' 2
FIG. 4.—Chemical equivalents of ions. The figures give the relative masses of different
materials liberated in electrolysis by the same quantity of electricity.
given substance (but different for diflferent substances), which is

known as the electrochemical equivalent of the substance considered.
The electrochemical equivalent of a substance is the mass deposited per unit
charge, that is, it is numerically the number oj grams deposited by an unvarying
current of 1 amp in 1 sec. •
T h e international ampere is legally defined in terms of the electro-
chemical equivalent of silver, that is, it is the unvarying current which
will deposit in 1 sec 0.00111800 gm
of silver from a n aqueous solution
of silver nitrate. If an unknown
current is maintained in a solution
whose electrochemical equivalent is
known, we could determine the value
of the current from the measured
mass of the material deposited and
the time. I n fact, the calibration of
our ammeters is based essentially
Cfeii SCI t o
upon such experiments. T h e appara-
FIG. 5.—A coulombmeter.
tus used for this purpose is called a
"coulombmeter" (Fig. 5). It consists essentially of a pair of plates,
connected together to form the anode and a single gain plate, the
cathode, placed midway between the positive plates. In practice.
this method is rarely used, since it is^ slow a n d the experimental
technique rather difficult when precise data are to be obtained.
Calculations of Electrochemical Equivalents. From Faraday's
second law a n d the standard value of z for silver, the value of z for
any other substance can be calculated if its chemical equivalent is
known. From Faraday's second law the following proportion is valid:
Unknown electrochemical equivalent chemical equivalent of the sul^tance
Electrochemical equivalent of silver chemical equivalent of silver
In symbols
C
ZAQ
Introducing the standard values for silver,
Z = 0.00111800
107.9 107.9/0.001118
z = 96,500 (2)
TABLE I. ELECTROCHEMICAL DATA
Electrochemical
Atomic
Element Valence equivalent,
mass
gm/coulomb
Aluminum. 27.1 ^ 3 0.0000936

Copper. . . 63.6' 2 0.0003294
Copper. . . 63.6 1, 0.0006588
Gold 197.2 3 0.0006812
Hydrogen. 1.008 1 0.0000105
Iron 55.8 3 0.0001929
Iron 55.8 / 0.0002894
Lead 207.2 2 0.0010736
Silver 107.9 2 0.00111800
'1
The Faraday. .A gram equivalent of an element, or ion is a mass,

in grams, numerically equal to its chemical equivalent, t h a t , is,
1.008 gm for hydrogen' 8.00 gm for oxygen, 31.8 gm for copper, 107.9
gm for silver, etc. From Eq. (2) the rather remarkable result is
obtained that a charge of 96,500 coulombs will deposit one gram equivalent of
C H E M I C A L E F F E C T S OF E L E C T R I C C U R R E N T 463
any substance. This charge 96,500 coulombs is known as a.Jaraday. A

table of electrochemical data is given on the preceding page.
Example: How long will it take to electroplate 3.00 gm of silver onto a brass
casting by the use of a steady current of 15.0 amp?
m = zit
gm
3.00 gm = 0.001118 ^^^["^^^ 15.0 amp X t
' t = 178 sec
Example: Calculate the electrochemical equivalent of copper.
From Eq. (2)
c 31.8 gm „ , gm
Z
96,500 ®
96,500 coulombs - 0.000329 coulomb
—%—
Voltaic Cells. It has been seen that the passage of electricity

through a n electrolytic cell produces chemical changes. T h e reverse
effect is also true. Chemical changes in a cell will produce a n electric
current in a circuit of which the cell is a part. This fact was established
by an Italian scientist, Volta (1800); hence such cells are called
voltaic cells.
If a. rod of pure zinc is placed in a dilute solution of sulphuric acid
(Fig. 6), some of the zinc goes into solution. Each zinc ion so formed
leaves behind two electrons on the electrode
and thus itself acquires a double positive Zn
charge. T h e attraction of the negatively
charged rod for the positively charged ions
soon becomes so great that no more zinc ^n
can leave the rod a n d the action stops. A
difference of potential is thus set up between
the negatively charged rod a n d the solution,
In.
the rod being negative with respect to the H0SO4.
solution. If a second zinc rod is placed in the
solution, a similar action will take place FIG. 6.—Potential dif-
and it too will acquire a negative potential. ference developed between
When the two rods are connected, no an electrode and an elec-
trolyte.
electrons will flow from one to the other for
they are at the same potential. If however, the second zinc rod is re-
placed by a copper rod (Fig. 7), the rate at which the copper dissolves
is less than that for the zinc, and, when the action stops, the difference
in potential between the solution a n d the copper is not the same as
that between the solution and zinc. Hence, when the copper rod is
connected externally to the zinc by a conductor, electrons flow from
the zinc to the copper. T h e cell is a voltaic
cell in which copper forms the positive
Cu Zn terminal and,zinc the negative.
-_
ii A voltaic cell may be formed by placing

__~ --- any two conductors in an electrolyte, pro-
vided that the action of the electrolyte is
more rapid on one than on the other. T h e
Q'^) >
© >^m ::
9^<^ _~
-_ emf of the cell is determined by the com-
4- position of the electrodes and the electrolyte.
-~
© ®-^ Local Action. If a rod of commercial
<d^Z. ^^ zinc is placed in the acid cell, the action
FIG. 7.—^The voltaic ef- does not stop after a short time as it does
fect of dissimilar electrodes with pure zinc. Small pieces of other metals
in an electrolyte. that make u p the impurities are embedded
in the zinc, a n d two metals in contact with each, each other and
the acid form a local cell with a closed circuit. This process is called
local action. For each such center, chemical action will continue as
long as the impurity' is in contact with the zinc and hence the rod
dissolves rapidly. Such chemical action may cause rapid corrosion of
underground pipes, or of imperfectly plated metals when they are in
contact with solutions.
Polarization. Whenever a voltaic cell is in action, some kind of
material is deposited upon an electrode. I n the copper-zinc-sulphuric
acid cell hydrogen is liberated at the copper terminal and collects as
bubbles of gas. Such deposition of foreign material on an electrode
produces eff"ects called polarization. It is undesirable; in a cell because
the internal resistance is increased and also the emf of the cell is
decreased. In some cells the materials are so selected that the material
deposited is the same as the electrode itself. Such cells are not polar-
izable. I n other cells a depolarizing agent is used to reduce the'
accumulation of foreign material.
The Dry Cell. T h e most commonly used voltaic cell is the
so-called dry cell (Fig. 8). T h e positive electrode of this cell is a carbon
rod a n d the negative terminal is the zinc container for the cell. A
layer of paper moistened with ammonium chloride (NH4CI) is placed
C H E M I C A L E F F E C T S OF E L E C T R I C CURRENT 465
in contact with the zinc, while the space between this and the central
carbon rod is filled with manganese dioxide and granulated carbon
moistened with ammonium chloride solution. T h e ammonium
chloride is the electrolyte and in the
chemical reaction hydrogen is liberated
at the carbon elecff-ode, thus polarizing CARBON
the cell. T h e manganese dioxide acts as a ZINC
depolarizing agent by reacting with the IMPASTE OFNH4CI
hydrogen to form water. T h e cell polar- and MnOz
izes when it is used but recovers slowly
as the manganese dioxide reacts with, the FIG. 8.—A dry cell.
hydrogen. Because of this behavior, the
cell should not be used continuously. T h e emf of the dry cell is
slightly more than 1.5 volts.
Storage Batteries. Some voltaic cells can be recharged o r .
restored to their original condition by using some other source of emf
to force a current in the reverse direc-
tion in them. This "charging" current
reverses the chemical changes that
occur on discharge. Such a cell is called
a storage cell. Only those voltaic cells
in which the chemical reaction is
readily reversed by changing the direc-
tion of the current can be used as
storage cells. T h e most common type
of storage cell is the lead cell (Fig. 9),
which is used for automobiles a n d
many other purposes. Both plates are
lead grids into which the active ma-
terial is pressed. T h e active material
is lead oxide (PbOa) for the positive
plate a n d finely divided metallic lead
FIG. 9.—A lead storage cell.
for the negative electrode. Dilute sul-
phuric acid is used as the electrolyte. T h e emf of such a cell is about
2.2 volts.
When the cell maintains a current, the acid reacts with the plates
in such a way that a coating of lead sulphate is formed on each plate.
As in other types of polarization this process reduces the emf of the
cell and, if it is continued long enough, the cell no longer causes a

current a n d is said to be discharged. T h e reaction also replaces the
sulphuric acid with water and hence the specific gravity of the elec-
trolyte decreases during the discharge. Thus the state of charge of the
cell can be checked by the use of a hydrometer.
T h e plates of the lead cell are made with larê area and set close
together so that the internal resistance is very low. Hence large cur-
rents are possible. The current in the starter of an automobile is
sometimes as high as 150 a m p .
When the storage battery is charged, chemical energy is stored up in
the cells. T h e amount of energy that can be stored depends upon the
size of the plates. A large cell has exactly the same emf as a small cell
but the energy available in it when fully charged is much greater than
that in the small cell.
Lead storage batteries are very satisfactory when properly cared
for but are rather easily damaged by rough handling or neglect. The
best service is obtained if they are charged and discharged a t a regular
rate. The battery is ruined quickly if it is allowed to stand in an
uncharged condition.
A lighter and more rugged type of storage battery is made up of
Edison cells. T h e positive plate of the Edison cell is nickel oxide
(Ni02), the negative plate is iron, and the solution is potassium
hydroxide. It is more readily portable than the heavy lead cell and
can be allowed to stand uncharged for long periods of time without
damage. However, it is more expensive than the lead cell and its emf
is lower (1.3 volts). It is commonly used in installations where charg-
ing is irregular or where weight is an important factor, as in field radio
sets and miners' lamps. Its long life a n d ruggedness have made it a
favorite cell for the electrical laboratory.
Nonpolarizing Cells. In certain types of cells the material
deposited on each electrode is the same as that of the electrode itself.
Such cells have the advantage of not being subject to polarization.
T h e Daniell cell consists of a zinc plate in zinc sulphate solution
and a copper plate in copper sulphate. T h e two liquids are kept
separate either by a porous j a r or by gravity, the denser copper
sulphate solution being at the bottom of the battery jar. When the cell
furnishes a current, zinc goes into solution and copper is deposited.
There is a continuous stream of zinc ions in the direction of the current
C H E M I C A L E F F E C T S OF E . L E C T R I C CURRENT 467
and of S O ^ ions against the current. There is a decrease of Zn and

CUSO4 and an increase of Cu and ZnS04. The Daniell cell is revers-
ible, zinc being deposited and copper going into solution when a
current is maintained in the cell in the direction to convert electrical
energy into chemical energy. The Daniell cell produces an emf of
about 1.1 volts.
Standard Cells. T h e Weston standard cell (Fig. 10) has one
electrode of cadmium amalgam in cadmium sulphate, the other of
mercury in mercurous sulphate. Weston standard cells are made in
two forms. T h e normal cell contains a saturated cadmium sulphate
solution; the unsaturated cell, used as a working standard, has a
CADMIUM
•SULFATE
SOLUTION
MERCURY-
.Ar20°C.
FIG. 10.- -A Weston standard cell.
solution less than saturated. The saturated cell is the basic standard,
being reproducible to a very high degree of accuracy, but the varia-
tion of its emf with temperature must be taken into account for accu-
rate measurements. T h e unsaturated cell is not exactly reproducible.
Its emf must be checked against a normal cell, but its temperature
coefficient is negligible and it is, therefore, a much more practical
working standard.
Standard cells are not used for producing appreciable currents
but as standards of potential difference. With the aid of special
instruments, chiefly potentiometers, an unknown voltage may be
accurately measured by comparison with the emf of a standard cell.
SUMMARY
Water solutions of acids, salts, and alkalies are called electrolytes.

They conduct electricity by the transfer of positive (metallic) ions a n d
negative ions. Univalent atoms gain or lose one electron each in

ionization; bivalent atoms gain or lose two electrons.
Faradafs laws of electrolysis are as follows:
1. The mass of a substance deposited by an electric current is
proportional to the amount of electric charge transferred.
2. For the same quantity of electricity transferred, the masses of
different elements deposited are proportional to their atomic weights,
and inversely proportional to their valences.
The faraday is the quantity of electricity, 96,500 coulombs, which
will deposit a gram equivalent of any substance.
A voltaic cell consists of two electrodes, of dissimilar substances, in
contact with an electrolyte. The substance forming the negative elec-
trode has a greater tendency to dissolve than that forming the positive
electrode.
Polarization, which reduces the net emf of the cell, is caused by the
accumulation of layers of foreign substances around the electrodes.
A storage cell is a voltaic cell that can be restored to its initial con-
dition by the use of a reversed or "charging" current.
A standard cell is a voltaic cell made to certain specifications to
serve as a standard of potential difference.
QUESTIONS
1. Draw a diagram of a circuit that could be used to silver-plate keys.
2. Explain clearly the differences between an atom, molecule, and ion. How
does a monovalent ion differ from a bivalent one? In electrolysis how does the number
of bivalent ions compare with the number of monovalent ions?
3. Explain clearly how the facts of electrolysis constitute one of the definite proofs
of the theory that electricity is corpuscular in nature.
4. A pair of platinum plates is inserted into a solution of, copper sulphate. The
plates are connected to a battery. Describe the' electrochemical actions which take
place. Will this process continue indefinitely? Why?
5. Describe the phenomena of and reasons for the electrolysis that sometimes
damages water mains.
6. How and why do liquids differ in their ability to conduct electricity?
7. State some of the precautions that must be observed in order to keep a lead
storage battery in good condition.
8. State some of the reasons why a storage battery may be badly damaged by
allowing it to discharge at an excessive rate.
9. Describe some of' the relative advantages and disadvantages of lead and
Edison storage batteries.
C H E M I C A L E F F E C T S OF E L E C T R I C C U R R E N T 469
10. Sketch a curve to illustrate how the terminal PD of a battery varies with the
current that it furnishes to an external circuit.
11. A dry cell is connected to a resistance box that may be varied from zero to
"infinity." Show by a rough curve how the terminal PD of the cell varies with the
external resistance.
PROBLEMS
(Unless otherwise stated in all of the .following problems the electrochemical
equivalent of silver may be taken as known and atomic data may be assumed as
known, but other values should be worked out as a part of the problem. For silver,
I = 0.00111800 gm/coulomb; atomic mass = 107.9; valence = 1.)
1. Assuming as known only atomic data and the electrochemical equivalent of
silver, calculate the electrochemical equivalent of hydrogen; of copper.
2. How long will it take for a current of 10 amp to liberate 0.25 gm of hydrogen
from an acidulated water cell?, Ans. 2400 sec
3. Some galvanometers have a current sensitivity as low as lû/ia per division.
How long would it take for.a current of 10"^^ amp to deposit 1 gm of hydrogen by
electrolytic action?
4. A steady current of 4.00 amp is maintained for 10.0 min in a solution
of silver nitrate. Find how much silver is deposited on the cathode. Ans. 2.68 gm
5. What current is required to deposit 5Q0 mg of silver from a silver-plating
cell in 1.0 hr?
6. 'A silver nitrate and an acidulated-water cell are connected in series. What
masses of silver and oxygen, respectively, will be deposited in electrolysis by a current
of 10.0 amp maintained for 3.00 hr? Am. 121 gm; 8.95 gm
7. How many grams of the following will be deposited or liberated in electrolysis
by 96,500 coulombs: (a) silver? iV) copper? (c) oxygen?
8. A current of 2.00 amp is maintained in two coulombmeters, in series, one of
silver, the other an "unknown" metal of atomic mass 55.0. In 2.00 hr, 2.73 gm are
deposited from the "unknown." How much silver is deposited and what is the valence
of the other metal? Ans. 16.1 gm; 3
9. In 30 min, 3.67 gm of a metal of atomic mass 197 are deposited from an
electroplating bath by a current of 3.0 amp. Find {a) the electrochemical equivalent,
(V) the chemical equivalent, and (c) the \*3lence of the metal.
10. How much hydrogen is liberated each day in an acidulated-water cell in
which a current of 30.0 amp is maintained? Ans. 27.2 gm
11. A current of 0.70 amp is maintained in an electrolytic cell. If each coulomb
of electricity that passes through^the cell causes 0.00033 gm of copper to be deposited
on the negative electrode, how much copper will be deposited in 20 min?
12. How much lead changes to lead sulphate per ampere-hour in a lead storage
battery? Ans. 3.86 gm
13. How long will it take a current of 10 amp in an electroplating bath to deposit
a layer of copper 0.10 mm thick on a casting having a surface area of 200 cm^? The
specific gravity of copper is 8.9, its valence is 2, and its atomic mass is 63.6.
14. A spoon is silver-plated by electrolytic- methods. It has a surface area of
20 cm^ on which a coating of silver 0.0010 cm thick is plated. The density of silver
is 10.5 gm/cm^. (a) How many grams of silver are deposited? (b) How many coulombs
of electricity pass through the solution? (c) If a current of 0.10 amp is used, for how
long must it be maintained? Ans. 0.21 gm; 190 coulombs; 1900 sec
15. What is the terminal PD of a battery of emf 20 volts and internal resistance
0.50 ohm, when delivering current to an external circuit of 4.5 ohms resistance?
16. The emf of a Daniell cell is about 1.08 volts. When connected to a rheostat
of resistance 30.0 ohms, the voltage at the terminals of the cell drops to 1.00 volt.
What is the internal resistance of the cell? Ans. 2.4 ohms
17. A lead storage cell has an emf of 2.20 volts and an internal resistance of
0.0333 ohm. What external voltage must be applied to charge the cell at a rate of
33 amp?
18. With an external circuit of resistance 9.00 ohms a battery gives a current of
0.430 amp. When the resistance of the external circuit is increased to 32.0 ohms, the
current falls to 0.200 amp. What is (a) the internal resistance of the battery, (b) the
open-circuit emf, {c) the terminal PD in each case?
Ans. 11.0 ohms; 8.60 volts; 3.87 volts; 6.40 volts
19. A battery furnishes a current of 1.00 amp to an external circuit of resistance
2.50 ohms. When an additional resistor of 3.00 ohms resistance is added in series the
current becomes 0.500 amp. Calculate (a) the emf of the battery {b) its internal
resistance, (c) the terminal PD in each case.
20. Two electrolytic cells containing CUSO4 and CdS04, respectively, are con-
nected in series. A current is maintained in the cells until 0.009882 gm of copper is
deposited in the first cell. How much cadmium is deposited in the second cell? The
atomic mass of cadmium is 112.41, and its valence is 2. Ans. 0.0175 gm
21. How long will it take for a current of 5.0 amp to produce 1.00 liter of hydrogen
by electrolysis of water? The density of hydrogen is 0.000090 gm/cm'.
22. Thirty electrolytic cells containing acidulated water are connected in series.
A current of 300 amp is maintained in the cells for 8.0 hr. {a) How much oxygen is
liberated? (b) how many liters? Ans. 22 kg; 15,000 liters
23. How many grams of water would be decomposed by a current of 7.5 amp
in 1.5 hr?
24. How many cubic centimeters of water would be decomposed by a current of
3.0 amp in 30 min? ; •• Ans. 0.50 cm^
25. A coloumbmeter is a cell which measures coulombs by the weight of metal de-
posited electrolytically. When a steady current is maintained in a coloumbmeter,
1.1185 gm of copper (valence 2) are deposited in 30.0 min. Calculate the value of
the current.
26. In a copper coloumbmetej 0.199 gm of copper (valence 2) is deposited by a
current of 0.500 amp in 20.0'min. Calculate the atomic mass of copper. Ans. 64.0 .
27. In a nickel sulphate bath a current of 12.0 amp is employed to plate nickel
on both sides of the cathode, a sheet of metal 5.0 cm square. The atomic mass of
nickel is 58.69, and its valence is 2. Its density is 8.90 gm/cm'. (a) How many grams
of nickel are plated on thfe cathode in one hour? (6) What is the thickness of the
plating on the cathode?
LOUIS
VICTOR
i^^ m / C (PRINCE)
DE BROGLIE
1892 —
BORN AT DIEPPE. PROFESSOR AT THE POINCARE INSTITUTE OF

THE SORBONNE. THE 1 9 2 9 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS WAS CON-
FERRED ON DE BROGLIE FOR HIS DISCOVERY OF THE WAVE CHAR-
ACTER OF ELECTRONS.
35. Electric Energy and Power

In order to maintain an electric current in a circuit having resistance,
energy must be supplied from some source, such as a battery or
generator. The rate at which this energy is expended is the power
required to maintain the current. The cost of this electric energy is a
major factor in the design and utilization of many devices. The con-
cepts of electric energy and power are intimately associated with the
corresponding ones considered in basic mechanics. The conversion
471
of mechanical to electric energy is one of the essential topics to be
considered in the study of electricity.
T h e flow of electricity in a wire or other conductor always pro-
duces heat. Electric soldering, electric welding, electric heating, arid
electric lighting provided by arcs or incandescent lamps are among
the important processes that utilize the heating efTect of an electric
current. With suitable devices the energy of a n electric current may
be utilized to produce mechanical work, chemical change, or radiation.
Electric Energy. T h e fundamental definition of the potential
difference (voltage) between two points in an electric circuit is the
work per unit charge expended in transporting the electricity through •
the circuit. I n equation form
^^ , work
Voltage = -j
charge
or in symbols,
W
v =^ (.)
In Eq. (1) F is commonly expressed in volts, W in joules, and Q^ in
coulombs.
Rewriting Eq. (1) in the form W = FQ,, and making the substitu-
tions Q^ = It and V = IR, the basic equation for electric energy nây
be written in the forms
W =VQ^~VIt = PRt (2)
This equation indicates that 1 joule of work must be expended in
maintaining for 1 sec a current of 1 a m p in a circuit of 1 ohm resistance.
Example: Calculate the energy supplied in 15 min to a percolator using 4.5 amp
at 110 volts. .
W = Vlt
= (110 volts) (4.5 amp) (900 sec)
= 4.5 X 10^5 joules
Heating Effect of Electric Current. It is a fact of everyday

experience that a conductor in which there is an electric current
is thereby heated. In sortie cases, such as the electric iron and toaster^
this heating is desirable. "In many other cases, particularly in electric
machinery such as dynamos a n d transformers, the heating is most
undesirable. Not only does this heat represent an expensive loss of
E L E C T R I C E N E R G Y AND P O W E R 473
energy, b u t it necessitates careful design of the parts of the apparatus
to get rid of the heat.
In the heating devices the wire in which the useful heat is produced
is called the heating element. I t is often embedded in a refractory
material, which keeps it in place and retards its oxidation. If the
heating element is exposed to air, it should be made of metal that
does not oxidize readily. Nickel-chromium alloys have been developed
for this purpose.
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. From the principle of the
conservation of energy it follows that whenever electric energy is
expended and heat is evolved, the quantity of heat produced is always
strictly proportional to the energy expended. This statement is a form
of \he first law of thermodynamics (Chap. 22).
Energy is expressed in Eq. (2) in terms of the joule, which is
basically a mechanical unit. Energy in the form^ of heat is measured
in terms of the calorie. Experiments are necessary to establish the
relation between the joule and the calorie or between any unit of
mechanical energy and heat. These experiments have demonstrated
the fact that there is a direct proportion between the expenditure of
mechanical energy W and the heat H developed. This important law
of nature is represented by'the equation
W = JH (3)
where J is the proportionality factor called the mechanical equivalent of

heat. Relationships for the conversion of heat to mechanical energy as
given in Chap. 22 include: 1 calorie = 4.18 joules and 1 Btu = 778
ft-lb.
Joule's Law. By combining Eqs. (2) and (3) a useful form of the
equation for the heat developed in an electric circuit is obtained,
namely,
w = -^ = i ^ = : ^ (A\
J 4.18 4.18 ^ '
It should be noted that if one wishes to change calories to joules,

he multiplies the number of calories by 4.18 joules/calorie, and if he
wishes to change joules to calories, he divides the number of joules by
4.18 joules/calorie.
Example: How many calories are developed in 1.0 min in an electric heater,
which draws 5.0 amp when connected to a 110-volt line?
From Eq. (4)
H-- m
J
_ (110 volts)(5.0 amp)(60 sec)
4.18 joules/cal
= 7.9 X 10' cal
T h e facts represented by Eq. (4) are sometimes referred to as
Joule^s law for the heating effect of the electric current. From this
equation it is evident that the heat developed in an electric conductor varies
directly with:
1. T h e square of the current (if R a n d t are constant)
2. The resistance of the conductor (if I and t are constant)
3. T h e time (if I and R are constant)
O n e method of measuring the mechanical equivalent of heat
makes use of the electric calorimeter (Fig. 1). This consists of a
double-walled calorimeter contain-
ing water,, into which are inserted
a thermometer and a coil of wire.
An ammeter is cohnected-jn series
with the calorimeter, and a volt-
meter is connected in parallel wfth
it. By means of a variable resistance
the current in the calorimeter is
kept at a' constant value / for a
time t. If, in addition, either the
resistance R of the coil in the calo-
rimeter is known or the potential
FIG. 1.—Electric calorimeter.
difference V between its ends is
read on the voltmeter, the electric energy supplied can be'calculated.
From the rise in temperature and the mass of water and calorimeter,
the heat developed can be determined. Substituting these values in
Eq. (4), the mechanical equivalent of heat can be obtained.
Example: In a typical experiment perfornied to measure the mechanical (elec-

trical) equivalent of heat the "following data were obtained: resistance of the coil,
55 ohms; applied voltage, 110 volts"; mass of water, 153 gm; mass of calorimeter,
60 gm; specific heat of calorimeter, 0.10 cal/gm, °C; time of run, 1.25 min; initial
temperature of water, 10.0°G; final temperature,. 35.0°C. Find the value of J .
ELECTRIC E N E R G Y A N D P O W E R 475
R = 55.0 ohms; V = 110 volts; M„ = 156 gm
M^ - 60 gm; S, = 0.10 cal/gm °C; ti = 10.0°C
tf = 35.0°C;
'^1 = 110 volts/55.0 ohms = 2.00 amJD
From Eq. (4) '1,
PRt
3 = -H
PRt
(2.00 amp)H55.0 ohms)(1.25 min X 60 sec/min)

"^ (153 g m X 1.00 cal/gm °G + 60 gm X 0.10 cal/gm °G)(35.0°C - 10.0°C)
= 4.15 joules/cal
Applications of the Heating Effect. T h e incandescent lamp is

a familiar application of the heating effect of a n electric current. A
tungsten filament, protected from oxidation by being placed in a n
inert gas, is heated by the current to a temperature of about 2700°C,
converting a small part of the electric energy into light.
H o m e lighting circuits and other electrical installations are com-
monly, protected by fuses. These are links of readily fusible metal,'
usually a n alloy of lead and tin. When the current increases above a
predetermined safe value, the fuse melts ("burns out") before more
valuable equipment is damaged.
Electric furnaces play a n important role in industry. I n resistance
furnaces, heating is produced by maintaining the current in metallic
conductors or silicon carbide rods which surround the material to be
heated, or in some furnaces by using the material itself to cpnduct the
current. Temperatures up to 2500°C are so aittained. In. arc furnaces
material is heated, perhaps to 3000°C, by concentrating on it the
heat from one or more electric arcs. Both types of furnaces are used
to produce steel, silicon carbide (carborimdum, a valuable abrasive),
and calcium carbide.
Transformations of Energy. T h e relations between work and
energy are the same whether we are dealing with electricity, heat, or
mechanics. T h e production and use of electric energy involve a
series of transformations of energy. Radiation from the sun plays a
part in providing potential energy for a hydroelectric plant or the coal
for a steam-generating plant. I n the latter the chemical energy of coal
is converted into heat in the furnace, from heat to work by the steam
engine, and from work to electric energy by the generator drivien by
the steam engine. T h e energy of the electric current may be cop-
verted into work by an electric motor, into heat by an electric range,
into light by a lamp. It may be used to effect chemical change in
charging a storage battery or in electroplating.
11 T h e expression W = Vlt (as applied to d-c
circuits) represents the electric energy used in
any of these cases,
j-^ ^ Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2. Energy
11 1 is supplied to the circuit by the battery A. It
'^ converts chemical energy into electric energy
FIG. 2. Sources -^^ ^^ amount lEit where E\ is the emf of the
and sinks of electric ^,- , . ,. , . . .
gjjgj. battery. Oi this energy supplied to the circuit,
each resistance converts a part Prt into heat.
In battery A itself energy Pr^t is converted into heat so that the
energy delivered to the external circuit is
W = IVit = I(Ei - In)t = lEit - Prit
' Battery B is inserted into the circuit in such manner as to oppose the
emf of battery A. Therefore battery B takes energy out of the circuit.
Any device that introduces a cotmter emf in a circuit, for example a
storage battery being charged or an electric motor, receives energy
from the circuit.
The energy supplied to battery B in this circuit is
W2 = IVt = 7(^2 + Ir2)t = lE^t + Put
Part (/V2O of this energy goes into heat, the remainder {lE^t) is
available for conversion into other forms of energy; ehemical energy
in charging the battery or mechanical energy in running a motor.
The product of the current, counter emf, and time in any device
represents the energy that can be taken from the circuit by that
device for purposes other than heating. Since no such machine is 100
per cent efficient the^. actual conversion of energy is less than this
maximum.
In this circuit energy IE\t is supplied to the circuit by chemical
energy of battery A. Of this energy lE^t is available for reconversion
into chemical energy at battery B, Prit + Pr2t is converted into heat
ELECTRIC ENERGY AND POWER 477
inside the batteries, and Przt + Pr4t is converted into heat by the
external resistances.
Example: In the circuit of Fig. 2, £1 = 27 volts, E^ = 6.0 volts; ri = 0.60 ohm;
;-2 = 0.40 ohm; rz = 2.0 ohms; and r^ = 4.0 ohms. Find the energy supplied to the
circuit in 3.5 min, the energy that goes into heat, and the energy available for charg-
ing battery B.
E = El - Ei = 21 volts - 6.0 volts = 21 volts
The resistance of the circuit is
i{ = n + ra + rs + r4 = 0.60 ohm + 0.40 ohm + 2.0 ohms + 4.0 ohms = 7.0 ohms
, E 21 volts
• • ^ = R^ iJo^ = '-^ ^"P
t = 3.5 min = 210 sec
The energy supplied is
Wi = lEit = 3.0 amp X 27 volts X 210 sec = 17,000 joules
The energy transformed into heat is
Wi = PRt = (3.0 amp)2 X 7.0 ohms X 210 sec = 13,000 joules
The energy available for charging battery B is
W3 = IE4 = 3.0 amp X 6.0 volts X 210 sec = 3800 joules
Power and Energy. Since power P is the rate of doing work or

the rate of use of energy, it may always be obtained by dividing the
energy W by the time t, which is taken to use or to generate the
energy, or (in d-c circuits),
W Vlt
In practical units, P is the power in joules per second, that is, in

watts, if V is given in volts and / in amperes. Thus the power in watts •
used by a calorimeter (or other electric device) is found by multiplying
the ammeter reading by the voltmeter reading. If the electric power
is entirely used in producing heat in a resistance R, then from Eq. (2),
(Note that the symbol W in these equations represents energy, in

joules. It does not stand for watt, which is a unit of power.)
Example: An electric furnace, operating at 120 volts, requires 3.0 hp. Calculate
the current and the resistance.
• watts —
P = 3.0 hp X 746 - ^ ^ = 2200 watts
.. ' - , ' : - - . . P= VI
2IOO watts = 120 volts X / - . •
. 7 = 1 9 amp
„ F 120 volts „ , •
it = T = ~rh = 6.8 ohms
I 19 amp
Units and Cost of Electric Energy. A very practical aspect of
the use of any electric device is the cost of its operation. It should be
noted that the thing for which the consumer pays the utility company
is energy and not power.
Work = power X time ^
A power of 1 watt used for 1 sec requires 1 joule of energy. This is a

rather small unit for general use. T h e most common unit is the
kilowatt-hour (kw-hr), which is the energy consumed when a kilowatt
of power is used for 1 hr. One kilowatt-hour is equal to 3.6 X 10*
joules.
T h e cost of electric energy is given by the equation
_ Vlt (cost per kw-hr)
^ 1000 w a t t s / k ^
when V is expressed in volts, / in amperes, and t in hours. '

Example: What is the cost of operating for 24 hr a lamp requiring 1.0 amp on a
100-volt line if th^ cost of electric energy is 5 cents per kilowatt-hour?
(100 volts)Cl.O amp)(24 hr)($0.05/kw-hr)
*^°-* - 1000 watts/kw ~ ^^-^^
Measurement of Power by Voltmeter-ammeter Method. A

simple and widely used method for measuring power (in d-c circuits)
is to measure the current in the circuit by an ammeter and the voltage
with a voltmeter. T h e power is simply the product of these two
readings. (For precise measurements certain corrections must be made /
owing to the effect one instrumient has on the reading of the other.)
The Wattmeter. T h e wattmeter, as the name suggests, is an
instrument for measuring power. It consists essentially of two coils at
1 .-i. -
'•ni-^-mem-'
ELECTRIC ENERGY'AND POWER 479

right angles, one fixed and one movable. T h e fixed coil is made of
heavy wire of low resistance and is connected in series with the load.
The movable coil is made of small wire and is connected in series with
a multiplier of high resistance; this coil is connected in parallel with the •••3
load. By analogy with the methods of connecting ammeters and
voltmeters, these two coils are called the current and voltage coils,
respectively. T h e torque acting on the movable coil is proportional to
both the current in the fixed coil and the voltage across the potential
coil. Hence the resultant indication of the meter is proportional to the
TO LOAD
VOLTAGE
TERMINALS
MOVim COIL
(WLTABEj
TOSOURCe ^
{a) (A)
FIG. 3.—[a) Idealized diagram of a wattmeter. (6) Portable kilowattmeter.
product of the current and the voltage, that is, to the power (for
direct current). A typical wattmeter is illustrated in Fig. 3.
The Watt-hour Meter. T h e watt-hour meter is a device for the
measurement of electric energy. This is the type of meter which is so
commonly found in houses for indicating the amount of energy which
has been furnished by the electrical utility company. This instrument
(Fig. 4) is basically a special type of motor. It is designed so that the
armature A of the motor revolves at a speed that is proportional to the
power used. This is accomplished by having the field coils F and F'
of the motor connected in series with the load, thus producing a
magnetic field that is proportional to the current in the load. The arma-
ture is connected in parallel with the load, through a multiplying
resistance R. Hence its magnetic field is proportional to the voltage
of the load. The resultant torque, being separately proportional to
each of these fields, is therefore dependent upon their product and

hence to the product of current and voltage, or the power. Suitable
pointers, geared to turn with the armature, indicate on their respec-
tive dials the number of watt-hours (more often kilowatt-hours) used
in the load. T h e aluminum disk D connected to the armature spindle
rotates in the field of the magnets M and M'. T h e induced eddy cur-
rents thereby generated (see Chap. 37) act as a brake on the armature
and provide a mechanism for adjusting the rate of the rotation when
the magnets are moved toward or away from the disk in servicing
LOAD •
FIG. 4.—A watt-hour meter.
the device. It must be emphasized that the watt-hour meter measures

energy, not power.
Thermoelectricity. Under certain conditions, heat can be
transformed directly into electric energy. If a circuit is formed of two
(or more) dissimilar metals the junctions of which are kept at different
temperatures, a n emf is generated, which produces an electric current
in the circuit. T h e energy associated with the current is derived from
the heat required to keep one junction at a higher temperature than
the other. T h e industrial importance of such a circuit is that it pro-
vides an accurate and convenient means of measuring temperatures
with electric instruments.
E L E C T R I C E N E R G Y AND POWER 481
In an arrangement called a thermocouple pyrometer (Fig. 5) two

wires of dissimilar metals are welded together a t one end, the other
ends being connected to a milli-
v o l t m e t e r . If t h e c o o l e n d
(reference junction) of the ther-
mocouple is maintained at a con-
stant and known temperature HOT
END
(often that of an ice bath, 0°C),
there will be an increase of emf
as the temperature of the warm
\r\N\r
FIG. 5.— Thermocouple pyrometer.
end of the thermocouple is in-
creased. It is possible to calibrate this system to make it a tempera-
ture-measuring device.
Certain alloys are more suitable than the pure metals for thermo-
couple use, since they produce relatively large emf's and resist con-
tamination. Practical temperature measurements can be made with
such thermocouples over the range from —200 to 1600°C.
Thermocouples are often connected in series with alternate
junctions exposed to the source of heat. Such an arrangement.
c
FIG. 6.—An industrial type thermocouple.
called a thermopile^ can be made extremely sensitive—sufficiently

so to measure the heat received from a star, or, in a direction finder,
to detect the heat from an airplane motor.
SUMMARY
Energy is required to maintain a current in a circuit.
Electric energy may be converted into heat, mechanical work,
chemical energy, or radiant energy.
Electric energy is expressed by
W =VQ^=VIt = PRt
T h e mechanical equivalent of heat is defined by

W
J=H
One calorie. = 4.18 joules; 1 Btu = 778 ft-lb.
Electric energy supplied by a source of emf is Elt, that which is
expended as heat is PRt and that going into useful mechanical work
or chemical energy is E'lt where E' is the coixnter emf.
Electric power is given by
W
P = — = VI = PR
The cost of electric energy is given by

_ Vlt (cost per kw-hr)
~ 1000 watts/kw
Electric power may be measured by a voltmeter-ammeter method

(in d-c circuits only) or by a wattmeter.
A watt-hour meter is used for the measurement of electric energy. It
is a motor whose speed depends upon the power utilized, and its
indications integrate power X time or energy.
A thermocouple transforms heat into electric energy. A thermopile is
a group of thermocouples in series. Thermoelectric devices are exten-
sively used to measure temperature.
QUESTIONS
1. Since the number of electrons entering a household power line is equal to the
number leaving it, why is it proper that the householder should be required to pay
the utility company for electric service? What is it which the consumer actually pays
for?
2. Some fuse links are made with a constricted part in the center. Explain why
this is a desirable type of construction. '
3. In a lightning flash is there a large voltage? current? power? energy? Explain.
4. Describe a way in which a frozen water line could be thawed out by elec-
tricity.
5. Arrange the following household devices in the order of increasing power
consumption: (a) electric fan, medium size, (6) electric lamp, medium size, (c) elec-
tric iron, {d) refrigerator, {e) radiant heater, (y) electric oven.
6. An electrolytic cell containing acidulated water, a conductor in a calorimeter,
and a galvanometer are connected in series. A current lasting 1 min causes an evolu-
ELECTRIC ENERGY AND POWER 483
tion of 1.0 cm' of hydrogen, a rise of 4°C in the calorimeter, and a deflection of
10 divisions on the galvanometer scale. The current is then doubled. Describe the
effect in each part of the circuit.
7. What is it that is dangerous to the human body, current, voltage, or some
combination of these and other factors?
8. Show that the rate of heating of a conductor with a constant voltage impressed
on it varies directly with the cross section of the conductor.
9. Two current-carrying wires A and B have the same length and are made of
the same material but the diameter of A is twice that of B. How many times greater
is the heating effect in A compared to the heating in B when (a) the wires are con-
nected in parallel, (i) the wires are connected in series?
10. A frozen household water pipe can be thawed out by maintaining a strong
electric current in it. Could this be done in the case of a long underground pipe?
Explain.
11. Why is a nitrogen-tungsten lamp more efficient than a vacuum-tungsten
lamp?
PROBLEMS
1. An energy of 3600 joules is required to move a charge of 120 coulombs
through a rheostat. What is the voltage across the rheostat?
2. A current of 0.70 amp is maintained in an electroplating cell. If the potential
difference across the terminals of the cell is 5.0 volts, how many joules of energy are
furnished to it by the electric current during 20 .min? Ans. 4200 joules
3. If increasing the difference of potential across the cell of problem 2 to 10 volts
causes the current to rise to 1.25 amp, what is the resistance of the-cell under these
conditions?
4. How much energy is used each minute by a d-c motor in which there is a
current of 12 amp at 110 volts? Ans. 7.9 X lO"* joules
5. How much heat would be generated in 10 min by a uniform current of 12 amp
in a rheostat of resistance 20 ohms?
6. A current of 4.0 amp is maintained for 3.0 min in a wire of resistance 5.0 ohms,
submerged in 600 gm of water in a calorimeter equivalent to 6.0 gm of water. Com-
pute the rise in temperature of the water. Ans. 5.7°C
7. A coil of wire having 5.0 ohms resistance is lowered into a liter of water at
10°C, and connected to a 110-volt circuit. How long will it take for the water to come
to the boiling point? Neglect the heat required to change the temperature of the wire
and the vessel.
8. A>40-volt storage battery of 4.0-ohms internal resistance is to be charged from
a 110-volt d-c line, (a) What is the resistance of the rheostat which must be placed in
series with the battery if the charging rate is to be 5.0 amp? (b) What is the total
energy supplied to the battery in 6.0 hr? (c) What is the heat loss in the battery in this
time? Ans. 10 ohms; 1.8 kw-hr; 5.2 X 10* cal
9. A subway train uses energy at the rate of 12 kw-hr/mi when traveling at a
uniform speed of 30 mi/hr on level track. Calculate the force opposing its motion.
10. If the coils of a resistance box are (each) capable of radiating heat at a rate
of 4.0 watts, what is the highest voltage one could safely apply across a 2.0-ohm coil?
a 200-ohm coil? What is the current in each case?
Ans. 2.8 volts; 28 volts; 1.4 amp; 0.14 amp
11. A bank of 48 incandescent lamps (in parallel), each having a (hot) resistance
of 220 ohms, is connected to a 110-volt circuit. Find (a) the power; (b) the cost of
operating the lamps for 24 hr at 5 cents per kilowatt-hour.
12. Find the cost at 1.00 cent per kilowatt-hour of running an electric furnace
for 10.0 hr if it takes 10,000 amp at 100 volts. Ans. flOO
13. An electric heating coil uses 2200 watts when connected to a 110-volt line.
Find (a) its resistance and (A) the cost of operating it for 5.0 hr at 3.0 cents per kilo-
watt-hour.
14. When electric energy costs 6.0 cents per kilowatt-hour, how much wUl it cost
to heat 4.5 kg of water from 20°C to the boiling point, if no energy is wasted?
Ans. 2.5 cents
15. In a test on an electric hot plate the temperature of a 1200-gm copper calorim-
eter (specific heat, 0.093 cal/gm °C) containing 3.00 kg of water, rose from 30.0
to 43.6°G in 4.00 min. The wattmeter read 875 watts. Find the efficiency of the hot
plate.
16. What current is taken by an electric hoist operating at 250 volts if it is raising
a 2500-lb load at a uniform speed of 200 ft/min and its over-all efficiency is 25 %?
What would it cost to operate this device for 3.00 min at 5 cents per kilowatt-hour?
Ans. 181 amp; 11 cents
17. A motor operates at 100 volts and is supplied with 2.00 hp from a generator
23.8 ft away. The diameter of the wire connecting the motor and generator is 0.0500
in. and its resistivity is 10.5 ohm-circular mils/ft. (a) What is the cost of the energy
used in the line resistance during an 8-hr day at the rate of 5 cents per kilowatt-hour?
(6) What heat would be developed in the line wire in this time?
18. A generator with a brush potential (terminal PD) of 117.5 volts delivers cur-
rent to two rheostats of resistances 55.0 ohms and 220 ohms, connected in parallel,
through a line having a resistance of 3.00 ohms. Calculate (a) the horsepower used
in the 55.0-ohm resistor, (b) the cost of operating the 220-ohm resistor for 30.0 min
at 10 cents per kilowatt-hour, (c) the heat generated in the 3.00-ohm resistor in
10.0 min. Ans. 0.295 hp; 0.275 cents; 2690 calories
19. Four 110-volt, 55-watt electric lights are joihqd in parallel. This arrangement
is connected in^ series with a toaster that has a resistance of 55 ohms. The whole is
connected to a 220-volt generator. What current is in the group of lights and what
will it cost to operate the toaster under these conditions for 5.0 hours at 10 cents per
kilowatt-hour?
20. A certain motor has the name plate stamped "3.00 amp, 110 volts." At what
speed could it raise vertically a man weighing 50.0 kg if the entire system were
3 3 H % efficient? j Ans. 22.4 cm/sec
21. What is the efficiency of an electric motor that delivers 3.0 hp (useful) when
taking a current of 65 amp from a l l 5-volt line?
\
\
'C'H 'J^-^
4'<^ I
1
SIR
CHANDRA
SEKHARA
VENKATA
RAMAN'
188.8 —
BORN IN TRIGHINOPOLY, SOUTH INDIA. PROFESSOR AT THE UNI-

VERSITY OF CALCUTTA. AWARDED THE I 9 3 O NOBEL PRIZE FOR
PHYSICS FOR THE DISCOVERY OF THE RAMAN EFFECT: THAT
RADIATION IS SCATTERED BY VARIOUS SUBSTANCES WITH A CHANGE
IN FREQUENCY, THE CHANGE BEING CHARACTERISTIC OF THE
SCATTERING ATOMS OR MOLECULES.
36. The Magnetic Circuit

T h e designer of electric and magnetic machinery, such as generators,
motors, transformers, and magnets, must make careful and detailed
calculations of the magnetic quantities involved in these devices. T h e
numerous electromagnetic devices consist of electric circuits linked
with magnetic circuits. Hence a clear understanding of the basic
principles of magnetic circuits is vital to a study of electric machinery.
485
486 . COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Magnetic Flux and Induction. It has been explained that

many of the phenomena of magnetism can be helpfully portrayed by
means of the concept of magnetic lines of force. T h e direction of the
line of force everywhere indicates the direction of the field and thus
provides a m a p of the field. It is also helpful to use lines of force in
such a way that they can represent the strength of the field.
If we consider a point in a vacuum (fj, = \) distant r from a mag-
netic pole m, the field strength Hi
from Coulomb's law is numerically
Hi = m
72
We m a y represent this field

strength by taking a unit area per-
pendicular to the field at the point
FIG. 1.—Magnetic field strength and in question a n d agreeing that the
lines of force per unit area.
number of lines of force through
this unit area shall be numerically equal to Hi. Thus in Fig. 1 the
field at A is portrayed as 3 oersteds and at 5 as 1 oersted.
If the pole is surrounded by a medium of permeability fi, the field
strength is decreased to
W e portray this altered magnetic condition by a system of lines

as before but the number per,unit area is no longer made equal to H
but to [iH. These lines are called magnetic flux and the number of lines
per unit area is called^MX density or magnetic induction. It is represented
by the letter B.
B = fiH ' :/ ' (1)
T h e unit of flux density is the gauss, which is one line of flux per
square centimeter.
T h e total n u m b e r of magnetic lines (magnetic flux (j>) through
any area, A perpendicular td the field is
ct>=BA/ (2)
T h e unit of magnetic flux is the maxwell. Thus a gauss is a maxwell
per square centimeter.. Since we have chosen to define B as the
THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT 487
product of fiH, we cannot use Eq. (1) as a definition of/t. Obviously a

single equation cannot be used to define two terms.
Example: At a certain point the earth's magnetic field has a strength of 0.820
oersted, (a) What is the magnetic induction? (A) How many lines of magnetic flux
would enter a long, cyHndrical piece of iron of permeability 300 and having a sec-
tional area of 25.0 cm^ when the iron is introduced with its long axis parallel to the
direction of the field?
ju = 300
H = 0.820 oersted
A = 25.0 cm2
B = ixH= 300 X 0.820 = 246 gausses
(j, = BA = 2A6 X 25.0 = 6150 maxwells
Types of Magnetic Substances. I n Chap. 27 it was indicated

that substances are classified as mag-netic or nonmagnetic on the
basis of whether or not a force acts on the substance owing to the
presence of a magnetic field. If an experiment were performed in
which all available substances were brought into a magnetic field, we
would find, first, that all matter is magnetic in the sense that it experi-
ences a force in a magnetic field, and, second, that there are two
fundamentally different types of magnetic behavior.
Certain substances are repelled by magnets. A rod of such material
when placed in the nonuniform field between the poles of a strong
magnet will align itself at right angles to the field. Such substances are
called diamagnetic a n d exhibit the property of diamagnetism. Bismuth,
sodium chloride, lead, gold, copper, antimony, flint glass, and
mercury are examples of diamagnetic substances. Diamagnetism is
associated with permeabilities less than unity. Bismuth, the most
strongly diamagnetic substance, has a permeability /x = 0.9998.
Just as a current in a small loop produces a magnetic field, a n
electron revolving in its orbit has associated with it a magnetic field.
When the atom is placed in a n external magnetic field, that field will
change the speed of revolution of the electron in its orbit and hence
the magnetic qualities of the atom in a way to oppose the field (see
Lenz's law, Chap. 37). If this were the only effect involved, all
materials would be diamagnetic.
T h e second type of magnetic behavior is known as paramagnetism.
Paramagnetic materials are attracted by magnets and have per-
meabilities greater than unity. A rod of paramagnetic material aligns
itself parallel to the magnetic field. Aluminum (n = 1.000022),

platinum, oxygen, copper sulphate, ferric chloride, and many
metallic salts are paramagnetic.
In addition to revolving in its orbit, an electron may spin about an
axis through its center. There is a magnetic quality associated with
each motion. Some atoms possess permanent magnetic characteristics
(dipoles) owing to unbalanced electron orbits or spins. These atoms
act like tiny magnets that are oriented by a n external field. They are
paramagnetic if this effect is greater than the diamagnetic tendency
common to all atoms. ^
A third class of elements, iron, nickel, cobalt, and certain alloys
show extremely strong paramagnetic effects. They are strongly
attracted toward magnets and have permeabilities ranging to several
thousand. These ferromagnetic substances owe their conspicuous mag-
netic properties to the alignment of all the unbalanced internal
electron spins in the same direction within microscopic crystal
domains, causing such domains to behave as tiny magnets readily
aligned by an external field.
T h e words "magnetic substance" in practice refer to ferromag-
netic materials. Since the magnetic effects of paramagnetic and
diamagnetic materials are usually negligibly small, we call them
"nonmagnetic."
Magnetization Curves. T h e effect of introducing a core of soft
iron into a current-carrying solenoid is to alter greatly the magnetic
characteristics of the region within the helix.
T h a t is, the flux density is greatly different in
magnitude from the magnetic field strength
(B = IJ.H). T h e field strength His also called
the magnetizing force.
When a given sample of iron is subjected
to a uniformly increasing magnetizing force,
^ the resulting flux density B changes at a vari-
FiG. 2.-Magnetization ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ -^ p- 2. T h e magnetizing
curve. •1 1 • 1
process may be considered m three stages.
At first for low values of H, the flux density increases slowly.
Next the; flux density rises rapidly with large changes .for small
increments of H, a n d finally further increase is slow even for large
increments of the magnetizing force. At this stage the iron is described
as approaching magnetic saturation. It is not usually profitable to

magnetize the material beyond the " k n e e " of the saturation curve.
Typical B-H or magnetization curves for various types of ferromag-
netic materials are shown in Fig. 3. Such curves are of great impor-
1 1 1
16000 WROUGHT IRON
,-<?f?^
^^ ,fPi p>
V^.
,
L?
-0 8000
S CASl -//?0/' 1
03"
4000
'
0
10 20 30 <0 SO
H,OERSJEDS
FIG. 3.—Typical B-H curves.
3000
2000
WOO
^
% //fl7/V *
0
1 10 20 30
H, OERSTEDS
40
FIG. 4.—Permeability as a function of field strength.
tance for industrial work. The designer uses these curves in selecting
suitable materials for specific purposes.
T h e curves of Fig. 3 indicate the fact that the permeability of a
given ferromagnetic material is not constant in magnitude, but varies
greatly as the substance becomes magnetized. A typical yL-H curve is
shown in Fig. 4.
Magnetic Hysteresis. Figure 2 shows the appearance of a B-H
curve for an initially unmagnetized substance as the magnetizing
field is increased to and beyond saturation. If the field is now reduced,
it will be noted that the curve does not retrace itself. In fact the value
of B is found consistently to lag behind the corresponding value of H.
This lagging of the magnetization behind the magnetizing Jorce is called
hysteresis. In Fig. 5 the curve Oa is the magnetization curve for an
initially unmagnetized specimen of iron. When H is reduced to zero,
the values of B follow the curve ab, so that
there is a residual magnetism or remanence
12,000
represented by the ordinate Ob. T h e mag-
netism may be reduced to zero by a mag-
netic field represented by the abscissa Oc.
This quantity is referred to as the coercive
force. If the field is made even more nega-
tive, the iron approaches saturation in the
opposite sense, as shown by the cd portion
of the curve. When the field H is again
reduced to zero, the curve de indicates that
there is a residual Oe in the negative sense,
as compared with Ob. If the field is again
FIG. 5.-Hysteresis loop. increased positively, the iron again be-
comes saturated at a. When the field is now reduced to zero, then
reversed and again increased positively the curve abcdea repeats itself
as this cycle- is -indefinitely continued. Such la cyclic curve is called a
hysteresis loop.
It can be shown that the area within the hysteresis loop represents
a measure of the energy per unit volume dissipated (as heat) in
carrying the material through a cycle of magnetization. T h e mag-
nitude of this area is therefore a factor of great importance in the
design of electric machinery, particularly for a-c use. In a-c circuits
the iron is continuously being carried through complete cycles of
magnetization a t the rate, commohly, of 60 per second. T h e loss of
energy by'hysteresis is expensive and arrangements have to be made,
to dissipate the heat evolved.
Magnetic Properties of Alloys. T h e most familiar ferro-
magnetic substances are iron and steel. Nickel and cobalt are also
ferromagnetic, though to a much less extent than the ferrous materials.
But when these elements (or a few other materials) are alloyed with
iron some extraordinary ferromagnetic alloys are obtained. M a n y of
these special metals are given trade names and are highly useful for
particular types of work. For example, permalloy (Ni 0.79, Fe 0.21)
has exceedingly high permeabilities at low field strengths and hence
is of great use in telephone cables. Very strong permanent magnets
are made of cobalt steel (Fe 0.55, Co 0.36, Cr 0.05, M n 0.03, C 0.01).
A magnet of "alnico" will support a weight 1000 times the weight of
the magnet.
The Magnetic Circuit. I n any device the magnetic flux may be
considered to be included in a complete path
around the circuit. Some of the flux may pass
through an air portion of the circuit, other parts
of the flux may go through iron or other ma-
terials. For example, in a dynamo, (Fig. 6), the
flux passes through the pole pieces, the air gaps
near the rotor, then through the rotor, and back
through the frame to the pole piece. Frequently
the flux is divided, a part going through one
FIG. 6.—A magnetic
portion of the device a n d other parts through the circuit.
different materials of the apparatus.
Magnetomotive Force. Just as in current electricity an emf is
a measure of the potential diflerence which maintains a current in the
circuit, so in the magnetic circuit a magnetomotive force m m f is
the difference of magnetic potential (work per unit pole) which main-
tains a magnetic flux in the magnetic circuit. This mmf is usually
caused by an electric current in a solenoid. In such a case the mmf is
given by
A-KNI
mmf
10 (3)
T h e mmf is measured in a unit called- the gilbert when the current is

in amperes a n d N is the number of turns in the solenoid. T h e product
NI is of especial interest in many problems and is known as the number
of ampere turns.
Magnetic Reluctance. A magnetic p a t h offers a certain opposi-
tion to the establishment of magnetic flux in the material. This is
known as magnetic reluctance (R. T h e reluctance of a part of a magnetic
circuit is directly proportional to the length, and inversely propor-
tional to both the cross-sectional area and the permeability. In symbols
No name has been assigned to the unit of magnetic reluctance. Unit

reluctance in the usual system of electric and magnetic units is the
reluctance of a centimeter cube of empty space (or air approximately).
The Law of the Magnetic Circuit. T h e r e is a fundamental law
for the magnetic circuit that closely resembles Ohm's law'* for the
electric circuit. This law of the magnetic circuit is
Flux = ^"^
reluctance
mmf ,.,
Substituting the expressions for mmf and (R
•^ = T0ZAZ4 (^)
The flux is in maxwells when / is in amperes, / in centimeters, and A
in square centimeters.
Example: A circular ring of iron (toroid) has a cross-sectional area of 5.0 cm'',
an average diameter of 30 cm, and is wound with a poll of 1000 turns. A current of
3.0 amp in the coil magnetizes the iron so that its permeability is 250. What is the
flux?
A = 5.0 cm2
I = TrD = 3.14 X 30 cm = 94 cm
M = 250
/ = 3.0 amp
^f = 1000 turns
, 47rM 4,r X 1000 X 3.0 rnvin4 ii
•^ = mjJlA = (10 X 94)/(250 yrm = ^-^ ^ ^° ' " ^ ' ' ^ " " '
Reluctances in Series and in Parallel. In electric circuits

resistances m a y be connected either in series or in parallel or in
series-parallel combinations. I n magnetic circuits reluctances may be
connected in similar .ways. T w o pieces of iron joined end to end
constitute two reluctances in series. If these pieces were placed so that
the flux could divide between them, they would constitute a case of
reluctances in parallel. For the, series case the total reluctance is given
by
(R< = (Ri + (R2 + (R3 + • • • (7)
T h e joint reluctance of a parallel circuit is given by
— - JL 4-— 4 - J - 4- •
(Ri ~ (Ri (R2 (R3 ' ' ^^^
Example: If an air gap 1.0 mm wide were cut across the iron ring in the preceding
example, what number of ampere turns would be necessary to maintain the same
flux?
Here we have a case of two reluctances in series. Hetice
^ (lO/i/Ml^l) + (10/2/M2^2)
,,, 5.0 X 10^ /lO X 93.9 , 10 X 0.10\ ,- „
^^ = -^^r^ \25(n<5rO + UPxSJy) ^ 3800 amp turns
As compared with the 3000 amp turns in the precedirig example it will be noted
that the addition of a very short air gap greatly increases the mmf necessary to
maintain a given flux.
SUMMARY
Magnetic induction or flux density is the number of lines of magnetic
flux per unit area.
B = ixH
T h e unit of magnetic flux density is the gauss, which is one line of
flux per square centimeter.
T h e total number of magnetic lines is called magnetic flux
4> = BA
T h e unit of magnetic flux is the maxwell.

Substances are classified according to their permeabilities as
follows: diamagnetic, /x less than 1; paramagnetic, n, greater than 1;
and ferromagnetic, ju much greater than 1 a n d dependent upon H.
An iron core introduced into a solenoid, greatly increases the
magnetic flux. As the magnetizing force is increased the flux increases
but not in direct proportion. T h e iron finally becomes saturated.
Hysteresis is the lagging of the magnetization of a magnetic material
behind the magnetizing force. T h e area within a hysteresis loop
is a measure of the energy per unit volume lost during a cycle of

magnetization.
Certain alloys have ferromagnetic qualities m u c h more pro-
nounced t h a n those of the constituent metals.
Magnetomotive force or difference in magnetic potential of a solenoid
is given by
mmf = •
Magnetic reluctance is defined by the equation *
7
(JLA
T h e law of the magnetic circuit is
mmf
4> (R
T h e laws of reluctances in series and in parallel correspond closely

with those for resistances in series and in parallel.
QUESTIONS \
1. Explain why an iron core is pulled into a current-carrying solenoid.
2. Show why it is desirable to make some of the parts of electric machinery out
of soft iron, rather than steel.
3. A circular iron ring (called a toroid) may be magnetized in various ways.
What would be the nature of the magnetic field external to the ring in each case?
4. State some reasons why the nature of the B-H curve is so important to the
electrical engineer.
5. An alternating, sine-wave current is maintained in a coil wrapped on an iron
core. Will the flux density follow a sine curve? Why?
6. Explain how one could magnetically "insulate" a body by placing it within
a soft iron shield.
7. Why are soft iron pole pieces or "keepers" placed over the ends of horseshoe
magnets during storage?
8. Explain clearly why the nature and size of the hysteresis loop is so important,
to the designer of a-c machinery..
9. Certain types of silicon steels can be magnetized to very high flux densities,
although they have fairly high hysteresis losses. Why would the transformer designer
prefer such steels rather than lower .loss mild steels?
10. Why is it that iron-core transformers are not used and air-core transformers
are used for high-frequency circuits?
11. Sketch the magnetic circuits in a four-pole dynamo.
12. What are some similarities and some differences between Ohm's law in
current electricity and the fundamental law of the magnetic circuit?
13. Compare the relative roles of magnetic permeability and electrical resistivity
in the equations
/ /
(R = ^ and R = P3
PROBLEMS
1. A long iron bar of permeability 250 is placed parallel to the earth's magnetic
field at a place where its strength is 0.750 oersted. What is the flux density in the bar?
2. (a) What is the magnetic field strength 5.00 cm (in air) away from an isolated
N magnetic pole of strength 100 u.p.? {b) What magnetic flux (lines of force)
would pass through a circle of radius 1.00 mm placed at that point with its plane
normal to the field? . Ans. 4.00 oersteds; 0.126 maxwell
3. An isolated JV magnetic pole A exerts a force of 40 dynes upon a second
isolated S pole B of strength 100 u.p., situated 30 cm from A. What is the pole
strength of Ai How many lines of force would pass through a circle of radius 0.60 cm
placed with its plane normal to the line joining A and B and situated with its center
at a distance of 10 cm from A and 20 cm from 5?
4. The hysteresis loss in a certain piece of iron is 12,000 ergs/cm^ cycle. How
many kilowatt-hours per day of 24 hr is used in the core of a transformer operating
at 60 cycles/sec and having a volume of 25 liters? Ans. 43 kw-hr
5. A hysteresis loop is plotted on a scale of 20 oersteds per inch horizontally and
15,000 gausses per inch vertically. The area of the loop is 12 in.^ Find the hysteresis
loss per cubic centimeter per cycle.
6. A coil of 600 turns is wound uniformly on an iron ring whose mean diameter
is 15.0 cm and whose cross section is 5.0 cm.^ The permeability of the iron is 500.
Calculate the magnetic flux and the flux density within the ring when a current'
of 15 amp is maintained in the coil. Ans. 6.0 X 10^ maxwells; 1.2 X 10^ gausses
7. A toroid (ring solenoid) is 100 cm long and has a cross-sectional area of
30.0 cm^. It is wound with a coil of 800 turns of wire and there is a current of
2.50 amp in it. The iron core has a permeability under the given conditions of 300.
Calculate (a) the magnetic field strength in the coil; {b) the total flux (number of
lines of induction); (c) the flux density B.
8. A solenoid 50.0 cm long is wrapped with 2000 turns of wire. An iron rod
within the solenoid has an area of 100 cm^ and a permeability of 1000. When there
is a' current of 3.00 amp in the coil what is (a) the magnetic field strength? {b) the
flux density? {c) the flux (total number of lines)?
Ans. 151 oersteds; 1.51 X 10^ gausses; 15.1 X 10'^ maxwells
9. A circular ring of iron has a cross section of 6.0 cm^ and a mean radius of
8.0 cm. The ring is wound with 400 turns of wire. Find the total magnetic flux in
the ring when there is a current of 10 amp in the coil and the permeability of the iron
is 300.
10. There is a current of 500 ma in a solenoid 100 cm long, 10.0 cm^ in cross
section, and having 600 turns. Calculate (a) the force on a pole of strength 300 u.p. at
the center of the solenoid; (A) the mmf of the solenoid; (c) the reluctance of the region
within the solenoid. Ans. 1130 dynes; 377 gilberts; 10.0 gilberts/maxwell
11. A toroid has a mean diameter of 20 cm, a sectional area of 5.0 cm,^ and
is wound with 400 turns of wire. (1) When there is a current of 5.0 amp in the toroid
compute (a) the ampere turns, {b) the strength of the field inside the coit; (c) the
flux density, (rf) the flux. (2) What would these values be if the coil were filled with
an iron core of permeability 200?
12. A toroidal iron ring with a mean radius of 10 cm and cross section of 10 cm^
is magnetized by a coil of 100 turns in which there is a 5.0-amp current. Find (a) the
mmf, and (b) the magnetic flux in the ring if the permeability for the iron under
these conditions is 1000. ' Am.b'iO gilberts; 10 X 10* maxwells
13. A circular iron ring has a mean diameter of 20.0 cm and a sectional area of
30.0 cm.^ It is wound with a coil of 1000 turns. The ring contains an air gap 1.00 mm
long. If the iron has a permeability of 200, what current should there be in the coil
to produce a flux of 1.00 X 10* lines?
14. A circular iron ring has an average diameter of 40 cm and a sectional area of
120 cm.^ One semicircular half of the iron has a permeability of 200, and the other
semicircular half has a permeability of 1000. A small transverse cut is made in the
ring, 1.00 mm wide. If the ring is wound uniformly with a coil of 2000 turns, what
current would have to be maintained in the coil to produce a flux of 1.00 X 10*
maxwells? Ans. 158 ma
15. A magnetic circuit of three parts, in series, consists of a wrought-iron portion
50 cm long and 120 cm' area, permeability 1000; a cast-iron portion 40 cm long and
220 cm' in sectional area, permeability 200; and an air gap 1.5 mm long and 300 cm'
in sectional area. Allowing 10% for magnetic leakage, determine how many ampere
turns are required to produce 1.6 X 10'' maxwells in the circuit.
16. The series magnetic circuit of a dynamo consists of a wrought-iron portion
50.1 cm long, with a sectional area of 20.0 cm', /i = 1000; a cast-iron portion 40.0 cm
long and 200 cm' sectional area, permeability 200, and an air gap 5.00 mm long with
a sectional area of 300 cm'. Allowing 20% for magnetic leakage, determine the
ampere turns necessary to produce a flux of 1.60-X 10* maxwells.
Ans. 8.3 X 10^ anip turns
17. A circular iron ring of permeability 400 has an average diameter of 30.0 cm
and a sectional area of 120 cm'. A transverse cut, 1.00 mm long, is made in the iron.
If the ring is wound uniformly with a solenoid of 250 turns, what current must there
be in order to produce a total flux of 1.00 X 10* maxwells in the core?
18. The core of a transformer is circular, with a central crossarm, made-some-
what in th6^ shape of the Greek letter theta (6). The diameter of the circular outside
member is 50 cm. The circular cross-sectional area of each member is 30 cm'. The
permeability of the central arm is 400, while that of the other parts is 600. The
central arm is-wrapped with a coil of 1000 turns, 44 cm long. What is the'flux density
in each member when there is a current of 3.0 amp in the coil?
Ans-. 2.2 X 10* maxwells/cm'; 1.1 X 10* maxwells/cm''
WERNER
HEISENBERG
1901 —
BORN IN DUISBERG, RHENISH PRUSSIA. PROFESSOR AT LEIPZIG.

RECEIVED THE I 9 3 2 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS CREATION
OF THE QUANTUM MECHANICS WHOSE APPLICATION HAS LED,
AMONG OTHER THINGS, TO THE DISCOVERY OF THE ALLOTROPIC
FORMS OF HYDROGEN.
. Electromagnetic Induction
The amounts of energy that are available from electrostatic devices

or from thermocouples are infinitesimal in comparison with the
enormous quantities of electric energy now being utilized. Although
chemical energy can be used as a direct source of electric energy, the
high cost of the materials required does not permit the use of this
means where large amounts are needed. The discovery of the relation-
ships between magnetism and the electric current made possible the
497
development of the electrical industry, for it led to the design of
generators for the conversion of mechanical energy into electric
energy and of motors for the transformation of electric to mechanical
energy. I n a little over a century since the fundamental discoveries
were m a d e the huge electrical industry of today has grown up. This
industry is based primarily upon the use of the electric generator to
produce electric energy at low cost and the economical transmission
of the energy to the place where it is to be used, there to be converted
into other forms of energy.
Induced Emfs and Currents. I n Fig. 1, B represents a coil of
wire connected to a sensitive galvanometer G. If the .A'" pole of a bar
magnet is thrust into the coil, the galvanometer will deflect, indicating
t^WP
FIG. 1.—Â current is in- FIG. 2.—A current induced
duced when a magnet moves by the interaction of two
through a coil. circuits.
a momentary current in the coil in the direction specified by arrow a.

This current is called an induced current, and the process of generating
the induced emf is known as electrornagnetic induction. As long as the bar
magnet remains at rest within the coil, no current is induced. If,
however, the magnet is suddenly removed from_the cojl, the galva-
nometer will indicate a current in the direction (arrow b) opposite to
that at first observed. T h e method of inducing e m f s by the relative
motion of a magnet and a coil was first demonstrated by Michael
Faraday (1831). H e found that an emf is induced in a conductor when,
there is dfiy change of magnetic'flux intersected by the conductor.
A voltage may also be induced in a coil by the change in the
magnetic field associated with a change in current in a near-by
circuit. For example, in Fig. 2 is shown a coil A connected to a
battery through a switch S. A second coil B connected to a galva-
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 499
nometer is near by. When the key S is closed, producing a current
in the coil A in the direction shown, a momentary current is induced in
coil -B in a direction (arrow a) opposite to that in A. If ^ i s now opened,
a momentary current will appear in B, having the direction of arrow b.
In each case there is a current in B only while the current in A is
changing. A steady current in A accompanied by a motion of A relative
to B is also found to induce a current in B. Observe that in all cases
in which a current is induced in B, the magnetic field through B is
changing.
General Expression for Induced Emf. T h e value of the emf
induced in a circuit is found to depend only upon the number of turns
in the circuit and the time rate of change of the magnetic flux linked
with the circuit. T h e average magnitude of such emf (in volts) is
given by
^ 108 i u;
where JV" is the number of conductors, A<^ is the change of flux, and t
is the time required for this change.
Example: A coil of 600 turns is threaded by a flux of 8000 maxwells. If the flux
is reduced to 3000 maxwells in 0.015 sec, what is the average induced emf?
TV = 600 turns
A0 = 8000 - 3000 = 5000 maxwells
/ = 0.015 sec
^f A<l> 600 5000 „„ , "
^ = 1 0 - « T = W 0 : 0 1 5 = 2-0 volts -
Conservation of Energy; Lenz's Law. An induced current

can produce heat or do chemical or mechanical work. T h e energy
must come from the work done in inducing the current. When
induction is due to the motion of a magnet or a coil, work is done;
therefore the motion must be resisted by a force. This opposing force
comes from the action of the magnetic field of the induced current.
Hence the induced current is always in such a direction as to oppose by its
magnetic action the change inducing the current. This particular example of
conservation of energy is called Lenz^s law.
Back Emf and Forward Emf. W h e n the magnetic flux is
increasing in a circuit the induced emf is, by Lenz's law, in such a
direction as to oppose this growth. Such an emf is called a "back
-lo^l'f.
emf." If the flux is decreasing in a circuit, the induced emf has a
direction such as to oppose • this decay, that is, to prevent the fliix
from decreasing. This voltage is referred to as a "forward emf.H I n
Fig. 3 is shown a highly inductive coil connected to a battery through
a switch and an amrheter. A l a m p
IRON designed to operate at considerably
CORE higher voltage than the emf of the
battery is connected in parallel with

the coil. When the switch is closed,
it will be noticed that the ammeter
only gradually rises to its final steady
value. This is caused by the fact that
II tSl^
FIG. 3.—Back emf and forward emf
there is initially a back emf on
account of the growth of the flux in
the coil. As this flux approaches its
in an inductive circuit.
steady value its rate of change de-
creases to zero and the induced emf finally becomes zero, so that the
current becomes its ordinary Ohm's law value. While the current is
growing, its value is given by
V -
I =
R (2)
where i is the instantaneous current; V is the impressed voltage of the

battery (constant); e is the induced emf in the coil; and R is the resist-
ance of the coil. With the switch closed, the lamp is noticed to glow
only dimly. W h e n the switch is quickly opened, however, the lamp
temporarily shines very brilliantly. This indicates that the forward,
emf induced as' the flux dies away is quite large, on account of the
large rate at which the flux changes at the instant the switch is
opened.
Example: An inductive coil having a resistance of 3.0 ohms is connected to a
battery having a terminal PD of 60 volts. What is the induced emf in the coil at an
instant when the current has risen to one-fourth of its steady value?
The steady current is given .'by
'T -Z - 60 volts 20 amp
ft ~" 3.0 ohms
The instantaneous current, which is one-fourth of the steady current, is ^J^ or
5.0 amp.
IjIft.uUutel fiuilBge
Hence
V •
* R
60 volts — e
5-0 ^'"P = 3.0 ohms
e = 60 volts — (5.0 amp X 3.0 ohms) =' 45 volts.
Direction of Induced Emf; Right-hand Rule. Whenever a

straight wire, such as AB in Fig. 4, is drawn across a magnetic field,
a n emf is induced in the conductor. There will be an induced current
in the wire if it is m a d e a part of a closed circuit as indicated in the
figure. I n accordance with Lenz's law the direction of the induced
emf is such as to oppose t h ^ m o t i o n of the conductor.
FIG. 4.—Fleming's generator rule.
Therefore the direction of the induced current is such as to add

to the field ahead of the current and weaken the field behind the
current, since from Ampere's law (Chap. 31) the force on the current
is directed from the strong part of the field to the weaker portion of
the field. Hence the direction of the induced current depends upon the
direction of the field and that of the motion. These three directions
are mutually at right angles to each other. A convenient rule for
remembering the relations of these directions is Fleming's generator
rule: If the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the right hand are
extended so that they are at right angles to each other and the t h u m b
points in the direction of the motion while the forefinger points in the
direction of the magnetic field (flux), then the middle finger points
in the direction of the induced current.
Emf Induced i n a Straight Wire. W h e n a straight cônductor is
moved through a magnetic field, as in Fig. 5, so that a c o m ^ n e n t
of the motion is perpendicular to the field, an emf is induced inXthe
wire. If the conductor is a part of a closed circuit there will be an
^ induced current in a direction
+ given by the right-hand rule. For
example, in Fig. 5 the field H is
directed toward the right and the
t
/ motion M is toward the observer.
' / H
/ Hence the induced current is
M/ directed upward (from C to Z)).
/ It mij5t be noted that in a gener-
/•
_ ator or battery the conventional

flow of electricity is out of the
FIG. 5.—Field, motion, and induced positive end and into the negative
current when a conductor moves in a
uniform field. terminal, that is, the current inside
the generator is directed from
negative to positive. In the present illustration the upper end Z) of the
wire has a positive potential and the lower end C has a negative
potential.
T h e total flux cut by the conductor is the product of the flux per
unit area and the area A swept out by the motion.
A<i> = BA -= fjiHA
From Eq. (1), since JV = 1
£
1^
= Tô —
J_BA
10« t 1.0 s /
Since the area A is the length / of the wire multiplied by the distance
s which it moves, the equation above can be written
J_Bls _ Blv
(3)
\0^ t ~ 108
where s/t is the speed t) of the conductor.
Example:" A wire 30 cm long is moved in air with a speed of 20 cm/sec in a direc-

tion norm.al to a magnetic'field of strength 4.0 'JX 10' oersteds. Calculate the induced
emf. J '
\
IT-'-
/ = 30 cm; v = 20 cm/sec; H = 4.0 X 10" oersteds

B = jiH = 1.0 X 4.0 X 10' = 4.0 X 10' gausses
From Eq. (3)
Blv
4.0 X 10'gausses X 30 cm X 20 cm/sec ,

= ^ JQ8 = 0.024 volt
If the conductor is a part of a coil of more than one turn, the

induced emf is the summation of all the emf s of the separate con-
ductors. For N turns the induced emf is given by
E = ^,Bh (3a)
Example: A cable which is part of a large coil has 300 turns and moves in air
with a uniform speed of 20 cm/sec through a magnetic field of strength 0.85 oersted.
If the effective length of each piece of wire linking this field is 50 cm, what emf is
induced in these conductors?
JV = 300 turns; \i. = 1.0; R = 0.85 oersted; I = 50 cm; u = 20 cm/sec
From Eq. (3a)

TV
= ^8X1.0X0.85X50X20
= 2.5 X 10-5 volts
The Transformer. It was previously shown that a change in

the current in one of two neighboring coils causes an emf to be
generated in the other coil. The induced emf and, therefore, the
induced current can be greatly increased by winding the two coils
on a closed, laminated iron core, as in Fig. 6. This combination of
two coils and an iron core is one type of transformer. Suppose that an
alternating current is maintained in the primary coil p of the trans-
former. This current is constantly changing; hence the magnetic flux
in the iron core also varies periodically, thereby producing an alter-
nating emf in the secondary coil s.
Since the rate of change of flux is nearly the same in the primary
and secondary coils it follows that the induced voltages in the coils
are directiy proportional to the respective numbers of turns in the
coils. Symbolically
or E^ = -rj^ X Ep (4)
N^
where E is used for voltage and JVfor the n u m b e r of turns. I n practice
the voltage impressed on the primary from the outside source is
somewhat greater than Ep, the induced emf in the primary, and the
secondary voltage at the terminals is slightly less than Es, the voltage
induced in the secondary.
T h e efficiency of a commercial transformer operating under
favorable conditions is very high being only a few per cent less than
LAMINATED mON CORE
SECONDARY
/200mND/NGS
PRIMARY
ZOO WINDINGS
F I G . 6.—Showing the principle of the transformer.
ideal. Hence the power input to the primary is nearly equal to the
power output from the secondary. Equating these powers
lltpLp /ig-Zg
or
E,
Hi-n
.(5)
T h e currents are thus seen to be inversely proportional to the respec-

tive voltages.
Distribution of Electric Energy. Whenever electric energy
is to be used at any considerable distance from the generator, an a-c,
system is used because the energy can then be distributed without
excessive loss; whereas, if a d-c system- were used, the losses in trans-
naission would be very great. -^ . •
I n an a-c system the voltage may^be increased or decreased by
means of transformers. T h e terminal voltage at the generator may be,
for exampjle, 12,000 volts. By means of a transformer the voltage may
be increased to 66,000 volts or more in the transmission line. At the
other end of the line "step-down" transformers reduce the voltage
to a value that can safely be used. I n a d-c system these changes in
voltage cannot readily be made.
O n e might ask why all this increase a n d decrease in voltage is
needed. W h y not use a generator that will produce just the needed
voltage, say, 115 volts? T h e answer lies in the amount of energy lost
in transmission. I n d-c circuits, and in the ideal case in a-c transmis-
sion lines, the power delivered is P = VI, where V is the (effective)
voltage and I the current. (It will be shown later that in a-c circuits
P = VI only in special cases.) If a transformer is used to increase the
available voltage, the current will be decreased.
Suppose that a 10-kw generator is to supply energy through a
transmission line whose resistance is 10 ohms. If the generator furnishes
20 a m p at 500 volts, P = VI = (500 volts) (20 a m p ) = 10,000 watts,
the heating loss in the line is PR = (20 amp)^(10 ohms) = 4000 watts,
or 40 per cent of the original power. If a transformer is used to step
up the voltage to 5000 volts, the current will be only 2 amp, and the
loss PR = (2 amp) ^(10 ohms) = ' 4 0 watts, or 0.4 per cent of the
original power.
A second transformer can be used to reduce the voltage at the
other end of the line to whatever value is desired. With 2 or 3 per cent
loss'in each of the transformers, the over-all efficiency of the system
may be increased from 60 to 95 per cent by the use of transformers.
Thus alternating current, through the use of transformers producing
very high voltages, makes it possible to furnish electric power over
transmission lines m a n y miles in length.
Example: A step-down transformer at the end of a transmission line reduces the
voltage from 2400 volts to 120 volts. The power output is 9.0 kw and the over-all
efficiency of the transformer is 92 per cent. The primary ("high tension'.') winding
has 4000 turns. How many turns has the secondary or "low tension" coil? What is
the power input? What is the current in each of the two coils?
Ef = 2400 volts
E. = 120 volts
Ps = 9.0 kw = 9000 watts
Eff. = 92%
TVp = 4000 turns
2400 volts _ 4000 turns

120 volts " N.
Hence
^f, = 200 turns s
Eff. = J \
9000 watts
0.92 = p
rp
Therefore
Pp = 9800 watts
\J. J£u Hiplp — Higlg
0.92 X 2400'volts X 4 = 120 volts X I. = 9000 watts
Ip = 4.1 amp and 7s = 75 amp
To assist in insulating the coils and to dissipate the heat in a power
transformer, the core and coils are submerged in oil contained in a
metal housing. Sometimes in the larger sizes this oil is circulated
through the transformer and cooled by various means.
The losses in a transformer are of two types. The copper losses are
caused by the heat developed from the PR power consumption on
account of the resistance of the wire in the coils. In practice these
losses are minimized by the use of wire of large size, although there is
an obvious economical limit to the size of wire that should be used.
Other losses are due to the heat generated by the rapid magnetization
and reversal of the flux in the iron core. These are known as iron
losses.
Eddy Currents. When a large block of a conducting substance
is moved through a magnetic field or when in any manner there is a
change in the magnetic flux through
Si-MAGNET the conductor, induced currents will
exist in eddys through the solid mass.
MOTION OFD}SK These are referred to as eddy currents.
* This effect was discovered by the
physicist Foucault (1819-1868) and
the currents are sometimes referred
to as Foucault currents. In Fig. 7 is
FIG. 7.—Eddy currents m a disk mov- , i i. i i . , .
ing in front of a magnet. ^hown a metal disk that IS bemg
moved to the right across a magnetic
field assumed to be from an JV" pole placed behind the disk. The
right-hand rule shows the direction of the currents in the eddys in
the disk. These; currents tend to set up magnetic fields, which, reacting
with the field which gave rise to them, will oppose the motion of the
disk through the field. T h e disk acts as though it were imbedded in a
very viscous medium. Eddy currents produce heat and hence consume
energy. They are frequently a source of considerable difficulty to the
electrical designer.
Eddy currents may be minimized by laminating the block of metal,
that is, by making it up out of many very thin sheets or laminations.
T h e planes of these laminations must be arranged parallel to the mag-
netic flux. M a n y a-c machines, such as transformers or dynamos, have
their magnetic parts made up of laminated sections.
Self-induction. When a switch is closed connecting a battery to
a coil of wire, the current does not instantaneously reach its steady
value given by / = V/R but starts at zero and rises gradually to that
value. During the time the current is building up, the relation
/ = V/R does not tell the'whole story. I n fact it can be shown that
/ = V/R only when the current is not changing. In general, there-
fore, we cannot use the relation V = IRm connection with inductive
circuits.
While the current in a coil is increasing, the magnetic field.around
it is being built up, hence energy is being supplied from the battery
to create the magnetic field. The electricity that passes through the
coil thus does work in two ways: in passing through the electric
resistance of the coil and in doing its share in building up the magnetic
field around the coil. T h e potential difference across the coil can be
divided into two parts, so that V = iR -{- e, where i is the instanta-
neous current. Here iR is equal to the work per unit charge done
against the electric resistance of the coil, whereas e is equal to the work
per unit charge done in changing the magnetic field. T h e work per
unit charge done by the battery on the electricity passing through it
is V.
T h e equation can be rewritten e = V — iR, showing that, as the
current i becomes larger, e becomes smaller. It can be proved that e is
proportional to the rate at which the current is changing. T h e con-
stant of proportionality is called the self-inductance L of the coil, so that e
equals L times the rate of change of the current. When the current is
no longer increasing, e is zero, and V = IR, since no energy is being
used in creating a magnetic field.
T h e current in a circuit rises as shown in Fig. 8; rapidly at first and
then more and more slowly, until any change in it can no longer be
detected. I t is then said to have reached its maximum, or^teady value,

for which V = IR. The time taken for this to happen is u s u ^ l y a small
fraction of a second. When the circuit contains a coil with a closed iron
core, the rise m a y require as much as
several tenths of a second. For the cur-
rent in a coil to decrease, the energy
given to the magnetic field must be taken
back into the circuit, hence electricity
~J^j^ passing through the coil receives energy
FIG. 8.—Rise of current after per unit charge e from the decreasing of
the switch is closed in an in- the magnetic field. At the same time,
circui. j ^ <ôcs work per unit charge iR against
electric resistance. T h e total work done per coulomb is thus
V = iR- e (6)
while the current is decreasing. T h e voltage e is commonly referred
to as the emf of self-induction.
This emf of self-induction can be accounted for in terms of the
ideas presented in connection with induced currents in general,
namely, a n emf is induced in a coil when there is any change in the
magnetic field threading it, whether that change is caused by the
motion of a bar magnet, a change in the current in a neighboring
coil, or by a change in the current in the coil itself. Since a magnetic
field is associated with the current in a coil, any change in that current
changes the magnetic field around it; hence an emf opposing the
change in the current is induced in the coil. This effect is called
self-induction.
T h e selj-inductance of a coil is defined as its emf of self-induction
divided by the rate at which the current in it is changing. The emf of
self-induction is given by the equation •
where L is the self-inductance, e is the induced emf, and Az'/< is the

rate of change of current.' This equation is actually the defining
equation for self-inductance.
The unit of self-inductance, called the henry, is the self-ihductance
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION • 509
of a coil in which an emf of 1 volt is induced when the current in it is
changing at the rate of 1 amp/sec.
We may think of the self-inductance of a circuit as that property
of the circuit which causes it to oppose any change in the current in
the circuit. T h e role of inductance is therefore analogous to that of
inertia in mechanics, since inertia is the property of matter which
causes it to oppose any change in its velocity.
Example: A circuit in which there is a current of 5 amp is opened so that the
current falls to zero in 0.1 sec. If an average emf of 200 volts is induced what is the
self-inductance of the circuit?
Ai = 5 amp
t = 0.1 sec
e = 200 volts
At
200volts = I ^
0.1 sec
L = 4 henrys
Mutual Inductance. When the current changes in one of two

adjacent circuits, some of the change in flux associated with the first or
primary circuit links the near-by or secondary circuit. Hence a n emf
is induced in the secondary circuit. This phenomenon is called
mutual induction. M u t u a l inductance is the property of a pair of circuits
by virtue of which any change of current in one of the circuits causes
an induced emf in the other circuit. It is evident that the value of this
emf will depend upon the rate of change of the current in the primary
coil and the geometrical constants of the two circuits. Mutual induct-
ance,xaay therefore be defined by the equation
e,=M^ or M = -^ (8)
where Cs is the emf induced in the secondary; Azp is the change of

current in the primary; t is the time required for the current to change;
and M is the mutual inductance of the pair of circuits.
T h e mutual inductance is expressed in henrys when ^g is in volts
and Azp/i is in amperes per second. T h e unit of mutual inductance.
510 • COLLEGE T E C H N I C A L PHYSICS
the henry, is the mutual inductance of that pair of circuits in which a
rate of change of current of 1 amp/sec in the primary causes an
induced emf of 1 volt in the secondary, Mutual inductance is of
importance to the electrical designer in calculations involving trans-
former coils, dynamo apparatus, and other electric machinery.
Example: A pair of adjacent coils has a mutual inductance of 1.5 henrys. If the
current in the primary changes from 0 to 20 amp in 0.050 sec, what is the average
induced emf in the secondary? If the secondary has 800 turns, what is the change of
flux in it?
M = 1.5 henrys
Alp — 20 amp
t = 0.050 sec
JV, = 800 turns
w^^p ^ ,- , 20 amp -„
,, = M — = 1.5 henrys Q^^^Q^^ = 600 volts
_ N^H
^' 108 t
800 A4>
^°° 10' 0.050
A<^ = 3.8 X lOf^ maxwells
Energy in Inductive Circuits. It requires energy to build up a

magnetic flux in an inductive circuit. This energy is stored in the mag-
netic field and all or part of it may be recovered when the field is
reduced to zero. This storage of energy in a magnetic circuit is of
importance in such electric apparatus as transformers, radio circuits,
and induction coils. In the case of a single circuit the energy is
referred to as the magnetic energy of self-inductance. Its value is
given by the equation ,
Energy = Y^LP (9)
where L is the self-inductance of the circuit and / is the current in it.
The energy is measured in joules when L is in henrys and / is in
amperes.
In the case of a pair of adjacent circuits a similar expression for the
energy of mutual inductance is
• Energy = H ^ / p ^ (10)
where M is the mutual inductance of the system and Ip is the primary
current. The same units apply as indicated above.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 5I 1
Example: A pair of coils have a mutual inductance of 0.25 henry. The primary
coil has a aelf-inductance of 1.5 henrys. When there is a current of 4.0 amp in the
primary coil, what is the energy of self-inductance? the energy of mutual inductance?
Z- = 1.5 henrys
M = 0.25 henry
/p = 4.0 amp
Energy of self-inductance = J^ZP = i^ X 1.5 X 4.0^ = 12 joules
Energy of mutual inductance = MAf/p^ = M X 0.25 X 4.0^ = 2.0 joules
SUMMARY
Most commercial sources of electric energy involve the generation
of an emf by electromagnetic induction.
Induced emfs are generated whenever there is a change of magnetic
flux in an electric circuit.
T h e average emf induced by a change of flux is
N^4>
E =
108^
Lem^s law states that the induced current is always in such a direc-
tion as to oppose the change which gives rise to it.
A hack emf or 2L forward emf is generated in a circuit when the flux is
growing or when it is decreasing, respectively.
T h e emf induced in a straight wire moving through a magnetic
field is
108
T h e basic equations of the transformer are
Electric energy is transmitted long distances at high voltage and

low current in order to minimize the PR heating losses in the line.
Eddy or Foucault currents are the currents induced in relatively large
bodies of conducting material when they are linked with variable
magnetic fluxes. • '
Self-inductance is that property of an electric circuit which causes
it to oppose any change of current in the circuit. It is defined by
Mutual inductance is the property of a pair of circuits wHereby a
change of flux in one circuit causes an induced emf in the other
circuit. It is defined by
T h e energy stored in an inductive circuit is given by

Energy = >^LP
The current in an inductive circuit builds u p in accordance with
the expression
. V - e
QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by "cutting lines of force?" What is the result of cutting
magnetic lines by a conductor?
2. An east-west conductor moves south across a vertical magnetic field directed
downward. What is the direction of the. induced current? Which end of the conductor
has the higher potential?
3. State a number of ways in which an emf may be induced in a coil of wire.
4. Two identical hoops, one of copper, the other aluminum, are similarly
rotated in a magnetic field. Explain reasons for the different torques required.
5. A bar magnet falls with uniform speed through a coil of wire with its plane
horizontal. The long axis of the magnet is normal to the plane of the coilcDescribe
the way in which the induced emf in the coil varies with time.
6. Show how the primary of a transformer automatically adjusts its current as
the secondary load is changed.
7. The coils on a well-designed transformer are wound very tightly on the iron
core. Why is this design more satisfactory than one in which the coils are loosely
wound on the iron core?
8. Transformers are ordinarily used only on a-c circuits.^ Why is this? Show why
they can be used on d-c telephone circuits.
9. What are some of the advantages of using' iron for the core of a 60-cycle
transformer? Why do ultrahigh-frequency transformers utilize air cores?
10. A certain amount of power is to be transmitted-over a long-distance electric
line. If the voltage is stepped up 10 times, how- much is the line loss reduced? How
much could the size, of the wire bfe reduced in order for the line loss to be kept the
same as for transmission at the original low voltage?
11. A rural electric line supplies power to two industries by means of step-down
transformers., Both plants use the same voltage, but one plant takes much'more power
than the other. What differences in design are there in the transformers supplying
these industries? State the reasons foiî these differences.
12. What happens to the motion of a copper pendulum bob when it swings
between the poles of a strong electromagnet? What becomes of the kinetic energy of
the pendulum?
13. Describe some devices in which eddy currents are of value. Mention some in
which such currents are objectionable. State reasons in each case.
14. The self-inductance of an air-core coil is independent of the value of the cur-
rent in the coil. This is not true of an iron-core coil. Explain.
15. Mention some of the factors upon which the mutual inductance of a pair of
adjacent coils depends, indicating the manner in which the mutual inductance varies
with such factors.
16. Show how and when the potential energy of the magnetic field is returned
to the. electric circuit.
17. Sketch rough curves to show how the energy stored up in an inductive circuit
varies v^dth (a) the inductance of the circuit, (b) the current in the circuit.
18. What would be the efTect on the self- and mutual inductance of solenoids
when iron cores are inserted? State reasons.
19. Compare the growth of currents in inductive and noninductive circuits.
Sketch a curve of current vs. time for a circuit of high inductance; for one of low
inductance.
PROBLEMS
1. A loop of wire has the magnetic flux through it reduced from 5.0 X 10'
maxwells to 1.2 X 10' maxwells in 0.85 sec. What is the average induced emf?
2. A wire 20 cm long "cuts" a flux of 3.0 X W maxwells in 0.020 sec. What
average emf is induced in the v^dre? Ans. 1.5 volts
3. The JV" pole of a magnet is brought down toward a flat coil of 20 turns lying
on a table, (a) If the flux through the coil changes from 10,000 to 50,000 lines in 0.30
sec, what is the magnitude of the induced emf? (b) Is it clockwise or counterclockwise
as you look down on the coil?
4. A circular coil of wire of 3000 turns and diameter 6.0 cm is situated in a
magnetic field so that the major plane of the coil is normal to the field. If the flux
density in the coil changes uniformly from 5000 to 17,000 maxwells/cm^ in 3.14 min,
what emf is induced in the coil? Ans. 54 mv
5. A closed rectangular loop of wire 20 cm by 50 cm rotates at a uniform speed
of 5.0 rps about an axis perpendicular to a uniform magnetic fleld of 800 oersteds.
The loop has a resistance of 0.20 ohm. (a) What is the maximum magnetic flux
included by the rotating coil? {b) What is the maximum emf developed in the coil?
(c) What is the average current in the coil?
6. In one of the coils of a generator armature 100 wires pass across a pole from
which a magnetic fliix of 15 X 10' maxwells/cm^ eminates. The pole face has an area
of 1000 cm.^ If the armature moves across the pole in M20 min what is the average
emf induced in the coil by the "cutting" of this flux? Ans. 30 volts
7. The distance between the rails of a railroad is 1.5 meters. The total strength
of the earth's magnetic field is 0.80 oersted and the angle of dip is 75°. What is the
magnitude and direction of the voltage induced in the axle of a locomotive moving
due east at the rate of 60 mi/hr?
8. (a) What emf is induced in a straight wire SO cm long, perpendicular to a
magnetic field of 2000 lines/cm'', when the wire is moved with a speed of 5.00 m/sec
at right angles to the field? Make a sketch to show clearly the directions of the field,
motion, and emf. (b) What emf would be generated if the velocity made an angle of
30° with the field? Ans. 0.50 volt, 0.25 volt
9. A 110-volt PD is applied to the primary of a step-up transformer that delivers
2.0 amp from its secondary. There are 25 times as many turns in one winding as in
the other. Find (a) the voltage of the secondary and (b) the current in the primary.
Assume no losses in the transformer.
10. The primary and secondary coils of a transformer have 500 and 2500 turns,
respectively, (a) If the primary is connected to a 110-volt a-c line, what will be the
voltage across the secondary? (b) If instead the secondary were connected to the
110-volt line, what voltage would be developed in the smaller coil?
Ans. 550 volts; 22.0 volts
11. A step-up transformer operates on a primary voltage of 110 volts. The ratio
of primary to secondary turns is 1 to 25. The secondary load is 2.00 amp. Assuming
ideal conditions, what is (a) the secondary voltage, (b) the primary current, and (c)
the power output?
12. A transformer has a primary of 500 turns and a resistance of 0.200 ohm. The
secondary has 2500 turns and a resistance of 3.00 ohms. The iron losses in the trans-
former for a secondary output of 10.0 kw at 1200 volts are 200 watts. Calculate (a) the
secondary current, {b) the copper loss in secondary, (c) the copper loss in primary,
(d) the efficiency of the transformer. Ans. 8.33 amp; 208 watts; 365 watts; 93%
13. Find the power loss in a transmission line whose resistance is 1.5 ohms, if
50 kw are delivered to the line (a) at 50,000 volts, (b) at 5000 volts.
14. A certain amount of power is to be sent over each of two transmissicffi lines
to a distant point. The first line operates at 220 volts, the second at 11,000 volts.
What must be the relative diameters of the line wires if the line loss is to be identical
in the two cases? Ans. 5%
15. A steady emf of 110 volts is applied to a coil of wire. When the current reaches
three-fourths its maximum value, it is changing at the rate of 5.00 amp/sec. At
this instant the induced emf is 27.5 volts. Find thg self-inductance of the coil.
16. What is the self-inductance of a circuit in which there is induced an emf of
100 volts when the current in the circuit changes uniformly from 1.0 to 5.0 amp in
0.30 sec? Ans. 7.5 henrys
17. A coil has 1000 turns and an inductance of 3.0 henrys. If a steady emf of
36 volts is applied and the current has risen to two-thirds its maximum value,
what is (a) the rate of change of the current a t that instant? (b) the rate of change of
flux?
18. An impressed emf of 50 volts at the instant of closing the circuit causes the
current in a coil to increase at the rate of 20 amp/sec. Find the self-inductance of the
coil. , Ans. 2.5 henrys
I**"
-•"' \
I X
yi
"'»*•
i ERWIN
>/" SGHRODINGER
1887 —
BORN IN WIEN. SUCCEEDED PLANCK AS PROFESSOR AT THE UNI"

VERSITY OF BERLIN. SHARED THE 1 9 3 3 NOBEL PRIZE FOR
:^HYSICS WITH DIRAG FOR THE CREATION OF WAVE MECHANICS,
A THEORY OF THE INTERACTION OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES.
38. Generators and Motors

A device for converting mechanical energy into electric energy is
called a generator. The function of a motor is just the reverse, that is, it
transforms electric energy into mechanical energy. The types and
sizes of these machines have developed from the crude models of
60 years ago to the giant-sized generators found in a modern hydro-
electric plant or the powerful motors used in many industries. The
basic principles of most generators and many motors are quite simple
51S
and involve only fundamental laws, which have been discussed in
previous chapters. T h e most essential of these principles are the laws
of electromagnetic induction and Ampere's law.
The Simple Generator. T h e simplest possible generator is a
single coil of wire turning in a uniform magnetic field as in Fig? 1. T h e
loop ABCD turns in a counterclockwise direction starting with the loop
vertical. Since the magnetic field is
directed from jV to S, the generator
rule indicates that the current in the
conductor AB as it moves downward
in the first half turn is from B to A.
As the conductor DC moves upward
FIG. 1.—A simple generator.
at the same time, the current is from
D to C. T h e current during this half turn is directed around the loop
in the order DCBA. If the loop continues to turn through a second
half turn, AB moves upward in front of the S pole and DC moves
downward before the N pole. During this half turn the current
is in the direction ABCD. Thus the current alternates in the coil,
reversing direction twice in each complete revolution.
T h e value of the induced emf, a n d hence the current, is not con-
stant as the coil turns, since it is proportional to the rate at which the
lines of force are cut. When the coil CO/L CO/L
is in the vertical position as it turns, HORIZONTAL HORIZONTAL
both AB a n d CD are moving parallel
to the field a n d cutting no, lines of
force. Hence at this position the emf
is zero. As the coil turns, the rate of
cutting increases until its plane is in
the horizontal position where the con-
ductors are moving perpendicular to FIG. 2.—Variation of emf in a
the flux and hence the emf is a maxi- single coil turning in a uniform
mum. Thereafter it decreases imtil it magnetic, fielci.
again becomes zero when the coil is vertical. T h e way in which the
emf varies during one complete turn of the coil starting from a vertical
position is shown in Fig. 2. It starts at zero, rises to a maximurn,
decreases tq zero, rises to a maximimi iri the opposite direction, and
again decreases to zero ready to repeat the cycle. Ideally the form
of such a curve is .a conventional sine curve. At any instant, the emf
G E N E R A T O R S AND M O T O R S 517
in the loop is e = e^ cos 6', where em is the mzixiinuin value of the

emf and 6' is the angle between the direction of the magnetic field
and the plane of the loop. This is usually written e = em sin 6, where d
is the angle between the given position of the loop and the position
in which the emf is zero. Since the latter is a position at right angles to
FIG. 3.—Â coil in a magnetic field, showing the angle 6' which it makes with the field
and the angle 6 which it makes with the position in which the emf is zero.
the magnetic field, 9 = 90 — 6', showing that sin 6 = cos d', as was
assumed. These angles are shown in Fig. 3, in which the magnetic
field is horizontal.
One complete rotation of the loop produces one cycle of the'emf,
causing one cycle of current in any circuit connected across its
terminals.. The number of cycles per second is called the frequency. In
practice the form of the voltage
ciirve obtained from commercial M BRUSHES
alternators is not a pure sine
curve, because of the lack of
uniformity of the field.
The A-c Generator. In the SLIPRIN6S
commercial a-c generator a high
voltage is obtained by having the FIG. 4.—Slip rings on an a-c generator.
coil wound on cin iron core, thus
increasing the flux linked, and also by using a large number of turns
in series for each coil. The rotating coil and its iron core comprise
the armature of most generators. In the usual a-c generator the ends
of the coil are connected to circular rings called collecting rings or slip
rings. Carbon (graphite) brushes bearing on these rings give a con-
tinuous path for the current (Fig. 4). T h e basic elements of a simple
generator are thus seen to be (1) afield magnet^ (2) the armature^ and
(3) the slip rings and brushes.
The D-c Generator. An ideal generator can never have a one-
directional current in the coil itself b u t it is possible to have a one-
directional current in the outside circuit by reversing the connections
to the outside circuit at the same instant the emf changes direction
in the coil. T h e change in connections is accomplished by means of a
commutator (Fig. 5). This device is simply a split ring, one side being
connected to each end of the coil. Brushes, usually of graphite, bear
against the commutator as it turns with the coil. T h e position of the
brushes is so adjusted that they slip from one commutator segment
T/M£
COMMUTATOR
FIG. 5.—A simple generator with a FIG. 6.—Variation of \(oltage with
commutator produces a one-directional time in the external line of a simple
current in the external line; generator with a commutator.
to the other at the instant the emf changes direction in the rotating
coil. I n the external line there is a one-directional voltage, which
varies as shown in Fig. 6. T h e curve is similar to that of Fig. 2, with
the second half inverted. T o produce a steady, one-directional current
many armature coils are used rather than a single coil. These are
usually wound in slots distributed evenly aroimd a soft iron cylinder.
By this arrangement several coils are always cutting lines of force
a n d the connections are so arranged that the coils moving in one
.direction across the field are always joined in series. As the number of
coils is increased, the number of commutator segments must be in-
creased proportionately.
A d-c dynamo can be used either as a generator or as a motor. In •
the first case the dynamo is driven mechanically and furnishes electric
power, while" if used as a motor electric energy is supplied and me-
chanical energy is developed.
GENERATOR.S AND MOTORS 519
C!onunercIal A-c Generators. Almost any d-c generator will
produce an alternating current if the commutator is replaced by a
pair of slip rings .properly connected to the armatiire coils. It is
FIG. 7.—^Diagram of a four-pole, rotating-field a-c generator. The magnetic field is

excited by a separate d-c generator.
sinapler and more economical, however, to construct an a-c generator

with stationary armature coils and with rotating magnetic poles.
Most commercial a-c generators are so made. A diagram of such a
generator is shown in Fig. 7. The
emf goes through one complete cycle
as a pair of poles passes a coil. The
frequency thus depends upon the
number of poles and the speed of
rotation. The emf produced is pro-
portional to the flux density and to
the number of turns on the coils as
well as to the number of poles and the
speed of rotation. In designing the
generator, the speed and number of FIG. 8.—Variation of emf with
poles are fixed to give the desired time for (a) single-phase generator,
frequency and the remaining two (b) two-phase generator, (c) three-
factors are then adjusted to give the phase generator.
necessary emf. The field magnets are usually excited by current from
a small d-c generator, which is operated as a separate machine.
In many a-c generators the armature is wound with two or three
separate coils displaced somewhat in position from each other so that
the respective peak emf's are reached at different times. If there are
two coils, the emf s vary as shown in the graph of Fig. Sb. T h e emf of
one coil is zero when that of the other has its maximum value. Such
a machine is called a two-phase generator. T h e more common three-
phase generator has three coils so placed that the emf s vary as shown /
in Fig. 8c. An advantage of the two- or three-phase machine is the
more uniform flow of power. There are also certain very decided
advantages gained by transmitting three-phase power.
EMF Generated i n a D-c Generator. I n Chap. 37 it was stated
that the average voltage generated by electromagnetic induction
depends upon the number of conductors, the change of flux, and the
time required to cut the flux. *
Instead of l/t we can use n, the angular speed of the rotor, in revolu-
tions per second. Each conductor cuts the total flux two times during
each complete revolution. Also generators are wound so that each
coil forms two parallel paths for the current. Hence the average
voltage induced is given by
^ - -iQi (2)
Example: A two-pole generator rotates at 25 rps. It has 300 rotor conductors

arranged in two parallel paths. The flux through the armature is 1.0 X 10^ max-
wells. What is the average value of the voltage induced?
n = 25 rps
JV= 300
0 = 1.0 X 10'maxwells
^ nN4> 25 X 300 X 1.0 X lO^
= 75 volts
IQS IQS
T h e Motor Effect. As described in C h a p . 31, when a current-

bearing conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the field is distorted
a n d the conductor experiences .a force directed from the strgng part
of the field toward the„weaker part. This effect is illustrated in the
idealized experiment.shown in Fig. 9.
G E N E R A T O R S AND MOTORS 521
The value of the force that the current experiences in a magnetic

field is given by Ampere's law, namely,
j,_BIl (3)
since the current is perpendicular to the flux.

In a motor there is a force on each side of the coil. These forcesare
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Thus a couple acts to
rotate the coil and the torque is
proportional to the product of the
force and the width w of the.coil
BIlw cos a
L = Fw =
To
For a coil of JV turns Motion
NBIA cos a E I ' \\VSv^^
L = (4) ^ ^
10
FIG. 9.—^The motor effect.
where A is the area of the coil and a
is the angle between the plane of the coil and the flux.
Example: Each side of the armature coil of 25 turns in a motor is 60 cm long. The
coil is 20 cm wide. The armature current is 100 amp and the effective flux density in
the air gap is 3000 gausses. What is the torque when the plane of the coil is parallel
to the field?
JV = 25
B = 3000 gausses
/ = 100 amp
A = (60 cm) (20 cm) = 1200 cm^
25 X 3000 X 100 X 1200
L = NBIA cos a = = 9.0 X 108 cm-dynes
10
Direct-current Motors. The side push that a current-bearing

conductor experiences in a magnetic field is the basis for the operation
of the common electric motor. In construction the motor is similar
to the generator having a commutator and an armature wound on a
soft iron core. When a current is maintained in the armature coils,
the force on the conductors produces a torque tending to rotate the
armature. The amovmt of this torque depends upon the current,
the fltix density, the diameter of the coil, and the number and length
of the active conductors on the armature. T h e commutator' is used to
reverse the current in each coil at the proper instant to produce a
continuous torque.
Back Etnf i n a Motor. Consider a n experiment in which an
ammeter and an incandescent lamp are connected in series with a /
small motor (Fig. 10). If the armature is held stationary as the current'
is turned on, the lamp will glow with full brilliancy, but when the
armature is allowed to turn the lamp grows dim a n d the ammeter
reading decreases.
This shows that the current in a motor is smaller when the motor
is running freely than when the rotation of its armature is retarded.
FIG. 10.—Circuit to show the back emf of a motor.
T h e current is diminished by the developnaent of a back emf, which

acts against the driving emf. T h a t is, every motor is at the same time
a generator. T h e direction of the induced emf will always be opposite
to that of the voltage impressed on the motor, a n d it will be propor-
tional to the speed of the armature. W h e n the motor armature
revolves faster, the back emf is greater a n d the difference between the
impressed voltage a n d the back emf is therefore smaller. This differ-
ence determines the current in the armature, so that there is a larger
current in a motor when it is running slowly than when it is running
fast. T h e current is much larger when the motor is starting than when
it is operating at normal speed. For this reason adjustable starting
resistors in series with the motor are frequently used to minimize the
danger of excessive current while starting.
The current in a motor armature can be determined froni the
equation
GENERATORS AND MOTORS 523
where V is the impressed voltage, E the induced emf in the armature,
and R is the a r m a t u r e resistance.
Example: A d-c motor operates at 120 volts and has an armature resistance of
0.300 ohm. When the motor is running at rated speed the armature current is 12.0
amp. What is the back emf in the armature?
F = 120 volts
/ = 12.0 amp
R = 0.300 ohm
/ ' ^R- ^
120 volts - E
12.0 amp =
0.300 ohm
E = 116 volts
T h e increase in current with decrease in speed makes a motor

somewhat self-regulating. An increase in load causes the motor to
FIG. 11.—A large industrial motor.
slow down thus causing an increase in current. Since the torque is

proportional to the current, an automatic increase in torque accom-
panies an increase in load.
T h e power supplied to a motor is the product of the current and
the impressed voltage (P = IV). A part of this power is used in heating
the motor. T h e remaining power available for operating the motor
is laE, where /« is the armature current and E is the back emf. T h e
efficiency of the motor is the ratio of these two powers, that is, laE/IV.
Alternating-current Motor. There is a wide variety of a-c
motors and not all a-c motors can be used as generators, as is the case
for d-c dynamos. ^
T h e most common type of a-c motor is the induction motor. Its
operation depends upon an induced current set up in the closed
armature by means of a rotating magnetic field. In Fig. 12 are shown
the field connections of a tv/o-phase induction motor. T h e poles are
connected in pairs to the two windings. At the instant that*the current
is greatest in line 1, pole a is an JV" pole, c is an i* pole, and both b and d
are unmagnetized since the current in line 2 is zero. A quarter
cycle later b has become a n JV pole, d axi S pole, while a and c are
unmagnetized. After the next quarter cycle, c is a n JV" pole, and later d
becomes an JV pole. I n one complete cycle, therefore, the jV pole
rotates successively from a to 6 to c to d, while at the same time the
S pole rotates from c to d to a to b.
Effectively the magnetic field rotates a t
the rate of one rotation for each cycle.
If a closed coil is placed between
the poles, a current will be induced in
it as the field rotates. T h e current will
be in such direction as to oppose the
turning of the field. As a result, there
will be a torque tending to turn the coil,
and the machine becomes a motor. A
UN£2 single-phase motor has essentially one
FIG. 12.—Rotating magnetic field piair of poles, which become alter-
of a two-phase induction motor.
nately .A'" and S, while three-phase
motors have three pairs. Both two-phase and three-phase motors are
self-starting b u t a single-phase motor is not. For such motors a special
starting device must be provided.
SUMMARY
Generators transform mechanical energy into electric energy, while
motors transform electric energy into mechanical energy.
An elementary generator consists of a coil of wire rotating in a
magnetic field. TJie emf induced in a n ideal generator is alternating
in character. It is given cby
e = e. sin Q
G E N E R A T O R S AND MOTORS 525
A d-c generator differs from an a-c generator in that the d-c
generator has a commutator to make it deliver a unidirectional
current.
The emf generated by a d-c generator is given by
_ nJ^
The torqtie on an armature coil of a motor is given by

_ J^BIA cos a
^~ 10
The back emf generated in a motor armature is nearly equal to the
voltage impressed upon it. This back emf reduces the current which
there would otherwise be in the motor, in accordance with the
equation
V -E
I = R
The power available for operating a motor is the product of the

armature current and the back emf.
Induction motors operate because of induced currents set up in a
closed armature by a rotating magnetic field.
QUESTIONS
1. Is an electric generator a "generator of electricity"? Where is the electricity
before it is "generated"? What does such a machine "generate"?
2. A glance at a dynamo will indicate whether it has slip rings or a commutator.
How will this information enable one to know whether the machine is an a-c or a
d-c dynamo?
3. A railway electric locomotive uses its d-c motor as a generator for braking
purposes on long, down grades. Show how this may be done and what happens to
the energy.
4. Explain fully and clearly the reason for using a "starting box" with a motor.
Describe the action of this device.
5. How can one reverse the direction of rotation of a d-c motor?
6. A d-c motor rotates in a clockwise direction when power is supplied to it
with the current in a certain direction. How must it be rotated as a generator so
that the current will be in the same direction?
7. Describe an experiment that one might make to measure the input and output
power of a d-c motor.
8. Describe an experiment that might be performed to measure the over-all
efficiency of a motor-generator set used to convert a-c power to d-c power.
»
PROBLEMS
1. An a-c generator develops a voltage that has a maximum value of 140 volts.
What is the instantaneous value of the voltage when the coil is passing through an
angle of 25° after leaving the angle of zero phase?
2. A d-c generator armature has 500 turns, which link a flux of 6.0 XlO^max-
wells from the two-pole field coils. What is the emf generated when the coil is rotating
at 1800 rpm? Ans. 90 volts
3. When the armature of a generator cuts a flux of 6.00 X 10^ lines an emf of
120 volts is induced. How much would the flux have to be for the generator to have a
terminal voltage of 115 volts, when delivering a current of 20.0 amp? The armature
resistance is 1.80 ohms.
4. A d-c generator has a no-load voltage of 115 volts. At full load the terminal
PD is 110 volts and the power output is 2.20 kw. What is the armature resistance?
Ans. 0.250 ohm
5. A d-c generator has an armature resistance of 0.120 ohm. At no load the
terminal voltage is 124 volts and at full load it is 115 volts. Assuming the generated
emf to remain constant, how much power does the generator deliver at full load''
6. A 1.00-hp motor having an efficiency of 85.0% is connected to ^220-volt line.
What is the current in the motor? Ar&. 3.99 amp
7. What current is taken from 110-volt mains by a motor which is 80% efficient
and which is delivering 10 hp?
8. The armature of a motor has a resistance of 0.240 ohm. When running on a
UO-volt circuit, it takes 5.00 amp. What is the back emf? Ans. 109 volts
9. The voltage impressed across the armature of a motor is 115.0 volts, the back
emf is 112.4 volts, and the current is 20.0 amp. What is the armature resistance?
10. A motor connected across a 110-volt line draws an armature current of 20 amp
and develops 104 volts back emf when running at normal speed. What current would
there be in the armature at the instant the switch were closed if no starting box were
used? ' Ans. 370 amp
11. What is the back emf in a motor which has an armature resistance of 2.00
ohms and in which an impressed emf of 110 volts produces an armature current of
10.0 amp? If the speed were reduced one-half and the field current remained the
same, what current would there be in the armature?
12. The voltage impressed on a motor is 115.0 volts; the back emf is 112.0 volts;
the current is 6.00 amp. What current would there be if the motor were stopped
altogether? Ans. 230 amp
13. A shunt-wound (field in parallel with the armature) d-c motor has an arma-
ture resistance of 1.00 ohm and a field resistance of 200 ohms. When connected to a
110-volt line^ there is developed a back emf of 105 volts. Find (a) the. power delivered
to the motor, and {b) the power available for operating the motor.
PAUL
ADRIEN
MAURICE
DIRAG
1902 —
BORN IN BRISTOL. PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS AT CAMBRIDGE.

THE 1 9 3 3 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS WAS CONFERRED ON DIRAG
AND SCHRODINGER FOR THEIR DISCOVERY OF NEW AND FERTILE
FORMS OF ATOMIC THEORY.
39. Condensers
A device in which electricity may temporarily be stored is called a
condenser. Almost any insulated body possesses to some extent the
ability to retain for a timie an electric charge and hence such a body
might be called a condenser. However, the most effective condensers
are made of metallic "plates," which are insulated from each other
and surrounding objects. Such devices have the ability to store a
considerable quantity of electricity that may temporarily be held
527
bound for later use (though oftentimes this later interval may be a
matter of a millionth of a second). Condensers are used in such devices
as radio sets, all sorts of electronic apparatus, telephone and telegraph
equipment, and automobile ignition systems.
Simple Condensers. A simple electric condenser is formed by
placing two metal plates near each other, with a sheet of paper,
mica, or other insulating material between (Fig. 1). If a battery is con-
nected to these plates, though there is essentially no flow of electrons
through the insulating medium, electrons do
leave one of the plates a n d enter the positive
terminal of the battery, while the same n u m b e r
leave the negative terminal of the battery a n d
enter the other plate. As this happens, the first
I I I I I I plate becomes positive, the second negative, a n d
.4-1 I I I' I' I'_ this continues until the potential difference be-
F i G . l . - A simple con- ^^^^ ^^^ .^^^ -^ ^ j ^^ ^^^ ^ ^ f ^f ^^^
denser. , _,, ,- 1 •
battery. Thereafter there is no more current
and the condenser is said to be charged. Note that electricity does not
flow through the condenser, but only into and out of the plates that
compose it.
Capacitance. T h e capacitance of a condenser is the ratio of the
amount of electricity transferred, from one of its plates to the other,
to the potential difference produced between the plates. I n the form
of an equation
Capacitance = —-—-r-r
^ potential
C =I (1)
I
T h e value of the capacitance depends upon the units in which Q, and
V are measured and also upon the area of the plates, the distance
between them, and the nature of the insulator.
T h e term "capacity" which is frequently used in this connection is
not very happily chosen. For one thing, it conveys the idea that a.
given condenser has a fixed capacity to hold a certain charge7 as a
water pail has a limited capacity to hold water. I n reality, the charge
which a condenser wilf hold may be varied within wide limits. T h e
CONDENSERS 52g
upper limit is set only by the voltage necessary to disrupt the dielec-
tric (insulator).
T h e unit of capacitance in the practical system is the farad, so
named in honor of Faraday. A farad is the capacitance of a condenser,
which acquires a PD of 1 volt when it receives a-charge of 1 coulomb.
T h e farad is so large a unit that it would take a condenser of
vmheard-of proportions to have a capacitance of 1 farad; hence, the
microfarad (ûf, one-millionth of a farad) is the unit most frequently
used.
T h e defining equation for capacitance, Eq. (1), may be written
in the form
(l = CV (1«)
which states that the electricity which can be stored upon the plates
of a condenser is directly proportional to the voltage between the
plates.
. Example: A condenser having a capacitance of 3.0 /if is connected to a 50-volt
battery. What charge will there be in the condenser?
C = 3.0 fii
F = 50 volts_
Q^= CV = 3.0 ni X 50 volts = 150 microcoulombs
Commercial Condensers. In order to increase the capacitance

of condensers so that they will hold sufficientiy large quantities of
electricity for commercial purposes, use is made of a large number of
plates, each of large area. An ideal-
ized diagram of a multiplate con-
denser is shown in Fig. 2. In high-
grade condensers mica is used as a
dielectric. Inexpensive condensers of
^ +^ i n ,,f or.« iic.iolKr FiG- 2.—A multiplate condenser.
capacitance up to lU fxi are usually ^
made of alternate layers of tin or aluminum foil and waxed
paper. These are frequently wound into rolls xmder pressure and
sealed into moisture-resisting metal containers (Fig. 3). Electrolytic
condensers of large capacitance, up to 50 ^f, are made by using an
insulating layer formed by chemical action directly on the metal
plates of the condenser. T h e slight space between the layers is filled
with an electrolyte in Uquid or paste form, this constituting one of the
plates. A variable-capacitance air condenser is shown in Fig. 4. This
type of condenser is widely used in radio circuits aad electronic
devices.
• • _ ; , . — - " '
FIG. 3.—Â commer- FIG. 4.—Âir condenser.

cial condenser.
Capacitance of a Parallel-plate Condenser. The capacitance
of a condenser having parallel plates of large area separated by a thin
dielectric is given by the equation
8MKA
C = 108 (2)
where C is the capacitance, in microfarads; K is the dielectric con-
stant; A is the area (of one side) of the dielectric actually between the
plates (in square centimeters); and s is the thickness of dielectric, in
centimeters.
It will be observed that in order to have a condenser of large
capacitance it is desirable to use an insiilator of high, dielectric con-
stant, plates of large area, and a small separation of the plates.
Example: A parallel-plate condenser is made of 350 plates, ^separated by par-
affined paper 0.0010 cm thick. The effective size of each plate is 15 X 30 cm. The
dielectric constant of the paper is 2.5. What is the capacitance of this condenser?
A" = 2.5 *
/I = 15 cm X 30 cm = 450 cm^
s = 1.0 X 10-' cm
' ' _ S M m _ 8.84 X 2.5 X 450
^ ~ 108 s -" 108 X 1.0 X 10-3 ^ ^^ -'
C = 35 Mf •
(Note that the number of single condensers is 1 less than the total number of
plates.)
CONDENSERS 531
Dielectric Constant. As indicated by Eq. (2), the dielectric con-
stant of the insulator used in a condenser is of great importance.
Unfortunately the values of the dielectric constant of most common
insulators are not very high. A list of the dielectric constants of a
iew common insulators is given in Table I.
TABLE I. DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS •
Solids Liquids Gases
Glass 6 to 10 Alcohol 25 Carbon dioxide. 1.00097

Mica 5.6 to 6.6 Oil 2 to 2.2 Air 1.00060
Paraffined paper 2.1 to 2.3 Turpentine. 2.2 to 2.3 Hydrogen 1.00026
Porcelain 6 to 7 Water 80 to 83 Water v a p o r . . . 1.007
1
Dielectric Strength. T h e concept of dielectric strength is fre-
quently confused with the very different one of dielectric constant.
Dielectric strength refers to the potential gradient (voltage per centi-
meter thickness) which must be applied to cause a disruptive dis-
charge through the instilator. This factor is aVneasure of the insulating
quality of the material. Condensers are rated to be able safely to
stand the given voltages and should not be used at higher potentials.
Approximate values of the dielectric strengths of some commonly used
insulators are given in Table I I .
TABLE II. DIELECTRIC STRENGTH

Average values
Kv/cm Kv/cm
Substance Substance
to puncture to puncture
110 Mica 300 to 700

Paraffin oil. . .^ 160
Kerosene 160 300 to 1000
350
Paraffined paper 500 Glass 300 to 1600
Combinations of Condensers. In Fig. 5 are shown three con-

densers of separate capacitances, Ci, C2, and C3, respectively, con-
nected in parallel and joined to a cell of terminal voltage V. Obviously,
all the condensers are charged to the same potential, since they are all
connected directly to the cell. By definition of the capacitance of a
condenser, the charge on each condenser is, respectively,
di = CiF; d, = C,V; (^3 = C3F
the PD over each being the same. T h e total charge Q, on the con-
densers is equal to the sum of the separate charges,
If C represents the joint capacitance, Q, = CV, and therefore b y sub-

stitution of the values of Q,-, Q\, Qji, and Q,3, we get
CV = CyV + CiV + CzV

||C, II^J
11^2
II II II
0,:^c, Q2^C2 Q,d:=C3 vA- V,
-Hi|H
FIG. 5.—Condensers in parallel. . FIG. 6.—Condensers in series.
By dividing both sides of the equation by V, we obtain

C = Ci + C2 + C3 (3)
That, is, /or condensers connected in parallel, the joint capacitance is the sum
of the several capacitances.
In Fig. 6, the condensers are- shown connected in series. Each of
these condensers holds the same quantify of electricity. This follows
frorn'the fact that a charge upon, one plate always attracts upon the
other plate a charge equal in magnitude and opposite in sign. Let
Fi, F2, and F3 represent the voltages oyer the several condensers
and F the voltage" over the whole. For the series connection it follows
that
F = Fi + F2 + F3
Substituting in this equation the various values
F - ^ , F - ^ , V - ^ , V - ^
we have
C/ Ci L11 C3
CONDENSERS 533
Dividing both sides of the equation by Q^, we obtain
1=1+1+1 (4)
That is, for condensers connected in serieSj, the reciprocal of the joint
capacitance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the several
capacitances.
Example: Three condensers have capacitances 0.50, 0.30, and 0.20 /if, respec-
tively. What is their joint capacitance when arranged to give (a) a minimum capac-
itance and {b) a maximum capacitance?
Ci = 0.50 fii
C2 = 0.30 /if
Cs = 0.20 /if
If they are all connected in series, they will have a minimum capacitance given by
,C 0.50 /if 0.30 /if ^ 0.20 /if

C = 0.097 Mf
The capacitance is a maximum when they are all connected in parallel, namely,
C = Ci -h C2 -f Cs = 0.50 + 0.30 + 0.20 = 1.00 /rf
FIG. 7.—A subdivided condenser.
In Fig. 7 is shown a subdivided condenser. Mica insulation and

careful design to minimize leakage result in an accurate condenser
which is useful in the electrical measuring laboratory. By manipulating
the switches the individual condensers can be placed in series, parallel,
or various series-parallel combinations.
Reasons for Connecting Condensers in Series or in Parallel.
A series connection of condensers is used when it is desired to divide
a high voltage between several condensers, any one
of which could not sustain the entire voltage. The
voltage per condenser in such a series connection is
^s^^ inversely proportional to the capacitance of the con-
-/^ denser, that is, the condenser of least capacitance has
the largest voltage across it. Condensers are connected
in parallel when a large capacitance is desired at a
moderate or low potential. Such a combination of
condensers will hold a large charge. An interesting
example of condensers in series is the "strain type"
of insulators used on high-voltage transmission lines.
Such insulators, shown in Fig. 8, are essentially con-
densers coimected in series, thus dividing the total
voltage between the several units.
Growth and Decay of Charge in a Condenser.
FIG. 8.— Strain When a steady voltage is introduced into a circuit
type insulators. containing only capacitance and resistance, the
charge flows into the condenser rapidly at first. As the
PD between the plates rises the growth of charge is reduced until the
transfer of electricity stops entirely when the voltage of the<-xondenser
becomes equal to the emf of the charging battery or generator. The
rate at which the charge grows is an exponential, or logarithmic,
function of time and is illustrated in the rising curve of Fig. 9. When
a charged condenser discharges through a resistor the decay of its
charge also proceeds as an exponential function of time, as shown in
the descending curve of Fig. 9, this curve being the complement of the
growth curve. The growth or decay of charge proceeds more slowly
the greater the value of the capacitance and the greater the resistance
in series with the condenser. The product RC is known as the time
constant of the circuit; it is roughly the time required f9r the growth
or decay to proceed to two-thirds of its final value. In most cases this
time is a fraction of a second; the time is much longer when a con-
denser is charged or discharged through a very high resistance (of the
CONDENSERS 535
order of megohms). It should be emphasized that the charge and
discharge curves are similar to those in Fig. 9 only for the case of a
pure resistance. When the circuit includes an inductive coil, the
situation may be quite different.
9\
8 \
<r, 7
\
'
\ \
i
0
0
1 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
f IN SEC X 10''
320 360 400
FIG. 9.—Growth and decay of charge in a condenser.

Energy of a Charged Condenser. When a charge Q^ is moved
from one point to another, the potential difference remaining constant,
the work W is given by the defining equation for potential as
W= QV
In charging a condenser ihe potential is not constant, but increases in
direct proportion to the charge on the condenser. The average potential
(work per unit charge) is )4V and hence during the charging process
the total work done is
W = y2QV (5)
The energy is in joules when Q, is in coulombs and V in volts. This
equation may be written in the form
W = ^CV^ 1^
2 C. {5a)
since Q, = CV, where C is the capacitance expressed in farads.

Example: A 0.250-iJ.i condenser is connected to a 300-volt battery. What energy

does the condenser have after it is charged to the potential of the battery?
C = 0.250 /if
V = 300 volts
W = YiCV = K(0.250 X 10-« farad) (300 volts)^ = 1.12 X 10"^ joule
SUMMARY
A condenser is a device in which electricity temporarily may be
stored.
The capacitance of a condenser is defined by
^ . charge _, Q
Capacitance = ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ C = p
The farad is the capacitance of a condenser that acquires a charge

of 1 coulomb when the voltage between its plates is 1 volt.
The capacitance of a parallel-plate condenser is given by
8.84^"^
C = lO^j
The dielectric strength of a material is the potential gradient (volts

per centimeter) that must be applied to cause a disruptive discharge.
When condensers are connected in parallel
V = Vi = Vi = V3 = • • •
^ = (2i + (^2 + (^3 + • • •
C = Ci + C2 + C3 + • •• •
For condensers in series
F = Fi + K2 + F3 + • • .
Q. = (2i = (22 = ^3 = • • •
c ~ c\ + C2 + C3 + • • •
A charged condenser contains energy as indicated by
1 1 1 02
QUESTIONS
1. The capacitance of a' condenser increases as the thickness of the dielectric is
reduced. Why is it impossible fdr this separation to be indefinitely reduced?
CONDENSERS 537
2. The dielectric constant of distilled water is very high, about 80. Why is such
water never used for the dielectric in condensers?
3. Suggest some differences in design which might be found in a l-/uf, 120-volt
condenser and a l-^f; 600-volt condenser of equal quality. Also between an inex-
pensive condenser and a high-grade type of the same electrical characteristics.
4. A 90-volt B battery is connected in series with a variable condenser to a
galvanometer through a reversing switch. Describe how the deflection of the gal-
vanometer varies with time when (a) the switch is first closed, (b) when the switch is
reversed, (c) when the switch is closed and the capacitance is varied.
5. What type of energy is stored up in a condenser? in a storage cell? in an
inductive circuit?
6. A condenser is separately charged to a series of voltages and the energy thus
stored is determined for each value of the voltage. Sketch the energy vs. voltage curve
which would be obtained from such an experiment.
7. Two identical condensers are to be charged by connecting them to a battery.
Compare the relative total charges taken from the battery for the following cases:
(a) only one condenser used, {b) each condenser separately charged, (c) condensers
connected in series, (rf) condensers connected in parallel.
8. Describe and explain residual charge. What precaution should be taken before
touching a condenser in a high-voltage circuit? A prominent manufacturer of radio
equipment advises its employees when checking high-voltage equipment to keep one
hand in pocket. Why?
PROBLEMS
1. An air condenser has a capacitance of 135 fifiL What would be its capacitance
(in farads) if the air were replaced by mica, K = 6.42?
2. A certain condenser having a capacitance of 2.00 /if is charged to a difference
of potential of 100 volts. What is the charge on this condenser?
Ans. 200 microcoulombs
3. What charge is there in a 3.4S-/jf condenser when the PD between the plates
is 125 volts?
4. Calculate the capacitance of a condenser made up of 21 plates alternately
connected in parallel and separated by sheets of mica 0.400 mm thick, the area of
each plate being 150 cm^ and K for mica being 6.00. Ans. 0.0398 /if
5. A parallel-plate condenser has plates 30 by 30 cm, separated by a mica
dielectric 0.10 mm thick {K = 6.0). What is the PD between the condenser plates
when there is a charge of 7.00 microcoulombs on the plates?
6. Three condensers of capacitance 0.100, 0.200, and 0.500/if, respectively, are
connected in parallel and the group then connected in series with another group of
0.100, 0.200, and 0.500 /if, respectively, connected in series. Calculate the total
capacitance. Ans. 54.7 m/if
7. Six 1.00-/if condensers are so arranged that their joint capacitance is 0.750 /if.
If a PD of 600 volts is applied to the combination, what charge will appear on each
condenser?
8. Three condensers of capacitance 0.300, 0.400, and 0.600 /if, respectively, are
connected in parallel. The group is then connected in series with another group of
0.100, 0.200, and 0.500 juf, respectively, connected in series. A voltage of 300 volts is
applied to the combination, (a) What is the charge on the 0.400-/if condenser?
{b) What is the energy in the 0.200-/tf condenser?
Ans. 5.16 microcoulombs; 7150 ergs
9. A condenser of capacitance 5.5 fxt is placed in series with a condenser of
unknown capacitance. The charge on the unknown is 4.35 millicoulombs. The voltage
of the system is 1000 volts. Calculate the capacitance of the unknown condenser.
10. Six J-^-/if condensers are connected first in series and then in parallel. What
are the respective joint capacitances of the combinations? What charge appears on
each condenser in each case when the group is connected to a 600-volt battery?
Ans. 0.083 /if; 3.0 /if; 50 microcoulombs; 300 microcoulombs
11. Three 1.00-/if condensers are charged to potentials of 100, 200, and 300 volts,
respectively. The condensers are then connected in series. What is the total energy of
the system before and after the series connection is made? How do you account for
the difference?
12. A condenser of capacitance 3.00 /if is charged to a potential of 150 volts. If
the voltage were changed to 500 volts in 5.25 milliseconds, what average current would
there be? Ans. 0.20 amp
13. A condenser of capacitance 5.00 /if and potential 250 volts is placed
in parallel with another condenser of 10.00 /if capacitance and potential 375 volts.
•The condensers are connected positive to positive and negative to negative. What is
the resultant potential of the parallel group?
14. Three condensers of capacitances 2.0, 3.0, and 6.0 /tf, respectively, are charged
by a 60-volt battery. Find the energy of the stored charge when the condensers are
connected (a) in parallel, and (i) in series. Ans. 0.020 joule; 0.0018 joule
15. A parallel-plate condenser which has 11 circular conductors, 40 cm in
diameter and separated by mica 0.10-mm thick, is connected in series with a con-
denser of 0.010 /if across a 500-volt line. Find the potential differences across each
condenser. The dielectric constant of mica is 5.4.
16. Three condensers of capacitance 2.0 /if, 3.0 /if, and 4.0 /if are connected in
series across a 1300-volt line. What is the drop in potential across each condenser?
Ans. ,600 volts; 400 volts; 300 volts
17. Two condensers of capacitance 2.0 /if and 4.0 /if are connectefl in parallel.
This group is connected in series with a 3.0-fj.i condenser across an 800-volt line.
Find the PD across each condenser.
18. A condenser of capacitance 5.0 /if is charged to a potential difference of
800 volts and discharged, through a conductor. How much energy is given to the
conductor during the discharge? .i4nj. 1.6 joules
.•"—"ttti" '^
JAMES
GHADWICK
1891 —
BORN IN MANCHESTER. ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH AT

THE CAVENDISH LABORATORY, CAMBRIDGE. IN 1 9 3 5 APPOINTED
PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS IN LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY. IN 1 9 3 5
GHADWICK WAS PRESENTED THE NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR
HIS DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRON.
40. Alternating Currents

The use of electric machinery makes possible the transmission of
energy from the place at which it is easily produced to the point at
which it is to be used. The electric energy can there be converted into
any other form of energy that best suits the needs of the consumer.
In the early generation of electricity the energy was consumed
not far from the generator, and direct-current systems were almost
S39
universally used. As it became desirable to transmit electric energy
over greater distances, power losses in the lines became excessive and
in order to reduce these losses alternating-current systems were
set up. At the present time a-c systems are used almost exclusively in
power lines. Where the application requires that direct current be
employed, a local rectifying system or motor-generator set is^^nstalled.
Radio and a host of modern electronic devices are fund|mentally
applications of high-frequency a-c principles. Most of the laws of a-c
circuits are like those for d-c circuits but there are maily significant
differences. Some of these differences become highly pronounced in
the region of ultrahigh frequencies, such as those used in radar
devices.
^m
e/ 1 Nâ>
im/__\_
e
OR / L^ 1
--Â
i
yê.DEG \ ^\/(?<9° seo"
— f.SEC y1'/6o
\ 1
\ ^ 1
FIG. 1.—Instantaneous values of voltage and current in a-c circuits.
Nomenclature in A-c Circuits. In Chap. 38 the form of voltage

curve generated in an ideal alternator was described. T h e instanta-
neous values of the voltage e are related to the maximum yalues Cm,
as shown in Fig. \a and given by the equation
= ^m sin d (1)
where Q is the angle between the given position of the coil and its
position when the generated emf is zero. T h e instantaneous values of
the current in a n a-d circuit similarly may follow a sine curve, as
shown in Fig. \h, so that the instantaneous current i in terms of the
maximum current im is given by
i = im sin Q (2)
ALTERNATING CURRENTS 541
Example: The voltage in an a-c circuit varies harmonically with time with a
maximum of 170 volts. What is the instantaneous voltage when it has reached 45° in
its cycle?
« = «„ sin 0 = 170 volts X 0.71 = 1 2 0 volts
I n the common 60-cycle a-c circuit, there are 60 complete cycles

each second, that is, the time interval of 1 cycle is Y^^ sec. It should
be noted that this corresponds to a reversal of the direction of the cur-
rent every 3''i2 0 sec (since the direction reverses twice during each
cycle).
T h e common frequencies for commercial power circuits in the
United States are 25 to 60 cycles per second. Radio broadcast fre-
quencies are of the order of one million cycles per second. A few
modern ultrahigh-frequency devices use frequencies of the order of
3 X 10^° cycles per second.
EflFective Values of Current and Voltage. Suppose that in a
rheostat of resistance R there is an alternating current whose maximum
value is 1.0 a m p . Certainly the rate at which heat is developed in the
resistor is not so great as if a steady direct current of 1.0 a m p
were maintained in it.
Remembering that the rate at which heat is developed by a cur-
rent is proportional to the square of its value (P = /î?), one can see
that the average rate of production of heat by a varying current is
proportional to the average value of the square of the current. T h e square-
root of this quantity is called the effective, or root-mean-square (rms)
current. T h e effective value of a current is equal to the magnitude of
a steady direct current that would produce the same heating effect.
The value ordinarily given for an alternating current is its effective,
or rms, value.
For a current that varies sinusoidally with time, the effective
value I is \ / 2 / 2 times its maximum value im, that is, I = OJOlim.
Similarly, since the effective value E of an alternating voltage is
defined as its rms value, E = 0.707^^ (if the voltage varies sinusoidally).
Example: What is the maximum value of a 6.0-amp alternating current?
/ = 0.707j„ = 6.0 amp

so that
6.0
t„ = - - „ - amp = 8.5 amp
Phase Relations of Current and Voltage in A-c Circuits. In

an a-c circuit containing only pure resistance (that is, no inductance
or capacitance) the instantaneous values of current and voltage are
always in phase. This means that they both are zero at the same instant,
both pass through their maximum values at the same instant and
FIG. 2.—Curves showing the current lagging the voltage by 90°.
always have similar time relationships. This is illustrated in Fig. 1 and

is as demanded by Eqs, (1) and (2).
In an inductive circuit the current lags behind the voltage, that
is, the current does not reach its maximum value until some time
after the voltage is a maximum. In a circuit containing only a pure
FIG. 3.—Curves showing the current lagging the voltage by 30°.
inductance (that is, no resistknce or capacitance) the angle of lag of

current behind voltage is 90°, as shown in Fig. 2. In general, however,
circuits contain both inductance and resistance. In such eases the
angle of lag is less than 90°. In other words the phase angle for cir-
cuits containing resistance and inductance may vary from 0° for a
circuit with resistance only to 90° for a circuit with inductance only.
An example of a n angle of lag of 30° is shown in Fig. 3.
In circuits in which capacitance predominates the current leads
the voltage, that is, the current is always ahead of the voltage in
phase. This phase angle may vary from 90° for a pure capacitance
(no resistance or inductance) to 0° for a circuit containing resistance
only.
T h e most general case is for circuits containing resistance, induct-
ance, and capacitance. These may be present in all proportions so
that the current may either lag or lead the voltage by 90° or less. This
is expressed by the equation
i = i„, sin {6 — </)) (3)
T h e phase angle 4> is considered positive when the current lags the
voltage and negative when the current leads the voltage.
Example: In an a-c circuit with capadtance predominating the current leads
thfe voltage by 30°. The effective value of the current is 100 amp. What is the in-
stantaneous current when the voltage passes through its zero value?
I = 0.707t„ = 100 amp
in = 141 amp
i = im (sin 6 — 4>)
= 141 amp X sin (0", + 30°) = 70.5 amp
/ ^ I n d u c t i v e Reactance. Whenever there is inductance in a cir-

cuit, an induced emf is set u p as the current changes. This emf is
proportional to the rate of change of the cur-
rent [Eq. (7), C h a p . 37] and is 90° out of phase
with the current. T h e ratio of the effective value
of this induced emf to the effective value of the
current is called the inductive reactance. Its value
is given by the equation
Z^ = ITTJL (4)
w h e r e / is the frequency of the alternating cur- FIG. 4.—The reac-

rent and L is the self-inductance of the circuit. tance and resistance
Reactance is expressed in ohms when / is in components of the ap-
plied voltage in an
cycles per second and L is in henrys. T h e inductive circuit.
induced emf of inductance is a part of the PD
in the circuit and is called the reactance drop. It is equal to the product
of the current and the inductive reactance (Fi = IXi). T h e voltage
and phase relations in a circuit containing resistance and inductance
in series are shown in Fig. 4. T h e resistance drop (IR) is in phase with
the current and is laid off in that direction while IXL leads the current
by 90°. T h e impressed voltage V is the vector sum of IR and IXL.
Impedance. T h e joint effect of resistance and reactance in an
a-c circuit is known as impedance; it is designated by the symbol ^ .
Impedance is defined as the ratio of the voltage to the current. T h e
defining equation is
V
Z = -i (5)
Impedance is measured in ohms, when V is in volts and I in amperes.
From Fig. 4 it is clear that
^2 = i?2 + XL^ (6)
T h e current in an a-c circuit containing resistance and inductance is
given by
V V
/ = = (7)
Z VR^ + Xr.^ ^ '
An application of this equation offers a very direct method for
measuring Xz, and hence L by Eq. (4). T h e current in an inductive
circuit is measured when a known voltage is impressed. Thejregistance
R is easily measured and, if the frequency is known, every factor in
Eqs. (4) and (7) is known except L.
Example: In an inductive icircuit a coil having a resistance of 10 ohms and an
inductance of 2.0 henrys is connected to a 120-volt, 60-cycle a-c source. What is the
current?
/? = 10 ohms
£ = 2.0 henrys
V = 120 volts
^2 = i?^ 4- XL^ = W + {Zir X 60 X 2.0)*
Z = 760 ohms
, V 120 volts „,,
1 = -y = -= = 0.16 amp
<. 760 ohms
Capacitive Reactance. W h e n a d-c voltage is impressed across
the plates of a condenser, there is an initial rush of charge which
quickly charges the condenser' to the applied potential, after which
there is no further current. But with an a-c source, charges con-
. tinually flow into and then out of the plates as the voltage alternately
rises' and falls. Hence an a-c ammeter in the circuit will show a
continuous reading. T h e charge and discharge are associated with a
capacitive drop in potential that is 90° behind the current in phase. T h e
capacitive reactance is the ratio of this voltage to the current. It is
designated by the symbol Xc and its value is given by the equation
1
T h e reactance Xc is in ohms when C is in farads.

T h e impedance of a circuit containing resistance and capacitive
reactance is given by the equation
•Z^ = i?^ + Xc^ (9)
T h e current in a circuit in which capacitive reactance predominates

is expressed by the equation
Example: What is the current in a 60-cycIe a-c circuit in which a PD of 120 volts
is impressed upon a condenser of 30-juf capacitance in series with a 25-ohm resistor?
C = 30 //f, F = 120 volts, R = 25 ohms

J_^ 1_
Xc = -KZHF, = ^
2x/g ~ 2Tr Xw 60.r. X. , 30nr. X-., K•, rr^^
" = 88 ohmS
^ = VR^ + Xc^ = V252 + 882 = 91 ohms
' V 120 volts , ,
Series Circuits Containing Resistance, Inductance, and Ca-

pacitance. T h e voltages in a series circuit containing a pure
resistance, a pure inductance, and a pure capacitance are shown in
the "clock" diagram of Fig. 5. I n Fig. 5a the voltage VR across the
resistor is laid off in phase with the current. T h e voltage VL across
the inductive coil,is 90° ahead of the current and the voltage Vc
across the condenser lags the current by 90°. Hence the net reactive
voltage is VL — Vc and is designated Vx in Fig. Sb. From
Vx = IX = IXL - IXc = KXL - Xc)

it follows that the net reactance X of the series circuit '\%X — Xi, — Xc.
The impedance ^ is given by
Z = VR^T^' = VR' + (x^ - XcY

(11)
We may now write what is one of the most useful equations in a-c
circuits in the following expression for the current in a series circuit
containing resistance, inductance, and capacitance, namely,
V
I = (12)
^R^ + V^'^/^
(: " 2V&)
fa)
(b)
FIG. 5.—Phase relations of voltages in a series circuit having resistance, inductance,
and capacitance.
The Choke Coil. A coil made up of a large number of turns of

heavy copper wire has little resistance in a d-c circuit, but, because
of its high inductance, it offers a large impedance in an a-c circuit.
By fitting the coil with a variable iron core, the impedance may easily
be varied within wide limits. Such a device^ is useful for many purposes
instead of a rheostat, such as for dimming lights, and possesses the
important advantage over a rheostat in that the PR heating loss is
much less. In other words, the coil acts as a "choke" without requiring
a large expenditure of energy in the form of heat, as is the case of an
ordinary resistor.
Power in A-c Circuits. In d-c circuits the power is given by
P = VI. In such circuits both the current and voltage are assumed to
be steady and in phase In a-c circuits this is not the case. During
.half of the cycle energy is supplied to the reactive component of the
circuit but this energy is returned to the source during the other
half of the cycle. Hence no power is required to maintain the current
in the part of the circuit which is purely reactive. All the power is used
in the resistance portion of the circuit. From Fig. 5b P = IVR. But
VR = V cos <f> and therefore
P = VI cos (j> (13)
where P is the average power in watts when V is the effective value of

the voltage and I is the effective value of the current. T h e angle. (^
is the angle of lag of the current behind the voltage. T h e quantity
cos (^ is called the power factor of the circuit. Note that the power
factor can vary anywhere from zero for a purely inductive circuit to
unity for a pure resistance. From the derivation of Eq. (11) and Fig.
5i it may be seen that the phase angle <j) is defined by the equation
tan .^ = ^ ^ ^ (14)
Example: (a) Find the current in a circuit consisting of a coil and condenser in
series, if the applied voltage is 110 volts; 60.0 cycles/sec;,the inductance of the coil is
1.50 henrys; the resistance of the coil is 50.0 ohms; and the capacitance of the
condenser is 8.0 ;uf. {b) Find the power used in the circuit.
/ = -^ ^ = Vi?' + (^L - XcY

R = 50 ohms XL = 27r/Z = 2^(60) (1.5) ohms = 570 ohms
S.OjLif = 8.0 X 10-6 farad
1 1
Xc = r,_r/~: = o_f.;r<\/Q r\\rin-K\ ohms = 330 ohms
27r/C ~ 27r(60)(8.0)(10-6)
Z = V(50)2 + (570-- 330)2 ohms = \/2500 + (240)2 ohms = 240 ohms
V 110 volts
I = ^ = -= = 0.46 amp
< 240 ohms
P = VI cos <j)
tan 0 = ~ ^ ~ = ^ = 4.8
<j> = 78° and cos <j> = 0.20
P = (110 volts) (0.46 amp) (0.20)
= 10 watts
Resonance. In the equation ^ = -S/R^ -{- {X^ — Xc)^ it is seen

that, if XL = Xc, ^ = R and the current I = V/R as if no inductance
or capacitance were present. This is the condition called resonance,
when the current, for a given voltage and resistance, is a maximum.

" T u n i n g " a radio circuit is a process of adjusting the reactance of the
circuit to zero so that a condition of resonance is obtained.
SUMMARY
Akernating currents are used very much more than direct cur-
rents because of the economy of transmission made possible by the
ease with which a-c voltages may be stepped up or stepped down.
Common commercial frequencies of a-c systems in the United
States are 25 to 60 cycles per second. Radio frequencies are around
1 megacycle per second and ultrahigh frequencies are of the order of
3 X 1 0 " cycles per second.
The effective or rms value of a sinusoidal current is
/ = 0.707 X im
In a-c circuits the current and voltage are:
1. I n phase for noninductive resistances,
2. 90° out of phase for pure inductances or pure capacitances.
T h e current lags the voltage in inductive circuits by angles ranging
from zero to 90°, depending upon the relative values of the resistance
and inductance.
T h e current leads the voltage in capacitive circuits by angles ranging
from zero to 90°, depending upon the relative values of the resistance
and capacitance.
I n circuits containing resistance, inductance, and capacitance the
instantaneous current is given by
i = im sin {0 — <;!>)
Inductive reactance is defined by
Impedance is the joint effect of resistance and reactance, and it is

defined by
Z = J •= VS' t X^
Capacitive reactance is defined by '
^•^ " 2T/C

The impedance of a series circuit containing R, Z,, and Cis given by
z-4^'+(2./L - 2^)^
The power in an a-c circuit is
P = F / cos 4>
Power factor is the cosine of the angle of lag of current behind
voltage.
When XL = Xc the circuit is said to be in electric resonance, and the
current is a maximum for a given voltage and resistance.
QUESTIONS
1. Sketch and describe an analogy between an a-c generator and circuit and a
hydraulic "circuit."
2. Prove by means of vectors the statement e = «„ sin 0, which holds for the
ideal generator. Justify the reasoning.
3. Compare the power in watts with the apparent power in volt-amperes for the
following apparatus on an a-c circuit: (a) electric lamp, (ft) choke coil, and (c)
condenser. ,
4. A choke coil placed in series with an electric lamp in an a-c circuit causes
the lamp to become dimmed. Why is this? A variable condenser added in series in
this circuit may be adjusted until the lamp glows with normal brilliance. Explain
why this is possible.
5. Describe the differences between the currents that exist in the wires leading
to a condenser when these wires are connected to (a) a d-c source and {b) an a-c
source.
6. Describe the analogy between resonance in a-c circuits, sound, and mechanical
vibration.
7. Show clearly how it is much more nearly possible to have "wattless" current
in a-c condenser circuits than it is in a-c circuits containing choke coils.
PROBLEMS
1. A condenser has a maximum rating of 550 (peak) volts. What is the highest
a-c voltage (effective) across which it can safely be connected?
2. A 60-cycle a-c circuit has a voltage of 120 volts and a current of 6.00 amp
(effective values), (a) What are the maximum values of these quantities? (i) What
is the instantaneous value of the voltage 3< ' 7 2 0 sec after the voltage has zero value?
(c) What is the average value of the current for a complete cycle?
Ans. 170 volts; 8.50 amp; 85.0 volts; zero
3. What is the reactance of a 0.60-henry coil on a 60-cycle line? What is the
current if the applied voltage is 110 volts and the coil resistance is 100 ohms?
4. What is the reactance of a 2.00-j;if condenser on a 110-voh, 60-cycle line?
What is the current? Ans. 1320 ohms; 0.0833 amp
5. A choke coil has a resistance of 4.00 ohms and a self-inductance of 2390.juh.
It is connected to a source of 500-cycle, 110-volt alternating emf. Calculate the
reactance, impedance, and current of the circuit.
6. What is the impedance of a circuit in which there is a resistance of 60 ohms
in series with an inductive reactance of 50 ohms? Ans. 78 ohms
7. (a) What is the reactance of a 3.00-jnf condenser in a 60.0-cycle a-c circuit?
(b) What is the impedance of this condenser in series with a resistance of 300 ohms?
{cj What current wotild there be if this condenser and resistor were connected to a
1200-volt line?
8. A choke coil takes a current of 5.00 amp from-a 120-volt a-c source. A watt-
meter connected to the coil reads 450 watts. What is the (a) apparent power, {b) real
power, (c) power factor? Ans. 600 volt-amp; 450 watts; 0.75
9. A lamp bank operates at a ctirrent of 12 amp and a voltage of 120 volts.
What power is taken from (a) d-c mains, (b) a-c mains?
10. A 0.10-henry coil (resistance, 100 ohms) and a 10-/tf condenser are connected
in series across a 110-volt a-c line. Find the current and the power if the frequency is
(a) 60 cycles/sec, (b) 25 cycles/sec. Ans. 0.44 amp; 20 watts; 0.18 amp; 3.1 watts
11. An alternating voltage of 115 volts and frequency 60 cycles/sec is impressed
upon a circuit consisting of an electric lamp of 12 ohms resistance, a pure in-
ductance of 2.50 henrys, and a pure capacitance, all connected in series. What must
be the value of the capacitance for the circuit to be in resonance, that is, for there to
be a maximum current? What is the value of the current under these circumstances?
12. A coil of wire has a resistance of 30 ohms and an inductance of 0.10 henry.
(a) What is its indvctive reactance Xi, iv a 60-cycle circuit? (b) its impedance ^
(c) What current will there be if the coil is connected to a d-c source of 120 volts?
fd) to a 60-cycle a-c source of 120 volts?
Ans. 38 ohms; 48 ohms; 4.0 amp; 2.5 amp
13. An alternating emf has an effective value of 125 volts. What is the instantane-
ous value when the phase angle is 75°?
14. A coil has an inductance of 478 ith. (a) What is its re!'actance in a 1000-cycle
a-c circuit? (b) If connected in series with a resistor of 4.00 ohms, what current would
there be in a 1000-cycle, 110 volt line? Ans. 3.00 ohms; 22.0 amp
15. A resistor of 4.00 ohms, an inductive coil of negligible 'resistance and in-
ductance 2.39 mh, and a good-quality condenser of 3.00 juf capacitance are connected
in series to a source of 500-cycle, 110-volt, alternating emf. Calculate the reactance
of each part of the circuit and the current in the line.
16. There is a current of 0.600 amp in a 60-cycle a-c circuit, which consists of a
40.0-ohm larrip, a choke coil of 50.0 ohms resistance, and a condenser having a
negligible resistance, connected'in series. The voltage across the coil is 50.0 volts and
that across the condenser is 170 volts. Find the total voltage of the circuit, the power
and the power factor. Ans. 141 volts; 32.4 watts; 0.383
/
VICTOR
FRANZ
HESS
1883 -
BORN IN WALDSTEIN CASTLE NEAR PEGGAU, AUSTRIA. DIRECTOR

OF THE INSTITUTE FOR RADIUM RESEARCH, INNSBRUCK UNIVER-
SITY. PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS AT FORD HAM UNIVERSITY. THE 1 9 3 6
NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS WAS AWARDED JOINTLY TO HESS AND
ANDERSON, TO THE FORMER FOR HIS DISCOVERY OF COSMIC
RADIATION.
41. Electronics
Among the most important applications of scientific discoveries to
daily life are those that have produced the rapid and revolutionary
improvement of communication methods. A century ago messages
were sent by foot, horseback, boat, or stagecoach. The development of
first the telegraph and later the telephone and radio has brought the
SSI
most remote parts of the world into close contact. T h e invention and
application of the electromagnet (Chap. 31) made possible the
telegraph and telephone. T h e development of the electron tube made
possible long-distance telephony and the rapid extension of radio
communication.
Increasing knowledge of the nature of the electron and of
atomic structure has led to a prodigious expansion of the use
of electronic devices. T h e Second World W a r greatly accelerated
progress in the discovery of new facts in these fields and to their
application to military devices. Radar, proximity fuses, guided
missiles, infrared signaling and detecting apparatus and a host of
. airplane devices employing electronic principles are among these new
developments. Photoelectric tubes have contributed greatly to the
comfort and convenience of modern life, being extensively used in
sound motion pictures, automatic devices, control ^nits, light-
intensity meters, television, and apparatus for the long-distance
transmission of pictures.
The Telegraph. In 1837 the American painter and inventor
Samuel F. B. Morse devised a system of telegraphy, the basic principle
of which was the actuation of an electromagnet by a current remotely
controlled. Signals are transmitted
by manipulating a key in accord-
ance with a code and are received
by listening to the clicks made by a
sounder (Fig. 1) as its armature A
is attracted by the magnet M and
then restored to its original position
by spring S^ when released. Only
FiG. 1.—Â telegraph sounder. a single wire is needed between
key and soimder, the circuit being
completed by connections to ground. I n long-distance telegraphy,
owing to the resistance of the circuit, the current received naay be too
small to operate a sounder. In its place is substituted a relay, a similar
instrument, the magnet* of which is wound with many turns so that a
feeble current is sufficient to actuate the armature. When drawn
toward the njagnet, the armature closes a second circuit through a n
ordinary sounder operated by a local battery.
Figure 2 shows the circuit of a telegraph arranged to allow tranj-
ELECTRONICS 553
mission in either direction between two widely separated stations.
When the line is idle, switches s and s' are kept closed and the circuit
includes the generators B and B', relays R and R'' line L, and ground
from G to G'. By opening s and depressing key K for short or long
intervals, an operator can send a dot-and-dash message from the left-
hand station to the other. T h e current pulses in the relay R' operate
the local circuit and sounder S', or the relay may be used to operate
a second line to a more distant station.
FIG. 2.—-A telegraph circuit with relays.

I n most modern telegraph systems the key a n d the sounder are
replaced by automatic sending and receiving devices, which are
operated like typewriters.
The Telephone. A telephone circuit for the transmission of
speech consists of a transmitter for producing a variable current in
response to sound waves, and a receiver for converting this current
into sound waves that reproduce the original sounds. T h e transmitter
(Fig. 3) contains carbon granules, which are confined in a chamber,
one wall of which is a flexible diaphragm. When the voice is directed
against this diaphragm, the variations of air pressure alter the area
of contact between the carbon granules, thus changing their resistance
and producing a corresponding fluctuation in the current.
T h e receiver is a small electromagnet combined with a permanent
magnet and a thin circular diaphragm supported near the poles.
Fluctuations in the current in the electromagnet cause vibrations
554 " COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
of the diaphragm a n d thus produce sound. T h e simplest telephone is

a series circuit, including a transmitter, receiver, and battery. A prac-
tical circuit is considerably more complex, including a n induction
coil to reduce line losses, provision for operating a signal bell by
superposed alternating current, and electron-tube repeaters to
amplify signals that are transmitted over long lines.
FIG. 3.—Cross section of telephone transmitter and receiver.

Radio. Communication by radio depends upon the production
of electric oscillations in a circuit designed to radiate energy in waves.
These waves are o£ the same nature as light or heat waves such as those
received from the sun.
Electric Oscillations. In the study of mechanical vibration
(Chap. 13) it was found that oscillations can be set up in a body if
certain conditions are present. T h e body nnusi; have inertia, a distor-
tion must produce a restoring force, and the friction must not be too
great. A massive object suspended in air by a spring meets these
conditions.
I n an electric circuit analogous conditions are, necessary for
electric oscillations. Just as inertia opposes' change in mechanical
motion, inductance opposes change in the flow of electrons. T h e
building u p of charge on the plates of a condenser causes a restoring
force on the electrons in the circuit. Resistance causes electric energy
to be changed into heat, just as friction changes mechanical energy to
heat. T o produce electric oscillations it is necessary to have induct-
ance, capacitance, and not too much resistance. As the frequency of
mechanical vibrations depends upon the inertia (mass) and the
restoring force (force constant), so the frequency of electric oscillations
'depends upon inductance and capacitance.
ELECTRONICS 555
I n the circuit of Fig. 4 a condenser of capacitance C and a coil of
inductance L are connected in series with a sphere gap G. T h e sphere
gap has a high resistance until a spark jumps across but low resistance
after it jumps. If the voltage across G is
gradually increased, the charge on the
condenser will increase. When the voltage
across G becomes high enough, a spark '000000000000"^
will j u m p and the condenser will then dis- FIG. 4.—Circuit for pro-
charge. The current does not stop when duction 'of electric oscilla-
tions.
the condenser is completely discharged
but continues, charging the condenser in the opposite direction. It
then discharges again, the current reversing in the circuit. T h e cur-
rent oscillates until all the energy stored in the condenser has been
converted into heat by the resistance of the circuit.
T h e frequency of the oscillation is determined by the values of L
and C and is the frequency for which the impedance of the circuit
is the least, that is, the frequency for which the reactance is zero.
From Chap. 40
1
X = lirJL = 0
lirfC
or
J (1)
where L is the inductance in henrys and C is the capacitance in farads

Resonance. If an alternating voltage is applied to a series circuit
in which there is both capacitance and
inductance, an oscillation is set up the
amplitude of which depends upon the fre-
quency. If the frequency of the impressed
voltage is the same as the natural frequency
of the circuit, the current will be much
larger than for other frequencies. The
circuit is then said to be in resonance.
FIG. 5.- -Resonance in a series Figure 5 shows how the current varies
circuit. with the frequency in such a circuit if the
resistance is small (solid curve). If the resistance is increased, the cur-
rent values are decreased (dotted curve). For a very small range of
frequencies the current is rather large, but outside this region the
current is small. This response over a very limited range of frequencies
makes possible the tuning of a radio circuit. T h e incoming wave
produces in the receiver a voltage that varies with, a fixed frequency,
and the circuit is tuned so that its natural frequency is the same as
that of the incoming wave. T h e tuning is usually done by adjusting
the value of the capacitance.
Although oscillations can be produced and waves can be detected
in several ways, "the most satisfactory methods use electron tubes.
Thermionic Emission. I n metallic conductors there are many
free electrons. Both molecules and free electrons take part in the
thermal motion. T h e electrons, being of smaller mass, have much
higher average speeds than the molecules. If the temperature is raised
sufficiently, many of the electrons have enough kinetic energy to leave
the metal. T h e emission of electrons by the heated metal is called
thermionic emission. T h e temperature at which appreciable emission
takes place depends upon the type of metal and the condition of its
surface.
As electrons are emitted by a heated wire, the wire becomes posi-
tively charged, while the electrons collect in a "cloud" around it.
This charge around the filament is called a space charge. Other elec-
trons are attracted by the wire
and repelled by the space charge.
These eff'ects combine to stop the
further erriission of electrons.
The Diode. If a filament and
a plate are sealed into an evacuated
tube, a two-element electron tube,
or diode (Fig. 6), is formed. When
the filament is heated by an electric
current, electrons are emitted. If
the plate is m a d e positive with
A-BATTERYFOfi
respect to the filament, electrons
HEATING FILAMENT will be attracted to the plate and
F I G . 6.—A diode. there will be a current in the
tube. If, however, the plate is made negative with respect to the
filament, the electrons will be repelled and there will be no current.
T h e diode thus acts as a valve, permitting flow in one direction but not
ELECTRONICS 557
in the other. If it is connected in an a-c line, the diode acts as a
rectifier; there is a current during the half cycle in which the plate
is positive.
If the plate is positive with respect to the filament, electrons will
flow across, but not all the electrons that come out of the filament
reach the plate, because of the space charge. Figure 7 shows a graph
of potential against distance across the tube. Because of the space
charge, the potentials at points out to A are below the potential of the
filament. An electron will reach the'plate only if it has sufficient speed
as it leaves the filament to reach B, the point of lowest potential, before
it is stopped. If the difference of'potential Ep between filament and
plate is increased, the potential at B rises, and more electrons will be
FIG. 7.—Variation of potential between -Plate current as a function

filament and plate. of plate potential.
able to reach the plate. The current depends upon Ep, as is shown in
the graph of Fig. 8. At the higher potentials the current no longer
increases, because, when A has been pushed back to the filament, all
the electrons emitted reach the plate, and further increase in Ep
produces no change. Saturation has been reached.
If the plate potential is kept constant while the filament tempera-
ture is increased, the current increases at first but reaches saturation
because of the increase in the electron cloud around the filament.
The Triode. If a third element, the grid, is inserted into the tube
near the filament, it can be used as a control for the tube current.
Such a tube is called a triode, or three-element tube. The grid usually
consists of a helix, or spiral, of fine wire so that the electrons may freely
pass through it. Small variations of the grid potential will cause large
changes in the plate current, much larger than those caused by similar
changes in the plate potential. If the grid is kept negative with respect
to the filament, electrons will not be attracted to the grid itself, and
there will be no grid current. A typical variation of plate current with
grid potential Eg is shown in Fig. 9.
A part of the curve is practically a
straight line. If the grid voltage varies
about a value in this region, the fluctu-
ations of the plate current will have
the same shape as the variations of grid
voltage. T h e tube will amplify the dis-
turbance without distorting it.
The triode also acts as a detector or
partial rectifier if the grid voltage is
adjusted to the bend of the curve.
With this adjustment an increase in
FIG. 9.—Operating characteristics
of a vacuum-tube amplifier. grid voltage above the average pro-
duces considerable increase in plate
current, but a decrease in grid voltage causes little change in plate
current. T h e plate current fluctuates in response to the grid signal,
but the fluctuations are largely on one side of the steady current.
In Fig. 10 is shown a simple receiving circuit. When the waves
strike the antenna, they set up oscillations in the circuit, which is
FIG. 10,—Simple receiving circuit.
tuned to the frequency of the waves. This causes the potential of the
grid to vary, and the tube acting as a detector produces a variation
in current according to the amplitude of the signal. This causes the
earphones to emit sound.
In radio circuits, triode electron tubes are used to produce high-,
frequency oscillations, to act as detectors or rectifiers, and to act as
amplifiers. Tubes of different characteristics are used for each of these
• purposes.
ELECTRONICS 559
I n many tubes the filament merely acts as a heater of a sleeve that
covers it and is insulated from it. The sleeve, or cathode, is the element
that emits electrons.
For many purposes tubes are constructed with more than three
active elements. They are named from the number of active elements,
as tetrode, pentode, etc.
The Photoelectric EflFect. T h e action of electromagnetic radia-
tion (light) in causing the emission of electrons is called the photoelectric
effect. Light oi suitable frequency incident upon
certain metallic surfaces causes the emission of
electrons from these materials. A photoelectric
tube (Fig. 11) consists of a cathode having a
photosensitive surface and an anode suitably
arranged in a glass bulb, which is either
LOAD
evacuated or filled with an inert gas at low
pressure. Common light-sensitive surfaces are
FIG. 11.—Â photoelec-
potassium, caesium, sodium, barium, rubidium, tric tube.
and certain oxides. T h e anode is frequently a
wire parallel to the axis of the cathode, connected to the positive
terminal of a battery through a sensitive meter.
T h e number of photoelectrons emitted per second by the cathode
as a result of the radiation falling upon it is directly proportional to
the intensity of the incident radiation. The current in the meter
therefore faithfully measures the intensity of the radiation.
FIG. 12.—A Weston photronic cell.
Photovoltaic Cells. A photovoltaic device is one in which the

energy of the incident light produces an emission of photoelectrons
creating a potential difference that may be used to maintain an
electric current, without the tise of an auxiliary battery. T h e most
common type in use today is exemplified by the Weston photronic
cell (Fig. 12). This cell has a thin film of selenium formed on an iron
plate. Light incident upon the selenium surface produces a photo-
voltaic effect resulting in the iron becoming a positive terminal and
the selenium a negative terminal of the cell. A sensitive meter con-
nected across these two surfaces will indicate a current. This current
is proportional to the intensity of the light and the meter may therefore
be calibrated directly in suitable units, for example as an exposure
meter.
Applications of Photoelectric Cells. T h e motion picture indus-
try depends on photoelectric devices for the recording and reproduc-
tion of sound. These cells also are used extensively in control devices
in industry. By sending a beam of light across the path of a succession
RADIATOR
FOCUSING DEVICE—. VANES
TUNGSTEN
HOr-FILAUENT CATHODE. /TARGET
^HEAT CONDUCTING
COPPER ANODE
CATHODE RAYS
FILAMENT
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL HIGH VOLTAGE STEP-UP
Wm^—, TRANSFORMER
HIGH VOLTAGE: '
IIS-VOLTA-C CONTROL JI5-V0LTA-C SOURCE
SOURCE \ LOW VOLTAGE _ _
STEP-DOWN
TRANSFORMER
FIG. 13.—A Coolidge x-ray tube.
of moving objects and into a photoelectric cell it is possible to count

the number of objects, to detect inferior ones, a n d to actuate auto-
matic control devices. These cells are used to actuate burglar alarms,
to turn lights off or on at suitable times,, to open doors as one a p -
proaches, \o count vehicular traffic, to control power devices, and to
furnish television signals.
The Coolidge X-ray Tube. T h e modern type of x-ray tube
designed by W. D , Coolidge (1913) is in principle a rather simple form
of two-elerrient (diode) electronic tube. It consists of a spiral filament
constituting the cathode (Fig. 13) and an anode often in the form of a
heavy rod of copper in the end of which is embedded a small .cylinder
of tungsten. I n operation the filament is heated by a low-potential
current and gives off a copious supply of electrons, easily regulated by
varying the heating current. A high voltage (25 to 250 kv, or much
ELECTRONICS 561
higher in special tubes) is impressed from a transformer so that the

electrons move from the cathode to the anode with enormous speeds,
sometimes approaching the speed of light, 186,000 mi/sec. When
these electrons strike the anode most of them give u p their kinetic
energy in the form of heat. But a small fraction of the electrons hits the
atoms of the anode in such a favorable manner as to cause them to
emit the very penetrating radiant energy known as x-rays.
SUMMARY
T h e telegraph transmits signals by use of electromagnets controlled
by a key to open a n d close the circuit. Since the current in a long line
is insufficient to operate a sounder, a relay is used to operate a local
circuit.
T h e telephone transmitter produces variations in a n electric current
in response to the motion of the diaphragm. T h e receiver is an electro-
magnet that causes a motion of a magnetic diaphragm in response
to jhe electric impulse received. ,
Electric oscillations occur in circuits that have inductance, capaci-
tance, and low resistance.
Thefrequency of oscillation is given by the equation
If a metallic conductor is heated to a sufficiendy high temperature,

electrons are emitted. This is called thermionic emission.
Two-element tubes, or diodes, act as rectifiers in a-c circuits.
Three-element tubes, or triodes, may be used as amplifiers, oscil-
lators, or detectors.
The photoelectric effect is the production of electric effects by means
of light.
In many photoelectric cells the photoelectric current is propor-
tional to the intensity of the light.
Photovoltaic cells are those in which light produces an emf used to
maintain an electric current.
An x-ray tube is a specially designed diode in which high-speed elec-
rons from the filament strike a target and cause x-rays to be emitted.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain clearly why it is necessary to use relays in long-distance telegraphy.
2. Describe the types of currents in the primary and the secondary coils in a
simple telephone circuit.
3. Ordinarily transformers can be used only on a-c circuits. Show why they are
used on telephone circuits, which operate by direct current.
4. State the conditions that are necessary for the production of oscillations and
explain why these circumstances are necessary.
5. A charged condenser when connected to a low-resistance, highly inductive
coil will discharge with oscillations of progressively reduced amplitude. Explain
what happens to the original energy of the charged condenser.
6. Can there be any continuous direct current in an open circuit? an alternating
current? Explain.
7. State and describe briefly the three main functions that afe performed by
thermionic vacuum tubes in modern radio receivers.
8. Describe a number of distinct uses of an electron tube.
9. In using a three-element tube as an amplifier it is desirable to arrange the
circuit so that only the linear portion of the characteristic curve is used. Show why
this is desirable and what happens when other portions of the curve are used.
10. Why is it true that a thermionic vacuum tube should produce a louder radio
signal than a crystal detector?
11. Explain why it is expected that the wireless transmission of power over long
distances is commercially impractical. Why then is it possible to utilize a radio
receiving set at great distances from the transmitter?
12. Radio reception is frequently very seriously interferred with when an electric
shaver is being used near the radio receiver. Show why this is to be expected. How
may this be minimized?
13. A circuit consists of a battery, a rheostat, and a photovoltaic cell, connected
in series. The voltage across the rheostat is found to change with the illumination on
the photovoltaic cell. Explain why this is true.
14. Make a list of some of the services which can be performed by the aid of
relays actuated by photovoltaic cells.
PROBLEMS '
1. What is the inductance of a coil which must be placed in series with a
2.00-jif condenser to produce resonance at (a) 60 cycles? (A) 500 cycles?
2. A variable condenser has a range from 0.0000055 to 0.00050 fil. If it is con-
nected in series with a coil whose inductance is 5.0 mh, what is-the frequency range
of the circuit? ' Ans. 960 to 101 kc/sec
3. An inductance of 90.2 mh is combined with a condenser to form an oscillatory
circuit having a natural frequency of 158 kc/sec. (a) What capacitance condenser is
used? (i) What wavelength of radio >vaves is'iemitted?
4. An oscillating electric circuit is made with a coil of inductance 8.00 mh aind
a condenser of capacitance 120 fifd. It is desired to retune this circuit to the second
harmonic of the original oscillations. What capacitance is required? ' Ans. 30 /i;uf
5. Two observers .are listening to a radio broadcast. One is 1250 miles and the
other is 4500 miles away from the station. In order for each observer to hear the
sounds simultaneously how much farther away from the loud-speaker must the first
observer be than the second?
CARL
DAVID
ANDERSON
1905 —
BORN IN NEW YORK. PROFESSOR AT THE CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE

OF TECHNOLOGY. THE 1 9 3 6 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS WAS
AWARDED JOINTLY TO HESS AND ANDERSON, TO THE LATTER FOR
HIS DISCOVERY OF THE POSITRON.
42. Light and Illumination

Most of our knowledge of our surroundings conaes to us by means of
sight. Virtaally our only knowledge of the universe outside the earth
is attained by sight, while much information about the behavior of
electrons, atoms, and molecules is obtained frorti the visible and other
radiations, which have basic similarity.
Much is known about light, but sufficient; mystery remains to
suggest that the continued study of light may lead to exciting dis-
563
coveries and important changes in our present science. T h e mecha-
nism by which Hght is transmitted through a vacuum is still a challenge
to our imagination. T h e two apparently contradictory aspects of
light, which sometimes behaves as a wave phenomenon and some-
times exhibits • the characteristics of particles, are well understood
individually but a unified theory which embraces both aspects of
light may yet be attained.
Optics is the field of science which treats of light, its sources, its
propagation, and the effects which it suffers and produces. M u c h of
the everyday usefulness of light can be understood from a study of
geometrical optics, the branch which treats light propagation in terms
of rays, which are straight lines in homogeneous mediums. Inphysical
optics, light is considered to be a wave phenomenon and its propaga-
tion is studied by means of wave fronts. Physiological optics embraces
the geometrical a n d physical optics of the eye a n d its parts, together
with the physiology (and much of the psychology) of the visual
process. *•
Light can be defined as radiant energy that can produce vision.
Light exhibits the properties of a wave motion showing refiection,
refraction, interference, and polarization. T h e wavelength of light
varies from about 3.9 to 7.6 ten-
thousandths of a millimeter. This
range is usually expressed in milli-
microns (390 to 760 mjix) or in ang-
strom units (3900 to 7600 A). Light
wavelengths are usually expressed in
angstrom units (A) or in microns (/<).
FIG. 1.—Formation of an image One angstrom unit is 10~^ cm. One
in a pinhole camera by the straight-
micron (a millionth; of a meter) is
line propagation of light.
10""^ cm. Owing to the very short
wavelength, there is little spreading of light around and behind
obstacles as is observed with watei; waves and sound waves. Except
for such diffraction effects, to be discussed later, light travels
in straight lines in a hbmogeneous medium. T h e rectilinear propa-
gation of light is m a d e use of in sighting with a plumb line, in aiming
a gun, or in forming a photographic image in a pinhole,camera
(Fig-1).
Radiation similar to light and having wavelengths between 390
L I G H T AND ILLUMINATION 565
and 100 mfx constitutes ultraviolet radiation and is detected by photo-
graphic means. T h a t in the wavelength range from 760 mfx to 1 m m
is called infrared radiation. T h e longer wavelengths of infrared radia-
tion are most readily detected by their thermal effects. According to
the electromagnetic theory of light, originated by Maxwell, all these
waves are the same in kind as those which constitute the electro-
magnetic oscillations of radio waves.
T h e energy in transit in the form of radiation can be detected and
studied only when it is intercepted by matter and converted into
thermal, electric, chemical, or mechanical energy. Study of the inter-
action between matter and energy has added to our ideas about light
an important assumption which is the basis of the q u a n t u m theory,
energy transfers between light and matter occur only in discrete
amounts of energy (quanta), which are
proportional to the frequency as given
by
W = kf (1)
I f / is the frequency in vibrations per

second and h is Planck's constant, whose
value is determined experimentally to
be 6.61 X 10^^'' erg-sec, the energy W
is in ergs.
Waves and Rays. T h e representa-
tion of a wave motion was discussed in FIG. 2.—Light waves and
Chap. 24. Figure 2 shows' spherical rays. The concentric arcs repre-
waves spreading from a small source and sent sections of wave fronts. The
straight Unes represent rays.
also the radial lines, called rays, drawn
to show the direction in which the waves are moving. T h e rays are
merely convenient construction lines that often enable us to discuss the
travel of light more simply than by drawing the waves.
Shadows. In Fig. 3 the light from a small source S encounters
a n obstacle A placed between the source and the screen C. T h e
obstacle casts a shadow, that is, all parts of the screen are illuminated
except the area within the curve B. T h e curve is determined by draw-
ing rays from the source t h a t just touch the edge of the obstacle at
each point. If the source is not small or if there is more than one
source, the shadow will consist of two parts, a completely dark one
where no light arrives at the screen and a gray shadow, which is

illuminated from p a r t of the source only. O n e of the best examples of
this is a total eclipse of the sun, which occurs when the moon comes
FIG. 3.—Light rays and shadow.

directly between the earth and the sun (Fig. 4). Within the central
cone of rays, no light is received from any part of the sun while the
surrounding region gets light only from part of the sun's disk. A
person located within the central cone experiences a total eclipse and
ilGHTLESS CENTRAL
OBSERVER STANDING
IN PENUMBRA--, CONE RESPONSIBLE RAY WHICH REACHES OBSERVER
FOR UMBRA
UMBRA
(OBSERVER HERE;
RECEIVESNO
DIRECTRAYS)
PENUMBRA RAY WHICH WOULD REACH OBSERVER

IF NOT STOPPED BY MOON
FIG. 4.—Ân eclipse of the sun.
does not see the sun at all; an observer anywhere in the crosslined area
sees a crescent-shaped part of the sun—a partial eclipse.
Sources of Light. O u r most important source of light and life-
sustaining radiation is the sun. Most artificial sources of light are hot
bodies which radiate light but which also emit m u c h infrared radia-
tion. Hence as producers of visible radiation they have a low effi-
ciency. Generally the ^ efficiency of such light sources improves as
the operating temperature is increased. T h e early carbon-filament,
electric lamp, which supplanted the open-flame gas light, employed
an electrically heated filament as the source of radiation. The fila-
ment was mounted in an evacuated glass envelope to prevent its
L I G H T AND I L L U M I N A T I O N 567
oxidation. In a modern electric lamp the use of a tungsten spiral

filament in a bulb containing inert gas permits operation at a higher
temperature (3000°C) without excessive evaporation of the filament.
T h e carbon arc also uses the heating effect of an electric current.
Most of the light originates at the crater of the positive carbon which
attains a temperature of 3700°C. T h e brilliant white light of a carbon
arc is frequently used for searchlights and commercial motion-pictuire
projectors. High-temperature light sources approach sunlight in the
whiteness of their radiation. But no artificial sources of light operate
at temperatures as high as the 6000°G measured for the sun's photo-
sphere, the layer of ionized gases in which sunlight originates.
Most light sources in common use produce light from an incan-
descent solid. Such light contains all visible wavelengths, though in
varying intensities. Light obtained by maintaining electric current in
a gas a t low pressure has its intensity concentrated in one or several
narrow wavelength bands. A low-pressure mercury arc lamp has a
characteristic bluish light and also emits ultraviolet radiation. Such
lamps are used for photographic work, some kinds of industrial
illumination, germicidal purposes, and advertising signs, but they are
not suited for general indoor illumination. By operating the discharge
in a tiny quartz tube containing mercury vapor at high pressure,
50 to 100 atm, the quality of the light is improved, all wavelengths
now being present although some are still emphasized.
A fluorescent lamp consists of a thin-walled glass tube in which an
electric current is maintained in mercury vapor at low pressure. T h e
ultraviolet radiation from the glow discharge is absorbed by fluores-
cent substances affixed to the inner wall. These reemit the radiant
energy with a shift of wavelength into the visible range. T h e color
of the light can be adjusted by the choice of fluorescent powders:
calcivun tungstate for blue, zinc silicate for green, cadmium borate for
pink, or mixtures for white.
Luminous Flux. Practical measurements of light, called pho-
tometry, are concerned with three aspects: the luminous intensity
of the source, the luminous flux or flow of light from the source, and
illuminance of a surface.
When a luminous source emits radiation, the energy is distributed
among many wavelengths. Only that radiant energy in the wave-
length interval from 390 to 760 lafx produces the sensation of sight
^68 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
and in that interval the radiation is not.all equally eflfective in stimu-

lating the sensation. The curve of Fig. 5 shows the relative effective-
ness of radiation at various wavelengths. The ordinate of the curve
represents the relative magnitude of the sensation produced by equal
amounts oj energy in the radiation at different wavelengths. The maxi-
mum ordinate is arbitrarily assigned a value of 1. The curve represents
the average response of many individuals and is assumed to be the
normal response.
We define luminous flux in terms of the curve of Fig. 5. We may
divide the visible region into many wavelength intervals so short that
the response of the eye can be considered the same over any one such
4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7500

ANGSTROMS
FIG. 5.—The visibility curve for the normal eye.
interval. For each interval we multiply the radiant energy per unit
time in the interval by the corresponding ordiiiate of the curve and
add the products so obtained. This sum is called the luminousflux.It
represents the part of the total radiant energy per unit time that is
effective in producing the sensation of sight. The other photometric
quantities are defined in terms of luminous flux. Since the process here
described is difficult to carry out the unit of luminous flux is not
defined directly from this procedure but in terms of/the flux from a
standard source.
Luminous Intensity of a Point Source. While no actual source
of light is ever confined 'to a point, many are so small in comparison
with the other dimensions considered that they may be regarded as
point sources., From such a source light travels ouX in straight lines.
If we consider a solid angle 12 with the source at the apex, the luminous
flux included in the angle remains the same at all distances from the
source. T h e luminous intensity of a point source is defined as the luminous flux

per unit solid angle subtended at the source,
where F is the flux in the solid angle fl.

If a sphere of radius s is described about the apex as center the
solid angle intercepts an area A on the surface of the sphere. T h e ratio
of the intercepted area to the square of the radius is the measure of
the solid angle 12 in steradians.
'^ = 7. (3)
I n building a set of photometric units it is convenient to start with

luminous intensity rather than the more fundamental luminous flux.
T h e common unit of luminous intensity is the candle. The candle was
originally defined as the luminous intensity in a horizontal direction oj
the flame of a standard • spermaceti candle of specified dimensions
burning wax a t the rate of 120 grains per hour. Since the flame of a
candle is a rather unsatisfactory source this primary standard has been
replaced by others measured in comparison with it. Standardized
electric lamps are most commonly used as secondary sources.
Most light sources have different luminous intensities in different
directions. T h e average luminous intensity of a source measured in
all directions is called its mean spherical luminous intensity. The total flux'
emitted by the source is 47r times the mean spherical luminous
intensity.
T h e unit of luminous flux is defined from the candle. A lumen
is the luminous flux in a unit solid angle from a point source of one
candle.
Example: An automobile headlight equipped with a 32-candle bulb concentrates
the beam on a vertical area of 125 i\? at a distance of 100 ft. What is the luminous
intensity of the headlight?
The purpose of the reflector and lens is to concentrate the beam into a small solid
angle. The total flux emitted by the bulb is given by
F = 47r7 = 4 T X 32 candles = 400 lumens

For the beam the solid angle is

125 ft2
0 ("100 ftl" ~ 0.0125 steradian
400 lumens
-£ 0.0125 steradians
32,000 candles
Illuminance. W h e n visible radiation comes to a surface we say

^p that the surface is illuminated.
T h e Pleasure of the illumination
is called illuminance. T h e illumi-
nance of a surface is the luminous
flux per unit area that reaches the
surface.
E = (4)
T h e iixxx F may come from one

or m^ny sources; it may come to
FIG. 6.-Illuminance produced by a point the area from any direction. T h e
flux Used in Eq. (4) is the sum
total of the flux from all the sources that irradiate the surface being
considered. Among the units of illuminance are the lumen per square
foot and the lumen per square meter (lux).
For point sources there is a simple relatiohship between illuminance
E and luminous intensity I. By definition
or
F= m
When luminous flux from the point s o u r c e ' P (Fig. 6) falls on the
surface around 0 the normal to the surface at 0 makes an angle d
with the direction OP of flow of the flux. T h e solid angle Q subtended
at P by a small area A of the surface is
12 = -5 cos d
where s is the-distance OP from the source to the screen.

LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION 571
_ F _ lA co% 6
A~ sÂ
cos e, (5)
s'
For light from a point source the illuminance of a surface varies
inversely with the square of the distance from the source and directly
with the cosine of the angle between the direction of flow and the
normal to the surface. When the surface is perpendicular to the light
beam, the angle 6 becomes zero and cos 6 = 1. For this special case
Eq. (5) reduces to
^ =? (^)
For a uniform point source whose luminous intensity is 1 candle
the luminous flux, sent out is 4ir lumens. If this source is taken as the
center of a sphere 1 ft in radius the flux through the area of the sphere
(47r ft^) is 47r lumens. The illuminance of this surface is 1 lumen/ft^.
This unit is also called the foot-candle since it is the illuminance of a
surface 1 ft from a point source of one candle. Similarly the lumen per
square meter is also called the meter-candle.
Example: A small unshaded electric lamp of luminous intensity 32 candles is
4.0 ft above the top of a table. Find the illuminance of the table (a) at a point directly
below the lamp and (b) at a point 3.0 ft from the point directly below the lamp.
Directly below the lamp the light falls normally on the surface. From Eq. (6)
^ 7 32 candles ^ „ lumens . „_
E = ? " • (4.0 ft)' " ft2 = 2.0 ft-candles
At the second point
V(4.0ft)2 + (3.0ft)2 = 5.0 ft
and
*=°^^ = S l = °-«°
From Eq. (5)
. , 7 „ 32 candles „ „„ ^ „ lumens ^„„
£ = j2 cos 0 = -7g Q ^ .^ X 0.80 = 1.0 j ^ , = 1.0 ft-candle
Example: A small unshaded electric lamp hangs 6.0 ft directly above a table.
To what distance should it be lowered to increase the illuminance to 2.25 times its
former value?
£2 = 2.25£i
From Eq. (6)

—„ = 2.25 - 5
2 si" (6.0 ity
^^ 2.25 2.25
Si = 4.0 ft
Lighting. In planning the artificial lighting of a room, the type

of work to be done there or the use to which the room is to be put
is the determining factor. Experience has shown that certain illumi-
nances are desirable for given purposes. Some figures are given in
Table I.
TABLE I. DESIRABLE ILLUMINANCES FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES
Foot-candles
Close work (sewing, drafting, etc.) 50 and up
Classrooms, offices, and laboratories. 40
Stores .• 20-50
Ordinary reading 20
Corridors 3-5
Machine shops 30 and up
Dull daylight supplies an illuminance of about 100 ft-candles while

direct sunlight when the sun is at the zenith gives about 9600 ft-candles.
In addition to having the proper illuminance it is essential to avoid
glare, or uncomfortable local brightness such as that caused by a bare
electric lamp or by a bright spot of reflected light in the field of vision.
Glare may be reduced by equipping lamps with lowered shades or
diffusing globes and by avoiding polished surfaces or glossy paper.
1—I—I—I 1 TMVTl—I 1—1 i—I r
FIG. 7.—A bar photometer.
Photometers. A phoiometer is an instrument for comparing the

luminous intensities of light sources. A familiar laboratory form of
such an instrument usually consists of a long graduated bar with the
two lamps to, be compared mounted at or near the ends (Fig. 7). A
movable dull-surfaced white screen is placed somewhere between the
LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION 573
lamps and moved back and forth until both sides of the screen appear
to be equally illuminated. When this condition is attained
Ex = £2
From Eq. (6),
or
h
(7)
S2'
where h and I2 are the luminous intensities of the two sources and
Si and Si are their respective distances from the screen. If one source is
a standard lamp of known luminous intensity, that of the other may
be found by comparison using Eq. (7).
Example: A standard 48-candle lamp placed 36 in. from the screen of a photom-
eter produces the same illumination there as a lamp of unknown intensity located
45 in. away. What is the luminous intensity of the latter lamp?
Substitution in Eq. (7) gives
/i ._ /45 in.\ 2
48 candles ~ \36 in./
Ji = 75 candles
Notice that the distances may be expressed in any unit when substituting in the equa-
tion, so long as they are both in the same unit.
I n order to match accurately the illuminances on the two sides of

the photometer screen, both sides must be m a d e visible to the observer
MmROR\ I ^M/RROR
rOEYE
FIG. 8.—Photometer box with mirrors.
at the same time. O n e method of accomplishing this is the use of two

inclined mirrors (Fig. 8), which permit simultaneous viewing of
opposite sides of a translucent "grease spot" in a white cardboard.
Another simple and effective photometer is the paraffin block type
suggested by Jolly. A piece of bright aluminum foil is clamped
between two blocks of paraffin and mounted between the light sources
to be compared. When viewed at right angles to the photometer
bench, the paraffin block receiving the greater illuminance shows a
bright edge in sharp contrast with the adjacent darker block. T h e
photometer screen is adjusted to the position of equal illuminances by
matching the brightness of the edges of the two paraffin blocks.
EYEPIECE
FIG. 9.—Â Lummer-Brodhun photometer.
The Lummer-Brodhun photometer head or sight box (Fig. 9) has

an optical system designed to present the eye with a pattern in which
the illuminances f r o m t h e two sources are sharply contrasted except
when the screen is i n the balance position. Light from the two sources
of luminous intensities I\ and Ii falls on a chalky white screen at the
back of the box. Some of the light which is scattered by the screen is
reflected by prisms into the Lummer-Brodhun connparison " c u b e . "
This is made of two right-angle prisms. T h e hypotenuse of each has a
different pattern etched on it and the prisms are mounted with the
unetched portions of these faces in optical contact. Light from one
source of intensity 12 is scattered by the screen and passes through the
l i l G H T AND I L L U M I N A T I O N 575
prisms where they are in contact, while Hght from the other source of
intensity / i .is reflected into the viewing telescope from the portion
of the cube where the prisms are not in contact.
• Measurements are m a d e by either of two methods. When the cona-
parison of brightness method is used, the observing carriage is moved
along the track until a balance is obtained, that is, until the com-
plementary figures in the telescope field are of equal brightness. T h e
distances si and S2 are then measured and the intensities compared
with the aid of Eq. (7).
When the contrast method is used, two plate-glass slips C are
swung into the paths of light entering each half of the comparison
cube, where they absorb a small portion of the light passing through
them. They are so placed that they affect only sections D in the
pattern viewed in the telescope. T h e carriage is then naoved until the
comparison field changes from the unbalanced appearance of Fig. 9b
to the balance of Fig. 9a where there is equality of contrast between
the patch and its background in both halves of the field of view.
A photometer should, of course, be used in a darkened room and
there should be no appreciable reflection of light from the surround-
ings. I t is desirable to have the distances si and s^ large compared
with the dimensions of the sources, since strictly the concept of
luminous intensity pertains only to point sources.
I n ordinary lighting the value of total flux from a lamp is more
significant than is the luminous intensity in a particular direction.
Total flux is most simply measured by use of an integrating sphere.
T h e lamp is placed in a large sphere with a white diffusing interior
wall. T h e flux emerging from a small hole in the wall is measured by
means of a photometer set at the hole. T h e flux emerging from the
hole is>proportional to the total flux emitted by the source within
the sphere. In practice, a source of known output is placed in the
sphere and a reading made to calibrate the comparison source.
Foot-candle Meter. In planning a practical lighting installation
for a room, one should take into account not only the direct illumina-
tion from all light sources but also the light that is diff'used or reflected
by the walls and surrounding objects. For this reason it is often very
difficult to compute the total illuminance at a given point, but this
quantity can be measured by the use of instruments known as foot-
candle meters. T h e most commonly used type of this instrument makes
37© COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
use of the photoelectric effect (Chap. 41). T h e light falling on the

sensitive surface causes an electric current whose value is proportional
to the radiant flux and hence to the illuminance. This current operates
a n electric meter whose scale is marked directly in
foot-candles (Fig. 10).
This instrument gives objective readings but-it
has the disadvantage that the sensitivity curve for
the photoelectric cell is not the same as that for the
h u m a n eye. However the two curves are somewhat
similar, and if close similarity is desired it can be
obtained by the use of a special filter over the
photoelectric cell.
Luminous Efl&ciency. T h e relative sensitivity
FIG. 10.—Pho- of the eye to light of different wavelengths is indi-
toelectrk foot-can- ^^^^^ ^^ pjg 5 p^j. ^.j^^ purpose of photometry the
wavelength producing the greatest visual effect is
taken to be 5550 A. At this wavelength it requires 0.00154 watt of
radiant flux to produce 1 lumen of luminous flux. This corresponds
to 650 lumens per watt as the greatest possible efficiency a source
could have.
Any attempt to determine a mechanical equivalent of light analo-
gous to the mechanical equivalent of heat is complicated, however,
by the fact that the "luminous efficiency" of visible radiation varies
with the wavelength, since the response of the eye to radiant energy
varies with wavelength (Fig. 5). Hence, larnp "efficiencies"^ are
determined in terms of all the visible radiation emitted.. T h e luminous
efficiency of a light source is defined as the ratio of the total luminous
flux emitted to the radiant flux emitted, a n d is expressed in lumens per
watt. T h e power concerned measures the radiation emitted, not the
electrical power input to the lamp filament.
Speed of Light. T h e speed with which light, and presumably all
radiant energy, travels through space is one of the most precisely
measured quantities in the physical sciences. This speed, moreover,- is
one of the most important constants in physical theory. Galileo was
' Not to be confused with true efficiency, as output/input. T h e true (physical) effi-
ciency of a lamp is the quotient of the radiant flux it emits divided by the power supplied
to it. This rating is entirely independent of the visual process (and has no direct significance
in illuminating eiigineering).
LI.GHT AND I L L U M I N A T I O N 577
one of the first to suggest that the light takes a finite time to travel
between two points and to attempt to measure this time. The immense
speed of light calls for the measurement of its passage over great
distances or the precise determination of small time intervals, or both.
Romer in 1675 made a measurement of the speed of light over an
astronomical distance. He noticed that when the earth was closest to
Jupiter (Fig. 11) the eclipses of one of the moons of Jupiter occurred
about 500 sec ahead of the time predicted on the basis of yearly aver-
ages and that they were late by the same amount when the earth" was
farthest from Jupiter. He concluded that the difference of 1000 sec was
FIG. 11.—Romer's method of measuring the speed of Ught.
the time required for light to traverse the diameter of the earth's orbit
(186,000,000 mi). Unfortunately Romer used an erroneous value for
this distance and obtained for the speed of light 192,000 mi/sec.
Since the time of Romer several investigators have devised
methods for measuring the speed of light. Michelson in 1926-1929
measured the speed of light over an accurately measured terrestrial
distance/ the 22 mi between Mt. Wilson and Mt. San Antonio, using
an ingeneous method of timing. An octagonal mirror M (Fig. 12) is
mounted on the shaft of a variable speed motor. Light from a source
S falls on the mirror M, at an angle of 45°, and is reflected to a distant
mirror m, which returns it. With M stationary the reflected ray
strikes Mg at an angle of 45° and is reflected into the telescope T.
VVhen mirror M is set in rotation light returning to it from mirror m
will generally strike M^ at an angle different from 45°, and hence
light will not enter the telescope. When, however, the speed of M is
sufficient so that section 2 of the octagonal mirror M is brought into

the position formerly occupied by section 3 in the time required for
light to go from Mi to m and back to M2, light will again enter the
telescope. T h e experiment consists of varying the speed of the motor
until light reappears in the telescope. This speed is accurately meas-
ured by stroboscopic comparison with a signal of standard frequency.
T h e time for the light to travel a distance of 2Mm is then one-eighth
of the time required for one revolution of M. In these experiments the
speed of the motor was about 500 rps and the final adjustment was
m a d e by noticing the displacement of the b e a m from the cross hair
of the telescope.
FIG. 12.—Michelson's method of measuring the speed of light.
The final calculation of the speed of light c based on Michelson's

experiments and reduced to vacuum is
c = 299,774 + 5 km/sec
c = 2.99774 X 1 0 " cm/sec
c = 186,285 mi/sec
Thus it takes light 8.3 min to travel the 93,000,000 mi from the sun to
the earth.
Speed of Light in Different Materials. T h e speed of light is
diff"erent in each material, being less in any material medium than in
a vacuum. Foucault (1850) and Michelson each measured the speed
of light in water by placing tubes of water in the p a t h of the light.
I n this way the speed of light in water was found to be about three-
fourths of its speed in air.. This was a decisive experiment, for it
eliminated temporarily one of two rival theories of light.
Newton (1666) had suggested that light might consist of particles
or corpuscles shot from a body. H e showed that ordinary laws of
mechanics could account for the observed characteristics of Hght

provided Hght traveled' faster in a dense material (water) than in
air. T h e wave theory developed by Huygens (1678) competed with
the corpuscular theory for a hundred years by offering an equally
logical explanation of reflection and refraction and a simpler explana-
tion of diffraction. T h e wave theory predicted that light must travel
slower in a dense medium (water) than in air. Foucault's direct
measurement of the speed of light in water decided the controversy in
favor of the wave theory. T h e corpuscular theory became dormant.
Recently studies of the interaction of light and matter, notably
the photoelectric effect, have shown that light behaves as if it were
comprised of energy particles (quanta). While we have not returned
to Newton's concept of light as made up of mass particles, current
theory is forced to view light as having both wave and particle
characteristics.
SUMMARY
Radiant energy within certain limits of wavelength (3900-7600A)
is visible as light. Neighboring ranges of wavelengths comprise the
ultraviolet and infrared radiations.
Light is transmitted in waves, which can pass not only through
some ("transparent") materials, such as glass, but also through empty
space (vacuum).
Lines drawn in the direction of travel of light waves are called
rays. I n a homogeneous substance the rays are straight lines.
Most sources of light are hot bodies, which simultaneously emit
invisible radiations.
Measurement of the luminous intensity of a light source takes
account only of the portion of the emission that evokes visual sensation.
T-he luminous intensity of a point source is evaluated in terms of
the energy that arouses the brightness experienced from a standard
candle and is expressed in candles.
Luminous flux is the quantity of visible radiation passing per unit
time. T h e tmit of luminous flux is the lumen, which is the flux emitted
by a point source of 1 candle through a solid angle of 1 steradian.
T h e illuminance of a surface is the luminous fliix per unit area that
reaches the surface.
T h e illuminance is expressed in lumens per square foot (foot-candles) or in

lumens per square meter (jneter-candles), respectively, when A is expressed
in square feet or in square meters.
For light from a point source the illuminance on a surface is given
by the inverse square law
E = -1, cos 6
s^
A photometer is a n instrument for comparing the luminous intensities

of two sources. T h e working equation of the photometer, a corollary
of the "inverse square law," is
Afoot-candle meter is an instrument that measures a constant frac-

tion (whose value depends upon spectral distribution) of the radiant
flux, and is calibrated in units of illuminance, which is also a constant
fraction of the radiant flux when the spectral distribution of the
latter is constant.
In a vacuum, the speed of light is about 186,285 mi/sec. In any
substance the speed is always less than this.
QUESTIONS
1. Describe a theoretical and an experimental verification of the inverse square
law of illumination. Does the photometer experiment verify the inverse square law?
Explain.
2. Does the inverse square law apply even approximately to .the beam from an
automobile lamp? to illumination from a fluorescent lamp? to illumination under a
skylighted ceiling? to light from a bonfire? Explain >
.
3. How would you determine experimentally the effective luminous intensity
of a searchlight?
4. Light from a student lamp falls on a paper on the floor. Mention the factors
on which the illuminance of the paper depends.
5. With the aid of a diagram, show that an illuminance of 1 ft-candle is the same
as 1 lumen/ft''.
6. Sketch a shadow photometer with which you could compare the intensity of
a light source with that of a lamp of known luminous intensity using only meter sticks
and a white wall. What measurements would be made?
7. When a diffusing globe is placed over a bare electric lamp of high intensity,
the total amount of light in'the room is decreased slightly, yet eyestrain may be
considerably lessened. Explain.
8. What are some advantages and disadvantages of the indirect system of
lighting?
9. Compare the advantages of black and light-colored walls in a photographic
dark room.
10. Show that the illuminance on a given surface distant s from a line source of
light (fluorescent lamp) is given by
where I/L is the intensity per unit length of the lamp in candles per foot. HINT:
Consider a cylinder of radius s and length L concentric with the lamp. Calculate the
illuminance on the cylinder produced by light proceeding radially from the lamp.
11. Derive an equation for calculating the speed of light from the quantities
measured in the Michelson method.
12. A member of a radio studio audience in New York is seated 150 ft from the
performer while a radio listener hears him in Cedar Rapids, 1000 mi away. Which
auditor hears the performer first?
PROBLEMS
1. What is the illuminance on a surface 10 ft from a 100-candle lamp in a room
with black walls? Would it be different if the walls were white? Explain.
2. What is the effect on the illumination of a work table if a lamp hanging 4.5 ft
directly above it is lowered 1.0 ft? Ans. Increased 65%
3. An engraver wishes to double the intensity of the light he is now getting from a
lamp 55 in. away. Where should the lamp be placed in order to do this?
4. If a lamp that provides an illuminance of 8.0 ft-candles on a book is moved
1.5 times as far away, will the illumination then be sufficient for comfortable reading?
Ans. No, 3.6 ft-candles
5. At what distance from a source of effective intensity 100 candles would a book
receive, the same illumination that it would receive from a 25-candle source 5.0 ft
distant?
6. What is the illuminance on the pavement at a point directly under a street
lamp of 800 candles hanging at a height of 20 ft? Ans. 2.0 ft-candles
7. Find the luminous intensity of a lamp that gives an illuminance on a surface
placed 3 ft away equal to that of dull daylight.
8. A photometer has a standard 30-candle lamp at one end and a lamp of
unknown intensity at the other. The two sides of the screen are equally illuminated
when the screen is 3.0 ft from the standard lamp and 5.0 ft from the unknown. What
is the luminous intensity of the latter? Ans. 83 candles
9. At what position on a photometer scale, which is 4.0 ft long, should a screen
be placed for equal illumination by a 20-candle lamp and a 45-candle lamp placed
at the two ends of the scale?
10. What is the total illuminance produced by two 60-candle lamps each 4.0 ft
from a surface and one 45-candle lamp 3.0 ft from this surface if all the light falls on
the surface normally? Ans. 12.5 ft-candles
11. A small screen is 20 ft from a 100-candle point source of light, and its surface
makes an angle of 60° with the line drawn from the source. Calculate the illuminance
on the screen.
12. A lamp produces a certain illuminance on a screen situated 85 cm from it.
On placing a glass plate between the lamp and the screen the lamp must be moved
5.0 cm closer to the screen to produce on it the same illuminance as before. What per
cent of the light is stopped by the glass? Ans. 11 %
13. What is the illuminance in foot-candles on a screen 6.0 ft from a 72-candle
lamp? How far from the screen and on the same side as the first lamp must a 40-candle
lamp be placed in order that the illuminance on the screen will be doubled?
14. What illuminance will be given on a desk by a 36-candle fluorescent lamp
1 ft long placed 18 in. above the surface? (For an extended line source, the illumina-
tion decreases as the inverse first power of the distance, E = 2I/Ls.)
Am. 48 ft-candles
15. What illuminance will be produced on a table by a fluorescent lamp (line
source) of 40 candles/ft hung horizontally 24 in. above the table?
16. A 16-candle lamp is placed 10 in. from a screen. How far from the screen and
on the same side as the first lamp must a 100-candle lamp be placed so that the total
illuminance on the screen becomes three times its former'value? Ans. 1.47 ft
17. If the light of the full moon is found to produce the same illuminance as a
I.O-candle source does at a distance of 4.0 ft, what is the effective luminous intensity
of the moon? (The mean distance to the moon is 239,000 mi.)
18. A lamp of unknown luminous intensity is placed 300 cm from a 32-candle
standard lamp. The setting of a Lummer-Brodhun photometer head is found to be
180 cm from the standard lamp. What is the luminous intensity of the unknown?
Ans. 14 candles.
19. Two small lamps of 5.0 and 20 candles, respectively, are placed 300 cm apart
on a photometer bench. How far from the 5.0-candle lamp will a photometer screen
receive equal illuminances from each lamp?
20. It is desired to have an illuminance of 25 ft-candles on a drafting table.
What incandescent lamp should be used if it is to be located 6.0 ft directly above the
table and if two-thirds of the light received on the table is reflected from the walls and
ceiling? Ans. 300 candles
21. Two lamps of 32 and 16 candles are placed 100 cm apart. Find the position on
a line joining them where a screen would receive equal illuminance from each lamp.
22. A sample 60-watt lamp produces on a screen 2.00 tn away the same illumi-
nance as produced by a 16-candle standard lamp 1.00 m from the screen. What is
the efficiency of the sample lamp? Ans. 13.4 lumens/watt
23. A 16-candle lamp is 125 cm from a photometric screen, producing on it the
same illuminance as an unknown lamp at 175 cm distance. If the unknown lamp
takes 0.85 amp at 110 volts, what is its efficiency?
24. If a photographic print can be made in 14 sec when the printing frame is held
2.0 ft from a lamp, what is the correct exposure time when it is held 3.0'ft away?
Ans. 31 sec
yj: '^ CLINTON
\ ^;V JOSEPH
. DAVISSON
f
i 8 8 i —
BORN IN BLOOMINGTON, ILLINOIS. PHYSICIST AT THE BELL TELE-

PHONE LABORATORIES IN NEW YORK. SHARED THE 1 9 3 7 NOBEL
PRIZE FOR PHYSICS WITH G. P . THOMSON FOR THEIR DISCOVERY
OF THE INTERFERENCE PHENOMENA ARISING WHEN CRYSTALS
ARE EXPOSED TO ELECTRON BEAMS.
43. Reflection of Light

An object is seen by the light that comes to the eye from the object.
If the object is not self-luminous, it is seen only by the light it reflects.
T h e reflection of light makes a room with white walls much lighter
than a similar room with black walls. T h e "high lights" produced by
reflection on polished door knobs and car fenders are so characteristic
of convex surfaces that an artist uses them to suggest curved surfaces
S53
*:'
in a painting. Reflection at the concave surface behind a head lamp
sends Hght where it is needed to make other objects visible, by
reflected light.
In general, part of the light falling on a surface is reflected while
the remainder passes into the material itself, where it may be either
completely absorbed (in opaque material) or partly absorbed and
partly transmitted (in a translucent material). Thus, when light
strikes a piece of ordinary glass, about 4 per cent is reflected at the
front surface the exact amount depending on the angle of incidence.
The remainder passes into the glass where some is absorbed. About
4 per cent of the light arriving at the rear surface is turned bacls, the
rest passing through.
Representation of Light. Huygens's principle states that every
point on a light wave front acts as though it were a new center of
disturbance sending out wavelets of its own, always away from the
source, the combined eflTect of all such wavelets constituting a new
wave front. Thus in Fig. 7, Chap. 24, if s is the original center of
disturbance and arc AB the wave front at a given instant, then all
points (a, b, c, etc.) on AB may be considered to be sending out
wavelets whose envelope CD is the position of the wave front a
moment later.
Huygens's principle, published in 1690, was fruitful in explaining
and predicting many properties of light. It is interesting to note that
on the wave theory one would expect light to spread into a region
behind an obstacle much as water waves pass through an opening in a
breakwater to disturb the entire surface of the pond inside. Since the
wavelength of a light wave is exceedingly small compared with the
dimensions of most obstacles it encounters, very little light is bent
into the region of geometrical shadow. A later discussion of diffraction
will show, however, that the spreading of light past a sharp-edged
obstacle can be detected and even put to valuable use with properly
designed apparatus.
The propagation of light can be represented in a diagram by
drawing successive wave fronts, located by applying Huygens's
principle. However, the construction of a fairly accurate wave front
diagram is usually a tedious task.flfis easier and often quite as-satis-
factory to draw a few rays' representing the direction of propagation
of the light wave. In an isotropic medium (a material whose physical
REFLECTION OF L I G H T 585
properties are the same in all directions) the rays will be straight lines
perpendicular to the wave fronts, as are SC and SD in Fig. 7, Chap.
24.
Law of Reflection. It is found by experience that when light,
or any wave motion, is reflected from a surface, the reflected ray at
any point makes the same angle with the perpendicular, or normal, to
the surface as does the incident ray. The angle between the incident
ray and the normal to the surface is called the angle of incidence, and
that between the reflected ray and the normal is called the angle of
reflection (Fig. 1). The law of reflection may then be stated: the angle
of incidence is equal to the angle oj reflection. The incident rav, the reflected
B B, B2 Bj lil/A'
1/
/
D
. FIG. 1.—^Reflection of light by' Huygens's principle.
ray, and the normal to the siarface lie in the same plane. This law
holds for any incident ray and the corresponding reflected ray.
In Fig. 1 a beam of parallel light is incident on the mirror surface
MM'. The wave fronts occupy successively the positions AB, AiBi,
^ c , and would reach a position A'D were it not for the mirror. The
presence of the reflecting surface starts a Huygens's wavelet upward
from B, which spreads outward to B' in the time it takes the upper
part of the original wave front AB to travel from A to the mirror, at
A'. Meantime wavelets from the preceding wave fronts at Bi, Bi, and
53 have left the mirror and have proceeded to the positions indicated
by the arcs. The line A'B' tangent to these arcs indicates the position
of the wave front AB immediately after reflection. The reflection has
inverted the wave front.
The right triangles BAA' and A'B'B are similar. Since angle
B'BA' equals AA'B, it follows that their complements are equal:
angle i equals angle r.
Kinds of Reflection. Sunlight falling on water is reflected at an
angle equal to its angle of incidence, but sunlight falling on a piece of
white blotting paper is scattered. These are examples of specular and
diffuse reflection, respectively. A smooth, plane surface reflects
parallel rays falling on it all in the same direction, while a rough
Regular and diffuse reflection.
surface reflects them diffusely in many directions (Fig. 2). At each

point on the rough surface the angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of reflection, but the normals have many different directions.
Plane Mirrors. When light from a point source, proceeding
in spherical wave fronts, falls on a plane mirror, the wave fronts are
reflected with their curvatures reversed. In Fig. 3 there is a point
source of light above a plane mirror. At the instant considered, points
a and b on the wave front have just reached the mirror, while the
central part of the wave has been
reflected upward a distance mn equal
to the distance mn', which it would
have progressed' below the line amb in
the absence of the mirror. The center
of curvature of the reflected wave front
anb is at point I, whose distance ml
below the mirror is equal to the dis-
tance mO at which the source 0 lies
FIG. 3.—^Reflection in a plane mir- above the mirror. The reflected wave
ror, wave-front diagram. front proceeds toward an observer
at E as if it. came from /. Point / is the virtual image of the real source
at 0. This image lies below the mirror the same distance the object lies
above it. The image is virtual because the light does not actually pass
through it.
The position of an image formed by a mirror can be located even
more readily in a ray diagram. In Fig. 4 a ray OK from the source 0
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 5^r
reaching the mirror at K is reflected along KE, making angle r equal,
angle i. A ray reaching the mirror along the normal Om makes zero
angle of incidence and is reflected back on itself. Lines Om and EK,
0
FIG. 4.—Reflec- FIG. 5.—Image of an extended

tion in a plane object (arrow) formed by a plane
mirror, ray diagram. mirror.
when extended below the mirror, intersect at I. Rays from 0 after

reflection at the plane mirror travel as if they originated at /. The
point I is the virtual image of the source 0. The triangles OmK and
ImK are similar, and the image distance ml is equal to the object
distance Om.
The image of an extended source
or object in a plane mirror is found
by taking one point after another
and locating its image. The familiar
result is that the complete image is
the same size as the object and is
placed symmetrically with respect
to the mirror (Fig. 5).
Optical Lever. In many physi-
cal and technological instruments,
small displacements must be indi-
cated or recorded. One way of
magnifying such eff"ects to make
them readily measurable is by the ^^°- 6—The optical lever,
use of a ray of light reflected by a small mirror mounted on the moving
system, the ray forming a sort of "inertialess" pointer. This arrange-
naent is called an optical lever and is used in such pieces of apparatus as
indicating and recording galvanometers, pyrometers, elastometers,
and sextants. I n Fig. 6, SO represents a ray or narrow beam of light
striking the mirror M mounted on a body, for example, the coil of a
galvanometer, which is to rotate about the axis P. W h e n the mirror
is turned through any angle 6, the reflected beam turns through aO
angle twice as great. As. the mirror turns through the angle 6, the
normal a\so turns t b r o n g b the same angle, decreasing the angle oi
incidence by d. T h e angle between the incident and reflected rays is
always twice the angle of incidence. Thus the angle that the reflected
ray makes with the incident ray is reduced by 26. T h e position of the
reflected beam may be observed on a screen some distance away and
from the change in its position the angle of turn may be computed.
Example: A small beam of parallel light fails on the plane mirror of a galvanome-
ter making an angle of 30° with the normal. The mirror is then turned through 5°.
Through what angle is the reflected beam turned?
In the first position of the mirror (Fig. 6), angle SON is 30° and the angle of
reflection NOR is 30°. The angle of rotation 9 = 5°. The new angle of incidence
SON' and the new angle of reflection NOR' are both 25°. Hence the reflected beam
has been rotated 10° from OR to OR'.
The Sextant. In navigation it is necessary to measure the angle

between the hori/on a n d the sun or certain stars in order to determine
*• To S/af or Sun
Index mirror
Horizon mirror
Jo horizon Telescope gv
orsightirxjfube Eye
Arm
^•Scate or 'limb" '

FiG. 7.—The operating principle of the sextant.
the latitude of the observer's position. Some instrument is required

which is not affected by the motion of the ship and the fact that it is
held in the hand- These conditions are fulfilled by the sextant, afl
instrument with which the observer brings images of the sun and
horizon into coincidence in the field of view of a small telescope.
REFLECTION OE L I G H T 589
Figure 7 illustrates the operating principle of the sextant. When the

a r m is set at zero on the scale, the two mirrors are parallel. Two
superposed images of the horizon are seen, one formed by light
entering the telescope through the clear part of the horizon mirror,
the other by light reflected by the index mirror and the silvered por-
tion of the horizon mirror. I n viewing the sun at an angle d above the
horizon, the arm carrying the index mirror is moved through an
angle 6/2. The image of the sun then matches that of the horizon, and
the angle of elevation, needed to determine latitude, is twice that
through which the a r m is turned.
For aviation use, an artificial (bubble) horizon is employed. Light
from the celestial body is reflected at the surface of a liquid, which
remains horizontal. T h e angle measured between the direct ray and
the reflected ray is twice the angle of elevation of the celestial body.
Use of an artificial horizon permits a determination of the altitude
of a celestial body from a point on land where there is no definite
horizon. A further advantage of an artificial horizon lies in the fact
that when it is used no correction need be applied for the height of the
observer above sea level. When the sea horizon is used the apparent
altitude of a celestial body is increased if the observer is situated above
sea level. This involves a correction for which the observer's height
must be known.
Spherical Mirrors. If the reflecting surface is curved rather than
plane, the same law of reflection holds but the size and position of the
image formed are quite different from those of an image formed by a
planef'mirror. ^ .^
Curved mirrors are commonly AAPERTURE ^^\
"*tnade as portions of spherical sur- /[ \
faces. Spherical mirrors are classi- I.
fied as concave or convex when the T
reflecting surface is on the inside MIRROR-^
or o u t s i d e , respectively, of the N! /
spherical shell (Fig. 8). T h e center of ^ -"^
curvature C of the mirror is the cen- ^^lo- 8.—Spherical mirrors.
ter of the sphere. T h e radius of curvature r of the mirror is the radius
of the sphere. The radius is conventionally taken as positive for
concave mirrors, negative for convex mirrors. A line connecting the
middle point or vertex V of the mirror and the center of curvature is
called the principal axis of the mirror; it is marked XX'. T h e diameter
MM' of the circular outline of the mirror is called the aperture of the
mirror. Most spherical mirrors used for optical purposes have aper-
tures small compared, with their radii of curvature.
Figure 9 shows a concave and a convex mirror with the beam of
light directed on each made up of rays parallel to the principal axis.
By applying the law of reflection to each ray, it is seen that the bundle
of rays parallel to the principal axis will converge through a common
point F after reflection from a concave mirror, or will diverge after
A.
FIG. 9.—Reflection from spherical mirrors.
CONCAVE
FIG. 10.—Location of the principal focus of a spherical mirror.
reflection from a convex mirror as though they originated from a

common point F behind the mirror. The point F is the principal focus
of the mirror, and its distance from the mirror is the/ocd^ length.
The concentration of rays at the principal focus of a concave mirror
can be shown experimentally by allowing sunlight to fall on the mirror
along XX' and moving a bit of paper or a match along the axis to
find the point 7^ where it will ignite. The principal focus of a convex
mirror is a virtual focus because the rays do not actually pass through
it but merely appear to do so.
The principal focus of a concave mirror lies on the principal axis
halfway between the mirror and its center of curvature. This relation
can be proved from the law of reflection for either of the mirrors of
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 591
Fig. 10. A ray AP parallel to the principal axis strikes the mirror at P
and is reflected along PF. At P the angle of reflection is equal to the
angle of incidence, 6. T h e angle between the reflected ray and the
principal axis at F is 26, since it is an exterjor angle of the triangle
PCF. For mirrors whose curvature ( l A ) is small, the angles 6 are
small and the arc PM may be considered a line perpendicular to the
axis XX'. Hence,
PM
tan d and = tan 28 (1)
CM FM
By setting the angles equal to their tangents
PM _ f. _ 1 P M
CM ~ 2FM (2)
or
CM = 2FM
showing that the principal focus F lies halfway between the center of
curvature and the middle of the mirror surface M, when the aperture
is small.
Images Formed b y Spherical Mirrors. Concave mirrors have
wide application because of their ability to make rays of light con-
verge to a/ocM^.If rays coming
from a point S (Fig. 11) strike
the concave spherical mirror,
the reflected rays may be con-
structed by applying the law of
reflection at each point of reflec-
Vtion,, the direction of the normal
being that of the radius in each FIG. 11.- -The points S and 7 are conjugate
case. All reflected rays will be foci.
found to pass very nearly through the single point 7, which is the
real image of the source S. If the object is placed at I, the image will
be formed at S, for the direction of each ray will merely be reversed
from that shown in the figure. Any two points so situated that light
from one is concentrated at the other are conjugate foci.
When an image is formed by converging rays which actually pass
through it, the image is called real. A real image can be formed on a
screen and viewed in that way. If the rays diverge on leaving the
mirror, the image cannot be formed on a screen but can be observed
by looking "into" the mirror. This type of image is called a virtual
image. The rays do not pass through a virtual image but they arrive
at the eye in directions as if they had originated at the virtual image.
(a) (b)
FIG. 12.—Location of the image formed by a concave mirror. *
The problem of locating the image of an extended source or object

can be solved graphically by drawing rays to locate a few pairs of
conjugate foci. The graphical method is indicated in Fig. 12. From
any point 0 on the object, two rays are drawn to the mirror and their
directions after reflection indi-
cated. The point of intersection
of these rays after reflection will
be the image I (conjugate focus)
of the point 0 on the object from
which they originated. Two rays
whose directions can be pre-
dicted readily are: first, the ray
from 0 parallel to the principal
axis which after reflection passes
through F; and second, the ray
FIG. 13.—Location of the image formed
by a convex mirror. from 0 in the direction OC along
a radius of the mirror which
after reflection returns along the same line. The intersection of these
rays at I locates the image of the head of the arrow. All other rays
from 0 pass through I after reflection. Another pair of rays could be
drawn from 0 ' to locate /'.,
In Fig. 12(2. the image is seen to be real, inverted, and diminished
in size, as it will be whenever the object lies at a distance greater'than
the radius in front of a concave mirror. If the object were between
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 593
C and F, the image would be real, inverted, and magnified. When the
object is placed closer than the focal distance from a concave mirror
(Fig. lib), the image is virtual, erect, and magnified. T h e image
formed by a convex mirror (Fig. 13) is always virtual, erect, and
diminished.
The Mirror Equation. There is simple relation between the
distance p of the object from the mirror, the distance q of the image,
and the focal l e n g t h / .
1
(3)
P q 7
If any two of these quantities are known, the third can be calculated.
Equation (3) applies to both concave and convex mirrors when the
FIG. 14.—Diagram for the derivation of the mirror equation.
Vtaken
roper convention regarding signs is followed. T h e focal length / is
as positive for a concave mirror, negative for a convex mirror. The
image distance is defined as positive for a real image, negative for a
virtual image formed behind the mirror.
T h e mirror equation is always written with positive signs when
expressed in algebraic symbols, as iri Eq. (3). Negative signs are
introduced only when values are substituted for these symbols, as
required by the sign conventions just stated.
T o derive the mirror equation consider Fig. 14 in which three rays
have been drawn from point 0 on the object to locate the corre-
sponding point I on the image. From one pair of similar triangles
(shown shaded), taking PM = 00', we have
1 (4)
PM FM f ~ f'
From another pair of similar triangles, 00'M and II'M, it follows that
ir ^ rM_ _ q
00' O'M ~ p (5)
Since PM = 00' the left-hand members of Eqs. (4) and (5) are equal
and
2 = ^-1
P f
Dividing by q, we have
1+ 1= 1 (3)
Since the focal distance / equals r/2 the mirror equation may be
written
1 1 _ 2
P q^'r (6)
The methods of physical optics may also be used to find the rela-
tion between image distance, object distance, and focal length in any
FIG. 15.—Reflection from a convex mirror, represented by a wave-front •diagram.
jnirror problem. As an illustration of this method, consider a parallel

beam of light sd impinging upon a convex mirror amb in Fig. 15. If
REFLECTION OF LI.GHT 595
the mirror were not present, the wave front could continue its motion
undisturbed to the dotted position an'b. But when the center of the
wave front meets the mirror at m it is turned back, and by Huygens's
principle the reflected wavelet reaches n in the same time in which
it would have reached n' if there were no mirror. By construct-
ing the wavelets from other points on the mirror one obtains the
reflected wave front anb whose center is at F. The light that enters
the eye appears to originate at point F behind the mirror. Hence F
is the principal focus of the mirror, since the waves were parallel
before reflection. I n general, a mirror changes the curvature of a wave
by 1 / / and the curvature of the reflected wave \/q differs from that
of the incident wave \/p by an amount 1//. I n the case just con-
sidered, the curvature of the incident wave is zero, and the curvature
of the reflected wave is 1 / / .
Example: A candle is held 3.0 in. in front of a concave mirror whose radius is
24 in. Where is the image of the candle?
Figure Mb illustrates the conditions of the problem. From the general mirror
equation
1 1_ 1_ 2
P q~J" •'
we have
1 . ,1 1 .
3:o'"- + ? = T2'"-
1 1-4 3
q 12 in. 12 in.
q — —4.0 in.
The negative sign for q indicates that the image lies behind the mirror and is a virtual
image.
Magnification, T h e magnification produced by a mirror is the

ratio of image size to object size. From the similar triangles, 00'M
and II'M in Fig. 14 it is apparent that the size of the image / / ' is to
the size of the object 00' as the image distance q is to the object dis-
tance p. This will be true for any spherical mirror, neglecting signs.
.„ . image height
Magnincation = —r- \—r-r-
° object height
M = \ (7)
5g6 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
Example: A man has a concave shaving mirror whose focal length is 20 in. How
far should the mirror be held from his face in order to give an image of .twofold
magnification?
An erect, virtual, magnified image is desired. Figure 126 illustrates the conditions
of the problem. The equation
M =1 = 2
P
gives a relation between/) and q without regard to sign. But since the image is virtual,
p and q have opposite sign or
q= -2p
Substitution in the general mirror equation gives
1_1 = 1
p 2p 20 in.
2 - 1_ ^
2p ~ 20 in.
p= W in.
Spherical Aberration. T h e foregoing discussion of spherical

mirrors applies only to mirrors whose apertures are small compared
with their radii of curvature and for objects on or near the principal
^ . axis. Under other conditions the images
I formed are blurred and imperfect.
" For example, the extreme rays reflected
X ' from a mirror of large aperture (Fig.
-^ 16) cross the axis closer to the mirror
C I
than do the rays which are reflected
nearer the center of the mirror surface
and pass through the focal point F.
This imperfection is called spherical
FIG. 16.—Spherical aberration. aberration. T h e image is drawn out into
a surface formed by the intersecting rays; the trace of this surface
in the plane of the paper is a curved line called the caustic of the
mirror. A caustic curve can be observed on the surface of liquid
in a glass tumbler when^ the inner surface of the glass is illuminated
obliquely. '
It is possible to design the reflecting surface of a mirror of such
shape that all "rays reaching it from a definite object point will be
brought to a common focus. For an object point at a great distance
(incident rays parallel) the nairror should be a paraboloid. T h e most
common use is in the mirror of the automobile headlight. W h e n the
filament is placed at the focus of the mirror, the rays sent out form a
parallel beami (Fig. 17). A very slight
shift in the position of the filament
causes a marked displacement of the
beam. T h e searchlight mirror and the
big reflectors of astronomical telescopes
are other applications of the parabolic,
mirror.
SUMMARY
Huygens's principle states that light
progresses as a wave, that every point FIG. 17.—^Reflection from a para-
on a wave front acts as a secondary ^"^^'^ mirror,
source sending ahead wavelets, and that at any instant the new wave
front is the surface tangent to all these wavelets.
When light is reflected the angle of reflection is equal to the angle
of incidence. This is the law of reflection.
T h e image formed by a plane mirror is the same size as the object
a n d is located as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
When a plane reflector is rotated through a given angle, the
reflected ray is deviated through twice as large an angle. This is the
principle of the optical lever.
T h e principal focus of a spherical mirror is the convergence point
for rays parallel to a n d close to the principal axis of the mirror. It
it located halfway between the mirror and its center of curvature.
The mirror equation is
1 1 _ 2 _ 1
P^q'r ~ f
T h e mirror equation applies to both concave and convex mirrors. T h e
object distance p is positive for real objects. T h e image distance q is
taken as positive for real images, negative for virtual images. T h e
radius of curvature r and focal l e n g t h / are taken as positive for con-
cave mirrors, negative for convex mirrors.
T h e magnification equation is
Image size _ q
Object size p
T h e equation holds for both concave and convex mirrors, where the
right-hand term stands for the absolute value of q/p, without regard
to sign.
QUESTIONS
1. Compare the reflection of light from white blotting paper with that from a
plane mirror. Which is more readily seen at a distance? Why?
2. A carpenter who wishes to saw through a straight board at an.angle of 45°
places his saw at the correct angle by noting when the reflection of the edge of the
board seems to be exactly perpendicular to the edge itself. Explain.
3. How can you tell a real image from a virtual image?
4. Can a virtual image be projected on a screen? Why?
5. Show that for a plane mirror the image moves away from the object twice as
fast as the mirror moves from the object.
6. Show that when a plane mirror is rotated a beam of light reflected from it will
rotate twice as fast as the mirror. Suggest practical applications.
7. Two plane mirrors are placed at an angle of 90°. A ray of light falls on one
mirror. What is the direction of the ray after two reflections? How is this principle
used in reflectors on highway signs?
8. If a light wave is to converge to a point after reflection in a plane mirror,
what must be its form before reflection?
9. What is meant by the principal focus of a concave mirror? of a convex mirror?
10. A distant object is brought toward a concave spherical mirror. Describe the
changes in the image. Construct a graph of object distance against image distance.
11. In photographing indoors why are high lights given by convex surfaces such
as polished door knobs, vases, and rounded corners on furniture?
12. Draw appropriate ray diagrams to locate the approximate position and size
of the image formed by a concave spherical mirror (Fig. 12) when the object lies
(a) beyond C, (A) at C, (c) between C and F, {£) inside F. Identify the nature of each
image, real or virtual.
13. Where must an object be placed in front of a concave mirror in order that the
image be erect and of the same size as the object?
14. A silvered ball is often used as a garden ornament. Where does it form an
image of the sun?
15. Does a convex mirror ever form an inverted image? Why?
16. A bundle of parallel rays is reflected by a, convex mirror in air. If the mirror is
placed in water will the divergence of the rays from the mirror be the same?
17. Two concave spherical rriirrors have equal focal lengths but different aper-
tures. Which mirror will form the hotter image of the sun?
PROBLEMS
1. Using Fig. 4, prove 'geometrically that the image point I is the same distance
from the mirror as the object point 0. fi
2. A narrow beam of light reflected from the mirror of an electric instrument falls
on a scale 2.0 m away and placed perpendicular to the reflected rays. If the spot of
light moves laterally a distance of 40 cm when a current is maintained in the instru-
ment, through what angle does the mirror turn? Ans. 5.7°
3. Two plane mirrors face at a 90° angle. Show that a ray of light striking one
mirror will return, after two reflections, parallel to its original path. Extend this to
the case of reflection in a ''corner" formed by three mirrors meeting at 90° angles.
4. It is desired to mount a plane mirror so that a lady can see a full length image
of herself. How short a mirror will serve this purpose for a person 5 ft 8 in. tall? How
should it be mounted? • Ans. 34 in.
5. A man 5 ft 10 in. tall stands 4.0 ft from a large vertical plane mirror, (a) What
is the size of the image of the man formed by the mirror? (b) How far from the man is
his image? (c) What is the shortest length of mirror in which the man can see himself
full length? (</) What length of mirror would suffice if he were 8.0 ft away?
6.' A concave mirror has a radius of curvature of 20 cm. Locate the image and
determine its size when an object" 4.0 cm high is 5.0 cm in front of the mirror. Sketch
a ray diagram for this case. Ans. —10 cm; 8.0 cm
7. A concave mirror has a radius of curvature of 3.0 ft. Locate the image and
determine its size when an object 6.0 in. high is 1.0 ft in front of the mirror. Sketch
the ray diagram.-
8. A candle 2.0 in. high is placed 18 in. from a concave mirror of 12-in. radius,
on the principal axis, (a) Locate the image in a ray diagram, and describe it. {b) What
is the height of the image? Ans. 1.0 in.
9. The moon is approximately. 2160 mi in diameter. What is the size of the
image of the moon formed by a concave mirror of 3.0 m radius when the moon is at
its nearest distance from the earth, 221,000 mi?
10. An object is located on the principal axis of a convex mirror 20 in. in front
of the mirror. The image is 6.66 in. behind the mirror, (a) What is-the radius of
curvature of the mirror? {b) What is the nature of the image? (c) What magnification
of the object is produced by the mirror? (d) Draw a graph showing how the image
distance varies as the object is brought from a great distance up to the mirror.
Ans. —20 in.; virtual; J^
11. An object is located 2.0 ft in front of a polished metal ball 1.0 ft in diameter.
Locate the image both analytically and graphically. Describe the image, and deter-
mine its size if the object is 4.0 in. high.
12. A dentist holds a concave mirror of radius of curvature 6.0 cm at a distance
2.0 cm from a filling in a tooth. What is the magnification of the image of the filling?
Ans. 3
13. A concave mirror has a radius of curvature of 24 cm. A small lamp bulb is
held on the axis 18 cm from the mirror. Find the position and nature of the image
and its magnification.
14. What is the focal length of a shaving mirror that gives a twofold magnification
of the face placed 1 ft in front of it? Ans. 2 ft
15. How far must one stand from a concave mirror having a focal length of 2.0 ft
in order that he may see an erect image of his face twice its natural size?
Goo COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
16. An ornamental silvered sphere has a diameter of 2.0 ft. When a 6.0-in. pencil
is held 15 in, from the mirror, where is its image formed? What is the height of that
image? Ans. —4.3 in.; 1.7 in.
17. A convex mirror gives an image one-third the size of the object vi'hen the
object is 30 cm in front of the mirror. What is the radius of curvature of the mirror?
18. In a solar heater water flows through a glass pipe located above and parallel
to a semicylindrical concave reflecting surface. If the reflector has a diameter of 3.0 ft
how far above the reflector should the center of the pipe be located? Should the axis
of the cylinder be located in an east-west or north-south direction? Is it necessary to
rotate the mirror during the day? Ans. 9.0 in.
19. A concave mirror has a radius of curvature of 50 cm. Find two positions in
which an object may be placed in order to give an image four times as large. What is
the position and character of the image in each case?
20. A convex mirror forms an image one-fifth the size of an object 30 cm distant.
What is the radius of curvature of the mirror. Ans. — 15 cm
21. How far from a concave spherical mirror of 12-cm focal length must a small
object be placed on the axis of the mirror to form an inverted image twice the
height of the object? Draw a ray diagram.
22. The sun has a diameter of 864,100 mi and is distant, on the average, 92,900,-
000 mi from the earth. What will be the size of its image formed by a concave mirror
of 6.0 ft radius? . Ans. 0.33 in.
23. The straight filament of a showcase lamp is placed with its center 18 in. from
the center of a concave mirror of focal length 9.0 in., on the optic axis. The filament
makes an angle of 30° with the optic axis. Draw a ray diagram to locate the position
of the image of the lamp filament.
24. A convex mirror whose focal length is 15 cm has an object 10 cm tall 60 cm
away. Find the position and size of the image. Is it real or virtual?
Ans. —12 cm; 2.0 cm
25. A concave and a convex mirror, each of radius 40 cm, face each other at a
distance of 60 cm. An object 4.0 cm high is placed midway between the mirrors.
Find the position and size of the image formed by successive reflections from the two
mirrors (a) if the first reflection is at the concave mirror, (b) if the first reflection is at
the convex mirror.
26. Find the position, nature, and size of the image of an, object 4.0 cm long
formed by a concave spherical mirror, if the object is lOO cm from the mirror and
the radius of curvature is 40 cm. ' Ans. 25 cm; real; 1.0 cm
27. A spherical concave mirror has a focal length of 10 cm. An object 15 cm tall
is 20 cm from the mirror. How tall is the image?
28. An object is 5.0 cm high. It is desired to form a real image 2.0 cm high,
100 cm from the object. What type .of mirror is needed and of what focal length
should it. be? Ans. concave; 48 cm
29. A mirror has an object 10 cm tall and 60 cm from the mirror. The radius of
curvature is 30 cm. Find the position and height of the image. Is it real or virtual?
/^s??
^\
\
\
w.
GEORGE
PAGET
THOMSON
1892 —
BORN IN CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND. PROFESSOR AT THE IMPERIAL

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
LONDON. SHARED THE 1 9 3 7 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS WITH
DAVISSON FOR THEIR EXPERIMENTAL DISCOVERY OF THE DIFFRAC-
TION OF ELECTRONS BY CRYSTALS.
44. Refraction of Light; Thin Lenses

Light travels in straight Hnes in a homogeneous medium. Reflection
occurs at the surface of a second medium. But in general some light
also passes from the first medium into the second. A light wave (or
ray) that enters another medium obliquely will undergo an abrupt
change in direction if the speed of the wave in the second medium is
different from that in the first. This bending of the light path is called
refraction.
601
A pencil dipped obliquely through the surface of water appears to

be bent sharply where it enters the water. A coin so placed on the
bottom of a cup as to be hidden by the sides of the cup may become
visible when the cup is filled with water. Objects appear enlarged and
distorted when viewed through the curved surface of a bottle. These
are examples of the refraction of light as it passes from one material
to another. T h e simple laws of refraction make possible the construc-
tion of the lenses for spectacles, magnifiers, cameras, telescopes, and
microscopes, which extend the usefulness of our eyes. ,
Refraction. Consider the simplest case of refraction, that of a
plane wave meeting a plane sur-
face. In Fig. 1, AB represents an
advancing plane wave, OA and PB
are rays normal to the wave front,
and JÂ is the normal to the sur-
face of the medium at A. The
direction of the incident ray OA is
defined by the angle of incidence
i, which it makes with the normal
MA. T h e plane containing the
incident ray and the normal to
FIG. 1.—Refraction of a plane wave. ,, r • n j î i r
^ the surface is called the plane of
incidence. T h e angle r between the refracted ray AC and the normal
is called the angle of refraction.
When a ray of light passes from one material into another in
which its speed is less than in the first (Fig. 1), it is bent toward the
normal. When the speed of light is greater in the second medium, the
ray is bent away from the normal. '
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidetice to the jine of the angle of
refraction is a constant, independent of i. This experimental relationship
is known as Snell's law.
sin i
-.— = n (1)
sm r -V •
T h e constant n is called the index of refraction.

T h e incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the surface
lie in the same plane. «
Refraction may be explained on the wave theory quite simply.
REFRACTION OF L I G H T ; T H I N LENSES 603
Let SS' in Fig. 2 represent the boundary surface between two optical
materials, and AB a plane wave front at the instant when a secondary
Huygens wavelet is starting out from A in the second material. As the
original wave AB moves on, secondary waves will be started from
successive points on the surface SS' to the right of A. When the point
B of the original wave front has reached D, all these secondary waves
will have spread into the second medium. The plane wave front CD,
which is the envelope of all- these secondary wavelets, will be the
refracted wave front in the second medium. The dotted construction
lines show that the wave would have reached the position DC
in the time considered had it continued in the same medium.
FIG. 2.—Refraction represented by a Huygens wave diagram.
Index of Refraction. The relative index of refraction W12 of a

second medium relative to the first is defined as the ratio of the speed Vi
of light in the first medium to its speed ^2 in the second medium.
sin i vi .
-.— = — = ni2 (2)
smr Vi
The use of the two subscripts on the letter n indicates the sense in
which the wave is traveling, that is, which is the "first" medium and
which the "second." It is convenient to remember Snell's law in the
form of Eq. (2), noting that the sines of the angles are in the ratio
of the speeds of light in the materials in which the respective angles
are measured.
The absolute index of refraction Wi of a medium is its index relative
to a vacuum, that is, the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum VQ
to its speed in the medium.
From the diagram of Fig. 1 one may show that the ratio of the
angle of incidence to the angle of refraction is equal to the ratio of the
Speed of light in the first medium to the speed of light in the second
medium.
Since DA is perpendicular to AJV, and BA is perpendicular to AO
^-BAB = 4?
Likewise
ÂDC= 4r
sin 2^DAB = -j= = sin t
AC
sin ZÂDC = ^j. — sin r
sin i _ BD
sin r ~ ^ C
Since the wave front travels from £ to D in the first material in the
same time it travels from J to C in the second material, these distances
are proportional to the speed of light in the two materials
BD vi , sin i vi
-r^ = — and -— = —
AL ii2 sm r v^
Example: A ray of light in water is incident on a plate of crown glass at an angle
of 45°. What is the angle of refraction for the ray in the glass?
_ £» _ Vo/vg _ «£ _ 1^-517 _
""" ~ v,~ vjv^ ~ n„ " 1.333 "" •^'
By Snell's law
sin 45 . ^ ^_
—. = 1.137
sin r
giving
'•''' = 0.624
""' 1.137
r = 38° 37' .-
The numerical value of an index of refraction is characteristic of

the two mediums, but it depends also on the wavelength of the light.
Hence an index of refraction is specified definitely only when the
wavelengl3i of the light is stated. Unless otherwise mentioned, an
index is usually given for yellow light. The absolute index of refraction
for air under standard conditions is 1.0002918 for Ught having the
wavelength of the D line of sodium (5893 A). Since the absolute
index Ua for air is so near to unity, it follows that for a solid or a liquid
REFRACTION OF L I G H T ; T H I N LENSES 605
the absolute index and the index relative to air differ only slightly and
it is usually not necessary to distinguish between them.
TABLE I. INDICES OF REFRACTION (FOR WAVELENGTH 5893 A)

Solids
Crown glass 1.517 Calcite (ordinary ray) 1.658

(extraordinary ray). . 1.486
Barium flint glass 1.568
Barium crown glass 1.574 Canada balsam. 1.530
Light flint glass 1.580' Diamond 2.419
Dense flint glass 1.656 Quartz, fused. . 1.4585
Fluorite 1.434 Ice at - 8 ° G . . . 1.31
Liquids (n relative to air)
Benzene at 20°C . 1.501 Water at 0°C 1.334

Carbon disulphide at 20°. . . 1.643 20°.. 1.333
Carbon tetrachloride at 20° . 1.461 40° 1.331
Ethyl alcohol at 20° 1.354 80° 1.323
Gases and vapors at 0°C and 760 mm of mercury pressure
Dry air 1.000293 Ethyl ether. . 1.00152

Carbon dioxide 1.00045 Water vapor. 1.000250
Refraction through Plane-parallel Plates. When a ray of light

passes through a layer of transparent
material that has plane parallel surfaces
and emerges again into the first medium,
the emergent ray is parallel to its origi-
nal direction but is displaced laterally.
This may be seen by applying the laws
of refraction at each of the surfaces FIG. 3.—Refraction through a
represented in Fig. 3. plane-parallel glass plate.
T h e Shallowing Effect of Refraction. W h e n a spherical wave

front passes from one material to another through a plane surface the
form of the wave front is changed and it is in general no longer
spherical. A particular case of interest, represented by Fig. 4, is that
of waves from a point source 0 in some optically dense medium
emerging into air.
When the wave front from 0 has reached A, the secondary wavelet
from P will have reached Q^ where PQ^ = 'H{OA — OP), since light
has a speed in air four-thirds of that in water. T h e secondary wavelet
from Cwill have spread to a radius CB = ^^(OA — OC). By drawing
similar secondary wavelets from successive points along APD, one
can locate the new position of the advancing wave front AQD and
show that this wave front is no longer spherical. For an observer a t
E looking vertically down, the wave front arrives with a radius of
curvature OiP and the source appears to be at Oi at a depth three-
fourths of the actual depth of the object 0 below the surface of the
IV/)T£J?
FIG. 4.—^The apparent depth of an object under water is less than its depth below
the surface.
water. T o a n observer at E' the object seems to be a t O2 still closer

to the surface. If the normals to the einergent wave front are extended
downward, they are found to be tangent to the caustic curve OiD. For
any position of viewing, the object appears to lie along the line OP, at a
depth that lies between Oi and O3.
Example: A plate of glass 1.00 in. thick is placed over a dot, on a sheet of paper.
The dot appears 0.640 in. below the upper surface of the glass when viewed from above
through a microscope. What is the index of refraction of the glass plate?
From Fig. 4 '
Depth OP
Apparent depth OiP
_ 1.00 in.
" " 0.S40 in.
n = 1.57
REFRACTION OF L I G H T : T H I N LENSES 607
Mirages, Atmospheric Refraction. O n still, sunny days there
may be a layer of hot expanded air in contact with the heated ground.
Light travels faster in the rarer hot air than in the denser cool air
above it. Hence light rays entering the warm air obliquely from above
will be refracted upward. O n e may see inverted images of distant
objects (Fig. 5) suggestive of the reflections in a smooth pool of water.
COLD AIR
FIG. 5.—A mirage is formed by atmospheric refraction upward.
Mirages on a small scale are often observed over concrete highways on

still, hot days.
A mirage of another sort called looming may occur when atmos-
pheric conditions are reversed and the lower strata of air are cooler
than the upper strata, as would be the case over a snow field or a body
of cold water. Rays of light from a distant object are then deviated
downward. One may see an image of a ship above the ship itself,
• FIG. 6.—Looming is caused by atmospheric refraction downward.
or the curvature of the light rays may bring into view objects nor-
mally below the horizon (Fig. 6).
T h e change of the refractive index of air with changing tempera-
ture is easily observed in a turbulent stream of hot air rising from a
stove or radiator, since there is an apparent wavering of objects seen
through the nonhomogeneous air. A ray of light entering the_ earth's
atmosphere obliquely is bent toward the normal. Hence we see light
from the sun while it is slightly below the horizon; and the sun is
flattened in appearance at sunrise and sunset. T h e positions of the
sun and stars always appear to be higher than their actual positions,
except when they are directly overhead.
Total Reflection. If we consider the passage of light from an
optically denser medium out into air, as in Fig. 7, we observe that as
the angle of incidence i is increased the angle of refraction r increases
and approaches the limiting value ri = 90°, beyond which of course,
there could be no light refracted into the air. T h e limiting angle of
FIG. 7.—^Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence exceeds the
critical angle.
incidence in the denser medium, which makes the angle of refraction

90°, is called the critical angle of incidence ic. From the law of refraction
sin L = - ' (3)
where n is the index of refraction of the optically denser medium rela-

tive to air. ' ,^ ' '
When the angle of incidence is increased beyond its critical value
ic, we find that the light is totally reflected, making the angle of
reflection r' equal to the angle of incidence i'. Total reflection can take
place only when the light in the denser medium is incident on the
surface separating it from the less dense medium.
Example: What is-the critical angle between carbon disulphide and air?
. . 1
sin ic = -
REFRACTION OF L I G H T ; THIN LENSES 609
where n is the index of refraction of carbon disulphide relative to air.
. . 1
sin ic = 1.643 0.608
ic = 37° 27'
Total reflection is utilized in various optical instruments. A beam

of light may be turned through 90° by a 45° right-angle prism of glass
(a) \ (b)
FIG. 8.—rTotally reflecting prisms.
having polished faces (Fig. 8a). Total reflection in a roof prism (Fig. 86)
inverts the image and such an inverting prism may be used in binocu-
lars or in a projection lantern to give an upright image of an object
that otherwise would appear inverted.
Refraction by a Prism. When light passes through a glass prism,
it is bent around the thicker part of
the prism. In Fig. 9, A is the prism y
angle and D is the angle of devia- ./

tion, measured between the original N
'-^^ I ^ N'
direction of the incident ray I and
the direction of the refracted ray
^^^.^
"i^y ^ff te'
y^ 1 V
R. The deviation is found to depend /
on the prism angle, the index of
refraction of the prism material, and FIG. 9.—Refraction by a prism.
the angle of incidence i. M i n i m u m
deviation occurs when the ray passes through the prism sym-
metrically making i equal to i'.
From Fig. 9, the deviation D is the sum of that {i — r) taking
place at the first surface a n d that {i' — r') at the second:
D i - r + i' -r' = {i + i') - (r + r')
But r -\- r' =A; for minimum deviation i i', a n d hence r = r'.
Therefore
D = 2i - A or i = K ( ^ + D)
6io COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
and
A
2
Substituting these values in Snell's law n = sin i/sin r, we have
sin mA + D)
n = (4)
sin ^y-Â
A precise method of determining the index of refraction of a prism is

based on this equation.
Example: Light from a sodium lamp when passed through a 60° OO'-prism has a
minimum angle of deviation of 51° 20'. What is the index of refraction of the glass?
sin 1^(60° 00' + 51° 20') _ sin^SMO'
sin )^ (60° 00') sin 30° 00'
0.8257
0.5000 = 1.651
Lenses. Lenses are made of transparent materials with polished

surfaces at least one of which is curved. Most lenses possess two
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

CONVERGING . DIVERG/NG
FIG. 10.—Lenses of various forms.
surfaces which are parts of spheres, spherical surfaces being used

because they are easiest to make. The line" joining the centers of the
two spheres is called the principal axis of the lens. Typical lens forms
are shown in Fig, 10. It will be noted that the converging lenses are
thicker at the middle than at the edge, while the diverging lenses are
thicker at the edges. ,
A lens produces a change in the curvature of a wave front passing
through it. If the lens is made of optically dense material, as is usual,
the speed of light in the lens is less than in air, and a thin-edged lens
retards light passing through the center more than light passing near
the edge. Hence a plane wave (Fig. 11a) will have its central part
REFRACTION OF L I G H T ; T H I N LENSES 6ll
retarded on passing through a thin-edged lens and will converge

toward a point F after emerging. Conversely, a thick-edged lens will
render a plane wave divergent (Fig. \\b).
T h e propagation of light through lenses and the formation of
images may be represented in wave-front diagrams based on Huygens's
(a)
F
(b) F
Fio. 11.—Refraction of a plane wave by a lens.
principle. It is easier, however, to use ray diagrams. Consider a glass

lens such as a of Fig. 10 on which is incident a set of rays from a very
distant source on the axis of the lens. These rays will be parallel to
the axis. Each ray is bent around the thicker part of the glass. As
they leave the lens, they converge toward a point F (Fig. 12). Any
PRINCIPAL
FIG. 12.—Focusing of light by a converging lens!
lens that is thicker at the middle than at the edge will cause a set of
parallel rays to converge and hence is called a converging lens. T h e
point F to which the rays parallel to the principal axis are brought to a
focus is called the principal focus. T h e distance from the center of the
lens to this point is called the/oca/ length of the lens. A thin lens has two
principal foci, one on each side of the lens and equally distant from it.
If a lens such as d of Fig. 10 is used in the same manner, the rays
will again be bent around the thicker part and in this case will diverge
as they leave the lens (Fig. 13). Any lens that is thicker at the edge
than at the middle will cause a set of rays parallel to the axis to diverge
as they leave the lens a n d is called a diverging lens. T h e point F from
FIG. 13.—The principal focus (virtual) of a diverging lens.
FIG, 14.—Effect of a converging lens on light originating (a) beyond the principal
focus, (A) at the principal focus, and (c) within the principal focus.
which the rays diverge on leaving the lens is the principal focus. Since
the light is not actually focused at this point, it is known as a virtual
focus.
If the source is not very distant from the lens, the rays incident
upon the lens are not parallel biitj diverge as shown in Fig. 14. The
behavior of the rays leaving ..k converging lens depends upon the
position of the source. If the, source is farther from the lens than
REFRACTION OF L I G H T : T H I N LENSES 613
the principal focus, the rays converge as they leave the lens as shown
in Fig. 14a; if the source is exactly at the principal focus, the emerging
rays will be parallel to the principal axis as shown in Fig. 14b. If the
source is between the lens and the principal focus, the divergence of
the rays is so great that the lens is unable to cause them to converge
but merely reduces the divergence. To an observer beyond the lens,
the rays appear to come from a point (5 rather than from P, as shown
in Fig. 14c. The poi^t Q, is a virtual focus.
A divergent lens causes the rays emerging from the lens to diverge
more than those which enter. No matter what the position of the
source, the emergent rays diverge
from a virtual focus as shown in
Fig. 15.
Image Formation by Lenses.
When the rays converge after
passing through the lens, an image
can be formed on a screen and
viewed in that way. Such an
image is called a real image. If the
rays diverge on leaving the lens,
the image cannot be formed on a
screen but can be observed by
looking through the lens. This
type of image is called a virtual
image. Thus Figs. 12 and 14a FIG. 15.—Effect of a diverging lens
represent the formation of real on light originating (a) beyond the
principal focus and {b) within the prin-
images while Figs. 13, 14<:, and 15 cipal focus.
represent virtual images. Notice
that a diverging lens produces only virtual images while a con-
verging lens may produce either real or virtual images, depending
upon the location of the object.
Image Determination by Means of Rays. When an object is
placed before a lens, it is possible to determine the position of the
image graphically. By drawing at least two- rays whose complete
paths we know, the image point corresponding to a given object point
may be located. Suppose we have as in Fig. 16a a converging lens with
an object, represented by the arrow, placed some distance in front of
the lens. Let F represent the principal foci on the two sides of the lens.
A point on the object, such as the tip of the arrow, m a y be considered
to be the source of any number of rays. Consider the ray from this
point which proceeds toward the center of the lens. This ray will con-
tinue onward with practically no change of direction after passing
through the lens, since the deviations at the two surfaces cancel and
for a thin lens the displacement is negligible.
Now consider another ray from the tip of the arrow—one that
travels parallel to the axis. We saw from Fig. 12 that all rays parallel
FIG. 16.—Image formation traced by means ofray diagrams.
to the principal axis which strike a converging lens pass through the
principal focus after emerging. Thus the ray y/e have drawn from the
tip of the arrow will, after refraction by the lens, pass through F. If
this line is continued, it will cut the ray through the center of the lens
at a point Q^. This is the image point corresponding to the tip of the
arrow. The other image points, corresponding to additional points
of the arrow, will fall in. the plarie'through (^ perpendicular to the lens
axis. I n particular, the image of the foot of the arrow will be on the
axis if the foot of the arrow itself is so placed. An inverted real-image
of the arrow will actually be seen if a card is held in the plane QQ^.
Inversion takes place also in the sidewise direction so that if the object
REFRACTION OF L I G H T ; T H I N LEN^SES 615
has any extent in a direction normal to the plane of the figure, right
and left will be reversed.
Figure 16b shows how to locate the image when an object is placed
closer to a converging lens than the focal distance. We have already
seen from Fig. 14c that this results in a virtual image. The reason,
from the point of view of the ray construction, is that the ray through
the lens center and the ray passing through F do not intersect on
the right-hand side of the lens, but diverge instead. However, they
appear to have come from some point located by projecting them back
to the left until they cross. This point is the virtual image of the tip of
the arrow. T h e entire virtual image is represented by the dotted
arrow. It cannot be formed on a screen but may be viewed by looking
into the lens from the right.
I n a similar way, the formation of a virtual image by a diverging
lens is shown in Fig. 16(7.
In every example of image formation described, we may see from
the graphical construction that
Size of image distance of image from lens
Size of object distance of object from lens
The first ratio is called the linear magnification, or simply the magni-
fication. Hence, in symbols,
M=l (5)
where p is the distance of the object from the lens and q is that of the
image.
The-Thin-lens Equation. It is possible to find the location and
size of an image by algebraic means as well as by the graphical method
already outlined. Analysis shows that the focal l e n g t h / of a thin lens,
the distance p of the object from the lens, and the distance q of the
image are related by
This relation holds for any case of image formation by either a con-
verging or diverging lens provided that the following conventions
are observed:
6i6 COLLEGE TECHNIGAi;, PHYSICS
1. C o n s i d e r / positive for a converging lens and negative fgr a

diverging lens.
2. Object and image distances are taken as positive for real
objects and images, negative for virtual objects and images. The
normal arrangement is taken to be object, lens, and image, going
from left to right in the diagram. If q is negative, this means that the
image lies to the left of the lens, rather than to the right, and is therefore
virtual.
When a light wave passes through a letis, the curvature \/q of the
emergent wave differs from the curvature \/p of the incident wave
by \/J. T h e amount by which the lens ca^n change the curvature of
any wave is 1 / / .
FIG. 17.—Ray d i a g r a m used to locate image A'B' of object AB.
A geometrical proof of the lens relation, Eq. (6), may be had by

reference to Fig. 17 in which rays are drawn to locate the image A'B'
of the object AB.
From the similar triangles ABO and A'B'O
A'B' B'O ^^
AB BO
nu p (7)
From the similar triagles A'B'F and QÔF

A'B' _B^B'F _qjzl- q - 1
OQ, OF J (8)
J
since OQ, = AB '
A'B'
AB •/ (9)
Combining Eqs. (7) a n d .(9)
%-l
Dividing both sides of the equation by q we obtain
Example: The lens system of a certain portrait camera may be considered equiva-
lent to a thin converging lens of focal length 10.0 in. How far behind the lens should the
plate be located to receive the image of a person seated 50.0 in. from the lens? How
large will the image be in comparison with the object?
1 1 1
50.0 in. +' 7q = T 10.0
7 r n iin.'
r' or ? = 12.5 in.
From Eq. (5),
M* = i 50.0
§ 4 lm.^ = 0.250
The image will be oncrfourth as large as the object.

Example: Determine the location and character of the image formed when an
object is placed 9.0 in. from the lens of the previous example.
' A=
9.0 in. ^ q 10.0 in.
q = - 9 0 in.
The negative sign shows that the image lies to the left of the lens and is therefore
virtual. It is larger than the object in the ratio
90 in.
M = ^rjr^ = 10
9.0 m.
Example: When an object is placed 20 in. from a certain lens, its virtual image is
formed 10 in. from the lens. Determine the focal length and character of the lens.
1 1
" 1 +
20 in. ^ - 1 0 in. /
- 2 0 in.
/ =
The negative sign shows that the lens is diverging.
Thin Lenses in Contact. The equivalent focal length of two

thin lenses in contact is determined by treating the image formed by
the first lens as the virtual object for the second lens. For the first lens
the lens equation is
1+ 1 =1
where qi is the distance to the image formed by the first lens alone.
The object distance for the second lens is then —91 and its lens
equation is
-?i q h
Adding these equations we have
1 1 1 1 1
where p is the object distance, q is the image distance, and F is the

equivalent focal length of the two thin lenses in contact.
Power of a Lens—Diopter. Opticians express the power of
lenses in terms of a unit called the diopter. A lens having a power of
1 diopter has a focal length of 1 m. The power of a lens is the reciprocal
of its focal length measvired in meters,
D - \ (U)
Thus the shorter the focal length of a lens the greater is its power,
that is, the amount by which it can change the curvature of a wave.
Example: What is the power (diopters) of a diverging lens whose focal length is
- 2 0 cm?
/ = - 2 0 cm = - 0 . 2 0 m
1
Power = _ ^ „„— = —5.0 diopters
Example: What is the power of a +30-diopter and a — 10-diopter Jens in contact?

What is the equivalent focal length of the lens combination?
Power = 30 diopters — 10 diopters = 20 diopters ,
Equivalent focal length F = . ,.—-— = 0.050 m = 5.0 cm
Lens-maker's Equation. The focal length of a lens depends upon

the index of refraction of the lens material relative to its surroundings
and upon the radii of curvature of the lens surfaces. It may be shown
that these quantities are related by the equation
in which ri and r-i, represent the radii of curvature of the lens surfaces,
each considered positive in the double convex lens but negative if the
curvatures are reversed. I n Eq. (12) it is assumed that the lens is thin
and that rays to the rim of the lens subtend small angles at both image
and object.
Example: A plano-convex lens (Fig. 106) of focal length 12 cm is to be made from
glass of refractive index 1.50. What should be the radius of curvature of the surface?
From Eq. (12)
l12= ( I . 5 0 - l ) (\rii + 00/
l)
r = 6.0 cm
Example: A converging lens made of glass (n — 1.66) has a focal length of 5.0
in. in air. What is its focal length when placed in water?
The index of refraction n„g of the glass relative to water is
_ ^ ^ '"J^t ^ 1-66 ^ 1 25
""" Vg vjv„ 1.33
The focal length/„ of the lens in water is
l-=(1.25.1)(i + I)
l-=(1.66-l)(i + i)
Dividing the second of these equations by the first

/ „ _ 0.66
A 0.25
and
/ » = Q ^ 5.0 in. = 13 in.
Lens Combinations. Lenses are used in combination in most

optical instruments. R a y diagrams provide a convenient means of
determining the position a n d nature of the final image. Starting with
the object and the first lens, a ray diagram is used to find the image
which would be produced by that lens alone. This image is treated
as the object for the second lens and a new ray diagram used to find
the new image. This process may be continued through a number of
lenses to determine the final image.-The position and size of the final
. image can be found from the lens equation. As with the ray diagrams,
we find the image formed by the first lens, use it as the object of the
second lens, and so on.
Example: Two converging lenses O and E having focal lengths 12 cm and ,4 cm,
respectively, are placed 39 cm apart on a common principal axis. A small object is
placed 18 cm in front of lens 0. Find the position, nature, and magnification of the
image formed by the combination of lenses.
A conventional ray diagram (Fig. 18) is drawn to scale to locate the image A' of
object A formed by lens 0. Image A' is found to be real. It serves as a real object for
lens E. Starting from A', a ray diagram is drawn through lens E showing that the
final image is virtual, enlarged, and inverted (compared with the object A).
• / / ^
/
FIG. 18.—Ân enlarged, virtual image formed by successive refractions by two lenses.
The lens equation applied to lens 0 gives

1 1 1
18 cm qo 12 cm
qo = 36 cm
qo 36 cm
Magnification Mo = po
T ~ To10
= 2
Since the image formed by lens 0 lies 36 cm from 0, the object distance for lens
E is 39 cm — 36 cm = 3 cm = ps-
Applying the lens equation to lens E we have
3 cm qs4 cm
12 cm
qe 12 cm
Magnification ME = T" = T = 4
° pE 3 cm
The total magnification M = Mo X Af^ = 2 X 4 = 8
The final image is formed 45 cmfrom the object; it is virtual, inverted, and
magnified eight times.
Example: A converging lens 0 of focal length 12 cm and a diverging lens E of
focal length —4.0 cm are placed 33 cm apart on a common principal axis. 'A small
object is placed 18 cm in front of lens 0. Find the position, nature, and magnification
of the image formed bv the coriibination of lenses (Fis. 19').
For the first lens
1 . 1 1
18 cm + .0 = 12 cm
qo = 36 cm
36 cm
Mo ~ 1Q ^ , „ = 2
The image formed by lens 0 lies behind lens E and is therefore a virtual object for
that lens. -^
For the second lens
1 1 1
3 cm qe 4.0 cm
qE = 12 cm
^^ 12 cm ,
ME = -5 =4
3 cm
Total magnification = MQME = 2 X 4 = 8
/MAGE
FIG. 19.—An enlarged, real image formed by successive refractions by two lenses.
The final image is formed 63 cm from the object; it is real, inverted, and magnified
8 times.
In the ray diagram for this problem (Fig. 19) the real image A', which would be
formed by lens 0 alone, falls behind lens E. It is treated as the virtual object for lens
E and the final image is found by drawing a conventional ray diagram for lens E.
This is merely a convenient device. It does not, of course, imply that rays return
through lens E. Furthermore, the rays that are drawn from the intermediate image
A' do not represent continuations of the rays from A.
Spherical Aberration. If the surfaces of a lens are spherical,

rays entering the lens near its edge are brought to a focus closer to
the lens than are the central rays. This characteristic of a lens is called
spherical aberration. Its effect may be minimized by using a diaphragm
in front of the lens to decrease its effective aperture, a sharper image
being then produced with consequent loss of light.
Astigmatism. Astigmatism is the lens defect whereby horizontal

and vertical lines in an object are brought to a focus in different
planes, as the two lines AB and CD in Fig. 20. Astigmatism arises
from the lack of symmetry of a lens or a lens system about the line
from the center of the lens to an object. In the eye this occurs when
the curvature of the cornea is different in different axial planes. But
astigmatism occurs even for a perfectly spherical lens whenever the
source P is not on the optical axis of the lens. It is corrected along
with other defects, by a combination of lenses made from different
optical glasses. A lens that is corrected for astigmatism, spherical
FIG. 20.—Astigmatism.
aberration, and chromatic aberration (Chap. 47) is called an anastig-

matic lens.
SUMMARY
Refraction is the change of direction of a light ray because of change
of speed.
T h e law of refraction states that sin z'/sin r = n, a constant called
the index of refraction. If the light enters from a vacuum, n is called the
absolute index of refraction of the material. T h e index of refraction is
also equal to the ratio of the speeds of light in the two mediums.
n ~ —
Light incident obliquely on the bounding surface of a transparent

material from within will be able to emerge only if the angle is less
than the critical angle whose value is given by sin c = 1/w.
Mirages result from atmospheric refraction.
When light passes through a glass prism it is bent around the
thicker part of the prism. Klinimum deviation occurs when the ray
passes through the prism „symnietrically making i = i'. At minimum
deviation
REFRACTION OF L I G H T ; T H I N L E N S E S 623
sin MJA + D)
sin }'2A
When the rays of light pass through a lens, they are bent around
the thicker part of the lens. Rays parallel to the principal axis of the
lens pass through a point called the principal focus. T h e distance of
the principal focus from the lens is called the focal length.
U n d e r certain conditions, a converging lens is able to form a real
image of an object. Real images may be cast on a screen.
A diverging lens always forms virtual images, which cannot be thrown
on a screen but may be viewed by the eye.
For any thin lens,
1 1 _ 1
Conventionally, / is to be taken positive for a converging lens and

negative for a diverging lens; q is negative for a virtual image.
T h e focal length / of a lens is given in terms of its relative index
of refraction n a n d radii of curvature ri and r^.
ff Vi r2j
T h e magnification produced by a lens equals the image distance
divided by the object distance
P
Spherical aberration and astigmatism are minimized by decreasing
the effective aperture of a lens or by the use of suitable correcting
lenses.
QUESTIONS
1. If a pencil standing slantwise in a glass of water is viewed obliquely from
above, the part under water appears to be bent upward. Explain.
2. To what is refraction of light due?
3. What effect does refraction have on the duration of daylight?
4. How do you know that light travels faster in air than in water?
5. What causes the twinkling of stars?
6. Does the column of liquid in a thermometer look broader or narrower than
it really is? Explain.
7. Describe, with a diagram, the sort of view a fish might see on looking up from
a small pond.
8. If you desired to shoot a fish whose image could be seen in clear water, would
you aim above or below the fish? Explain.
9. Explain the waviness frequently observed over a hot surface.
10. Under what conditions does the phenomenon of total reflection occur?
11. The critical angle of a diamond is about 24°. State clearly what this indicates.
12. From a consideration of the critical angle, explain why a diamond examined
in beam of light sparkles more brilliantly than a piece of glass of the same shape.
13. Why is a right-angle prism a better reflector than a plane mirror?
14. When you look down into a glass of water you cannot see the table through
the walls of the tumbler although you can see your fingers where they are in contact
with the glass walls. Explain.
15. What effect is produced on the curvature of a plane wave by a plane mirror?
by a convex mirror? by a concave lens?
16. What two factors determine whether a lens is converging or diverging?
17. Under what conditions is a double convex lens a diverging lens?
18. Upon what factors does the focal length of a lens depend?
19. Describe an experimental method for measuring the focal length of a diverg-
ing lens, using real images only.
20. With the aid of a clear diagram, derive a formula to be used in determining
experimentally the focal length of a concave lens.
21. Draw appropriate ray diagrams to locate the approximate position and size
of the image formed by a converging lens of focal length / when the object lies at
a distance (a) greater than 2/, {b) If, (c) between 2 / a n d / , {d) less than/. Identify
the nature of each image: real or virtual.
22. Check the results of the examples on page 617 by drawing ray diagrams
to scale on squared paper. Verify the magnification as well as the position of the
image in each case.
PROBLEMS
1.' The angle of incidence of a ray of light at the surface of water is 40° and the
observed angle of refraction is 29°. Compute the index of refraction.
2. If glass has an index of refraction of 1.50, what is the ratio of the speed of
light in glass to the speed of light in air? " Ans. 0.67
3. What is the frequency of green light, which has a wavelength of 0.000055 cm
in air? What is the wavelength of this light in glass for which the index of refraction
is 1.52?
4. A ray of light goes from air into glass {n = % ) , making an angle of 60° with
the normal before entering the glass. What is the angle of refraction in the glass?
Ans. 35°,
5. The index of refraction in a cej'tain sample of glass is 1.71. What is the speed
of light in this glass?
6. A ray of light makes an angle of 30° with the normal j n glass (index of refrac-
tion n = }i), and passes into a layer'of ice (n = î). What is the sine of the angle
the ray makes with the normal in the ice? Ans. % e
REFRACTION OF L I G H T ; T H I N L E N S E S 625
7. At what angle should a ray of light approach the surface of a diamond
(« = 2.42) from within, in order that the emerging ray shall just graze the surface?
8. A ray of light from a sodium vapor lamp falls on the surface of a liquid at an
angle of 45° and passes into the liquid making an angle of refraction of 30°. {a) What
is the index of refraction of the liquid with respect to the air? {b) What is the speed of
yellow light in the liquid? (c) What is the value of the critical angle in the liquid?
Ans. 1.41; 130,000 mi/sec; 45°
9. A coin is placed beneath a rectangular slab of glass 2.0 in. thick. If the index
of refraction of the glass is 1.50, how far beneath the upper surface of the glass will
the coin appear to be when viewed vertically from above?
10. A diverging lens has a focal length of —10 in. Where is the image when the
object is (a) 20 in. from the lens? (A) 5 in. from the lens? How large is the image in
each case if the object is 0.50 in. high? Ans. —6.7 in.; —3.3 in.; 0.17 in.; 0.33 in.
11. A converging lens has a focal length of 10 in. Where is the image when the
object is (a) 20 in. from the lens? {b)' 5 in. from the lens? How large is the image in
each case if the object is 0.50 in. high?
12. A screen is located 4.5 ft from a lamp. What should be the focal length of a
lens that will produce an image that is eight times as large as the lamp itself?
Ans. 0.44 ft
13. A straight-filament lamp is placed 5.0 in. in front of a convex lens of focal
length 2.0 in. How far from the lens will an image of the filament be formed? How
will the brightness of the image compare \yith that of the filament?
14. At what distance from a converging lens of focal length 18 in. must an object
be placed in order that an erect image may be formed twice the size of the object?
Draw a ray diagram. Ans. 9.0 in.
15. A convex lens 25 cm from a straight-filament lamp 5.0 cm high forms an
image of the latter on a screen. When the lens is moved 25 cm farther from the lamp
an image is again formed on the screen. Calculate the focal length of the lens, the
distance of the screen from the lamp, and the sizes of the two images.
16. A beam of sunlight falls on a diverging lens of focal length 10 cm, and 15 cm
beyond this is placed a converging lens of 15-cm focal length. Find where a screen
should be placed to receive the final image of the sun.
Ans. 38 cm beyond converging lens
17. Two convex lenses of focal lengths 20 in. and 30 in. are 10 in. apart, (a)
Calculate the position and length of the image of an object 2 in. long placed 100 in.
in front of the first lens, (i) If the first lens is replaced by a concave lens of focal
length —20 in., determine the position and size of the image.
18. An object 1.0 cm long is placed 30 cm from a converging lens of focal length
10 cm. Draw a clear ray diagram for this case. Find the position, size, and nature of
the image. Ans. 15 cm; 0.50 cm
19. A convenient approximate method for ascertaining the focal length of a
converging lens is to measure the distance of the image formed of a very distant
object. What percentage error would be made if the distant object used were a window
6.25 m away from a lens whose focal length is known to be 20.0 cm?
20. A laboratory spotlight consists of an incandescent lamp mounted on the
common principal axis of a concave mirror of focal length 1.5 in. and a 6onvex con-
densing lens of focal length 8.0 in. (a) What is the distance from lamp filament to the
mirror, and from lamp filament to lens when the spotlight is arranged to give a
parsdlel beam? ib) What is the usefulness of the mirror? (c) Where is the image of the
lamp filament formed by the mirror? Ans. 3.0 in.; 8.0 in.; coincides with filament
21. Two identical convex lenses of focal lengths / are placed a distance 3/ apart.
Indicate whether the combination produces a real or a virtual image when a lamp
is placed, relative to the first lens, (a) between infinity and 2f, (b) between 2 / a n d / ,
(e) at J, (d) between the principal focus and the lens.
22. At what distance from a converging lens of focal length 12.0 in. must an
object be placed in order that an erect image may be formed twice the size of the
object? Locate the image by a ray diagram. Ans. 6.0 in.
23. A lens forms an inverted image that is double the size of the object. The
distance between the object and the image is 15 in. Is the image real or virtual? Is
the lens converging or diverging? Where is the lens? What is its focal length?
24. A double convex lens, both surfaces of which have radii of 20 cm, is made of
gla^s whose index of refraction is 1.50. Find the focal length of the lens. Ans. 20 cm
25. A 12.5-diopter converging lens is to be made "from glass of index of refraction
1.500. If each surface is to have the same curvature, what should be the common
radius of curvature?
26. A certain converging lens made of glass of index of refraction 1.52 has a
focal length of 10.0 cm. What is the focal length of this lens in water, whose index of
refraction is 1.33? Ans: 37 cm
27. A converging lens of focal length 25 in. is placed 50 in. from a lighted "candle.
A diverging lens of —20-in. focal length is placed 20 in. beyond the converging lens,
(a) Where is the resultant image? (6) Is it real or virtual? (c) What is the magnifica-
tion?
28. A converging lens of focal length 10 in. is placed 12 in. from a lighted candle.
A diverging lens of focal length —16 in. is placed 36 in. beyond the converging lens.
(a) Where is the resultant image? (b) Is it real or virtual? (c) What is the magnifica-
tion? Ans. 48 in. from the diverging lens; virtual; 10
29. A diverging lens of —30.0-in. focal length is'placed 10.0 in. from an object.
A converging lens of focal length 40.0 in. is placed 12.5 in. beyond the first lens,
(a) Compute the position of the resultant image, (b) Is it real or virtual? (c) What is
the magnification?
30. An object 10 cm high is placed 15 cm to the left of a converging lens of 12-cm
focal length. To the right of this lens and 15 cm from it is placed another converging
lens pf focal length 10 cm. Determine the position, character, and size of the final
image. " Arts. 8.2 cm from the second lens; real; 7.3 cm
31. Two convex lenses of .focal lengths 20 and 30 cm are 10 cm apart. Calculate
the position and length of the image of an object 2.0 cm long placed 100 cm in front
of the f.rst lens <{a) if the 20-cm lens is first, (6) if the 30-cm lens is first.
•*ipiw^^;
r^:
(f [^^r ^•^:^,
f
ENRICO
FERMI
1901 —
BORN IN ROME. PROFESSOR AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ROME, AND

LATER AT COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. RECIPIENT OF THE 1 9 3 8 NOBEL
PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS IDENTIFICATION OF NEW RADIOACTIVE
ELEMENTS PRODUCED BY NEUTRON BOMBARDMENT AND HIS
DISCOVERY OF THE NUCLEAR REACTIONS EFFECTED BY SLOW
NEUTRONS.
45. The Eye and Optical Instruments

In the lowest animals, the eye may be merely a collection of pigmented
cells capable of distinguishing between light and darkness. In more
highly developed forms the eye includes a lens which forms real
images and a fine-grained mosaic of receptors which records the
pattern of intensities and wavelengths in the image and submits that
627'
pattern to the brain for interpretation. The response of the visual
system to different intensities and wavelengths of illumination, its
ability to distinguish size and position, and the common errors of
vision are of such practical importance as to have received extensive
study. Spectacle lenses compensate for faults of vision, b u t physi-
ological remedial measures are as yet little understood. M a n y optical
instruments are designed to extend the usefulness of the h u m a n eye
by exploiting its advantageous characteristics, or by compensating
cCORNEA
CONJUNCTIVA
CILIARY
MUSCLE
SCLERA
CHORIOID
-•^S?11^JJ
FIG. 1.—The eye.
for its shortcomings. Most of them serve to increase the size of the
image; but the effect of looking through them may be, to change the
apparent distance of objects (as does a telescope) rather than to
change apparent size (as does a magnifier or a microscope).
T h e Human Eye. T h e eye' (Fig. 1) contains a lens, a variable
diaphragm (the iris), and a sensitive screen (the retina) on which the
cornea and lens form a real, inverted image of objects within the
field of vision. T h e eye is a nearly spherical structure held in &. bony
cavity of the skull in which it can be rotated to a certain extent in
any direction by the cornplex action of six muscles. The ey^ has a
T H E EYB; AND O P T I C A L I N S T R U M E N T S 629
tough fibrous coat of which about one-sixth, the cornea, is transparent,

admitting light. Within the eyeball behind the cornea is the opaque,
muscular iris, which has a central opening, the pupil. This contracts
and dilates to control the amount of light admitted. T h e lens is a
transparent biconvex body composed of myriads of microscopic,
glassy fibers, which readily slide on one another so that the lens can
change its shape. T h e lens is held just behind the iris by a system of
spokelike ligaments (zonule fibers) that are relaxed or tensed by the
action of a muscle (the ciliary), producing changes in the curvature
of the lens. These changes in the focusing ability of the lens accom-
plish accommodation, the adjustment of the distance of the image
for the exact distance of the retina, in accordance with the external
distance to the object of regard.
FIG. 2.—Locating the "blind spot" of tlie eye.
Lining the wall of the eyeball is the retina, a sensitive membrane

whose stimulation results in the visual sensation. T h e spaces between
the cornea and the zonule (anterior and posterior chambers) are
occupied by a salt solution, the aqueous humor, and the interior
region between lens and retina is filled by a jellylike vitreous humor.
T h e humors have about the same index of refraction (little higher
t h a n that of water). T h e principal refraction occurs as light enters
the curved outer surface of the cornea, and lesser refractions take
place as it enters and leaves the lens, whose index is considerably
higher than that of the humors.
M a n y millions of light receptors, the rods and cones, form one
layer of the retina. These are connected to a smaller number of
intermediary nerve cells which in turn are connected to a still smaller
number of optic nerve fibers. From all over the inner surface of the
retina these converge at one spot where they pass out through the
eyeball wall, forming the optic nerve, which connects the retina and
the brain. Here at the«head of the optic nerve ("disk"), is a n insensi-
tive region or blind spot," since there are no rods or cones there.
T h e existence of the bhnd spot can easily be verified by closing the

left eye and looking intently at the x in Fig. 2. As the book is moved
toward the eye the square disappears when the page is about 10 in.
from the eye. O n moving the page closer the black dot may also be
made to disappear. Still closer, the square and dot will reappear in
turn. More centrally located than the blind spot there is a pit in the
(a)-NORMAL REFRACT/ON
UNCORRECTED CORRECTED
^-NEARSIGHTEDNESS (MYOPIA)
UNCORRECTED CORRECTED
(c)-FARSIGHTEDNESS (HYPE^METROPIA) ,
FIG. 3.—Correction of nearsightedness and farsightedness by spectacle lenses.
retina, the fovea, which contains only cones. Here, vision is most
acute. It is this portion of the retina, embracing about 1 degree of the
visual field,-, which is always used when we look directly at an object.
Evidently the eyes will have to turn toward each other so that their
axes converge, in order to bring an image of a near-by object into
position on. tTie fovea in each eye.
Refractive Errors. An optically normal eye, when the ciliary
• muscle is entirely relaxed, forms an image of a distant object on the
THE E Y E AND O P T I C A L INSTRUMENTS 631
retina (Fig. 3a). If the object approaches closer than about 20 ft,
the image recedes behind the retina unless a sufficient degree of
accommodation is exercised.
Figure 36 represents a nearsighted (myopic) eye that is relaxed.
T h e rays from a very distant point focus in front of the retina, usually
because the eyeball is too long. Such an eye cannot focus a distant
object, but will see very close objects distinctly. T o correct this near-
sighted vision a diverging lens is needed to diminish the refraction.
T h e opposite condition, that of a farsighted (hypermetropic) eye
which is too short, is shown in Fig. Sc. A converging lens is needed to
overcome farsightedness.
Example: A certain farsighted person has a minimum distance of distinct vision
(near point) of 150 cm. He wishes to read type at a distance of 25 cm. What focal
length glasses should he use?
Since the person can see nothing closer than 150 cm, the lens must form a virtual
image at that distan*ce.
/> = 25 cm
? = —150 cm
.1 + 1 = 1
1 1 1
25 cm + -150 cm
7
/ = 30 cm
Astigmatism, a common defect in h u m a n eyes, is a failure to focus

all lines of an object-plane in a single image-plane, but it arises from
a cause different from that of the
astigmatism which is one of the
aberrations of spherical lenses or
m i r r o r s . Ocular astigmatism is
generally due to unequal curvature
of the front surface of the cornea,
the surface being distorted by a
certain amount of cylindrical curva- FiG. 4.—Astigmatic dial for locating
the meridians of ocular astigmatism.
ture. A person with this defect will
see radial lines (Fig. 4) parallel to the axis of the cylindrical curvature
of his eye less sharply {than other lines. T o correct the astigmatism a
cylindrical lens is so arranged that the convergence produced by the
eye and spectacle lens together is the same in all meridians. Astigma-
tism often occurs in combination with nearsightedness or farsighted-
ness, both being neutralized by a single lens incorporating both

spherical and cylindrical corrections.
There is a normal dwindling of the power of accommodation so
that by the age of about forty-five positive lenses are needed for read-
ing. Eyes originally myopic, and formerly corrected by diverging
lenses, may in fortunate cases be perfectly adjusted for reading by
removing the spectacles. More often a special reading correction,
less divergent than the old spectacle (and perhaps even positive), is
needed. Bifocal glasses, for myopics, have the upper area negative for
distant viewing, the lower area less strongly negative, or even some-
what positive, for reading. For hypermetropic eyes bifocal glasses
always have both areas positive, the lower one of greater power (by
about two diopters).
Sensitivity of the Eye. T h e eye can detect extremely small
amounts of luminous energy. A dark-adapted eye can detect light
equivalent to that received from a single candle distant 15 to 20 mi,
in which case the retina is receiving only a few quanta of light (Chap.
42). T h e sensitivity of the eye varies greatly for different wavelengths
(Fig. 5, Chap. 42).
Persistence of Vision. T h e visual system lags a bit in its response
to a stimulus, and the sensation lasts a n even greater fraction of a
second after the stimulus ceases. This retention of the mental image,
referred to as the persistence of vision, prevents the appearance of any
"flicker" when a motion picture film is projected on a screen at the
rate of at least 16 screen-illuminations/sec (24 frames/sec or 72
screen-illuminations/sec are used in commercial motion pictures) even
though the screen is completely dark while the film is in motion in
the projector. T h e illusion of movement i n ' a motion picture is due
to a fortunate'propensity of the visual system^ to "fill in";the positions
of a moving object intermediate between those imaged discretely and
successively upon the retina. 1
Stereoscopic Vision. T h e importance of binocular vision in
judging position and relative distance may be appreciated by closing
one eye and trying to bring two pencil points together when the pencils
are held in the hands at arm's length and moved at right angles to
the line of sight. When a single near-by object is viewed with both
eyes the axes of the eyes are turned toward each other. Distance is
estimated by solution of the triangle whose base is the distance
T H E E Y E AND O P T I C A L INSTRUMENTS 633
between the two pupils, averaging 64 m m . T h e amount of convergence
enables us to make a crude estimate of the distance of the object;
but its size (when known) tells us most about its distance. Far better
is our ability to say which of two
objects is the nearer. This depends
upon the fact that the interpupillary
distance subtends a different angle
(called the binocular parallax) at
each of the objects. T h e difference
in the binocular parallaxes needs
only to be a few seconds of arc for
the difference in distance to be
detectable (Fig. 5).
For distances greater than about
700 ft the inclination of the optic
axes is so slight that both eyes see
practically the same view, and dis-
tances are judged by the apparent
sizes of familiar objects rather 'than
by stereoscopic vision. Prism binocu-
FIG. 5.—Binocular vision: ar-
lars (Fig. 10) and range finders in
rangement for the measurement of
effect increase the interpupillary stereoscopic visual acuity. If a and b
distance, and with an extended base are just discriminable, ^ — 0 is the
line of known length, permit dis- stereo threshold in angular terms and
d' — d IS the corresponding retinal
tances to be calculated by the solu- disparity. The values oi 6 — (f> and
tion of a triangle in which the base d' — d are independent of the abso-
and two angles are known. lute values of a and b.
Limitations of Vision. T h e visibility of an object depends on
size^ contrast, intensity, time, and the adaptation of the eye. A defi-
ciency in one of these factors, within certain limits, may be com-
pensated for by an increase in one or more of the other factors. Thus
close machine work or the inspection of small parts may be facilitated
by increased illumination and contrasting colors. Illuminations
recommended for various visual tasks are listed in Table I, Chap. 42.
In the retinal mosaic of rods and cones the most sensitive part, the
fovea, is about a millimeter in diameter and its central part, 0.2 m m
in diameter, contains only cones. T h e angular field of most distinct
vision is about 1 degree, which is subtended by a circle of 4.4 m m at a
distance 25 cm from the eye. T w o fairly wide lines can just be distin-
guished by the eye when their angular separation is about 1 min of
arc, in which case the centers of the image lines are only a few thou-
sandths of a millimeter apart on the retina. When the smallness or
distance of an object exceeds the limitations for direct visibility, the
eye requires optical aids, some of which will be briefly described.
Magnifier. A simple magnifier is a converging lens placed so
that the object to be examined is a little nearer to the lens than its
principal focus (Fig. 6). A n enlarged, erect, virtual image of the object
is then seen. T h e image should be at the distance of most distinct
vision, which is about 25 cm from the eye, the magnifier being adjusted
so that the image falls at this distance.
Q\
IMAGE
FIG. 6.—A simple magnifier.
T h e magnification is the ratio of the image size to the object size;

that is,
Magnification = M = ^ ^ = | (1)
T h e thin-lens equation
1 1 _ 1
(2)
gives
P J
and ii q = —25 cm
25 cm
M = —? (- 1 (3)
/
w h e r e / I S in cm.
T H E EYE AND O P T I C A L INSTRUMENTS 635
T h e magnifier in effect enables one to bring the object close to the
eye and yet observe it comfortably.
Example: A converging lens of 5.0-cm focal length is used as a simple magnifier,
producing a virtual image 25 cm from the eye. How far from the lens should the
object be placed? What is the magnification?
From Eq. (2)
fq __ 5.0(-25)
/,= ? - / = 4.2 cm
-25 5.0
-=i 5.9
A magnifier is frequently used as an eyepiece or ocular in an optical

instrument in combination with other image-forming lenses.
T h e Microscope. Whenever high magnification is desired, the
microscope is used. It consists of two converging lenses (in practice,
OBMT ÔBJECTIVE
P
R\^
FIG. 7.—Ray diagram for a microscope.
lens systems), a so-called objective lens of very short focal length and
an eyepiece of moderate focal length. T h e objective forms within the
tube of the instrument a somewhat enlarged, real image of the object.
This image is then magnified by the eyepiece. Thus the final image
seen by the eye is virtual and very much enlarged.
Figure 7 shows the ray construction for determining the position
and size of the image. T h e object is placed just beyond the principal
focus of the objective lens, and a real image is formed at (2,Q,'- This
image is, of course, not caught on a screen but is merely formed in
space. It consists, as does any real image, of the points of intersection
of rays coming from the object. This image is examined by means of
the eyepiece, which serves here as a simple magnifier. T h e position

of the eyepiece, then, should be such that the real image QQ^ lies just
within the principal focus FJ. Hence the final image RR' is virtual
and enlarged, and it is inverted with respect to the object.
T h e magnification produced by a microscope is the product of
the magnification Me produced by the eyepiece and the magnifica-
tion Mo produced by the objective lens. Hence
-=-"--=lC-^+0 (4)
where/> and q are the distances of object and first image, respectively,
from the objective, a n d fe is the focal length of the eyepiece, all
distances measured in centimeters. In practice the largest magnifica-
tion employed is usually about 1500.
Example: A microscope has an objective lens of lO.O-mm focal length and an
eyepiece of 25-mm focal length. What is the distance between the lenses, and what is
the magnification if the object is in sharp focus when it is 10.5 mm from the
objective?
Considering the objective alone
1
10.5 mm + q- =10.0 mm
q = 210 mm
Considering the eyepiece alone
1 , 1 1
/ ' —250 mm 25.0 mm '
p' = 22.7 mm
Distance between lenses = ? + / ) ' = 210 mm + 22.7 mm = 233 mm = 23.3 cm
Magnification by objective M„ = T7r<^ = 20.0

° ' •' 10:5 j n m '
. . ,, 250 mm
Magnification by eyepiece Az„ =. ^pr-= = 11.0
Total magnification M = MMo = 11.0 X 20.0 = 220

Checking by Eq. (4) gives r
,^ ?/25cm , A ' 2 1 . 0 c m / 2 5 cm , A „-
p \ fe '/ 1.05 cm \2.5 cm /
Refracting Telescopes. T h e astronomical refracting telescope,

like the compound microscope, consists of a n objective lens system
T H E EYE AND O P T I C A L INSTRUMENTS 637
and an eyepiece. T h e instruments differ, however, in that the objective
of the telescope has a very great focal length. Light from the distant
object enters the objective, and a real image is formed within the
tube (Fig. 8). T h e eyepiece, used again as a simple magnifier, leaves
the final image inverted.
I t should be noted that, whereas in Fig. 7 the same rays were
traced through both lenses, in Fig. 8 two different pairs of rays are
traced. T h e first procedure is perhaps the better representation of
the physical action of the lenses, but the second procedure is the
more practical. I n it, the first pair of rays traced through the objective
EYE
FIG. 8.—Ray diagram for a refracting telescope.
is used to locate the first (real) image. T h e n from a convenient point

on this image two more rays are drawn, one passing through the
center of the eyepiece (undeviated), the other entering the eyepiece
parallel to its principal axis and refracted to pass through the focal
point Fe- By this artifice the final (virtual) image is located.
The magnification can be computed from the geometry of Fig. 8.
Neglecting the length of the telescope, the first image subtends the
same angle a at the center of the objective lens as the object does at
the observer's naked eye, and similarly the first and second images
subtend the same angle jS at the optical center of the eyepiece. Hence
t a n / 3 ^ 7/7/, ^ / „
Magnification
t a n a ' //'//o /e
(5)
This formula shows that apparently unlimited values of M may be

obtained by making / „ very large and /« very small. Other factors,
however, limit the values employed in practice, so that magnifications

greater than about 2000 are rarely used in astronomy.
Which of the features of the telescope make it valuable depends
upon whether it is to be used in conjunction with a n eye or with a
photographic plate. So long as the exit pupil of the instrument,
objective diameter/magnification, agrees in size with the entrance
pupil of the eye, differences in magnification cannot affect the amount
of light per unit area (illuminance) of the retinal image. Any im-
provement in the visibility of a faint star is then directly attributable
to the enlargement of the retinal image. But when photography is
employed, the light-gathering ability of the objective lens (or of the
mirror of a reflecting telescope such as the giant 200-in. M t . Palomar
instrument) becomes of the greatest importance. T h e amount of light
collected by the objective is directly proportional to its area. A lens
800 m m in diameter will gather in (800/8)^ = 10,000 times as much
light as will the pupil of the eye at night (when it is 8 m m in diameter).
Huge telescope lenses and mirrors make possible the photography of
invisible stars within reasonable exposure time. T h e eye, on the
contrary, can take only snapshots, no time exposures. But a "night
glass" can increase the brightness of a faint star, which is invisible
through a field glass of equal power designed for daytime use, only
by reason of the fact that the exit pupil of the day glass is too small to
fill the eye pupil and that of the night glass is as large as the nighttime
pupil or even larger.
Example: A reading telescope comprising an objective of 30.0-cm focal length
and an eyepiece of 3.0-cm focal length is focused on a scale 2.0 m away. What is the
length of the telescope (distance between lenses)? What magnification is produced?
Considering the objective
200' cm +1=
' q 30.0'cm
q = 35.3 cm
Considering the eyepiece
1_ 1 1
•p' —25 cm 3.0 cm
' p' = 2.7 cm
Telescope length = 35.3 cm + 2.7 crtl = 38.0 cm
Magnification by objective
,, 35.3 cm „ ,„,
200 cm
THE EYE AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 639
Magnification by eyepiece
25 cm
M,= 9.4
2.7 cm
Total magnification
M = MMo = (9.4)(0.176) = 1.6
Note that Eq. (5) is not applicable to a telescope focused on a near-by object, and
would lead to an erroneous result if applied here.
A Galilean telescope (Fig. 9) consists of a converging objective

lens, which alone would form a real inverted image Qfy of a distant
object practically at the principal focus, and a diverging eyepiece
lens. In passing through the concave lens, rays that are converging
as they enter are made to diverge as they leave. To an observer the
FIG. 9.—A diagram of a Galilean telescope.
rays appear to come from RR', the enlarged virtual image. With this
design of telescope an erect image is secured. The magnification is
M = (6)
Two' Galilean telescopes are mounted together in opera glasses. Such

glasses are no longer used in military operations, for their field is very
small and they are limited, in practice, to a magnification of not
more than four. Modern military field glasses are always prism binocu-
lars, which have a number of advantages.
The Prism Binocular. The prism binocular (Fig. 10) consists
of two astronomical telescopes in each of which two totally reflecting
right-angle prisms are used to erect the image and shorten the over-all
length. The two prisms are set with half of the hypotenuse face of one
in contact with half of the hypotenuse face of the other, and with the
long dimensions of these faces at right angles to each other. The com-
bination inverts the image and exchanges left and right sides. The
image formed by the objective lenses and prisms is therefore real but
has the same orientation as the object itself, and so too does the final
virtual image formed by the eyepiece. With this construction, ad-
vantage is taken of the fact that the distance between the objectives
can readily be made greater than the distance between the' eyes,
thus enhancing the stereoscopic effect as an aid to the perception of
distances.
F I G . 10.—Prism binocular.
The Photographic Camera. A camera consists of a converging

lens at one end of a lightproof enclosure and a light-sensitive film or
plate at the other end of the enclosure where it receives the real
inverted image formed by the lens. The amount of light that reaches
the film depends on the effective area of the lens (usually regulated
by an iris diaphragm) and the/time of exposure. The diameter of the
lens aperture is usually givên as a fraction of the focal length. Thus
a n / / 1 1 lens means that the diameter of the aperture is one-ejeventh
of the focal length. This notation is convenient for expressing the
•"speed" of the lens (the relative exposure time required), since the
THE EYE AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 64I
amount of light per unit area reaching the film is proportional to

the square of the diameter of the lens aperture and inversely propor-
tional to the square of the focal length of the lens.
Example: Under certain conditions the correct film exposure time is 3^0 sec with
a lens "speed" of//4.5. What is the correct exposure time when the lens is dia-
phragmed to//6.3?
The apertures
h = (^y = (^y
h \AJ \6.3/
h = Ko'sec
*' = (II)' ( i '^^ = ô "'*=•

When a lens is focused for a certain distance, object points at that
distance only are imaged with maximum sharpness. Points at other
distances from the lens are imaged as blurred circles termed circles of
confusion. The farther a point is from the plane focused on, the greater
is the size of the circle of confusion. If the circle of confusion is below
a certain size, it appears to the eye as a point and the image appears
sharp. The range of distances on the near and far sides of the plane
focused upon, within which the details are imaged with acceptable
sharpness, is called the depth of field and is of particular importance in
photography.
Depth of field depends on the relative aperture and the focal
length of the lens, the distance focused upon, and the size of the circle
of confusion which is acceptable. For a given lens, the smaller the
aperture, the greater is the depth of field. For the same object distance,
the depth of field increases for decreasing focal length, one of the
advantages of a miniature camera with short focal-length lens. The
depth of field decreases rapidly as the object focused upon approaches
the camera. It is, therefore, important to determine the distances more
carefully for near objects than for distant objects. The greatest range
of depth is that obtained when the lens is focused for the hyperjocal
distance, or the shortest distance for which the far limit extends to
infinity.
For the most critical definition of sharpness, the circle of confusion
should not subtend more than 2 min of arc at the eye. If a photo-
graphic print is to be viewed at the distance for normal vision, the
circle of confusion in the negative should not exceed approximately
3^^0 0 0 of the focal length of the camera lens. Many cameras are pro-
vided with a depth of focus table based upon this criterion.
'SUMMARY
The eye contains a lens, a variable diaphragm (iris), and a sensi-

tive screen (retina) on which the lens forms a real, inverted image of
objects within the field of vision.
Accommodation, the adjustment of the eye for seeing at different
distances, is accomplished by changes in the curvature of the lens.
The conventional normal distance of distinct vision is* 10 in. or
25 cm.
Nearsightedness is compensated by a diverging (concave) spectacle
lens, farsightedness by a converging (convex) spectacle lens.
Stereoscopic visual acuity, which aids in judging which of two
objects is nearer, depends on the fact that the interpupillary distance
subtends different angles at each object, creating disparities in the
horizontal dimensions of the retinal images. By effectively increasing
the interpupillary distance prism binoculars and range finders
enhance distance perception.
The magnification produced by a lens used as a simple magnifier
is M = 25 cm// + 1 where/is the focal length in centimeters and the
lens is adjusted so the image falls at the distance of most distinct
vision, 25 cm.
The microscope consists of a short-focus objective and a longer
focus eyepiece. The magnification is given by
The astronomical telescope consists of a long-focus objective and

an eyepiece. The magnification is given by
M =^f
Je
T H E E Y E AND O P T I C A L I N S T R U M E N T S 643
T h e Galilean telescope consists of a long-focus objective and a

negative eyepiece.
T h e / - n u m b e r of a camera lens is the quotient of its focal length and
its aperture.
T h e depth of field of a lens is the range of distances on the near
and far sides of the plane focused upon, within which the object
structure is imaged with acceptable sharpness.
QUESTIONS
1. Name three common eye defects, and state the type of spectacle lens that is
used to compensate for each.
2. What common optical instrument is closely analogous to the human eye?
Describe the corresponding features.
3. Why does not the "blind spot" in the eye impair one's vision?
4. Explain the optical illusion frequently observed in motion pictures when the
wheels of a forward-moving vehicle appear to be stationary, or even to be turning
backward.
5. Why does a young person who wears glasses not need bifocals?
6. Is the image of a lantern slide projected on a screen erect or inverted? Explain.
7. What determines the magnification produced by a simple magnifier? by a
microscope?
8. How does increasing the focal length of the objective affect the magnification
observed with a microscope? a telescope? Explain the difference. '
9. If a person were looking through a telescope at the full moon how would the
appearance of the moon be changed by covering half of the objective lens?
10. If telescopes do not magnify the images of the very distant fixed stars, how do
they enable us to see stars invisible to the unaided eye?
11. How does a terrestrial telescope differ, in general, from an astronomical
telescope?
12. How will changing the aperture of a camera lens from//2 t o / / 8 affect {a) the
size of the image, (6) the illuminance of the image, (c) the exposure time, {d) the
sharpness of the image, and {e) the depth of field?
13. Should one use a lens of long or short focal length for a simple magnifier? for
a microscope objective? for a telescope objective?
14. Draw a set of rectangular coordinates (four quadrants). Plotting object
distance p along the horizontal axis and image distance q along the vertical, draw a
graph showing corresponding object and image points (conjugate points) for a con-
verging lens of focal length 12 in.
15. Draw an object-distance vs. image-distance graph for a diverging lens of
focal length 12 in.
16. Describe and illustrate with ray diagrams three different laboratory methods
of finding the focal length of a concave lens.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the power in diopters of a spectacle lens that will permit clear vision ol
objects at a distance of 25 cm by an eye whose "near point" is only 20 cm distant.
2. A certain farsighted person cannot see distinctly objects closer than 50 cm
to the eye. Find the power in diopters of the spectacle lenses that will enable this
person to see objects 25 cm away. Ans. 2D
3. An object 2 in. high is placed 4 in. from a reading lens of focal length 5 in.
Locate the virtual image graphically and determine the magnification.
4. A "lOX magnifier" is one that produces a magnification of 10 times. Accord^
ing to Eq. (3), what is its focal length? How large an image of a flashlight lamfk
0.25 in. in diameter will this lens be able to produce on a card held 5 in. away?
Ans. 1.1 in.; 0.9 in.
5. A reading glass produces an image 5.0 in. from the lens when the object is
45 in. on the other side of the lens. What magnification does this lens give when used
as a simple magnifier under conditions of normal vision?
6'. A compound microscope has as objective and eyepiece, thin lenses of focal
lengths 1.0 cm and 4.0 cm, respectively. An object is placed 1.2 cm from the objective.
If the virtual image is formed by the eyepiece at a distance of 25 cm from the eye,
what is the magnification produced by the microscope? What is the separation
between the lenses? Ans. 36; 9.4 cm
7. The focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece of a compound microscope
are 0.318 and 1.00 in., respectively, and the instrument is focused on a slide placed
0.35 in. in front of the objective. What magnification is attained? '
8. In a certain microscope the equivalent focal length of the objective iS 8.00 mm
and of the eyepiece 20.0 mm. The distance between the objective and the eyepiece is
150 mm. {a) If the final image is formed at infinity, what is the magnifying power of
the microscope? {b) How much will this be changed by adjusting the final image to
the distance of most distinct vision^ 25 cm? ' Ans. 99; 206
9. After a microscope was focused on an object, a glass plate 5.0 mm thick for
which n = 1.60 was/placed over the object. How much must the microscope be
raised to bring the object into focus again?
10. The large refracting telescope of the Yerkes Observatory has an objective of
focal length 62 ft. If atmospheric conditions do not warrant the use of magnification
higher than 1500, what focal length should the eyepiece have? Ans. 0.50 in.
11. Draw to scale a ray diagram for a telescope having an objective of 40 cm and.
an eyepiece of 5.0 cm focal length, and another ray diagram for a Galilean telescope'
having an objective of 40 cm and an eyepiece of —5.0 cm focal length, when both
telescopes are adjusted for viewing a distant object. Mention advantages and dis-
advantages of each type^ of telescope.
12. A certain telescope uses two convex, lenses. The objective lens has a focal
length of 12 in., and the eye lens has a'.focal length of 0.50 in. (a) When the telescope
is focused on a distant object, what is the approximate magnification of the telescope?
THE EYE AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 645
(A) When the telescope is focused on a scale 3.0 ft away and the virtual image formed
by the eyepiece is 10 in. from the eye, what is the magnification of the telescope?
Ans. 24; 10
13. A telescope with an objective of 4.0-ft focal length and an eyepiece of 2.0-in.
focal length is used for viewing the moon, which is 240,000 mi distant. To what closer
distance does the telescope seem to bring the moon?
14. What magnification in produced by a telescope having an objective of 30 cm
and an eyepiece of 5.0-cm focal length (a) when sighted on a distant object, and {b)
when used to read a scale 5.0 m distant. . Ans. 6.0; 0.38
15. In a copying camera, the image should be of the same size as the object.
Prove that this is the case when both object and image are at a distance 2/from the
lens.
16. A miniature camera whose lens has a focal length of 2.0 in. can take a picture
1.0 in. high. How far from a building 120 ft high should the camera be placed to
receive the entire image? - Ans. 240 ft.
17. A photographer wishes to take his own portrait, using a plane mirror and a
camera of focal length 10 in. If he stands beside his camera at a distance of 3.0 ft
from the mirror, how far should the lens be set from the plate?
18. A certain camera lens has a focal length of 5.0 in. A second converging lens
of focal length 10.0 in. can be mounted immediately in front of this lens to serve as a
portrait attachment. Calculate the position of the image formed of an object 20 in.
in front of the camera. . Ans. 4.0 in.
19. A^camera lens has a 6.0-in. focal length. Howfar from the lens must the film
be in order to obtain a clear image of a person standing 12 ft from the camera?
20. A reconnaissance plane is equipped with a camera having a lens of 24-in.
focal length. An observer photographs the ground with the camera properly focused
when the plane is 18,000 ft above a river, (a) What is the distance between the film
and the optical center of the lens? (b) If the image of the river on the developed
negative is 1.5 in. wide, what is the actual width of the river? Ans. 24 in.; 1100 ft
21. In a photographic enlarger, a lens of focal length 4.0 in. projects an image of
the negative on the printing paper. When using a 2.0 X 2.5-in. negative placed
5.0 in. from the lens, what should be the distance from lens to printing paper? What
size will the image be?
22. In a photographic enlarger light passes through the negative and the lens and
then falls onto the sensitive paper. Using an enlarging lens of focal length 5.0 in.,
the lens and the paper support are adjusted until a negative 2.0 in. long is enlarged
to a length of 16 in. (a) What is the distance p from negative to lens? (b) What is the
distance q from lens to paper? (c) If the illuminance on a clear part of the negative is
25 ft-candles and if all the light passes through the lens, what is the illuminance
on the corresponding part of the enlarging paper?
Ans. 5.6 in.; 45 in.; 0.39 ft-candles
23. A 6.0-in. photographic lens is used to enlarge a negative that is 4.0 in. long.
How far from the lens should the negative be placed in order to have the enlargement
8.0 in. long?
24. An enlarging camera is so placed that the lens is 30 in. from the screen on
which an image five times the size of the object is to be projected, (a) How far is the
object from the lens? (b) What is the focal length of the lens? Ans. 6.0. in; 5.0 in,
25. A lantern slide 3.0 in. wide is to be projected onto a screen 30 ft away by
means of a lens whose focal length is 8.0 in. How wide should the screen be to receive
the whole picture?
26. A projection lantern is to produce a magnification of 50 diameters at a dis-
tance of 40 ft from the objective. Find the distance of the lens from the lantern slide,
and the equivalent focal length of the objective lens. Ans. 9.6 in.; 9.4 in.
27. A lantern slide 3.0 in. wide is to be projected on a screen at a distance of
20 ft by means of a lens of 6.0-in. focal length. How wide a screen will be needed to
receive the whole picture?
28. If we wish to project a motion picture on a screen 10.0 ft distant from the
film and the projected picture is to be 60 times the size of the picture on the film,
what must be the focal length of the lens? Ans. 2.0 in.
29. A simple telescope is used in the laboratory to view a scale 4.5 m from the
objective of the telescope. The focal length of the objective lens is 45 cm. (a) What
must be the focal length of the eyepiece so that, when placed 5.0 cm from the image
formed by the objective, it will form the final image in the place of the original scale?
(b) What is the magnification produced by the telescope?
30. A simple telescope consists of two converging lenses of focal lengths 2.0 in.
and 10.0 in., respectively. What is (a) their distance apart, and (b) the magnification,
if the telescope is used to view a scale 10.0 ft from the objective, the final image being
in the plane of the object? Ans. 12.9 in.; 6.0
31. A stereopticon must be placed 40 ft from the screen on which it projeats a
picture. The lantern slide is 3J^ X 4}4 in., and the focal length of the,lens is 12 in.
How large should the"'screen be to receive the full image?
32. Two camera lenses have focal lengths of 7.0 in. and 5.0 in., respectively.
The first has a free diameter of 0.50 in. What diameter must the other have in order
that they may both have the same exposure time? , Ans. 0.36 in.
33. A camera is provided with a celluloid scale on which are marked the positions
of the lens in order to photograph objects at infinity, 15, 10, 5, and 2 ft, respectively.
Assume the photographic film to be fixed in the camera body and the lens to be
movable. If the focal length of the lens is 6.0 in., coinpute the distances between the
marks on the scale. r
34. A person has a minimum distance of direct vision of 8.0 ft. What kind of
lenses and of what focal length are required for spectacles to enable him to read a
book at a distance of 18 in.? Ans. converging; 22 iSi
35. The lens of a projection lantern throwSjan image of the slide (3.0 X 4.0 in.)
on a screen 30,ft from the lens so tliat the size of the image is 10 X 13.3 ft. (a) Eind
the focal length of the lens. (6) Draw a ray diagram to illustrate the problem.
I
ERNEST
ORLANDO
LAWRENCE
1901 —
BORN IN CANTON, SOUTH DAKOTA. DIRECTOR OF RADIATION

LABORATORY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. AWARDED THE 1 0 3 9
NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS INVENTION AND DEVELOP-
MENT OF THE CYCLOTRON AND FOR THE PRODUCTION OF ARTI-
FICIAL RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS.
46. Color
The separation of light into its various wavelengths and its selective-
absorption, reflection, and scattering are essentially simple physical
phenomena. They serve in turn as the basis of other, more complex
phenomena. Some of these create difficulties as, for instance, in making
necessary the correction of lenses for chromatic aberration. Others
create scientific and commercial opportunities by making possible
such things as spectrographic analysis and color photography. For-
647
any appreciation of such matters one must have an understanding

of the significance of "color"—its psychological meaning and its
immediate physical causation.
Color is a sensory experience. Color is in consciousness, not in the light
or in the object. It is justifiable to speak of "colored objects" only on
the ground of linguistic economy.
T h e experience of color has certain attributes and for each there
is a very definite basis in the physical light or in the reflecting object,
the color stimulus that arouses the experience. T h e science of colorim-
etry, or color-stimulus specification, is not pure physics but has an
irreducible psychological content. In the role of a "colorimetrist,"
the physicist can go halfway to meet the psychologist by setting
up concepts, methods, units, and conditions of observation by which
to determine, control, and quantify the physical correlates of color.
H e can then express a probable average sensory effect of a given
stimulus, or suggest the stimulus characteristics that will produce a
wanted sensory efl'ect in a standard observer.
T h e work of the colorimetrist is essential for the ensurance of
uniformity of coloring materials and colored products, for the mainte-
nance of standards for visual comparison, and for the establishment
of tolerances representing visually acceptable or undetectable depar-
tures from perfect physical identity.
Attributes of Color Experience. T h e most salient aspect of
color is its hue. H u e cannot be defined, described, or measured. It is
qualitative rather than quantitative and can only be named, as red,
green, purple, and so on.
A second aspect of color is saturation. Saturation may be defined
in quantitative terms, as the proportion of Jull pure hue in the color. De-
saturation can be thought of as-.adulteration of hue, with admixed
whiteness. A relatively unsaturated color is m o r e like white than a
saturated color of the same hue. A pink, for example, is an unsaturated
red; and we can make pink ,paint,_by mixing white: paint with red.
White itself,has no hue, hence iTis zero saturation. T h e saturation of
3. light is its dissimilarity to a "white" light of the- same brightness.
T h e saturation of a surface 'color is its dissimilarity to a gray of the
.same lightness. " •
A third sensory attribute is brightness, which is the intensive aspect of
•visual sensation, a subjective but a strictly quantitative attribute. A
color aWfayfi exists at some degree of brightness, hence the colorim-
COLOR 649
etrist treats brightness as if it were a part of the color, and its

physical correlate as if it were a n inextricable p a r t of the color stimu-
lus. Brightness exists alone, however, in white or gray, in the absence
of hue and saturation.
T h e remaining attribute of color, lightness, is the intensive aspect of
visual sensation which exists only for colors which are perceived as
LIMIT OF—^-<r
. SENSATION
=^
tl
r* ^
> ><
-^
^
^
S ^^0
lATURATION
•BLACK^
(a) FOR SURFACE COLORS (b) FOR UNATTACHED COLORS'

(WITH ILLUMINATION CON- (WITH BRIGHTNESS CON-
STANT THR0U6H0UT THE SIDERED AN ASPECT OF
SOLID) THE COLOR ITSELF)
FIG. 1.—Psychological color solids.
being attached to surfaces or volumes, as part of the latter. A dis-

tinction is made between surface colors and unattached colors such
as the blue of the sky or the colors of lights that are looked at directly,
for example, traffic signals or the colors seen in a spectroscope.
Any surface color can be matched in lightness or darkness against
some member of the series' of grays, which connects white with black.
Gray itself can exist only as a surface experience. A disk of gray paper
differs in appearance from a patch of white light of the same brightness
seen on a darkroom screen, because, owing to its low reflectance, the
paper is less bright than its surroundings which receive the same
illuminance.
The attributes of color can be shown graphically as linear and
angular dimensions of a color solid (Fig. 1), within which any possible
color experience would plot as a single point.
Physical Correlates of Color. With all steadily presented color
stimuli, the immediate physical determinant of hue is the assortment of
wavelengths, and their relative energies, received by the eye. W h e n this
assortment is anywhere close to what it is in sunlight or arclight, no

hue is perceived and the light is called colorless or "white."
T h e color aroused by any mixture of wavelengths can also be
obtained from some unique mixture of three wavelengths only (with
one or even two sometimes lacking, or with one negative, that is, added
fo the unknown stimulus), selected from the two ends and the middle
of the spectrum. This phenomenon is the basis of the most widely
used methods of color specification.
T h e hue of any mixture can be produced also by some single wave-
length or, in the case of a purple, a mixture of only two. A spectrally
complex stimulus can therefore be described, as to hue, in terms of the
single wavelength that arouses the same hue. This is called the domi-
nant wavelength of the stimulus, though it is not necessarily even present
in the light. Both of these correlates of hue are strictly physical, for
in the use of either a physical equation can be established in respect
to a psychological parameter.
N o very satisfactory physical correlate of saturation has as yet
come into use for purposes of specification, for even the colors aroused
by single wavelengths differ in saturation, and for psychophysiological
reasons which are outside of the realm of physics. T h e colorimetrist
arbitrarily assigns to all single wavelengths ("monochromatic lights")
the same 100 per cent purity. The^tolorimetric purity of a color stimu-
lus is then assayed in terms of the purity of that mixture of mono-
chromatic and white light whicli arouses the same hue, saturation,
a n d brightness. Thus if a spectrally complex stimulus light is matched
in color by a mixture of equal illuminances of white .light and some
single wavelength of light, the stimulus is said to have 50 per cent
colorimetric purity. Purity, .like dominant wavelength, describes a
physiological property of the stimulus being specified;
T h e physical correlate of brightness is the energy of the stimulus.
Brightness, however, is not proportional to the energy level, b u t
rather to its logarithm.
T h e physical correlate of lightness is the ratio of the luminance
(luminous flux per unit area per unit solid angle) of the stimulus to the
luminance of its surroundings. T h e lightness or darkness of a color thus has
its basis not in the "colored" object alone, but in the ratio of reflec-
tances of object and surroundings. Lightness is surprisingly independ-
ent of brightness. Thus, for exarriple, a patch of snow in a dim place
COLOR 651
looks white, and a pile of coal out in the sun looks black, even though
the luminance of the coal m a y be greater than that of the snow.
The Spectrum. S u n ^ h t , or the white light from any incan-
descent solid, is a mixture of wavelengths including most or all of
these between the limits of 390 m/i and 760 m/t. Since the ratio
of these limiting wavelengths (and of the corresponding frequencies of
vibration) is not quite 2 / 1 , the visible spectrum comprises a little
less than one octave in the grand spectrum of electromagnetic radia-
tion whose indeterminate extent is at least 80 octaves.
T h e visible wavelengths emitted by a source are readily sorted out
of the composite radiation by taking advantage of the fact that the
index of refraction of any clear glass varies progressively with the
wavelength. This phenomenon, dispersion, makes it possible to spread
the wavelengths out in a sequence to form a spectrum on a screen
or on a retina, by the use of a glass prism illuminated with white light
through a slit.
The longest visible wavelengths (630 mû to about 760 m^tt) give
a color experience whose hue is red. It is of course improper to speak
of the spectrum as containing colors, or to say that these wavelengths
are red; but we may call them red producing. T h e shortest wavelengths,
from about 390 mfx to 450 mju, arouse the hue of violet. Wavelengths
in the region of 510 m;u to 550 m/i evoke the hue of green. Those
from 570 mju to 590 m/x are seen as yellow. T h e region of 450 mju to
480 mja is perceived as blue.
Except in the end regions of the spectrum, hue varies continuously
with wavelength, but not at a constant rate. T h e most rapid changes
of hue for a given change of wavelength occur in the neighborhood
of 480 mî and 590 m^, where a trained observer can detect a dif-
ference of 1 mfjL or less. When just-noticeable differences of wavelength
are stepped off along a n equal-brightness spectrum, about 150 steps
are found. These are not differences of hue alone, for saturation is a
variable i n ' t h e spectrum. T h e reason why hue and saturation vary
with wavelength as they do, and with no recurrence of the same hue
in different parts of the spectrum, can only be seen from a considera-
tion of the probable mechanism of color vision.
Color Vision. M a n y theories of color vision have been proposed,
most of them on the basis of very little evidence. T h e Young-Helm-
holtz or three-component theory correlates most of the known facts in the
most useful manner and may be adopted as a working hypothesis.

This theory, in its modern form, assumes that the retinal cones are of
three types in equal numbers and with random distribution. All three
types are sensitive to nearly the whole of the visible spectrum, but
their respective maxima of sensitivity lie in different spectral regions.
T h e stimulation of one type of cone by itself with white light (if
this were possible) would give rise to a single fully saturated experience
of either pure red, pure green, or pure blue. I n the normal system
these elementary sensation-producing factors (pro-sensations) do not
reach consciousness unchanged. They are first integrated according
to the proportions in which they are aroused by each wavelength in
the stimulating light.
Curves most commonly assumed for the variation, with wave-
length, of the relative magnitudes of the three sensation-producing
factors are shown in Fig. 2. A color-blind individual either lacks one
of the types of cones, or has two types photochemically undifferentiated
so that the two corresponding sensation curves are everywhere in
coincidence. I n one common kind of color blindness, deuteranopia,
the redness and greenness curves are superimposed, and since equal
excitation of these two sensation-producing factors always yields the
sensation of yellow, the individual obtains only the hue yellow from all
wavelengths longer than that at which the combined curve crosses the
curve of blueness. Consequently he "cannot tell red from green."
By reference to Fig. 2 it will be seen that the hue aroused by a given
wavelength is determined by the curve which is uppermost at that
wavelength, with some influence from the relative height of the next
uppermost curve. Blue-green and yellow are positioned in the spec-
trum by the crossings of the two uppermost curves. No hue can repeat
itself, since there are no two regions where the relative heights of the
curves are the same.
T r u e purples do not occur in the spectrum, since these hues partake
nearly equally of the nature of red and blue. T h e y can only be evoked
by mixtures of short- and long-wave light.
Saturation is greatest at the ends of the spectrum where no more
than two curves lie above the base line. In mid-spectrum the lowest
curve (the red in one stretch, the blue in another) is high enough so
that the interaction of the three sensation-producing factors produces
considerable whiteness. This dilutes or desaturates the hue produced
by the largest or two largest pro-sensations.
COLOR 653
A potentiality commonly realized in practice is the synthesis
of colors by mixtures of two or more wavelengths. T h e result of such
color-stimulus mixture can be predicted from Fig. 2. If two or more
wavelengths reach the retina together, they will arouse total magni-
I tudes of the three sensation-producing factors in some triple propor-

tion, resulting in the perception of some single hue at some particular
500 550 600 650 700

WAVELENGTH (m/u)
F I G . 2.—Sensation curves of the normal color-vision mechanism in terms of the

three-component theory, with the appearance of the solar spectrum (to which the
curves pertain) suggested beneath.
saturation. Only by chance, of cotarse, will the saturation be the same as

in the case of the same hue when aroused by a single wavelength.
T h e synthesis of whiteness requires the equal excitation of the three
pro-sensations. This is accomplished when the whole "white light"
spectrum is supplied to the retina, for if we consider equally spaced
ordinates in Fig. 2 their sum will be the same for each curve since the
areas under the three curves are the same. However, not all the wave-
lengths of the visible spectrum are required for the creation of a white
sensation. For any wavelength toward one end of the spectrum, there
is another—somewhat beyond the middle—which, mixed with the
first in the correct photometric proportions, will constitute a white
Stimulus. Such wavelength pairs are called comptementaries (Fig. 3).

For a mid-spectral ("green") wavelength there is no single comple-
mentary wavelength. T w o are required, from the ends of the spectrum.
Thus it can be said that the complement of green is purple, and vice
versa.
A mid-spectral wavelength and one from either end of the spec-
trum, mixed in various proportions, will afford all the hues in the
corresponding half of the spectrum. Thus with only three wavelengths,
a mid-spectral and two terminal wavelengths, "additive" mixtures
ÎVVV^ BEAM ^V.UE BEAM
FIG. 3.—Additive mixture of complementary patches of light on a screen.
can be made, which will yield (a) any hue in the spectrum, (b) any
of the purples, or (c) white (Fig. 4). When the photometric values of
such physical "primaries" are carefully measured in the mixtures
which afford visual matches for a number of single wavelengths,
the procedure is called gauging the spectrum. T h e d a t a thus obtained
are basic to modern systems of colorimetry.
Color by Absorption, Addition, and Subtraction. It will be
clear from the foregoing that one cannot tell by inspection of a colored
light or object what the exact physical basis of its color is. A source
will arouse a sensation of hue if it is monochromatic. It may
arouse the same hue if it emits a band of wavelengths of considerable
width, or several scattered bands so long as these do not "cancel"
each other's effects by complementation, or even if it emits all the
wavelengths in the spectrum, if their relative energies are substantially
different from what they are in a "white" spectrum. Any appreciable
COLOR 655
disturbance of the energy distribution in a continuous white spectrum
will create hue, hence color. If an object is illuminated with white
light and absorbs selectively, it will reflect or transmit an altered
spectral distribution of energy and will be perceived as colored.
• No object reflects only a single wavelength (absorbing the rest), or

even a single very narrow band of wavelengths. More commonly a
colored object owes its color to a minor subtraction from the white
RED BEAM
GREEN BEAM BLUE BEAM

FIG. 4.—Additive mixture of three primary lights in projected patches allowed to
overlap on a screen.
light falling on it. For example, a yellow pencil can be thought of as

a "minus-blue" object. It reflects not merely the yellow-producing
wavelengths, but the whole of the spectrum except for the short-wave
blue-violet region. T h e red-producing and green-producing wave-
lengths reaching the retina arouse a yellow sensation "additively" in
the visual system. This yellowness is added to that aroused by the
yellow-producing wavelengths. The pencil is consequently much
yellower and much brighter than it could be if it reflected only the
yellow-producing energy (Fig. 5).
Selective absorption thus performs "subtraction" of some parts
of the white Ught spectrum and thus affords opportunity for unab-
sorbed parts to have simple "additive" effects resulting in color, which
they were prevented from producing (because of wholesale comple-
mentation) before the spectrum was altered by the absorbent object
(Fig. 6).
.A^"
^^'
J- WHITE
A^ /UUMWA710N
ABSORBED-'
RESIDUAL, REFLECTION
SPECTRUM OF OBJECT
CONSCIOUSNESS
FIG. 5.—The basis of the perception of a yellow object.
The color of any pigment can be thought of as due to the fact that
the pigment subtracts (absorbs), from the white light bathing it,
light which is supplementary to that which the pigment reflects.
T h e subtractive aspect of color creation is conspicuous also when
pigments are mixed rather than lights. This can easily lead to con-
fusion. For example, although yellow and blue lights are comple-
BLUE GLASS PRISM
WHITE
LIGHT
YELLOW BLUE
GLASS 6LASS
WHITE
LIGHT ^
*-
*-
BLUE YELLOW
GLASS SLASS
FIG. 6.—Subtractive effects of colored glasses upon white light.
658 COLLEGE TECHN'ICAL PHYSICS
mentar\' and make while light w h r n " a d d e d " (Fig. 3), a iiiixiure of
\eilow and blue paints is green. T h e simple reason for this is that t h e |
yellow paint (which reflects red, yellow, and green) absorbs blue and
violet light, and the blue paint (which reflects violet, blue, and green)
absorbs yellow and red. Nothing but green-producing light remains
to be refiected by vbc mixiurc oV pamis (.Fig. 1; compare Fig. 6).|
T h e gi-een, then, is a residual color left over after each )>ainl has sub-
tracted sonwthing from the lit^hi reiiecied by tlie other. Ob\iously if
JNClOeNT WHireUGHT OfifBA/ UOHT
~ WHITE LIOHT
SPECULAPLt PE-
Ft eCTED FPOM SURFACeX
PI6M£Nr
LAVef?
FK;. ".^Siibtractive prt>duction of green by a mixinrr ol blue and vctlou' pigments,
the yellow paint reflected only yellow-jn'oducing light and the blue
paint only blue-producing light, du'ir mixture could be noiiiing but
black, for each would absorlj all tlie light reflecu-d by ih<' (Jiher and
the mixture could reflect nothing.
T h e same red, green, and blue glass filters, which when placed
over llure projectors will produce patches of light on a screen capable
of "adding u p " to white where superimposed, will have "subtractivc"'
effects if they themselves are superimposed in the beam from a single
white projector. T h e red glass alone subtracts green and blue light
from white by absorption. Tlie green subtracts red and vitjlet. and
the blue gla.ss subtracts red, yellow, and some green. No part of the
spectrum can pass through all three fibers (Fig. 8^, compare Fit;. 4).
For .sonic applications, as in color photography and color printing,
fillers are required each of which absorbs the Hghl complementary to
one of the red. .green, and blue priman.' bands \\hose mixture makes
white. Such filters (Fig. 8A) are, respectively, blue-green ("minus-
red''), magenta ("minus-green''), and yellow ("minus-blue").
What is addili\T or subtractive is not the color experience, or the
mtKle of its production, but the method of production of the spectral
distribution of stimulus energy. VVc could arrive at the very same
COLOR
RED FILTER
GREEN FILTER BLUE FILTER

) i")
CYAN (MINUS RED) FILTER
MAGENTA (MINUS GREEN) FILTER YELLOW (MINUS BLUE) FILTER

FIG. 8.—Subtractive production of colors by the overlapping of filters in the white-
light beam from a single projector. In (a) the primaries are the same as those of Fig. 4.
In (6) the primaries are the complementaries of the primaries of (a). (This picture
should be viewed in stroner, white lieht.)
spectral distribution—hence the same color—either by subtracting

from white light with one or more absorbent filters or by combining
additively the beams from a number of monochromatic or polychro-
matic sources with their intensities appropriately adjusted.
Color Specification. T h e color of an object, as perceived under
some adopted standard set of conditions of illumination, surroundings,
and state of adaptation of observer, cannot be designated precisely
by a name, such as "brick red," "^.ea green," or "allure blue." Such
names change their m e a n i n g s with time and place (and many are
made deliberately ephemeral by their coiners, for commercial
reasons).
Color can be specified accurately by designating a standard of
pigmented material that is a visual match for the " u n k n o w n " sample,
provided that: (a) such standards are very numerous so that the steps
are small; (b) the standards are Qrganized systematically iijto an atlas
for quick and convenient use; (c) the standards are permanent, or are
periodically checked a n d replaced; (d) the atlas is used with care to
avoid soiling the standards or fading them by overexposure to light;
and (e) the individual who makes the matches has normal color
vision a n d color discrimination ("color aptitude"). Atlas systems of
color specification have considerable limitations, and they are entirely
useless with the unattached colors of hued sources and for the specifi-
cation of transparent materials such as colored glass. But their virtues
are also considerable, and one such system, the Munsell, has been
accepted by the American Standards Association.
Of equal usefulness for colors created either by reflected or trans-
mitted light are the methods that specify color in terms of a mixture
of lights affording a visual match for. the sample light. Those methods
are of two sorts: those invojving the direct use. of a "colorimeter,"
and those involving a "spectrophotometer," usually with its data
transformed so that it is as if aîColorimeter had been used.
T h e tristimulus system of color specification adopted in 1931 by the
International Commission on Illuniination (ICI) affords the frame-
work within which the specifications yielded by any of these methods
(including the Munsell) can be translated into specifications pertinent'
to any other method. T h e tristimulus coefficients, which this system
yields, are a universal language for the specification of color.
Trichromatic Colorimetry. Trichromatic colorimeters depend
upon the principle that a unique mixture of only three lights, mono-
COLOR 661
chromatic or otherwise so long as they are deep red, green, and blue
or violet, will give a match for the sample. This is the principle of
"gauging the spectrum" (see page 654) except that the mixture of
primaries is m a d e to m a t c h whatever light the sample offers, rather
than a single wavelength of light. T h e amounts of the three primaries
required for a match constitute the specification of the sample.
Dominant wavelength and purity are not directly given, but can be
calculated by referring the instrumental data to the IGI system,
whence dominant wavelength and purity are obtainable from the
chromaticity diagram, which is a part of that system.
Spectrophotometry. If the percentage of the incident energy
which a colored object transmits or reflects at each wavelength is
measured for a number of wavelengths, or for all, a curve can be
plotted which is called the-spectrophotometric curve of the object. When
-^the ordinates of this curve are multiplied by those of the luminosity
curve (Fig. 5, Chap. 42), a product curve of luminous transmittance
{luminous reflectance) is'obtained. T h e area under this curve, as trans-
mitted (or reflected) light relative to that of a source emitting an
equal-energy spectrum (or relative to the light reflected from a com-
parison, surface of magnesium oxide), thus serves to specify the inten-
sive aspect of the colored object as a color stimulus.
T h e shape of the spectrophotometric curve, either before or after
multiplication by the luminosity curve could serve as a complete
specification of the color stimulus; for the dominant wavelength,
purity, and intensity are all wrapped up in that curve. But one can-
not accurately imagine the appearance of the object from an inspec-
tion of the curve; and specification by means of the curve itself would
be impractically clumsy. Moreover, two objects of identical color
may have utterly different spectrophotometric curves, and one could
never recognize them as matchable if they were specified only by their
curves.
T h e spectrophotometric curve is not nowadays used directly as a
color specification, but constitutes the datum to which the I C I method
is applied to obtain a specification which is in convenient form and
which is the same for identical colors even when the underlying
spectrophotometric curves are not at all the same.
Spectrophotometers. Instruments of two types, visual and
photoelectric, are in use for obtaining spectrophotometric curves.
T h e best type of photoelectric spectrophotometer is one that employs
a single phototube. T w o light beams obtained by splitting a single

one are reflected, respectively, from the sample and from a comparison
surface. A device supplies the two reflected beams to the one photo-
tube in rapid alternation. I n conjunction with this a n electronic
servomechanism drives a recorder that responds continuously to the
differential of the two reflected beams so that all fluctuations in the
system cancel out. This type of instrument draws the spectrophoto-
metric curve automatically on special graph paper. But for its high
.cost, it would already have replaced all other colorimetric instruments.
SUMMARY
A color sensation is described by hue, saturation, and brightness
or lightness. These attributes of color are related to the physical
quantities wavelength, purity, and energy.
T h e wavelengths in the visible spectrum extend from 390 mju to
760 m/x. T h e hues are, in order, violet, blue, green, yellow, orange,
a n d red.
Complementary wavelength beams are those pairs which when mixed
in the proper proportions arouse the sensation of white.
Colors are commonly formed by the addition of lights or by the
subtraction of certain wavelengths from white light.
Three beams of wavelengths near the two extremes and the middle
of the spectrum are called primaries and when added in proper pro-
portions arouse the sensation of white, or when added in other pro-
portions can match any color in hue and saturation.
A color is specified quantitatively in terms 'of the relative amounts
of three artificial primaries necessary to produce a visual equivalent
for that color.
QUESTIONS
1. Why is a red light used as a danger signal?
2. Why does a dark blue suit appear black by candlelight?
3. Why does mixing blue and yellow light in proper amounts give white whereas
mixing blue and yellow paints or pigments gives green?
4. What determines the color of an opaque object? a transparent object?
5. What i^ responsible for the color of a nonluminous body? What effect has' the
character of the illuminant?
6. .Compare the rnixing of colored lights with the mixing of pigments.
7. What are coniplementary colors? Explain their production through retinal
fatigue. Look intently at a brightly lighted red object, then immediately look at a
. white paper.
8. Explain why a block of ice is transparent whereas snow is opaque and white.
/ \ - A OTTO
\ STERN
1 8 8 8 —'
BORN IN SOHRAU, GERMANY. PROFESSOR AT THE CARNEGIE

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY. AWARDED THE I 9 4 3 NOBEL PRIZE
FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS CONTRIBUTION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
MOLECULAR RAY METHOD OF DETECTING THE MAGNETIC MOMENT
OF PROTONS.
47. Dispersion; Spectra

The basis for color is a disturbance of or a departure from a "white"
spectral energy distribution. Various optical phenomena are responsi-
ble for color. Color may be created by dispersion; by selective absorp-
tion, reflection, and scattering; by interference (Chap. 48); and by
polarization (Chap. 49). Each of these phenomena is of considerable
interest in adding to our knowledge of the nature of light, and each
has been applied in ways of great practical value.
663
Dispersion by a Prism. Measurements on the refraction of light
as it passes from air into glass show that the amount of refraction
depends upon the wavelength (Fig. 1). Light of all wavelengths is
reduced in speed in glass, but blue-producing light which is refracted
the greatest amount travels slower than red-producing light which is
/?£"£>
ORANGE
YELLOW
GPEEU
BLUE
VIOLET
FIG. la.—Spectrum formed by the passage of light through a glass prism.
refracted least. The variation of the index of refraction n with the

wavelength of light is called the optical dispersion of a substance. By
measuring values for n for a series of known wavelengths one can
determine the dispersion curve char-
acteristic of a given substance. . lis
The dispersion curves of all trans- no \
parent substances are of the same gen-
eral form (Fig. 2), the larger values of n
I.6S
^ ^ ^ ^;^^
'-4^'-'^
being associated with shorter wave- ^L60
lengths, but there are marked differ-
CffCiv/vb LASS
ences in the total variation of n 1 ;
hL50
%L45
Or Oy , WO
1.35
miBLtHAl 1
w,TER
1.30 i 1 —
1 '300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Wy ^ 1
WAVELENGTH (mix)
V
FIG. \h.- —Dispersion of light by a FIG. 2.—Dispersion curves.
prism.
throughout the visible spectrum. Substances showing a rapid change
in n with wavelength in this regibnâre said to have a high dispersion
and ilsjaally have also a high index of refraction.
If a substance absorbs light strongly in a narrow-wavelength
DISPERSION; SPECTRA 665
region, the values of n there change rapidly with wavelength. If the
dispersion curve passes through a maximum, n will of course be found
to decrease with decreasing wavelength on the short-wavelength side
of the curve. A prism made of such material would not disperse white
light in the regular color sequence, and wotild be said to exhibit
anomalous dispersion.
T h e amount of dispersion produced by a prism is expressed
quantitatively by the angular separation of particular colors in the
spectrum. T h e angular dispersion between the violet and red regions
is the difference between the deviations Z)j, and Dr (Fig. \b).
T h e deviations produced by a prism are related to the prism

- angle A and the index of refraction n by the equation
sin yHD + A)
n = sin }iA
(2)
where D is the angle of minimum deviation of the r a y through the

prism. When the prism angle is small, the sines of the angles may be
placed equal to the angles, giving
y2{D + A)
yÂ
(3)
from which the deviation is
D = A{n - - 1) (4)
This approximate relation can be used for prism angles up to 30°
without an error exceeding about 5 per cent in the deviation. Definite
TABLE I. VARIATION OF T H E INDEX OF REFRACTION OF GLASSES

WITH WAVELENGTH
Solar Wave- Ordi- Boro-

Medium Dense
Color spectrum length, nary silicate
flint flint
line A crown crown
Violet H 3969 1.5325 1.5388 1.6625 1.6940

Blue F 4861 1.5233 1.5297 1.6385 1.6691
Yellow D 5893 1.5171 1.5243 1.6272 1 6555
Red C 6563 1.5146 1.5219 1.6224 1 6500
values of deviation or dispersion are specified with reference to particu-
lar lines or wavelengths in the desired regions of the spectrum.
Example: Find the dispersion from the F line (blue) to the C line (red) in the
spectrum produced by a crown-glass prism of refracting angle 15° (0.262 radian).
r^ = Di, - Dr = Aim — 1) — A{n,- - 1) = A{nb — rir)
Using the values of the index of refraction from Table I,
yp = 0.262(1.5233 - 1.5146) = 0.00228 radian = 7.8'
Achromatic Prism. Glasses of different dispersion characteristics

can be used together to obtain devi-
ation of light without dispersion, which
is commonly required in optical instru-
ments. An achromatic prism is con-
structed of two prisms placed so as to
deviate the light in opposite direc-
tions, the prism materials and prism
angles being chosen so that one prism
annuls the dispersion of the other
FIG.
3.—An achromatic prism while only partly canceling its devi-
combination. ation.
Example: It is desired to combine a 15° crown-glass prism with a flint-glass

prism so that the achromatic combination will produce deviation without dispersion
for the F (blue) and C (red) lines, (a) What should be the angle of the flint-glass
prism? (b) What deviation will the compound prism produce for the middle of the
spectrum, the D (yellow) line?
For no dispersion \j/ = \j/', and the refracting angles are placed opposite as in
Fig. 3.
Dispersion = \j/ — ip' = 0 ., .- /
A{nF — no) = A'{n'F — n'o)
15°(1.5233 - 1.5146) = ^'(1-6385 - 1.6224)^
A' = 15'° i n n i r i / ~ 8.1°',fc>r the flint-glass prism
'Deviation = Dc — D'D = A{nD — 1) - A'in'o — 1)

= 15°(0:5i71) -•8.1°(0.6272) = 2.7°
Achi;omatic Lens. When light passes through a lens it is a bent

around the thicker part of the lens. The short wavelengths 'are re-
fracted more than the long wavelengths. Thus violet rays are focused
closer to a converging lens than are red rays (Fig. 4). This property
of a lens to converge to different foci the rays of light of different
wavelengths coming from a single point is called chromatic aberration.
Its preseiice in a simple magnifier can be seen by the fringes of color
REDFOCUS
LINEAR CHROMATIC
ABERRATION
FIG. 4.—Chromatic aberration in a lens.
which surround each image. Chromatic aberration would be ob-

jectionable in most optical instruments. This type of aberration is
eliminated in an achromatic lens by combining a positive lens and a
negative lens of different glass in such a way
that one lens annuls the dispersion of the other
while only partly canceling its focusing power
(Fig. 5): Strictly, an achromatic lens of two
components can be designed to bring to the FIG. 5.—Ân achromatic
lens combination.
same focus only two particular wavelengths.
Prism Spectroscope. A spectroscope (Fig. 6) is a combination
of a prism and achromatic lenses used to segregate the various wave-
lengths in a beam of light and thus to permit examination of its
' Vu»<"""
FIG. 6.—A prism spectroscope.
spectrum. Light from the source to be examined falls on an adjustable

narrow slit S' placed at the principal focus of a convex lens Z,i. The
rays emerging from the lens are thus collimated, that is, made parallel.
This beam falls on a prism in which it is deviated toward the base
and dispersed into rays of different wavelengths. These rays are viewed
through a telescope whose objective lens L2 forms a real image of the
slit S' for each wavelength of light present. These images are side by
side, with some overlapj and form a continuous or discontinuous
band. This spectrum is magnified by an eyepiece, in which cross hairs
or other reference marks may be located. With a narrow slit, a
monochromatic image of the slit is formed by every discrete wave-
length present. E a c h image of the slit is called a spectrum line.
T h e collimator and telescope are usually in horizontal tubes
arranged to rotate about a common axis perpendicular to the prism
table. If an instrument of this sort is provided with a graduated circle
and verniers on the telescope and prism table, so that angles of devia-
tion can be measured, it is called a spectrometer. I n a spectrograph, a
camera is substituted for the telescope so that permanent photographic
records can be made. Since photographic plates can be sensitized
for wavelengths beyond either end of the visible spectrum, the
spectral range of the spectrograph is greater than that of the spectro-
scope. Since glass is not a good transmitter of radiant energy in the
infrared or ultraviolet regions, rock salt or potassium bromide
prisms are used in infrared spectrometers and quartz or fluorite
prisms are used in ultraviolet spectrometers to give a lower practical
limit of about 1000 A. In addition the entire optical path may be
evacuated to reduce the effects of atmospheric absorption of radiation.
A prism spectrometer is not useful in making primary determina-
tions of wavelengths. Once certain wavelengths have been measured
by some other method (grating spectrometer or interferometer),
these standards can be used to calibrate a prism spectrometer. The
line spectrum from a n iron arc is frequently used as a standard,
since it comprises many lines conveniently spaced throughout the
spectrum.
Types of Spectra. T h e spectra of self-luminous bodies are
designated according to their appearance as either continuous or
bright-line spectra. Spectra are further classified according to their
origin as emission or absorption spectra.
In a continuous spectrum there is a wide range of wavelengths
and the colors blend imperceptibly into one another as in Fig. 2,
Chap. 46. Incandescent solids, liquids, and gases under high pressure
are sources of continuous spectra.
When light from a luminous gas or vapor under moderate or low
pressure is examined in a spectroscope, the spectrum is found to be
o c
1, o c- 25
=3 Ji ° In
TO c/1
3 u K
ca
3 „
•1 a; -D ra
l-I B c
t1 33
Ui a w
1s
•3
u
u B
H 3
0
>. a;
s ^ 3 a
'i^ [»
u
a;
•?
-(-» 0 u Ji
u w CL,
1 -0a
^5
a; "o 0
,03, c J+->
S a
u e
^0
a a +J1;
'a V 0
> , 0 1) .2
h -0
.s
1-a>~^-' 0
r-" rt A!
LH
ho
6 -a
V
'-3
0
J3
made up of definitely placed bright lines. Each line is a monochro-

matic image of the slit through which the radiation passes. Every gas
emits certain definite frequencies, which are characteristic of the gas.
Its bright-line spectrum (Fig. 7) provides a convenient and sensitive
means of identifying even minute quantities of the substance.
T h e spectrum produced by an incandescent solid, liquid, or gas
is called an emission spectrum. If the spectrum is continuous, all
wavelengths are present; but the amount of energy radiated at each
wavelength depends primarily upon the temperature of the material
and to some extent upon its nature. In the case of a bright-line spec-
trum, the wavelengths of the lines depend primarily upon the chemical
nature of the material and the number and intensities of the lines
depend upon the method by which energy is supplied to the atoms to
"excite" them.
When radiant energy passes through a comparatively cool gas
or vapor, the atoms absorb the light of the same frequencies that
they emit when they possess sufficient energy. If the residual light
after traversing the gas is passed through a slit a n d a prism, the
resulting spectrum is found to contain dark lines at positions corre-
sponding to lines in the emission spectrum. T h e intense white light
from a carbon arc may be directed through the sodium vapor pro-
duced by heating common salt in a Bunsen flame, whereupon the
continuous spectrum will have dark lines corresponding to the two
closely spaced yellow lines of the sodium emission spectrum.
T h e solar spectrum on casual inspection seems continuous, but
more critical examination shows it t o contain m a n y dark lines. It is
apparently a n absorption spectrum formed when the white light
from the intensely hot sun passes through the cooler gases surrounding
the sun and there gives up energy of those frequencies which can be
absorbed by atoms in the solar atmosphere. M u c h information about
the composition of the ûn has been obtained by comparing its
absorption lines, called Fraunhqfer lines, with the spectra of known
elements in the laboratory. .In making such identifications, allowance
is made for absorption.in the earth's atmosphere. Helium was identi-
fied on the .earth only after that element had been discovered in the
sun. ' ''
Absorption spectra of gases may exhibit a fluted band structure
which on sufficiently high dispersion is found to consist of closely
DISPERSION: SPECTRA 671
spaced dark lines arranged in an orderly manner. Band spectra (and
continuous spectra) are emitted by molecules, while line spectra are
emitted by uncombined atoms. The study of band spectra has yielded
much information about the structure of molecules and the forces
acting within them.
Distribution of Energy in
the Spectrum. T h e distribution A t
of energy in a spectrum can be

measured by allowing each nar-
/I
row wavelength region in turn to
fall on the blackened surface of a
thermopile. T h e resulting de- \
flection of a galvanometer is a
\
-measure of the energy in a partic-
ular region. \
A solid is caused to radiatfe in- 1 ^
creasing amounts of energy as its

temperature is raised. At com- r
paratively low temperatures most
of this energy is in the infrared.
As the temperature of the source
is raised more energy is radiated at
each wavelength, and the maxi- 1
m u m in the distribution is shifted
toward shorter wavelengths (Fig. £>o\
^
8). This change in energy distri- -i^
bution is responsible for the fa- .^^
904~~
miliar change in the color of a
723
body as it is heated to incandes- 1
1 2 3 4 5 6
cence and for tSie indications of WAVELEN6TH /N AN6STR0MSXI0~4
high temperature implied by the FIG. 8.—^Distribution of radiant energy
terms "red hot" and "white hot." from an ideal radiator (black-body).
There is a definite proportionality between absorption and emis-
sion at the same temperature for any wavelength. This is KirchhofF's
law. Thus a good absorber is also a good radiator. A blackbody, which
absorbs all radiant energy incident on it, is also the perfect radiator.
T h e total energy radiated at all wavelengths is proportional to the
area under the distribution curve, and this was shown by Stefan to
vary as the fourth power of the absolute temperature for a perfect

radiator.
Fluorescence and Phosphorescence. Fluorescence is a process
in which a substance absorbs radiant energy and then immediately
reemits an appreciable part of it with its wavelengths longer than
those absorbed. Often the term refers to the changing of ultraviolet
light to visible light. I n the commercial fluorescent lamp a low-pres-
sure mercury-vapor arc emits most of its radiant energy in an ultra-
violet line (2537 A) of the mercury spectrum. T h e inner surface of
the tubular bulb is coated with fluorescent materials, called phosphors,
which absorb the invisible ultraviolet and emit visible light.
I n some m.aterials the naolecules disturbed by the absorption of
light do not immediately return to their original state and their
emission of light continues after the exciting radiation is removed.
This delayed fluorescence is called phosphorescence. Sulphides of barium
and calcium exhibit this effect. Luminbus paints which are excited
by daylight may glow for several hours in the dark.
Color of the Sky. T h e molecules of the atmosphere, and other
particles in it, that are smaller than the longest wavelengths of visible
light are more effective in scattering light of short wavelengths than
light of longer wavelengths. T h e amount of scattering is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength (Rayleigh effect).
T h e light beam from a projection lantern has a bluish color when
viewed from the side by scattered light. Light from the sun near the
horizon passes through a greater distance in the earth's atmosphere
than does the light received when the-sun is overhead. T h e correspond-
ingly greater scattering of short wavelengths accounts for the reddish
appearance of the sun a t rising and at setting. When looking at the
sky in a direction away from the sun, we receive scattered sunlight
in which short wavelengths predominate, giving thb sky its charac-
teristic bluish color.
The Rainbow. T h e dispersion and reflection of sunlight in
minute spherical drops>of water in the atmosphere, during rain or in
mist, produce the rainbow. T h e origin of the brightest or primary bow
can be seen from Fig. 9, iii which a shows a much enlarged section of
the raindrop in the plane which includes the sun, the raindrop, and
the observer. By following the law of refraction and the law of reflec-
tion, the path of, say, a red ray may be traced. If paths for neighboring
parallel rays are traced, only one will be found to pass through the
droplet with minimum deviation. This is shown as the line in Fig. 9a.
Other red rays that enter the drop parallel and close to this one will
be deviated by only slightly different amounts, while other rays will
be deviated quite differently. A maximum amount of red light reaches
FIG. 9.—^The formation of primary and secondary rainbows.
the observer along a line at a n angle found to be 42° 18' with the line
(dotted) from the sun to the observer. T h e foregoing remarks apply
to the other droplets, hence light is received along a cone giving rise
to a luminous arc in the sky. Owing to dispersion, the angle for the
blue rays will be different (40° 15') from that for red rays, and as
shown in Fig. 9c. T h e blue arc of the primary rainbow lies inside the
red. An impure spectrum extends from one to the other of these
extremes.
T h e secondary rainbow occasionally visible is formed by two
refractions and two internal reflections in the water droplets, as shown
in Fig. 9b.
r 674 COLLEGE
Color Photography. T h e art of color photography depends

upon the fact that any color can be produced by blending additive
primaries in appropriate amounts. Some methods in common use are
TECHNICAL PHYSICS
p
completely additive processes. Others are subtractive, the desired
primaries being produced by subtracting their complementaries from
white light as the photograph is viewed by transmitted or reflected light.
ORIGINAL S U B J E C T REPRODUCTION OF ORIGINAL
WHITE RED GREEN BLUE BLACK WHITE RED GREEN BLUE BLACK
'^'.'•!^*^'•^''.'ôVo'^°a'o^'^^'^"^"'^7'''Vfo"o''ô°<'^»^J
fA)
DEVELOPED NEGATIVE AFTER THE SILVER IS REMOVED FROM ALL

CAMERA EXPOSURE THREE LAYERS,LEAVlNe COLOR
IMAGES COMPOSED OF DYED GELATIN
iv.;-.:
I'V**.'- Wi^ >m;^mi^\. ••: •;:3J« J - • ! • : t^'.i
^m
>;•'.:**•' •i-:S$<y^.\ •'.*'• ^^^^^^^^^^1
!^
MM/ iMMÂ t t t t t tt
LAYERS OF EMULSION AFTER PROJECTION LIGHT
TREATMENTS DYE-COUPLER
DEVELOPERS
FIG. 10.—Reproduction of colored subjects by K o d a c h r o m e film.
One additive method employs a mosaic of tiny color filters (about

one million per square inch) between the film base and the emulsion.
Thus light entering the camera passes through the filters before
reaching the sensitive emulsion. Upon exposure there is formed behind
the red, green, a n d blue specks a latent image of the object photo-
graphed. T h e film is developed by a reversal process so as to produce
more or less opaque silver deposits in the emulsion behind those red
specks which received little or no light during exposure. When the
picture is viewed by transmitted light, only that portion will appear
red which received red light from the subject. Similarly green and blue
specks will appear in the proper places and of such transparency as to
reproduce, by mixture, all the colors of the original subject. This was
the method of the early Lumierfi and Agfa color plates and is utilized
by Dufay color film.
Other color films such as those made by Eastman and Ansco use
subtractive processes in which three separate black-and-white images
corresponding to different chromatic values are produced in layers in
a special emulsion (Fig. 10). Primary-sub tractive dyes (see Fig. ?>b,
Chap. 46) are then introduced into these layers replacing the silver.
I n the Technicolor process colors are added to a black-and-white
film by successive printings in contact with three gelatin relief films
FIG. 11.—Photomicrograph of a portion of a color half tone.
dyed with the primary colors. These processes are superior to the
additive ones since the latter are limited in resolution to the size of the
units of their mosaic of filters. Transparencies produced by subtractive
processes will stand much more magnification when projected onto a
screen for viewing.
Color P r i n t i n g . Modern color printing is closely related to color
photography in principle and in practice. The colors afforded by a
color half tone, such as a magazine cover, are created by dots of pig-
ment of three different colors. When these overlap on the white paper
they have subtractive effects. When they do not overlap, their effects
are additive since their retinal images are overlapped by blurring,
the dots being too small to be seen individually (Fig. 11).
SUMMARY
The variation of the index of refraction n with the wavelength of
light is called the optical dispersion of a substance.
The minimum deviation D produced by a prism depends on the
I
prism angle A and the index of refraction n.
sin H(£» + A)
n = sin 1.^/4
T h e dispersion yp of two particular wavelengths produced by a
prism is the angular separation between their deviated rays.
An achromatic prism (or lens) is a double prism (or lens) that has
no dispersion.
A prism spectrometer is a combination of a prism and achromatic
lenses for the purpose of separating the various wavelengths in a beam
of light into its spectrum.
A spectrum line is the monochromatic image of the slit through
which the light is received in a spectroscope.
Spectra are classified as continuous or bright line according to their
appearance. T h e radiation process is reversible giving rise to both
emission and absorption spectra.
Fluorescence is a process in which a substance absorbs radiant
energy and reemits it in wavelengths different from those absorbed.
If the process continues after the exciting radiation is removed, it is
called phosphorescence.
T h e production of color may be associated with any of several
processes: emission, absorption, reflection, fluorescence, scattering,
interference, or polarization.
QUESTIONS
1. What evidence can you suggest to show that all frequencies of light have the
same speed in a vacuum but different speeds in other mediums?
2. What is the physical explanation of the formation of a .spectrum by a glass
prism?
3. What are the essential parts of a prism spectrometer? List in proper order the
adjustments of a spectrometer preparatory to its use in .analyzing a spectrum.
4. What evidence have we for believing that there is calcium in the sun?
5. What sort of spectrum is obtained from a, fluorescent mercury arc lamp?
6. What sort of spectrum is'.given by moonlight? (The moon has no atmos-
phere.)
7. A red flag is dyed to reflect chiefly light of wavelengths near 6300 A. What
wavelength would this light have under water? What color would the flag appear to
a submerged swimmer? Explain.
8. The manufacture, packaging, and processing of panchromatic photographic

film is carried out under the faint illumination of green safeljghts. Why is this, color
•chosen? Why are red safelights used in handling orthochromatic film?
9. Can any two people see the same rainbow? Explain.
10. Why is a rainbow not seen during the middle of the day?
11. Why has no one ever found the pot of gold that lies buried at the end of the
rainbow?
12. Why is it dangerous to view an arc-welding operation without glasses? What
protection do glasses provide?
13. Account for the gorgeous colors of sunrise and sunset.
14. Explain the ghastly appearance of a person in the light of a mercury arc lamp.
PROBLEMS
1. What is the speed of yellow light (5893 A) in water? in dense flint glass?
2. A certain yellow light has a wavelength of 0.000060 cm in air. (a) Express
this wavelength in microns, millimicrons, and Angstrom units, (b) What is the fre-
quency of this radiation in kilocycles per second?
Ans. 0.60/i; 600 m^; 6000 A; 50 X lO^^kc/sec
3. The wavelength of yellow light from a sodium lamp is 0.00005893 cm. (a)
How many waves are there in 1.00 cm? (b) What is the frequency? (c) If the speed of
sodium light in water is three-fourths of its speed in air, what is the wavelength of
sodium light in water?
4. A Converging crown-glass lens has a focal length of 25 cm for the violet H line.
Find its focal length for the red C line. Ans. 26 cm
5. The curved surface of a plano-convex lens has a radius of curvature of 20 cm.
The index of refraction of the glass is 1.58 for red light and 1.62 for violet. Find the
separation of the red and violet focal points.
6. A beam of white light falls on a plate of medium flint glass making an angle
of incidence'of 30° 0'. What is the angle of disperson between the violet and red rays
refracted in the glass? Ans. 26'
7. Find the angular dispersion from the if line (violet) to the D line (yellow) for a
20° dense flint prism.
8. An 18° crown-glass prism is to be combined with a dense flint-glass prism so
that'the combination will be achromatic, producing deviation without dispersion for
the H (violet) and D (yellow) lines. What should be the refracting angle of the flint-
glass prism? Ans. 7.2°
9. A 20° crown-glass prism is combined with a medium flint-glass prism to make
a compound prism achromatic for blue (4861 A) and red (6563 A) rays. What devia-
tion is produced for yellow (5893 A) rays?
10. A crown-glass plano-convex lens has a radius of curvature of 5.00 in.What
radius of curvature has the medium flint-glass plano-concave lens, which with the
first lens makes an achromatic pair? Ans. —9.3 in.
11. A convex crown-glass lens has a focal length of 10 cm for yellow light. What
is the focal length of the dense flint lens that will make an achromatic doublet?
12. A prism is made of medium flint glass and has a refracting angle of 60° 0'.
The prism is adjusted in a spectrometer to give minimum deviation for the D (yellow)
line of sodium. What deviation will it produce for the H (violet) line of calcium?
Ans. 52° 40'
13. A 60° 0' dense flint-glass prism is adjusted in a spectrometer to give minimum
deviation of the D (yellow) line. What is the angular dispersion between C (red) and
F (blue) rays emerging from the prism?
14. A narrow pencil of white light is incident at an angle of 45° on a small glass
prism the angle of which is 60°. If the index of refraction of the Cline is 1.65 and that
of the F line 1.67, find the width of the spectrum between the C and F lines on a
screen 100 cm from the prism. Ans. 5.2 cm
15. A crown-glass prism has a refracting angle of 70.0°. A ray of light from a
sodium flame is sent through the prism, and the angle of minimum deviation is found
to be 50.0°. What is the index of refraction of the prism for this light?
16. A flint-glass prism has a refracting angle of 60.0° and an index of refraction of
1.640 for light of wavelength 4560 A. What is the angle of minimum deviation for
this prism? Ans. 50° 10'
17. A double-convex crown-glass lens has a focal length of 25.0 crn for the F (blue)
light and an index of refraction of 1.524 for this light. Find the focal length for'the C
(red) light for which the index of refraction is 1.514.
18. A converging lens of flint glass has an index of refraction of 1.650 for the D
line and a focal length of 1.250 ft for this light. For a certain red light the focal length
is found to be 1.275 ft. What is the index of refraction of the lens for this red light?
Ans. 1.-637
19. (a) Compute the ratio of the speed of yellow light in a dense flint glass to its
speed in crown glass, (i) What is this ratio for violet light?
20. Red light (X = 6563 A) enters a medium flint glass, (a) What is the fre-
quency of the waves in this glass? {b) the speed? (c) the wavelength?
Ans. 4.57 X lOiysec; 1.8^5 X 10" cm/sec; 405 my.
21. A beam of white light is (incident at an angle of 60.0° upon a piece of dense
flint glass. Calculate the angular separation of the C and H lines in this glass.
22. A pencil of rays of white light parallel to the principal axis falls upon a
double-convex lens of dense flint glass. The lens has radii of curvature each of 40.0
cm. Calculate the separation of the focal points for the C and F lines. Ans. 9 mm
ISADOR
ISAAC
RABI
1898 —
BORN IN RYMANOW, AUSTRIA. PROFESSOR AT COLUMBIA UNI-

VERSITY. AWARDED THE I 9 4 4 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS
RESEARCH IN THE RESONANCE METHOD OF RECORDING THE
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF ATOMIC NUCLEI.
48. Interference of Light; Diffraction

Interference effects are those produced when two wave motions com-
bine to produce a resultant, which, at each point, depends on their
wavelengths, amplitudes, and phases. T h e fact that light exhibits
interference effects is the best evidence that luminous energy travels
in a manner that may be represented by a wave motion. Optical
apparatus designed to utilize interference effects permits the measure-
679 •
ment of wavelengths or distances with a greater precision than that
attainable in almost any other type of physical measurement.
Young's Double-slit Experiment. Interference of light was
originally demonstrated and explained by Thomas Young (1801) one
of whose experiments is represented by Fig. 1. Here JS' is a narrow slit
with a monochromatic source of light behind it, and A a n d B are two
1/6MT
SOURCE
FIG. 1.—Interference of light from two identical slits: (a) wave-front diagram, (i)
ray diagram. » . I't.
narrow slits between S and a screen. Light progr,esses from S to the

slits and after passing through A and B spreads out in cylindrical
waves, according to Huygens's principle, as if ^ and B were each a new
source. The-'waves leaye A and B in phase and proceeding to the
screen reinforce each other a n d produce brightness at certain places,
and at other places annul each other arid leave darkness. I n accord-
ance with the"principles discussed in Chap. 24, reinforcement occurs
where the waves from A and B arrive at the screen in phase agree-
ment, having traveled paths of equal distances or distances diêring
INTERFERENCE OF L I G H T ; D I F F R A C T I O N 68l
by a whole number of wavelengths, n\. Annulment occurs where the

waves from A and B arrive in phase opposition, one having traveled
an odd number of half wavelengths (n + 3-^)X farther than the other.
There appears on the screen a pattern of interference lines, called
fringes, which are alternately bright and dark (Fig. 2).
nTTTTTTn
HIM i: f i
<• J i ^ •. # 1
iiiii
t , £ :J
i f f
• p
A
u B
li
FIG. 2.—Interference fringes produced by light from two identical slits.
T h e spacing between fringes .may be examined with the aid of

Fig. 1 b, \n which vertical dimensions are exaggerated for clarity. T h e
line SO is drawn perpendicular to the plane containing the slits and a
screen is set perpendicular to SO. Lines AP and BP represent rays
from each of the slits reaching the screen at P, distant x from 0. By
drawing AQ^ so AP equals QP the path difference for the two rays may
be expressed as s equals B(l. T h e dotted line from P to C is perpen-
dicular to Ad and hence angles BACl and OCP are equal. Since these
angles are small,
sin BAd = tan OCP (approximately)
giving
The relations which show that the path difference

s = n\ for reinforcement (2)
and
s = n\ for annulment (3)
may be combined "with Eq. (1) to give

nkL .
X = —J— for bright fringes
and
, ' - < i ^ i « ^ (or dark fringes
T h e distance between consecutive bright fringes is
x„ - x„_i = -^ X[n — (« — 1)] = -^ X(K — « + 1) = ~^^ (4)
which shows that the fringes are equally spaced (independent of K),
b u t that the spacing will be closer for short wavelengths (blue) than
for long wavelengths (red). '
When white light is used as a source, each wavelength produces its
own interference fringes. T h e fringe pattern will then be colored, the
color at each point depending on which wavelengths are reinforced
by interference. Such colored designs may be observed by looking
at a distant white light through a piece of silk or a fine-mesh screen.
If the slits A and B are illuminated by two different sources no
interference fringes will be observed, for the waves progressing from
the slits will be continually and rapidly changing in phase.
Example: Yellow light from a sodium vapor lamp (X = 5893A) is directed upon
two narrow slits 0.100 cm apart. Find the positions of the first dark and first bright
fringes on a screen 100 cm away.
^, ^ (1 - >j)(5893 > O a : ^ ( 1 0 0 ) f S = 0.0295 cxxi (dark)
_ (1)(5893 X I g X l O O W . 0.0589 cm (bright)
Thus the first dark fringe is 0.0295 cm from 0 (Fig.' 16) and the first bright fringe
is 0.0589 cm from 0. The second dark fringe would be 0.0885 cm from the center,
etc., the separation of adjacent dark (or bright) fringes being 0.0589 cm.
Thin Films. T h i n transparent films, such as soap bubbles or

oil on water, show colored streaks that may be accounted for by the
principles of interference. I n Fig. 3, £ represents the eye focused on a
thin film of thickness t from which is reflefcted Tight from a mono-
chromatic source. A ray of light AB incident on the film at angle i
"w'll be partly reflected from the front surface along BE and partly
INTERFERENCE OF L I G H T ; DIFFRACTION 683
refracted Into the film along BC. The latter ray will be reflected from
the back surface of the film to emerge along CPE.
By drawing a line PQ^ perpendicular to the reflected rays, it is
evident that the second ray travels farther than the first by a n amount
2a — d, where a represents the distance BC or CP. Since light travels
slower in the film than in air, in a given time light travels farther in
air than in the film. T h e distance 2a within the film is equivalent to a
distance 2pLa in air, where JJL is the
index of refraction of the film. For '%^£
light at normal incidence 2 = 0
a n d a = t.
It might be expected that an
extremely thin film whose thick-
ness was only a small fraction of
the wavelength of any visible light
would appear bright, since the
p a t h diff"erence would be too small
FIG. 3.—Interference in a thin trans-
to produce destructive interfer- parent film
ence. Actually such a film a p -
pears black, that is, there is complete destructive interference. This
may be observed in a soap film. As it thins just before it breaks, it a p -
pears black by reflection. This and other evidence (Chap. 24) indicate
that a phase diff"erence of 3'^X or 180° is introduced by the fact that one
of the two interfering rays is reflected in air the other in a n optically
denser medium at C. Consequently, the total retardation of ray BCPE
with respect to ray BQE is
Retardation = 2/^< -|- ^ (5)
Constructive interference and brightness will occur when the retarda-

tion is a whole number of wavelengths; destructive interference and
darkness will occur when the retardation is an odd number of half
wavelengths.
Example: Two rectangular pieces of plate glass are held in contact along their
upper edges while the lower edges are separated by a thin sheet of paper. When the
plates are viewed by the light reflected from a sodium lamp (X = 5893A) they are
seen to be crossed by 17 dark interference fringes. What is the separation of the plates
«long the lower edges?
\ = 0.00005893 cm (2n - l)X/2 = 2/ + X/2
(n - \)\ 16(0.00005893 cml
t = -^ ^ ^ = — ;T ^ = 0.00047 cm
Newton's Rings. T h e air film between a convex lens of large

radius and an optically flat plate placed in contact with it is the
source of an interference pattern of
light and dark rings when viewed by
monochromatic light. When viewed by
reflected light, there will be destructive
interference at the point of contact 0
(Fig. 4) owing to the 3-^X phase change
in the ray reflected in the air film at the
glass surface. At any distance r from
the center, the retardation introduced
by the film of thickness t is 2t -\- }iX.
It may be shown fi-om the geometry of
Fig. 4 that t = r^/2R where R is the O'
radius of curvature of the lens and r is FIG. 4.—Formation of New-
the radius of the ring through C. For the ton's rings between a convex lens
th and a plane glass plate.
n bright ring, Eqs. (2) and (5) give
1
nX =
nX = 2f + 2 X, or + ^^
hence
2r2
R{2n - 1)
and
^4 R\(2n
2
- 1)
(6)
T h e interference fringes are similar to the contour lines on a

topographic map and they indicate the variations in thickness of the
air film separating the two optical parts. T h e interference patterns
(Fig. 5) are very useful in routine inspection of the polishing of fine
lenses and in the preparation of very flat test plates of glass or metal. By
repeated inspection a n d polishing, these may be m a d e optically flat
within a tenth of a wavelength of mercury light, or to 0.00005 m m .
Example: The diameter of the tenth Newton's ring (Fig. 4) is measured as 0.500
cm when viewed by reflected light of wavelength 4359 A. What is the radius of curva-
ture of the plano-convex lens?
From Eq. (6) " '
2r^ 2(0^250 cm)^
R \(2n - 1) 4359 X 10-8 cm (20 - 1)
R 153 cm
-r»--r' - •~-Vf •p^v*
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT; DIFFRACTION 685
FIG. 5.—Photograph of Newton's rings. Parallel fringes indicate that surfaces are
optically plane. Irregular fringes indicate that surfaces are not plane.
T h e Michelson Interferometer. T h e interferometer is an

instrument that uses interference in the measurement of wavelengths
of light in terms of a standard of length or in the measurement of
'i
FIG. 6.—Michelson interferometer.
distances in terms of known wavelengths of light. T h e essential parts

of the interferometer devised by Michelson are two plane mirrors M
and M' and two glass plates A and B arranged as shown in Fig. 6.
A b e a m of monochromatic light from sotirce S falls on the plate A
where it is divided into two beams. These advance to the mirrors

M' and M, return to the plate A, and then proceed to the eye at E.
If the mirrors are equidistant from A, the two beams will travel
optically similar paths, the plate B serving only to introduce the same
retardation in beam 2 as is introduced in beam 1 by its two passages
through A.
If the optical paths happen to be equal, the beams 1 and 2 will
arrive at E in phase and produce a bright field by constructive inter-
ference. If the distance AM is increased J^^X by moving mirror M, the
optical path for ray 1 will be lengthened J-^X and the destructive
interference of rays 1 and 2 at £• will give a dark field. Usually mirrors
M and M' are made nearly but not quite perpendicular to give a field
crossed by alternate bright a n d dark interference fringes, which may
be counted as they move past a reference mark as M is moved.
If N successive dark fringes are counted as the mirror is moved a
distance D then
N \ = D ov \ = ^^ (7)
Michelson used the interferometer to measure the wavelength

of the red light from cadmium vapor in terms of the standard meter
bar. T h e wavelength determined for the cadmium red line,
X = 6438.4696A = 6438.4696 X 10"^ cm
establishes a fixed standard of length in terms of which all other

wavelengths are measured a n d which could be used if necessary to
reproduce the standard meter.
Example: An interferometer illuminated with red light from cadmium (X = 6438 A)
is used to measure the distance between two points. Calculate this distance if 239
fringes pass the reference mark as the mirror is moved from one of the points to the
other.
From Eq. (7)
D = JV^ = ^ ^ ^ ( ^ - ^ ^ % X ^ " " ^ ^ = 0.00769 cm
DiflFraction. Light travels in straight lines as far as its general

progress is concerned but careful observation shows that it 'bends
slightly around the edges of obstructions. T h e spreading of light
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT; DIFFRACTION 687
into the region behind an obstacle is called diffraction. Diffraction
occurs in accordance with Huygens's principle and is an interference
phenomenon.
A straight edge illuminated by a beam of monochromatic light
casts a shadow that is not geometrically sharp but is bordered by
-Photograph of a diffraction p a t t e r n owing to a straight edge.
narrow fringes whose intensity falls off rapidly inside the shadow
(Fig. 7). Advancing wave fronts of light may be limited in numerous
other ways to produce diffraction effects.
If light passes through a broad slit and falls on a screen, there will
be observed on the screen merely a bright strip, each edge of which
will show the small diffraction
fringes mentioned above. As the
slit is narrowed, the diffraction
fringes become more prominent
as indicated by the intensity
curve in Fig. 8. T h e variation of
intensity at different points on F I G . 8.- -Intensity distribution in a single-
slit diffraction pattern.
the screen can be understood
from Fig. 9. If the slit CD is parallel to the wave front, the Huygens
wavelets will start from all points in the slit in phase but the wavelets
from the upper part of the slit will reach P behind those from D. Con-
sider DFE to be an arc described about P as a center. If P is chosen so
that AF — yiX, then wavelets from A will be J/^X out of phase with
those from D on the screen at P. Similarly wavelets from points on AC
will annul all those originating on DA, and P will be dark. From the
geometry of the figure the condition for this is
b sin 6 = X (dark fringe)

where b is the slit width DC. For small angles bd = \ and
- = tan y = f.
Hence the width 2x of the bright central band is
2XL
Ax = —r- (8)
The central band is flanked by alternate dark and bright bands of

decreasing intensity. The narrower the slit and the longer the wave-
c A
A r'~~~~'~~-~~~~^ B
D ^ "^"~" ""^ ~-- ^^^^^rr"H^ t

' —'—'— —~^'—- ^—-
P i
FIG. 9.—Ray diagram for interference from a single slit.
length, the wider will be the spacing of the bands of the diffraction
pattern.
Example: A plane wave of monochromatic liglit oi wavelength 5893 A passes
through a slit 0.500 mm w'lAc and forms a diffraction pattern on a screen 1.00 m away
from the slit and parallel to it. Compute the separation of the first dark bands on each
side of the central bright band. '
' From Fig. 9,
A
CD
- ^L
XL (0.00005893 cm)(100 cm)
= 0.118 cm
CD 0,0500 cm
Separation of the two first order: dark fringes = 2x = 2.36 mm.
Resolving Power of a Lens. When two points Pi and A close

together are being viewed, it is possible that the image of one Qî may
fie within the diffraction pattern of the other ^^2 and hence be indis-
INTERFERENCE OF L I G H T : DIFFRACTION 689
tinguishable. Resolving power is measured by the smallest arigular
distance at which two points can be recognized as separate, that is,
their central diffraction disk images do not overlap by more than the
radius of one of the disks (Fig. 10). Owing to diffraction, parallel
light passing through a lens will form a small disk of light rather than
) FIG. 10.—Measurement of the resolving power of a lens.
a point of light at the focal plane. T o satisfy the criterion for resolution,
the angle subtended by two object points as measured at the lens
cannot be less than
d 1.22X
'^ = 2/ = (9)
where d is the diameter of the diffraction disk, / the focal length of the
lens, A its aperture, and <^ is the resolving power of the lenS.
Example: A telescope objective has a diameter of 100 cm. What is its limiting
angle of resolution for light of wavelength 5600 A?
From Eq. (9)
1.22(5600 X 10-8) cm
6.84 X 10-' radian = 0.14''
100 cm
T h e Diifraction Grating. T h e principles of diffraction and
interference find important application in the measurement of wave-
length with the optical diffraction grating. A grating for use with
transmitted light is a glass plate upon which is ruled a large number of
equally spaced opaque lines, usually several thousand per centimeter.
A' parallel beam of monochromatic light falling on the grating
(Fig. 11) sends waves in all directions from each slit. Along certain
definite directions waves from adjacent slits are in phase a n d reinforce
each other. Consider the parallel rays making an angle 9 with AB, the
normal to the grating, which are brought to focus on the screen
at P by an achromatic lens. If the ray AP travels a distance X farther
than ray CP, then waves from A and C will interfere constructively at
P. So also will waves from all the slits for they will differ in phase by a
-—0
FIG. 11.—^Diffraction of light by an optical grating.
whole number of wavelengths. T h e wave front' CD makes a n angle 6

with the grating. From the smallest right triangle, the p a t h difference
X is seen to be CA sin 6. Calling the grating space CA = b, the condi-
tion for reinforcement in the direction B may be written
i sin 0 = X (iirst order) (10)
In general there will be other directions on each side of AB for which

waves from adjacent slits differ in phase by 2X, 3X, etc., and for which
the corresponding bright images P2, P3 . . . are called the second-
order, third-order, etc., images. T h e grating equation can be written
in the more gen'eral form.
sin 0 = T X -= Nn\ (11)

b
INTERFERENCE OF L I G H T ; D I F F R A C T I O N 691
v/here b is the grating space (centimeter), n the order of the spectrum,

and N the number of hnes per centimeter on the grating.
With white light each diffracted image is dispersed into its com-
ponent colors and continuous spectra are produced at Pi, P2, etc. The
dispersion is greater in the higher order spectra. In each the colors
appear in the sequence violet to red with increasing deviation.
There is overlapping of the spectra, for example, the red and orange
in the second order spectrum • overlap the violet of the third order,
TELESCOPE
SLIT GRATING
HsS
aiLUMATOR
^^..
'Â
FIG. 12.—^Diffraction grating used in a spectrometer.
since 2X for the long wavelengths is greater than 3X for the short
wavelengths.
The grating is used to measiure wavelengths in a spectrometer
(Fig. 12) similar to that employed with a prism. Usually measure-
ments made on both sides of the central or zero order image are
averaged to obtain d. From the measured value of B and knowledge
of the grating space h, the wavelength X can be determined from
Eq. (11).
Example: The deviation of the second-order diffracted image formed by an
optical grating having 5000 lines/cm is 30°. Calculate the wavelength of the light
used.
h wa.Q = n\
* = Jôoo cm = 0.00020 cm
b sin e 0.00020 cm X 0.50 „ „„„„,„ =•„„„ .
X= •= ;5 = 0.000050 cm = 5000 A
n 2
SUMMARY
In common with other forms of wave motion, light exhibits the
phenomena of interference.
In order to observe interference effects with light, the light from

a single source is made to traverse different optical paths to introduce
a phase difference, a n d then the beams are reunited. Constructive
interference occurs whenever the optical path difference s = nX;
destructive interference occurs whenever s = nX — ^-^X.
When light is reflected at the boundary of an optically denser
medium it undergoes a phase change of J-^X or 180°.
Newton rings are the interference fringes formed in the air films
between optical surfaces. By their spacing they provide a sensitive
means of measuring the curvatures of those surfaces.
T h e Michelson interferometer utilizes the interference of two light
beams traveling different paths as the fundamental method of
measuring wavelength. If JV successive fringes are counted as the
mirror is moved a distance D,
T h e spreading of light into the region behind a n obstacle is due to

diffraction. Diffraction occurs in accordance with Huygens's principle
a n d is an interference phenomenon.
T h e resolving power of a lens is the smallest angular distance at
which the images of two point sources can be recognized as separate.
Owing to diffraction, this minimum angle of resolution depends on
the wavelength of the light and on the aperture of the lens
1.22X
A diff"raction grating utilizes the diffraction of light from many

closely spaced parallel slits to disperse light into its component wave-
lengths. Light of wavelength X deviated through angle d forms a
bright image when ^,
sin 6 = jVwX \ '•'
, QUESTIONS
1. Explain by aid of a sketch the production of the diffraction pattern on a
screen placed back of a narrow slit On which there is incident a plane wave of mono-
chromatic light. How IS the separation of the fringes altered by decreasing the
width of the aperture? How is the appearance of the fringe pattern altered if
white light replaces the monochromatic light?
INTERFERENCE OF L I G H T ; DIFFRACTION 693
2. How does the origin of the colors observed in a soap bubble in sunlight differ
from that of the colors observed when sunlight passes through a glass prism?
3. Account for the iridescent colors exhibited by oil films in sunlight.
4. Why are interference colors not observed in a very thick film—in a piece of
glass, for example?
5. Why are Newton's rings circular?
6. In the construction of a Michelson interferometer what parts must be made
with great accuracy?
7. Why are optical interference tests among the most exact known to science?
8. The characteristic yellow light from sodium comprises two lines of wave-
lengths 5890 and 5896 A, and is thus not a monochromatic source. How could a
Michelson interferometer be used to measure very precisely the wavelength separa-
tion of the two sodium yellow lines?
9. If light is bent around obstacles, why can we not see around a house?
10. When two light waves interfere at some point to produce darkness, what
becomes of their energy?
11. Why is interference of the light waves from two different lamps never
observed?
12. Will the angular separation of orders be greater for a grating with many
rulings per inch or for a grating with fewer rulings?
13. Will the image of the slit be more sharply defined in the first-order spectrum
or in the third-order spectrum?
. 14. Will the angular separation between red and blue rays be greater in the first-
or in the second-order spectrum?
15. Contrast the.formation of a spectrum by a diffraction grating with the produc-
tion of the spectrum of the same light source by a gla5s prism.
16. What factors govern the choice between a prism and a diffraction grating
for use in a spectrograph?
17. Imagine a light made up of wavelengths spaced at 100 A intervals. Make a
rough sketch of the appearance of the spectrum viewed in a prism spectroscope, and
in a grating spectroscope.
PROBLEMS
1. Monochromatic light from a narrow slit illuminates two parallel slits 0.15 mm
apart. On a screen 80 cm away interference bands are observed 3.0 mm apart. Find
the wavelength of the light. '
2. Light from a narrow slit passes through two parallel slits 0.20 mm apart.
The two central dark interference bands on a screen 100 cm away are 2.95 mm apart.
What is the wavelength of the light? Ans. 5900 A
3. If the two parallel slits in Young's interference experiment are 0.30 mm apart,
how far is the first dark band from the central image on a screen 100 cm away when
light of wavelength 7500 A is used?
4. A slit 0.100 mm wide is illuminated with monochromatic light. Diffraction
bands are observed on a screen 50.0 cm beyond the slit. The second dark band is
5.87 mm from the central bright fringe. Compute the wavelength of the light used.
Ans. 5870 A
6g4 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS
5. A slit 0.500 mm wide causes a dark band on a screen 500 cm away when
illuminated with sodium light (wavelength 5890 A). Find the distance from the
central image to the dark band.
6. A quartz fiber is placed between the edges of two flat glass plates, which are
in contact at the other end. The wedge-shaped air film between the plates is viewed
by reflected monochromatic light of wavelength 5890 A and is found to be crossed by
35 dark interference bands. Calculate the diameter of the quartz fiber.
Ans. 0.00102 cm
7. A plano-convex lens is laid with its convex surface on a piece of plane plate
glass. When the lens is illuminated from above with light of wavelength 5461 A, a
dark spot appears at the point of contact of the two glass surfaces and it is surrounded
by bright and dark rings. The diameter of the 20th dark ring is 2.000 cm. Find (a) the
thickness of the air film at that distance, and (b) the radius of curvature of the lens.
8. Compute the minimum separation of two points on the moon (distant
240,000 mi) that could be distinguished as separate points with a telescope lens of
8.0-in. aperture. (Assume X = 5890 A) Ans. 0.85 mi
9. Taking 1.0 min as the limiting angle of resolution of the eye, what is the
maximum altitude at which a flier could distinguish separate railroad ties laid 18 in.
apart? 1 i.
10. Two dimes (diameter 1.8 cm) placed side by side are photographed by violet
light (4359 A), using a lens of 1.0 cm aperture. What is the maximum distance at
which the two dimes could be photographed and be recognized as separate objects
in the photograph? Ans. 340 m
11. Calculate the angle of resolution for yellow light (5800 A) of a telescope
objective of 6.0-in. aperture. '
12. When the movable mirror of a Michelson interferometer is moved 0.10 mm,
how many fringes pass the reference mark if light of wavelength 5800 A is used?
Ans. 350
13. An interferometer illuminated with monochromatic light of wavelength
6438 A is used to measure the distance between two points. Compute this distance if
311 interference fringes pass the reference mark while the iiiterferometer mirror is
moved from one point to the other. .•
14. A student places a small sodium lamp just in fronôf a blackboard. Standing
20.0 ft away he views the light at right angles to the blackboard while holding in front
of his eye a transmission grating ruled with 14,500 lines/in. He has his assistant mark
on the board the positions of the first-order diffracted images on each side of the lamp.
The distance between these marks is found to be 14 ft 2 in. Compute the wavelength
of the light source. Ans. 5860 A
15. A monochromatic beam of light of wavelength 6000 A falling on a grating
at normal incidence gives a first-order image'at an angle of 30° 0'. Find the grating *i
constant.
16. The deviation, of the second-order diffracted image formed by an optical
grating of 6000 lines/cm is 30°. Calculate the wavelength of the light used.
Ans. 4170 A
WOLFGANG
PAULI
1900 —
BORN IN WIEN. VISITING PROFESSOR, INSTITUTE FOR ADVANCED

STUDY, PRINCETON. AWARDED THE 194-5 NOBEL PRIZE FOR
PHYSICS FOR HIS WORK ON THE EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE, WHICH
DEALS WITH REGULATION OF ELECTRONS IN THE OUTER SHELL
OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES.
49. Polari2,ed Light

Interference and difTraction effects have given us perhaps our best
evidence that Hght has wave characteristics. But these phenomena
leave unanswered the questions of what it is that vibrates and how.
Indeed, with a suitable change of scale, our discussion of reflection,
refraction, wavelength, interference, and diffraction is just as true for
sound as for light. The fact that light can be polarized, however, its
695
vibrations being confined to a single plane, shows conclusively that its
wave properties are transverse, in contrast to ithe longitudinal pulses
associated with sound. ' \
Polarization. Experiments with transverse waves in a rope
(Fig. 1) show that a slot P can be used to confine the vibrations to one
plane, after which they can be transmitted or obstructed by a second
slot A, depending on whether it is placed parallel or perpendicular
to the first slot. The slotted board P is called a polarizer. The waves
^
Fio. 1.—Mechanical analogue of polarization.
emerging from the polarizer are confined to one plane and the wave
is said to be plane-polarized. The slotted board A is the analyzer of^he
plane-polarized wave. The plane that contains the wave form is
called the plane of polarization. Polarizability is characteristic of
transverse waves (Chap. 24). If the rope were replaced by a coiled
spring, compressional (longitudinal) waves in it would pass through
slots regardless of their orientation. ^ >
According to the electromagnetic theory of light, a light wave
consists of an electric vibration accompanied by a magnetic vibration
at right angles to it. In the following discussion the light vibrîons
refer to the vibrating electric field. A light wave traveling'through
space can be represented at ariy point at any instant by a line whose
direction and length represent the direction and displacement of the
vibrating electric field. Such a line is purely diagrammatio and is
called a light vector.
The light from ordinary sources is unpolarized. By suitable
POLARIZED LIGHT 697
interaction with matter, light can be made plane-polarized. This
interaction may be one of reflection from a transparent surface,
POLARIZING AXES
PARALLEL
LIGHT
EXTINGUISHED
I 4.
POLARIZING AXES
CROSSED
FIG. 2.—Production and detection of polarized light by a polarizer and an analyzer,

refraction through a crystal, selective absorption in certain crystals, or
scattering by small particles.
Except in the rarest of special con-
ditions, and only monientarily, the
unaided eye cannot detect any differ-
ence between polarized and unpolar-
ized light. Hence an analyzer must be
used to detect the state and plane of
polarization of a light beam, as indi-
cated in Eig. 2.
P o l a r i z a t i o n by Reflection.
When a beam of light strikes a piece of
glass, it is in part reflected and in part FIG. 3.- -Polarization by reflection
of light
transmitted. Using ordinary, unpolar-
ized light for the incident beam, it is found that the reflected and re-
fracted rays are each partly plane-polarized. The principal direction of
vibration in the refracted ray is in the plane of incidence and is indi-
cated by crosslines in Fig. 3, while the vibrations of the reflected ray
-"^'n/st^r '.•^^"•'^^r'rV'r •
are chiefly at right angles to this plane (the page) and are indicated by
dots in the figure.
T h e fact that light is so polarized may be shown by allowing the
light reflected from glass to fall on a second piece of transparent glass.
When the two glass plates have their surfaces parallel, the polarized
ray reflected from the first glass will be reflected also by the second
glass. When, however, the second glass is rotated 90° about the
reflected, polarized ray as an axis, there will be little or no reflection
from the second glass plate. T h e ray is instead transmitted. T h u s a
/••.t.
FIG. 4.—Double refraction in calcite compared with single refraction in glass.
transparent plate can be used as an analyzer to test the polarization

of light.
T h e degree of polarization of light reflected fi"om a glass plate
depends on the angle of incidence. T h e polarization is most nearly
complete when angle COB (Fig. 3) is 90°, for then there are no
vibrations in the direction OC in the reflected ray. T h e angle of
incidence, known as the polarizing angle p, which thus produces best
polarization, is related simply to the index of refraction n of the glass
n = tanp (1)
This expression, known as Brewster's law, follows from the law of
refraction, sin/P/sin r = n. For when, as in Fig. 3, p -\- r = 90°,
sin r = cos p, and n = sin p/cos p = tan p.
At the polarizing angle (about 57° for glass) none of the vibrations
that lie in the plane of incidence are reflected. T h e reflected beam is
.**i
• • ^
A f
POLARIZED LIGHT 699
then plane-polarized, but of relatively low intensity, since only about
8 per cent of the incident beam is reflected at the polarizing angle. A
pile of 6 to 12 plates is often used to attain sufficient intensity by
combining reflected rays from all the surfaces.
Double Refraction. If a crystal of Iceland spar (calcite, CaCOs)
is laid on a printed page one observes through it two refracted images
of the type (Fig. 4). This phenomenon was observed as early as 1669
by Bartholinus who realized that he had come upon a fundamental
question in refraction. It was later observed by
Huygens (1690) that the rays which produced the
two images were plane-polarized, in mutually per-
pendicular planes.
The common form of calcite crystal is shown in
Fig. 5. It has a tendency when struck to cleave ob-
liquely in three definite planes forming rhomboidal
fragments. The external symmetry of the crystal is an
indication of a corresponding symmetry in the lattice
work of atoms comprising the crystal. This suggests
that light energy may be transmitted with different
speeds in such a crystal, depending on the orientation FIG. 5.—The
of its vibrations with respect to the planes of atoms crystal form of
which make up the crystal. Double refraction is un- calcite.
usual only in the sense that our ordinary experience in optics is with
isotropic materials such as air, glass, and water, which do not exhibit
this effect.
The line joining the two blunt corners of the equilateral rhombo-
hedron in Fig. 5 coincides with the principal crystallographic axis
of the calcite. The direction of this line, not the line itself, is called
the optic axis. In this particular direction light travels with the same
speed regardless of the plane of its vibration. Hence in this direction
there is no double refraction. Any plane passing through the principal
axis is called a principal section.
When a parallel beam falls obliquely on a surface of a calcite
rhombohedron, the light is split into two parts. Both are refracted.
Measurement of the angles of incidence and refraction shows that for
every angle of incidence the index of refraction for one ray (the
ordinary ray) is 1.658 (for sodium yellow light of 5893 A). But
for the other ray (the extraordinary ray) the refractive index alters
with the angle of incidence, varying between 1.486 and 1.658. The
one ray is called ordinary because its index of reiraction is constant,
while the other ray is called extraordinary because its index of refraction
varies with angle of incidence. This shows that the velocity of the
ordinary ray is less than that of the extraordinary ray except in the
special direction along the optic axis when both travel with the same
speed.
INCIDENT WAVE FRONT
FIG. 6.—Huygens's wave fronts in a doubly refracting crystal.
If a pencil dot is viewed through a calcite crystal^ the image

formed by the ordinary ray will appear closer than that formed by the
extraordinary ray. If the obtuse corners of the crystal are ground off
and polished to form surfaces perpendicular "to the optic axis, a ray
entering along the optic axis is neither refracted nor polarized.
Huygens applied his wave construction to explain the ordinary and
extraordinary rays. Around points B and C (Fig. 6) aretdrawn spheres
representing the ordinary, wave fronts and spheroids/representing the
extraordinary wave fronts. Each spheroid 'has/ its axis of revolution
parallel to the optic axis, so that the two surfaces touch at the points
that lie in the direction of the crystal axis. The-envelope of the spheres
is the plane EP which determines the or'dinary wave front, while the
plane GH is the envelope of the spheroids which locates the extra-
POLARIZED LIGHT 701
ordinary wave front. It should be noted that the extraordinary ray is
not perpendicular to the wave front.
T h e Nicol Prism. T h e two rays that enter a calcife crystal are
completely plane-polarized in directions at right angles to each other.
Nicol (1832) used an artifice to separate these rays to give a single
b e a m of plane-polarized light. A calcite rhombohedron (Fig. 7) has
the ends polished down so that the acute angle between them and the
sides is 68° (instead of the 71° obtained by cleavage). T h e length is so
chosen that the crystal can be sawed in a diagonal plane perpendicular
to these two new faces and to the optic axis. T h e sawed surfaces are
polished, and are then cemented together with a layer of Canada
O
F I G . 7.—A Nicol prism.
balsam. T h e index of refraction of the balsam (1.530) is intermediate

between the two indices for calcite, Ug = 1.658 and n^ = 1.486.
With the crystal angles properly chosen, the extraordinary ray
travels through the Nicol prism in the direction ABE. T h e ordinary
ray, however, strikes the cement layer at C at an angle exceeding its
critical angle and is internally reflected toward the side of the crystal
where it may be absorbed in black paint.
T h e intensity of the polarized light from a Nicol prism or any
other polarizing device is always less than half the intensity of the in-
cident beam. O n e polarized component is removed, and the light also
loses intensity by reflection at boundary surfaces and by absorption.
Polarization by Selective Absorption. Certain crystals, known
as dichroic, produce two internal beams polarized at right angles to
each other, and in addition strongly absorb the one beam, while
transmitting the other (Fig. 8). Tourmaline has this property. Un-
fortunately the plane-polarized light transmitted is colored. In 1852
Herapath, an English physician, discovered that dichroic crystals of
UNPOLARIZED
INCIDENTU6HT
VERTICAL VIBRATIONS
SLIGHTLY ABSORBED
HORIZONTAL VIBRATIONS
ENTIRELY ABSORBED
PLANE-POLARIZED
TRANSMITTED U6HT
FIG. 8.—Production of poiarized light by a dichroic crystal.
quinine iodosulphate (herapathite) transmit a beam as plane-

polarized light with transmission close to the ideal 50 per cent for all
wavelengths of visible light (Fig. 9). The potential usefulness of this
• » — ^ —
\
^DEGREE OF ' \
POLARIZATION /
1
\
t
I \
1 \
1 \
0.60
1 \
1 \
1 \ I
1 \1
0.40 1
1 ^<TR, 4A«M. 5/OA/
1 \
0.20
\
\
\
/ VI SIBILlTr CURVt
0
_^^-'' -^....^
0.42 0.46 0.50 0.S4 0.58 0.62 0.66 0.70 0.T4
WAVELENGTH
FIG. 9.—The spectral distribution of,the relative intensity (lower curve) and the
degree of polarization (upper curve) of light transmitted by Polaroid polarizing
material. *
material led to extensive experiments culminating in the invention by
Land (1929) of, a practical method for embedding the tiny synthetic
crystals (about lO^/cm^) in a transparent cellulosic film in uniform
alignment. The thin film 0.001 to 0.004 in. thick thus acts like a
POLARIZED LIGHT '7O3
single huge crystal. This Polaroid sheet, sometimes bonded between

glass plates, has the advantage of large size, low cost, and a polarizing
effectiveness approaching that of a Nicol prism except at the ex-
tremities of the spectrum.
Polarization by Scattering. When a strong beam of light is
passed through a region containing no fine particles, it is not visible
from the side. If, however, the beam is intercepted by fine particles,
such as smoke, dust, or colloidal suspensions, the beam is partly
scattered and becomes visible. In this Tyndall effect, the color and the
intensity of the scattered light depend on the size of the particles. Very
small particles scatter chiefly blue light, as in the case of cigar smoke
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOjO
«-*ô -•••
'^mî^m^^ ^m
FIG. 10.—Polarization by scattering.
or the "blue" sky. As the particles are made larger, the longer wave-
lengths also are scattered until the scattered light appears white.
Scattered light is partly plane-polarized. The vibrations are
perpendicular to the plane determined by the direction of the incident
light and the line of sight (Fig. 10).
Optical Rotation. When two Polaroid light-polarizers or two
Nicol prisms are held in the line of vision in the crossed position no
light gets through and the field of view is dark. If now a crystal of
quartz or a tube of sugar solution is placed between the crossed
polarizer and analyzer, the light reappears. It can be extinguished by
rotation of the analyzer. Materials that have the property of rotating
the plane of polarization while transmitting polarized light are called
optically active substances. The rotation is proportional to the amount
of optically active substance in the path, and it provides an accurate
way of determining the concentration of, say, sugar in an inactive
solvent. Polarimeters are instruments for measuring optical rotation.
Interference Effects. When light travels through a birefringent
material such as calcite, the crystal plate produces a difference in
phase between the ordinary a n d extraordinary rays, owing to the
difference in the speeds of the two rays. By choosing a suitable thick-
ness of crystal it is possible to retard one ray a half wavelength relative
to the other. Nevertheless, interference bands or rings are never
observed. O n e concludes that that two rays of light polarized a t right
angles to each other do not interfere. They can cross one another
without disturbance.
T o the conditions for interference mentioned in Chap. 48 we must
now add that the vibrations in the interfering rays must be in the
same plane. An arrangement for producing such interference is shown
a2\D
B-^
\«/
FIG. 11.—Production of color by interference effects in polarized light.
in Fig. 11. A ray of unpolarized white light BC becomes plane-

polarized white light after passage through polarizer P. It is then
allowed to strike a doubly refracting crystal D whose optic axis a^ is
inclined at about 45° to the plane of vibration a\. In the crystal D the
ray is resolved into an ordinary ray OR vibrating perpendicularly to
aâi and an extraordinary ray E'X vibrating parallel to Uiai. There will
be a phase difference between the rays emerging froni ci-ystal D, but
they will not interfere since their vibrations are in mutually perpen-
dicular planes. Finally the analyzer A passes only the' vertical com-
ponents of these vibrations, giving two emergent rays RS and XY
whose vibrations are in the same plane.
These rays are now capable of interference. If the relative retarda-
tion is an odd number of half wavelengths, the corresponding color is
annulled by interference and its- complementary color is transmitted.
The arrangement described is useful in the examination of crystals
a n d thin rock sections for differentiating isotropic and anisotropic
POLARIZED LIGHT 705
materials, for detecting characteristics of structiire not otherwise
noticed, and for mineral identification.
Circular and Elliptical Polarization. T h e plane of vibration
of polarized light is rotated when light traverses such birefringent
substances as quartz, or when the light passes through certain optically-
active liquids and solutions and a few crystals, sodium chlorate, for
example, which are not birefringent. A third type of rotation occurs
in thin crystal sections called half-wave plates.
Figure 12 shows a plane-polarized beam of light A incident upon a
crystal with the vibrations of the inci-
\OPT/C
dent beam making an angle d with the Y\ AXfS
optic axis. The crystal separates the
incident beam into two parts, one
whose vibrations are parallel to the
optic axis, the other perpendicular to
the optic axis. These two components
travel through the crystal a t different
speeds and recombine. T h e result of the
recombination depends upon the thick-
ness of the crystal. If the slower ray is
FIG. 12.—A half-wave plate.
retarded just one half wavelength, it
emerges 180° out of phase with the faster ray, and they combine to
form plane-polarized light with the plane B rotated from that of the
original beam. T h e new position makes the same angle 6 with the optic
axis but on the other side of that axis. Such a crystalline plate is called
a half-wave plate.
.EXTRAORDINARY RAY
EMER6INGRAY
CIRCULARLY POLARIZED
ÂST PRINCIPAL PLANE
FIG. 13.—A quarter-wave plate, showing the production of circularly polarized light.
If the thickness of the plate is such that the slower ray is retarded a
quarter wavelength we have a quarter-wave plate (Fig, 13). T h e two
components emerge out of phase by 90°.
When a particle is acted upon by two simple harmonic motions
at right angles to each other and differing in phase by 90°, the
resultant path of that particle is an ellipse. We therefore say that light
made up of two such vibrations is elliptically polarized. In the special
•V
FIG. 14.—Polaroid variable-density windows in a railroad car.
case that the angle the incident vibration makes with the optic axis
is 45°, the two components are equal and the ellipse becomes a circle.
The beam is circularly polarized.
It is not possible by means
of a simple analyzer to distin-
guish between circularly polar-
ized and unpolarized light, nor
between elliptically polarized'
light and a mixture of plane-
polarized light and unpolarized
light. The 1 distinction becomes
apparent if a quarter-wave plate
is inserted ahead of the analyzer.
S e v e r a l Applications of
Polarized Light. ; For several
centuries polarized light gave
valuable evidence as to the na-
ture of light, but its production
by inconvenient or expensive
FiG. IS.—Control of headlight glare by devices limited its usefiilness to
polarizing screens. the laboratory. The recent pro-
duction of polarizing materials in thin sheets, such as the various Pola-
roid light-polarizers, opens new possibilities for utilizing polarized light.
Perhaps the simplest application of Polaroid light-polarizers is
POLARIZED LIGHT 707
suggested b y Fig. 14, curtainless windows whose "density" can be
controlled at will. An outer polarizing disk is fixed in position and a n
inner one may be rotated to adjust the amount of light admitted.
Control of headlight glare in night driving is illustrated in Fig. 15.
I n the scheme shown here, each car has light-polarizing headlights
and a light-polarizing viewer, the polarizing axes being oriented at an
FIG. 16.—Strain pattern in an eyebar connecting rod.
angle of 45° from the vertical, for example, from the lower left to the
upper right-hand corners of the driver's field of view. T h e driver can
then see ahead in the light of his own headUghts, but the polarizing
viewer blocks the beam from the lights of oncoming cars.
T h e reader is probably familiar with Polaroid glasses for elimi-
nating the glare of light partly polarized by reflection from water and
pavements.
In photography it is often desirable to enhance the effect of sky
and clouds by eliminating some of the actinic rays from the sky. Since
light from the sky is partly polarized by scattering, a suitably oriented
polarizing disk in front of the camera lens will serve as a "sky filter,"
with obvious advantages over the common yellow filter when color
film is used.
Photoelasticity. Certain materials such as glass or transparent
bakelite become doubly refracting under mechanical strain and can
then change plane-polarized light into circularly or elliptically polar-
ized light. W h e n the material is placed between crossed polarizer and
FIG. 17.—Photoelastic view of meshing gears, showing point of contact and the efi'ect
of fillets.
analyzer one can observe patterns of interference fringes. These

patterns are used in detecting strains in glassware, particularly in
the examination of glass-to-metal seals in electron tubes.
Complex engineering structures may be analyzed by photoelastic
studies of transparent models. T h e regions of greatest strain are those i
of the closest spacing of fringes (Fig. 16). Quantitative rneasurements
often can be obtained from the photoelastic constants of the material
a n d the observed spacing of fringes. T h e strains in gears (Fig. 17) or
other moving parts are sometimes studied by chilling the photoelastic
model and thus freezing the strains in the sample, which may. then be
studied at rest.
SUMMARY
Polarization ii the process by which the vibrations of a wave qiotion
are confined to a definite pattern.
Polarizability is a characteristic of transverse waves.
POLARIZED LIGHT 709
Light may be plane-polarized by reflection, by refraction, by
transmission through crystals showing double refraction, or by
scattering from small particles.
T h e angle of polarization p is that angle at which light reflected frpm
a transparent substance is almost completely plane-polarized. By
Brewster's law, n = tan p.
When plane-polarized light passes through an optically active
material, the plane of polarization is rotated through an angle that
depends on the material, the length of the path traversed, and the
wavelength of the light.
Certain materials such as glass or transparent bakelite become
doubly refracting under strain and can then change plane-polarized
light into circularly or elliptically polarized light.
T h e science of photoelasticity relates these changes in optical
properties to the strains producing them and furnishes a method of
measuring strains.
QUESTIONS
1. Review the evidence that light is a wave phenomenon, and that the waves
are transverse.
2. Can radio waves be polarized? x-rays? sound waves? Explain.
3. Cite examples of the production of color by each of the following: reflection,
refraction, diffraction, interference, selective scattering, and interference of polarized
light.
4. List as many practical applications of polarized light as you can.
5. Diagram an experimental arrangement for detecting strains by the use of
polarized light.
6. Suggest a method by which polarizing filters could be used to give the illusion
of depth in stereoscopic photographs or motion pictures. Is the method applicable
to color pictures?
7. Compare reflection and scattering of light as to their effects on color and
polarization.
8. What is the function of the layer of Canada balsam in a Nicol prism?
9. Distinguish between the influence of thin crystals and that of thick crystals
on a beam of polarized light.
10. How could you distinguish experimentally between unpolarized light and
plane-polarized light? Between unpolarized light and circularly polarized light?
Between elliptically polarized light and a mixture of plane-polarized and unpolarized
light?
PROBLEMS
1. The angle of polarization for diamond is 67° 34'. Compute the index of
refraction of diamond.
7IO COLLEGE T E C H N I C A L PHYSICS
2. The angle of polarization for rock salt is 57° 4'. What is the index of refraction?
Ans. 1.544
3. A certain glass has an index of refraction of 1.65. At what angle of incidence
is the light reflected from this glass plane-polarized?
• 4. Water has an index of refraction of 1,33. At what angle must a light beam be
incident on the water surface in order, that the reflected beam be plane-polarized?
Ans. 53° 4'
5. For sodium yellow light determine the polarizing angles for ordinary crown
glass, medium flint glass, and dense flint glass.
6. Photometric measurements show that when light falls on a glass plate at
the angle of polarization 16% of the light that has its vibrations perpendicular to the
plane of incidence is reflected. From the back surface of the same plate 16% of the
remaining light vibrating in that plane is reflected. What is the intensity ratio of
vibrations in and at right angles to the plane of incidence in the beam transmitted
through two plates? Ans. 2/1
7. Two Nicol prisms are set for maximum transmission. One prism is rotated
through 60°. What is the per cent reduction in the light transmitted?
8. Two Nicol prisms have their planes parallel to each other. One of the Nicol
prisms is then turned so that its principal plane makes an angle of 40° with the
principal plane of the other prism. What per cent of the light which is incident on
the second Nicol prism is transmitted by it? Ans. 77% amplitude
9. The sensitivity of a photographic plate is to be determined by exposing
successive portions to light from a standard lamp transmitted through two Nicol
prisms. Designating as 1.00 the illuminance on the plate when the prisms are parallel,
through what angles should the analyzer Nicol prism be rotated to produce illumi-
nances 0.80, 0.60, 0.40, 0.20 and 0?
10. Calculate the speed of the ordinary ray and also the highest speed of the
extraordinary ray in a calcite crystal for the yellow light from a sodium lamp.
Ans. 1.81 X IQi" cm/sec; 2.02 X 1 0 " cm/sec '
11. A beam of light of wavelength 5893 A falls on a slab of calcite in a direction
normal to the optic axis. Calculate the wavelengths of the ordinary light wave and
the extraordinary light wave.
12. What thickness of quartz is required for a half-wave plate for yellow light
if its indices of refraction are 1.544 and 1.553? Ans. 0.0033 cm
13. A thin plate of calcite is cut with the optic axis parallel to the plane of the
plate. Compute the minimum thickness of calcite, which when placed between
.crossed Polaroid disks and illuminated with sodium light will produce circularly
polarized light and hence equal brightness for all orientations of the analyzer.
14. A thin plate of calcite is cut with the optic axis parallel to the plane of the
plate. What is the minimum thickness needed to. produce destructive interference for
sodium light when the plate is placed between crossed Nicol prisms?
; ; Ans. 1.7 X W-* cm
15. Compute the critical angle for total reflection of the ordinary ray at the
layer of Canada balsam in a Nicol prism. ^/
li
. i
•r"'
A -*'»7^ '/""^^^s^
'•fi'li'jpfr..-
PERCY
WILLIAMS
BRIDGMAN
1882 —
BORN IN CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS. HOLLIS PROFESSOR OF

MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL PHILOSOPHY AT HARVARD UNIVER-
SITY. AWARDED THE 1 9 4 6 NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS FOR HIS
INVESTIGATION OF THE PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF HIGH PRESSURES.
50. Twentieth'century Physics

Never in the history of science have more significant additions been
m a d e to our knowledge of the basic constituents a n d the nature of
matter than in the short period since 1895. So vital and epoch-making
are these achievements that they have largely revolutionized our ideas
about the nature of matter and energy, the constitution of atoms, and
the transmutation of one substance into another, sometimes with the
evolution of enormous amounts of energy. Building upon these
711
modifications and clarifications of older principles, the physicist and
the engineer have applied modern physics to a host of devices and
techniques that revolutionized warfare and, properly directed, should
result in equally improved contributions to current civilization.
Charged Particles. T h e discovery of the electron and the
measurement of its characteristics is an outstanding achievernent of
contemporary physics. This charged particle is not only a universal
constituent of all matter b u t m a y easily be freed from its parent atoms
in a number of ways, such as: (1) thermionically, (2) photoelectrically,
(3) by electric bombardment, as in a gas-discharge tube, (4) by
molecular collisions, and (5) by spontaneous radioactive disintegration.
T h e ions formed when atoms or molecules gain or lose electrons by
various methods constitute some of the most useful charged particles,
which have been employed in studying the nature of matter and
energy. Their characteristics are now so well known that they are
freely utilized in familiar chemical and physical industrial applica-
tions. Positive ions may be obtained by all of the methods described
above.
. Ionic and electronic "projectiles" constitute the chief weapons for
bombarding matter and forcing it to reveal its innermost nature.
F r o m the facts thus learned, entirely new fields of science have been
explored and the results applied for the convenience (as well as
destruction) of mankind.
Electric Currents in Gases. A gas under normal conditions is a
very poor conductor of electricity. Only when,the voltage between
terminals is made very high does a disruptive spark discharge occur.
T h e voltage gradient required to produce a spark between fairly large
terminals, in air at atmospheric pressure is about 30,000 volts per
centimeter. A calibrated spark gap is sometimes used for making
rough measurements of high voltages. T h e measurements thus made
are not exact as the sparking potential is a very cornplex function
of the size and shape of the electrodes,- the atmospheric pressure and
humidity, the time the voltage is maintained, and a number of other
factors. ' ^ ,
Interesting and instructive experini^nts on the phenomena of
electric discharges through gases at recluced pressures may be per-
formed by the use of the apparatus shown, in Fig, 1. A glass tube about
3 ft long is connected to a vacuum purnp.\Cylindrical aluminum
TWENTIETH-CENTURY PHYSICS 713
electrodes sealed into the ends of the tube are attached to the terminals
of a source of high voltage, such as an induction coil. When the gas
in the tube is at atmospheric pressure, the sparks will pass across the
short air gap between the terminals of the induction coil. As the gas
pressure in the tube is continuously
reduced, the discharge begins to pass -H: B-
through the long tube, in preference i,r
to the shorter path between the spark i 70 MCUUM
PUMP
coil terminals in air at atmospheric
pressure. T h e gas in the tube emits o jOHi' o—•
SPARK COIL
light of a color characteristic of the
FIG. 1.-—Â low-pressure electric dis-
particular gas used. At a pressure of charge tube.
a few millimeters of mercury, the
light given off by air is a bluish-violet glow. Tubes filled with neon,
argon, or other gases are familiar examples of commercial applications
of this effect, as used in signs for advertisements. This type of discharge
tube is known as a Geissler tube. They are in common use in the spectros-
copy laboratory for studying the spectra of various gases and vapors.
CROOKES FARAOAr
DARK DARK POSITIVE
SPACE SPACE COLUMN
CATHODE ANODE
610W 6L0I¥
^ TO PUMP
FIG. 2.—^Discharge of electricity through a gas at reduced pressure.
T h e appearance of the discharge tube at a pressure of a few tenths

of a millimeter of mercury is particularly attractive and instructive.
As shown schematically in Fig. 2, the light from various parts of the
tube is broken up into characteristic striae. Each of the metallic
electrodes is covered by a velvety glow, known, respectively, as the
cathode and anode glow. A comparatively dark region near the
c a t h o d e is called the Crookes dark space. Near it is a short region of light
known as the negative glow, this being followed by another darker
portion designated the Faraday dark space. T h e major portion of the
tube is filled with a striated series of bright a n d dark regions called
the positive column.
T h e phenomena of the discharge tube are explained in terms
of the mechanism of the ionization of the gas in the tube a n d the
emission of energy in the form of Hght when the ionized particles
return to their normal state. W h e n a voltage is applied to the tube,
the few residual ions, which are always present in a gas, are accelerated
toward the electrodes. At low gas pressures, these ions will travel
comparatively long distances before they collide with other atoms,
thus acquiring considerable kinetic energy. As a result of the collision,
the atom that is struck may also become ionized. It will now move
toward the appropriately charged electrode, shortly collide with
another neutral atom, and cause this atom to become ionized. This
process of cumulative ionization, called ionization by collision, results
in concentrations of ionized atoms at various portions of the discharge
tube. T h e return of these ions to the normal un-ionized state results
in the emission of radiant energy, which we observe in the striated
layers of luminous gas.
Cathode Rays. If the pressure in a tube is lowered below the,
optimum value for the Geissler type of discharge, it will be observed
that the Crookes dark space becomes larger, finally filling the entire
tube. T h e voltage required to maintain the discharge goes up rapidly
until finally at a very high vacuum, the discharge becomes nearly
impossible.
At an intermediate pressure of about 0.001 m m of mercury, many
of the positive ions will traverse nearly the entire' length of the tube
and strike the cathode with enough energy to cause it to emit a con-
siderable quantity of electrons. These stream away from the nega-
tively charged cathode in a direction at right angles to the surface.'
Such electrons are called cathode rays. Historically the study of their
properties has yielded very rich dividends. , ^ ^ j
Some of the properties of cathode rays may 'easily be demon-
strated. When they strike certain materials, they cause these sub-
stances to fluoresce brilliantly with colors characteristic of the material.'
T h e walls of some discharge tubes, for example, exhibit a greenish-
yellow color; this lasts for a shor.t.;time after the discharge is stppped.
T h e fact that cathode rays travel in straight lines may be demon-
strated by an ej^periment illustrated in Fig. 3. T h e shadow of the
cross is sharply outlined on the glass wall opposite the cathode.
" A demonstration to show simultaneously the fact that cathode
rays move away from the cathode in a direction normal to the surface
and that they produce a heating effect when they strike an object is
illustrated in Fig. 4. Electrons from a concave cathode are focused
FIG. 3.—Cathode rays travel in FIG. 4.—

straight lines. Heating effect
of c a t h o d e
rays.
upon a piece of platinum foil used as an anode, causing it to become

red hot.
Cathode-ray Oscilloscope. The fact that cathode rays are really
electrons traveling at high speed away from the cathode, is now a
familiar fact to the numerous users of the various types of cathode-ray
t;p
voltage
FIG. 5.—Cathode-ray tube.
oscilloscopes, first developed by the physicist Braun in 1897. The

essentials of a modern tube are shown in Fig. 5. Cathode rays from
the thermionic cathode C pass through a small hole in a control grid
and are accelerated by the voltage applied to the anode A. The
electrons then pass between two pairs of parallel plates to which

various test voltages may be applied. O n e pair of plates Fis horizontal,
the other H is vertical. T h e electric fields of these plates therefore
cause deflections, either vertically or horizontally in proportion to the
values of the test voltages applied. T h e spot of light on the fluorescent
screen S at the large end of the tube can travel around with extraor-
sr>>
FIG. 6.—Cathode-ray oscilloscope tube.
dinary rapidity, because of the very small mass of the electrons and
their high speeds. Hence these tubes can be used to follow transient
variations of voltage, which are of entirely too high frequency for any
mechanical device to follow. A commercial type of cathode-ray
oscilloscope tube is shown in Fig.- 6. >
X-rays. When high-speed cathode rays strike the anode, the
energy of 'ome of them is converted into radiation of very short
wavelength and capable of penetrating surprising thicknesses of
light-opaque materials. These radiations were called x-rays by Ront-
gen who first observed their effects in 1895.
It is now known that x-rays are of the same electromagnetic
character as ordinary light. Because of their m u c h shorter wave-
lengths x-rays differ in some respects from light and from the other
portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Like ordinary light, x-rays are reflected, refracted, and polarized.
They show interference and diffraction effects. Because of the very
short wavelengths special techniques are required to show all these
effects with x-rays.
Like visible radiation, x-rays cause blackening of photographic
plates. Although x-ray pictures, are shadowgraphs, they are capable
of exhibiting fine details when the radiation comes from essentially a
point source as shown in Fig. 7.-X-rays find important industrial
applications in detecting foreign objects or ifi revealing flaws in metal
castings before they are machined or incorporated in structures.
TWENTIETH-CENTURY PHYSICS "jih
Recently developed techniques of high-speed radiography have made
it possible to photograph m a n y highly transient p h e n o m e n a that last
only millionths of a second, such as the impact of a projectile on
armor plate.
Unlike visible radiation, x-rays do not produce t h e sensation of
sight. X-rays impinging on certain materials, however, cause fluores-
cence and can thus be detected visually. In \h.t fluoroscope used for
medical examinations a screen coated with platinum b a r i u m cyanide
FIG. 7.—Â radiograph of a jeep. Distance ofjeep from x-ray tube, 60 ft. Exposure time,
90 min. Original size of radiograph 12 ft 1 in. by 4 ft 8 in.
or Other fluorescent material is arranged so that the observer can view

the shadow picture of the patient being examined.
M a n y materials opaque to ordinary light are transparent to x-rays.
It is this difference in transparency that makes x-rays of great value
in photographing dense materials.
X-rays ionize the atoms of a gas or other substance causing photo-
electrons to be given oflT. I n giving up energy a certain fraction of the
x-rays is absorbed in each unit distance, this fraction being dependent
upon the. wavelength of the x-rays and the atomic number of the
scattering atoms. It is this production of ions in tissue that is responsi-
ble for the therapeutic eff"ects of x-rays.
X-rays are usually generated in a n evacuated tube in which
electrons released from a heated tungsten filament are accelerated by
a high voltage to an anode target. At the target the electrons give u p
energy. Most of it becomes heat, but a b o u t 1 per cent of the energy is
converted into x-rays. T h e energy acquired by a n electron of charge
e, which has been acted upon by a potential difference F, is equal to
Ve. I n an x-ray tube practically all this energy goes into the kinetic
energy of the moving electron. For speeds well below the speed 'of
light the energy equation is
Ve = Mmv^ (1)
W h e n V is in volts a n d e is the electronic charge in coulombs {e =
1.602 X 10"^^ coulomb), the energy is in joules. If m is in grams a n d
V in centimeters per second, J-^my^ is in ergs, a n d hence to balance the
units in Eq. (1) it is necessary to multiply F(? by W ergs/joule.
Because of the wide use of Eq. (1) for the determination of the
energy of electrons that have been accelerated through a given
voltage the designation electron volt is now used as a measure of particle
energy. For example, the energy of a n electron that has fallen through
a potential difference of 1 volt is 1 electron volt and is equivalent to
1.602 X 10^^^ erg. Such an electron acquires a speed of 5.93 X 10'^
cm/sec.
Example: An x-ray tube operates at 12.5 kv. What is the speed with which the
electrons strike the anode? The mass of the electron is 9.105 X 10~^* gm.
From Eq. (1)
Ve = J^mw^
(12.5 X 10'volts)(1.602 X 10""coulomb)(10êrgs/joule) = K(9.105 X lO-^Sgm)^^
V = 6.65 X 10' cm/sec.
By diffracting x-rays in crystalline substances, the physicist and
chemist have been able to determine the crystal structure of many
materials. Using crystals of known atomic spacings, x-rays from
various targets have been analyzed. Their spectra are found to be of
two types: a continuous spectrum dependent upon the voltage applied
to the x-ray tube a n d superposed upon this a characteristic spectrurn
consisting of a series of sharply defined wavelengths characteristic
of the target atoms.
T h e analysis of x-ray spectra has been a fruitful method for the
measurement of the energy levels of the electrons in the structure of
atoms. Indeed the study of the characteristiq^x-ray spectra .of many
materials by Moseley in 1913 led to the concept of atomic number,
rather than atomic mass, as indicating the characteristics of atoms.
Positive Rays; Mass Spectrograph. T h e atomic masses of
elements historically have been measured by conventional chemical
methods, using comparatively large amounts of the material under
test. Recent developments in electronics have provided scientists with
apparatus far more precise and capable of making measurements on
individual atoms and ions. Such devices are known as mass spectro-
graphs, a well-chosen designation, since they enable measurements
to be m a d e of atomic masses a n d to sepa-
rate a mixture of ions into a veritable
spectrum of atoms having different
masses.
A form of mass spectrograph designed
by Dempster (1936) is shown schematic-
ally in Fig. 8. This apparatus is based
upon the fact that a beam.of ions moving
through electric a n d magnetic fields
suffers a deflection that depends upon the
charges and masses of the ions. Hence
FIG. 8.- -A Dempster-type mass
ions of various masses are deflected differ-
spectrograph.
ently. A source of positive ions near the
slit S is made to pass through a radial electric field set u p by the cylin-
drical condenser plates Ci and C2. T h e ions are thereby bent into a
path that is an arc of a circle. After emerging from the electric field,
the ions enter a magnetic field that is at right angles to the electric
Cd
Ag
1—I—r
107 109 110 112 114 116

FIG. 9.—A mass spectrogram showing isotopes of silver and cadmium.
field. T h e magnetic field causes the ions of different masses to be sep-

arated so that they fall at different places on the photographic plate
PP'. T h e blackening of the plate gives clear indication of the masses of
the respective ions. A typical mass spectrogram is shown in Fig. 9.
Isotopes. Studies of positive rays first showed that not all atoms
of a given element have identical atomic masses. Although the
various atoms of a given element have exactly the same chemical
properties, it was shown by mass spectrographic studies that such
720 COLLEGE TECHNICAL PHYSICS /
atoms frequently have different atomic masses. Elements which have
the same chemical properties (atomic number, or position in the
periodic table) but different masses are known as isotopes. Chlorine,
atomic mass 35.46, is a mixture of isotopes of masses 35 a n d 37.
T h e case of hydrogen is a n extreme example.. Its atomic mass is
1.00813 and it is a mixture of ordinary hydrogen of mass 1 and'
"heavy hydrogen" of mass 2. This isotope (unlike other cases) has
been given the special n a m e of deuterium. Various elements are com-
posed of quite different numbers of isotopes, ranging from 1 for gold
to 11 for tin.
Relativity. Studies of the relativity of motion have led to some •'
significant changes in our former conceptions of such basic concepts
as length, speed, mass, and energy. Two surprising results of
Einstein's theory of relativity are of especial interest in modern
physics. For very high speeds, approaching the speed of light, it is
found that the mass {inertia) oj a body increases with its speed. T h e rela-
tionship between the mass at rest rho and the mass m when the body
is moving with a speed v is given by
mo ,^.
m = , —,—• (2)
V i - {vyc^) ^'
where c is the speed of light. I t will be noted that the increase in mass
for small speeds is negligible, b u t becomes appreciable (or even huge)
as V approaches c. For example, an electron in a high-voltage x-ray
tube may easily be given a speed 0.9 that of light. At this speed its
mass is twice that of a low-speed electron.
A spectacular principle of the relativity'theory is the fact t h a t mass
and energy are not separately conserved but can be transformed into each other.
T h e relationship of the equivalence of matter and energy is expressed by the
simple equation
E = mc^ , (3)
where E is the energy equivalent of the mass m and c is the speed of
light. It follows'from Eq., (3) that the complete transmutation of a "
very small mass into its equivalent in energy results in the evolution
of an almost incredible a m o u n t of .energy. For example, the trans-
formation of 1 gni' of any substance into energy would release 9 X 10^"
ergs or 9 X 10^^ joules or 2.5 X 10^ kw-hr of energy. This is sufficient
energy to'supply the requirements of metropolitan New York for
nearly 2 days. We have good reason to believe that this transforma-

tion of matter into energy is continually going on in the stars. O u r
sun, for example, has been giving off almost unbelievable quantities of
energy for billions of years at the expense of only a small loss in its
mass.
Radioactivity. T h e French physicist Becquerel (1896) dis-
covered the fact that certain materials spontaneously and continuously
give off certain "radiations," which possess very significant properties.
Some of these "rays" are able to pass through opaque substances,
such as black paper, and to produce
such effects as darkening of a photo-
graphic plate, ionization of a gas,
fluorescent effects on certain min-
erals, and biological changes in cells
of animals. Extensiye studies of these
rays have revealed highly important
information regarding the nature of
atomic structure and recently have RADIOACTIVE -LEAD
unlocked one of the most vital scien- MATERIAL BLOCK
tific secrets of all time—atomic FIG. 10.—The rays" emitted by a
radioactive substance.
energy. Substances that emit these
radiations are called radioactive. It is now known that radioactivity is
caused by phenomena within the nucleus of the atom, resulting in
physical and chemical changes in the nature of the atom, which are
properly described as radioactive transmutations.
Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Rays. T h e nature of the radiations
emitted by radioactive substances may be described by a classical
experiment, symbolically illustrated in Fig. 10. A bit of a suitable
radioactive material, such as pitchblende, is placed in a narrow slot
in a block of lead. The fine pencil of rays emerging from the hole
passes into a magnetic field at right angles to the figure. (An electric
field parallel to the figure would do equally well.) A photographic
plate or other "detector" some distance above the slot would record
the fact that the radiation is divided into three distinct parts, his-
torically designated as alpha, beta, and gamma rays. T h e alpha rays
are only slightly deviated, the beta rays much more so in a direction
opposite to the alphas, and the gamma rays are undeviated. It is now
known that the alpha rays are helium nuclei, doubly charged ions
having a mass four times that of the hydrogen atom. Beta rays are, in
fact, merely electrons. Because of their small mass and negative charge
it is clear that they should be deviated in a magnetic or electric field in
a n opposite direction and much larger magnitude than alpha rays.
T h e gamma rays are tremendously penetrating or " h a r d " x-rays.
T h e term "rays" is a misnomer, for the alphas and betas actually are
material particles.
Radioactive Disintegration. Modern theories of atomic struc-
ture furnish beautifully complete explanations of radioactive trans-
formations. For example, the atomic mass of radium is 226 a n d its
atomic number is 88. When a radium atom disintegrates, it is observed
that an alpha particle is emitted. This reduces the atomic mass by
4, to 222, and the atomic number decreases by 2, to 86, because of the
loss of the two unitary positive charges carried by the helium nucleus
(alpha particle). Hence a n entirely different element is created, called
radon. This material is a dense gas, whereas radium is a solid metal
having chemical properties similar to those of barium. R a d o n is
m u c h less stable than its parent atom. T h e stability of radioactive
atoms is measured in terms of their "half life." This is defined as the
time required for half of the atoms present at any one time to dis-
integrate into their "descendant" materials. For example, uranium
has a half life of 4.6 billion years, radium 1700 years, radon 4 days,
a n d radium C a millionth of a second. •
Nuclear Physics; Artificial Transmutation. Beginning with the
classical researches of Rutherford in 1919, many experimenters have
demonstrated the artificial transmutation of one element into another.
By bombarding atoms with high-speed particles, many elements have
been found to undergo nuclear transmutations resulting in the
ejection of radioactive rays of various types, with the parent a t o m
being transmuted into one of entirely difi'erent chajacter. I n some
cases where the sum of the masses of the final products is less than the
sum of the masses of the initial materials, the difference in mass is
represented by the transmutation of this matter into energy. Such
energy is released in the form of kinetic energy pf the final particles.
This is the basis for the current hope of being able to obtain enormous
quantities of energy from the transmutation of certain atoms.
T h e Neutron. Chadwick (1932) was able to explain the emission
of a superpenetrating " r a y , " found to emerge when beryllium was
bombarded by alpha particles, by postulating a new type of particle

designated the neutron. This addition to the primordial building
blocks of nature has a mass nearly equal to that of a proton b u t has no
net electric charge. It therefore can pass through thick layers of
matter without being deflected, until, in rare instances, it collides
directly with the nucleus of a n atom.
It is now customary to write symbolic equations for the transmuta-
tions involved in such types of " a t o m smashing," just as the chemist
writes equations for the ordinary transformations of various elements
into compounds. It is conventional to write the atomic mass number
as an index and the nuclear charge (atomic number) as a subscript.
T w o transmutations that result in the formation of neutrons are
4BeS + jHe^ - ^ eCi^ + ^^

iD^ + iD^ -^ 2He* + o"'-
Thus the union of two deuterium atoms each of atomic number 1 and
atomic mass 2 results in the formation of an isotope of helium of
atomic mass 3 and atomic number 2 plus a neutron of atomic mass
1 a n d zero atomic number (nuclear charge.) These equations must
" b a l a n c e , " that is, the sums of the masses on each side must be equal
a n d the sums of the nuclear charges on each side must also be equal.
Nuclear Fission. W h e n the uranium isotope 235 is bombarded
with neutrons of low speeds an entirely new type of nuclear phe-
nomenon is found to occur. T h e uranium atom splits into two large
pieces, one often being identical with the element barium, the other
krypton. These two disintegration products fly apart at high speeds.
This pheno'menon is known as nuclear fission and is one of the basic
features of the atomic b o m b .
I n addition to the two large portions of the split uranium atom
several neutrons are produced and considerable energy also is evolved.
By suitable arrangements these new neutrons can be m a d e to bombard
other uranium atoms which in turn disintegrate with the evolution
of more energy and still other neutrons. This results in a chain
reaction of explosive violence.
Basic Constituents of Matter. We have thus far considered as
the fundamental building blocks of nature mainly the electron and
the proton. It has been noted that to them must be added the neutron.
A particle having a mass and a positive charge equal to the respective
values for the electron has been discovered by Anderson (1932). It is

known as the positron. It is rarely observable as it has only a transient
existence and is easily absorbed. Some observers have reported the
discovery of a basic particle of mass about 200 times that of an electron
(a proton is 1800 times as massive), which is called the meson. It is
found either negatively or positively charged and disintegrates like
T A B L E I. T H E P A R T I C L E S O F A T O M I C P H Y S I C S
Charge, Mass in terms

e = 4.803 X of H e the Source of free particles,
Name 10-10 mass of the properties
statcoulomb oxygen atom
Electron. 0.00055 Produced in thermal emission,

photoelectric effect, gas ioniza-
tion, and radioactive decay
Proton or hydrogen
nucleus, iH^ +e 1.0081 Produced in low-voltage hot-
cathode arc, or separated from
ion beams by magnetic or elec-
tric deflection. Basic in proton-
neutron theory of nucleus
Alpha particle or he-
lium, nucleus, 2He*. +2e 4.0039 Low-voltage arc. Radioactive
decay
Neutron 0 1.00893 4Be3 + 2 H e * - ^ 6 C i 2 + o"'
iD^ + iD^ -^ jHe^ + on'
Deuterium or heavy
hydrogen nucleus,
i D ^ o r iH^ +e 2.0131 Formed in low-voltage arc
Positron or positive
electron +e 0.00055 Conversion of high energy (cos-
mic) radiation into matter
Meson -\-e or —e about 0.110 A short-lived product of the
(variable?) b o m b a r d m e n t of atoms in the
atmS^phere by protons in pri-
mary cosmic rays. Mesons
are quickly absorbed in other
nuclei
Neutrino. Invented to satisfy certain de-
mands of theory. No direct
evidence of its existence
a radioactive substance with a half life of about a millionth of a

second.
Cosmic Rays. O n e of the most fascinating chapters in the history
of twentieth-century physics deals with a type of superpenetrating
radiation coming from sources outside the earth and appropriately
designated as cosmic rays. Early in the twentieth century it was ob-
served that îonization chambers, such as gold-leaf electroscopes,
continued to discharge even though completely shielded from any
known terrestial source of ionization by great thicknesses of absorbers.
More peculiarly it was noted that this highly penetrating source of
ionization increased as the measuring device was elevated above the
earth. It has been established that cosmic rays originate far away
from our own stellar galaxy. They are now believed to be electrically
charged particles, although their nature is not completely agreed
upon. O n e great difficulty in determining the exact nature of the
primary cosmic rays is the fact that when they reach the earth's upper
atmosphere they cause disintegration of the air, resulting in a complex
mixture of protons, electrons, mesons, and very " h a r d " g a m m a rays.
SUMMARY
T h e basic constituent of all electricity is the electron.
Ions are charged atoms or molecules. T h e y may be formed by
electrolysis, thermal emission, electron bombardment, molecular
collisions, radioactive disintegration, and other ways.
Air under standard conditions is a very poor conductor of elec-
tricity. Under reduced pressure air and other gases a n d vapors
become rather good conductors and spectacular discharges occur
when rarefied gases are exposed to high voltages.
Cathode rays are streams of electrons. They emerge normally from
the cathode surface, travel in straight lines, may be easily deflected
by magnetic or electric fields, cause fluorescence when they strike
many minerals, and produce heating, chemical, and physiological
eff"ects upon matter.
Cathode-ray oscilloscopes are used to study rapidly varying voltages
a n d other transient or cyclic phenomena. As such they are useful in
r a d a r and television.
T h e speed of the electrons constituting cathode rays can be calcu-
lated from
Ve = }-2mv^
This equation is valid only for speeds well below the speed of light.
T h e energy of electrons is often expressed in electron volts. This
is the energy that an electron acquires when it has been acted upon by
a PD of 1 volt.
X-rays are produced when high-speed cathode rays strike a metallic
target. These rays are of the same nature as light, but of very short
wavelength. Some notable characteristics of x-rays are (1) their
ability to penetrate dense materials; (2) their ionization of gases
through which they pass; (3) the blackening action on photographic
plates; (4) their fluorescent effects on certain minerals; (5) their
ability to produce physiological changes in living cells; (6) 'their
ability to produce secondary x-rays and photoelectrons when they
impinge upon matter.
Positive rays are streams of positive ions. They are used in the mass
spectrograph for the identification and measurement of atomic masses
and the study of isotopes.
T h e mass of a body varies with speed in accordance with the
relativity mass equation
m<i
J m =
V I - {v^c^)
Mass and energy are interrelated and transformable one into the
other as indicated by the mass-energy equation, which is the basis of
"atomic energy."
Radioactivity is the property possessed by certain materials whereby

they spontaneously disintegrate by the emission of " r a y s " to form new
atoms. These phenomena occur in the nucleus qf the atom.;
Alpha rays are nuclei of helium atoms. Beta rays are electrons,
frequently having speeds approaching that of light. Gamma rays are
super x-rays, of short wavelength and highly penetrating.
T h e half-life period of a radioactive material is the time required
for half of the atoms present at aily one time to disintegrate.
A neutron is a particle having no net charge and a mass equal to
that of the proton. High-speed neutrons can penetrate great thick-
nesses of material. Slow-speed neutrons are easily captured by nuclei.
T h e capture, of a neutron by certain nuclei, such as uranium 235,
produces ^ j / o n therein, resulting in the evolution of large quantities

of energy.
Cosmic rays are super penetrating "radiations" arriving in the
earth's atmosphere from cosmic sources and producing a variety of
secondary disintegrations and ionization products as they plow
through the air.
T h e atomic mass (weight) of a n element is the n u m b e r that repre-
sents its mass in relation to one-sixteenth the mass of the oxygen atom
taken as the standard. I t is a relative (pure) number and does not-
indicate the actual mass of the atom.
T h e atomic number of an element is a n u m b e r that gives the place
of the element in the periodic table. This number is equal to the
n u m b e r of positive (electronic) charges on the nucleus.
QUESTIONS
1. Lightning is a huge spark between charged clouds. H o w might the voltage
required to produce lightning var^' from clouds near the earth as compared with
those very high in the atmosphere? Could there ever be a disruptive discharge of
electricity between the earth a n d the moon? Why?
2- W h a t are the fundamental reasons for the belief in the existence of atoms?
3 . For a time the theory that all elements were m a d e u p of combinations of
hydrogen atoms was accepted. W h a t facts led to the a b a n d o n m e n t of this hypothesis?
4. Show clearly why the mass spectrograph gives d a t a on the atomic masses of
individual ions while conventional chemical methods yield only results on average
atomic masses.
5 . D o alpha, beta, a n d g a m m a rays all come from the same element? Show w h y
we ordinarily find all three in m a n y radioactive experiments.
6. Describe some of the methods for the study and measurement of radioactive
rays. Discuss the relative sensitivity of these methods. H o w does the actual mass of
these rays compare with the masses used in ordinary chemical experiments?
7. Suggest several methods by which one could estimate the age of a u r a n i u m -
bearing rock. H o w does the age of the e a r t h estimated in this manner (not less than
1600 million years) compare with iiidependent estimates based on geological evidence?
8. H o w d o x-rays ionize gases, a n d produce chemical changes in organic
substances?
9. C o m p a r e the methods a n d achievements of m o d e r n " a t o m smashers" of
nuclear physics with those of the ancient alchemists. In what respects are their
objectives similar a n d how are they unlike?
10. State Some of the observed facts t h a t lead to the idea of t h e equivalence of
matter and energy.
11. W h y is it more difficult to produce atomic transmutation by bombarding
heavy atoms than it is for light atoms?
12. If a lithium nucleus of atomic mass 7 and atomic number 3 captures a proton
and fission results in the disintegration of the nucleus into two equal parts, what is
the nature of these materials thus produced?
13. What are some of the difhculties involved in the commercial utilization of
nuclear energy for industrial purposes?
PROBLEMS
1. The cathode rays in an oscilloscope may travel with a speed 1/100 that of
light. How long does it take for them to reach the screen, which is 18 in. from the
cathode?
2. Some ions of ordinary hydrogen and "heavy" hydrogen (deuterium) are
given equal kinetic energies. Compare their velocities. Ans. VO/VH = i/-\/2
3. A radioactive element of atomic mass 218 and atomic number 84 disintegrates
with the emission of an alpha particle. What is the new atomic mass and the atomic
number?
4. Radium disintegrates at the rate of approximately 0.045% per year. How
many alpha particles are emitted per gram of radium in one day? Ans. 33 X 10"
5. Radium has an atomic mass of 222 and an atomic number of 86. I t disin-
tegrates with the emission of an alpha particle. Write the symbolic equation for this
transmutation.
6. How much coal having a heat of combustion of 12,000 Btu/lb would have
to be burned to produce the energy equivalent to the transmutation of a pound of
matter into energy? Ans. 1.62 X 10^ tons
7. A battleship having amass of 50,000 tons is moving with a speed of 30 mi/hr.
How much is its mass increased as a result of its kinetic energy?
8. The mass of an electron at rest is 9.103 X 10"^* gm. What is its mass when
moving with a speed of 98% that of light? Ans. 45.7 X 10~^* gm
9. At what speed must a particle be moving to have a mass twice as great as its
"rest" mass?
10. When nitrogen (atomic mass 11 and atomic number 7) is bombarded with
neutrons the collisions result in disintegrations in which alpha particles and boron
(atomic mass 11 and atomic number 5) are produced. Write the symbolic equation
representing this transmutation.
11. In the process of the radioactive disintegration of thorium, 6 alpha and 4 beta
particles are emitted. What are the atomic mass and atomic number of the final
product of the thorium disintegration? (Thorium has atomit mass 232 and atomic
number 90.)
12. When fluorine (atomic mass 19 and atomic number 9) is bombarded with
neutrons a new element is formed and an alpha particle is" ejected, (a) What is the
new element? (A) What are the atomic njass and the atoinic nufnber?
13. When carbon (atomic mass 12 and atomic number 6) is bombarded by
alpha particles disintegration occurs with "the emission of a neutron. The element
thus formed is unstable and disintegrates with the ejection of a positron. Whatis the
final product of this transmutation and what are its atomic mass and atomic number?
.>.
]. .
' • )•' • •
APPENDIX
I. SOLUTION OF PHYSICAL PROBLEMS
T h e ability to solve problems is the mark of an efficient and effec-

tive scientist or engineer. There is a grain of discovery in the solution
of any problem. Through practice in the solution of problems com-
mensurate with one's knowledge, and attention given to the motives
and procedures of solution, one attains ability and confidence in
independent thinking.
Physical and mathematical problems are of two types: problems
" t o prove" and problems " t o find." T h e aim of a problem " t o prove"
is to show conclusively that a certain assertion is true, or that it is
false. T h e principal parts of such a problem are the hypothesis, the "if",
part, and the 'conclusion, the " t h e n " part. The aim of a problem "to
find" is ,to determine an unknown quantity. The principal parts of a
problem "to find" are the unknown, the data, and the general principles
relating these.
Problems "to find" are more important in elementary or in applied
physics and mathematics. Problems "to prove" are more important in
advanced physics and mathematics. I n this book there are some
problems "to prove" among the Questions, but problems " t o find"
are more emphasized. They appear in the solved examples in each
chapter and in the Problems at the end.
The solution of a problem "to find" in physics requires the follow-
ing steps:
1. Understanding the problem
,2. Devising a plan
3; Carrying out the plan
4 Checking the result
i (
1. Understanding the Problem. Read the statement of the problem
carefully and decide exactly what is required. Draw a diagram
whenever applicable. Label it completely and accurately. This aids
clear thinking, helps to avoid errors, and usually saves time.
729
2. Devising a Plan. List carefully all the information given and

the unknown to be found. Decide what physical principles apply to
the problem. Write these principles in algebraic equations. Determine
whether a solution is possible: can the unknowns be found from the
data given? If not, look for hidden facts: what information is implicit
in the statement of the problem, w h a t reasonable assumptions can be
made? List these.
Decide whether in the particular problem it is easier to substitute
numerical values immediately or first to carry out an algebraic solu-
tion for the unknown.
3. Carrying out the Plan. Substitute the numerical data in the
equations obtained from the physical principles. Include the units for
each quantity making sure that they are all in the same system in any
one problem. Compute the numerical value of the unknown. Deter-
mine the units in which it is expressed.
4. Checking the Results. Does the answer seem reasonable? Can
it be obtained by an alternative method to check the result?
T h e student is referred to the numerous solved examples in the
text for a demonstration of the form of solution recommended for
physics problems.
II. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN MEASUREMENTS

AND COMPUTATIONS
Uncertainty in Measurements. T h e word accuracy has various

shades of meaning depending on the circumstances under which it is
used. It is commonly used to denote the reliability of the indications
of a measuring instrument.
As applied to the final result of a measureriient, the accuracy is
expressed by statirig+the uncertainty oi the numerical result,/that is, the
estimated maximum a m o u n t by which the result may differ from the
" t r u e " or acceptf
acceptea value. ^ •
Rules 'for' .Gomputation with Experimental Data. T h e r e is
always a pronounced and persistent tendency on the part of beginners
to retain too many figures in a computation. This not only involves
too much ai^thmetic labor but, worse still, leads to a fictitiously precise
result. . "
T h e following rules are recommended and will save much time
that would otherwise be spent in calculationj-'furthermore, their care-
ful use will result in "properly indicated accuracies.
APPENDIX 731
1. I n recording the result of a measurement or a calculation, one
and one only doubtful digit is retained.
"2. In' addition and subtraction, do not carry the operations be-
yond the first column that contains a doubtful figure.
3. I n multiplication and division, carry the result to the same
number of significant figures that there are in that quantity entering
into the calculation which has the least number of significant figures.
4. In dropping figures that are not significant, the last figure re-
tained should be unchanged if the first figure dropped is less than 5.
I t should be increased by 1 if the first figure dropped is greater than
5. If the first figure dropped is 5, the preceding digit should be un-
changed if it is an even number but increased by 1 if it is a n odd
number. Examples: 3.455 becomes 3.46; 3.485 becomes 3.48; 6.7901
becomes 6.790.
Significant Figures. T h e accuracy of a physical measurement is
properly indicated by the number of figures used in expressing the
numerical measure. Conventionally, only those figures which are
reasonably trustworthy are retained. These are called significant figures.
I n recording certain numbers the location of the decimal point
requires zeros to be added to the significant figures. When this require-
ment leaves doubt as to which figures are significant, one may over-
score the last significant figure. This overscored figure is the first digit
whose value is doubtful.
Examples: *•^-
Length of a page = 22.7 cm (3 .significant figures)

Thickness of the page = 0.011 cm (2 significant figures)
Distance to the sun = 93,000,000 mi (2 significant figures)
Speed of light = 299,780 km/sec (5 significant figures)
If each of these numbers is expressed in terms of powers of 10, there is no doubt
as to the number ofLsignificant figures for only the significant figures are then retained.
Thus
Length of the page = 2.27 X 10^ cm
Thickness of the page = 1.1 X jlO"^ cm
Distance to the sun = 9.3 X ftO' mi
Speed of light = 2.9978"'X lO'^ km/sec
There are some numbers which, by their definition, may be taken

to have an unlimited number of significant figures. For example, the
factors 2 and ic in the relation.
Circumference = 27r (radius)
I n calculations there is frequently need to use data that have been

recorded without a clear indication of the number of significant
figures. For example, a textbook problem may refer to a "2-lb
weight," or in a cooperative experiment a student may announce that
he has measured a certain distance as "5 ft." I n such cases the values
with the appropriate n u m b e r of significant figures should be written
from what is known or assumed about the way in which the measure-
ments were made. If the distance referred to were measured with an
ordinary tape measure, it might appropriately be written as 5.0 ft.
If it were carefully measured with a steel scale to the nearest tenth of
an inch, the distance might be recorded as 5.00 ft. In academic
problem work a good rule to follow is to retain three figures unless
there is reason to decide otherwise.
A systematic' use of the rules given above relating to significant
figures results in two advantages: (1) time is saved by carrying out
calculations only to that number of figures which the data justify, and
(2) intelligent recording of data is encouraged by noting always the
least accurate of a n u m b e r of measurements needed for a given
determination. Attention can then be concentrated on improving
the least accurate measurement or, if this is not possible, other meas-
urements need be taken only to an accuracy commensurate with it.
III. FUNDAMENTALS OF TRIGONOMETRY

In the study of vector quantities the use of simple trigonometry is
very desirable and hence an elementary'knowledge has been assumed
B" in this book. The fundamental definitions and
principles as applied to right triangles are
included in the following discussion.
In Fig. 1 are shown, three right triangles,
ABC, AB'C, and AB"C", each of which has
~c c' c" the common angle 6. Each side of the tri-
FiG. 1.—Similar right triangle AB'C is longer than the corresponding
- ' angles. side of ABC. Since the triangles are of the
same shape, the corresponding sides are proportional. T h a t is
CB _ CB[ - ^ ^ ^ , CB^_ CB[

AB ~ AB'' ' AB " AB" ^"^^ AC ~ AC
^
T h e values of these ratios may be used as measures of the angle 6.
i APPENDIX 733
For convenience each of the three ratios is given a name and is called a
trigonometric Junction. They are named as follows:
Side opposite . n / • • n\
-Pf ^^ = sine b (written sin v)
Hypotenuse
Side adjacent • /, / . n\
-Y^ = cosine V (written cos a)
Hypotenuse
Side opposite „ / . n-,
-~-\ V . = tangent 0 (written tan o)
oide adjacent
I n the triangles of Fig. 1
BC B'C B"C''
sin d =
AB AB' AB"
•AC AC AC"
cos 6 =
AB AB' AB II
5C _ B^ _ B"C"
tan ^ - ^(j- j^Qi - ^(jii
These three functions are very useful in studying vectors, for in that
study it is necessary to find the lengths of sides of right triangles when
one side and an angle is given. For example, if AB of Fig. 1 represents
a force then
IC = ZB cos e
and
5 C = AS sin 0
are rectangular components of that force. •
T h e values of the trigonometric functions have been worked out
for each angle and are given in Tables 3 and 4 of the Appendix.
Values of sines are given in Table 3 for each tenth of a degree from
zero to 90°. T h e first column lists angles in degrees, while the fractions
of degrees appear as headings of the columns in the table. T o find the
sine of 32.4°, find 32° in the first column, and across this row in the
column headed by 0.4 the value of the sine is found to be 0.5358.
T h e same table is used to read the values of cosines, using the angles
given in the last column and reading up from the bottom. Thus to find
the cosine of 55.6°, locate 55° in the last column and look across in
this row to the column above 0.6 where the value is observed to be
0.5650. T h e values of tangents are found in Table 4, which is used
in the same manner as the table of sines.
In some tables the angles listed in the first column run only from
0° to 45°. Angles from 45° to 90° are then given in the last column
increasing upward. This arrangement is possible because of the
relationship between sine and cosine. The sine of any angle is equal
to the cosine of 90° minus the angle. Thus
sin e = cos (90° - 6)
and
cos e = sin (90° - e)
This relation becomes evident from Fig. 1, for the angle ^ is equal to
90° — 6. From the definitions
sin 6
AB
and
BC
cos .^ = ^
Hence
sin 6 = cos <^ = cos (90° — 6)
Whenever the slide rule is used to obtain cosines, this relationship
must be used.
IV. GRAPHS
Physical laws and principles express relationships between physical
quantities. These relationships may be expressed in words, as is com-
monly done in the formal statement, by m.eans of the symbols of an
equation, or by the pictoria!l representation called a graph. The choice
of the means of expression is determined by the use to be made of the
information. If calculations are to be made, the equation is usually the
most useful. The graph, however, presents to the initiated person a
vivid and meaningful picture of the way in which one quantity varies
with another.
If a graph is to impart its full meaning, it must be constructed in
accordance with standard rules so that it will have the same meaning
for every person who inspects, it. Some of the rules and suggestions
which should prove helpful are given in the following discussion.
In constructing a graph the first step is to select and label carefully
a set of axes. It is custornary to allow the horizontal axis to represent
the .quantity to which arbitrary values are assigned while the other
APPENDIX 73^
variable is plotted along the vertical axis. The name of the quantity
and the units in which it is expressed should be clearly lettered along
each axis.
The second step is the selection of a scale to be used for each axis.
The scale should be so chosen that the range of values being plotted
will be of reasonable size, practically filling the page. The scales on the
two axes need not be the same; they seldom are. The scales need not
300r
r
2S0
1
%2D0 1
1
I \
\
\
I '
SO
10 20 30 40 SO 60 10
PReSSURE/fif POUmS P£R SQUARE INCH
FIG. 2.
always begin with zero; in fact, zero may not appear on the scale
unless it is in the range of values being studied. Graphs are usually
most easily constructed and read if each space represents a multiple
of 2 or of 5. Multiples of 3 or of 7 make the interpretation of the graph
difficult and should be avoided wherever possible. When a scale has
been selected for each axis, mark values at appropriate equal intervals
along each axis, increasing to the right on the horizontal axis and
upward on the Vertical axis. It is unnecessary to mark a number at
each square, but enough marks should be used so that the graph can
be read easily.
Each ijoint plotted on the graph represents a pair of corresponding
values of the two quantities. I t is usually convenient to make out a
table of values from which to plot the points. Each plotted point should
be marked by a dot surrounded by a small circle. Enough points
should be plotted so that a clear picture of the variation is given. A
smooth curve is then drawn through the average position of the points.
It is not necessary that the curve pass through every point, for experi-
mental error causes a scattering of data about the true value. There-
fore the points will scatter somewhat on either side of the true curve.
Graphs of data representing physical laws should never be d r a w n as
broken straight lines from point to point.
Figure 2 is a graph showing the variation of volume F of a con-
fined gas as the pressure P changes. A set of experimental values of
pressure and volume are shown in the table.
p, V,
1/7
lb/m.2 in.'
3 300 0.0033
4 230 0.0045
6 154 0.0065
9 100 0.0100
10 92 0.0109
12 • 72 0.0139
15 60 0.017
20 44 0.023
25 37 0.027
30 30 0.033
40 22 0.045
50 18 0.056
60 15 0.067.
Not only is the graph useful in showing vividly the relationship

between the two quantities b u t it can also be employed to obtain
quickly Pîrs of values other than those which were plotted. For exam-
ple, from Fig. 2 we^may wish to find the volume when the pressure is
35 lb/in. ^ I t is necessary merely.'to observe where the curve cuts the
vertical line representing 35 l b / i n . ^ and read the value of the hori-
zontal line which intersects the curve there. This is observed .to be
26 in.^ This use of graphs'to record data in readily available form is
common in engineering and technical practice.
APPENDIX ^r,^
When the curve of a graph is a straight line, it is easily identified,

more easily drawn, and in many respects more useful than other forms
of curve. For these reasons the data.are often arranged in such a form
that the curve will be a straight line. If, in showing the relationship
(/.(// J ~
" n :
1
•<>
^l/.K>
nil
<
11 1 X-
^ ~ -- U 1 -/ -
•âo4 1 ,- Mn
l 1 /Z -
& 'III III .r
^r 1M- fi 2
^ nn^ .'
7
^t ^
i^
^ UWc
^ -
d
2
• ^
/,7
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
PRESSURE M LB/JN ^
F I G . 3.
between P and F, the reciprocal of V is plotted against P, the resulting

curve is a straight line as shown in Fig. 3. If it is known from theory
that the curve is a straight line, only enough points need be plotted
to locate the line. I t is then drawn in, using a ruler. Although two
points are sufficient to' locate a straight line, several others should be
plotted when experimental data are used, in ord^r to minimize the
effect of experimental error.
V. TABLES
TABLE 1. CONSISTENT SYSTEMS OF UNITS
FOR NEWTON'S SECOND LAW
In each set the starred unit is the one usually defined from the second law so as to
make ^ = 1 in / = kma
Name of system Unit of mass Unit of force Unit of acceleration
Mks kilogram Newton* meter/second^

gram dyne* centimeter/second^
Cgs gravitational No name assigned gram centimeter/second^
m = W/g
British absolute pound poundal* foot/second^
British gravitational. . . slug* pound foot/second^
w/g Same unit as that
used for W used for g
APPENDIX y
TABLE 2. SATURATED WATER VAPOR
Showing pressure P and density d of aqueous vapor saturated at temperature t-
or showing boiling point t of water and density rf'of steam corresponding
to a pressure P
I, P, d, t, P, d.
"G mm of mercury gm/cm' °G mm of mercury gm/cm'
-10 2.0 2.2 X 10-" 80.0 355.1 293.8 X 10-6

- 9 2.1 2.4 85.0 433.5 354.1
- 8 2.3 2.6 90.0 525.8 424.1
- 7 2.6 2.8 91.0 546.1 439.5
- 6 2.8 3.0 92.0 567.1 455.2
- 5 3.0 3.3 93.0 588.7 471.3
- 4 3.3 3.5 ' 94.0 611.0 487.8
- 3 3.6 3.8 . 95.0 634.0 505
- 2 3.9 4.1 96.0 657.7 523
- 1 4.2 4.5 96.5 669.8
0 4.6 4.9 97.0 682.1 541
\ 4.9 5-. 2 97.5 • 694.5.
2 5.3 5.6 98.0 707.3 560
3 5.7 5.9 98.2 712.5
4 6.1 6.4 98.4 717.6
' 5 6.5 6.8 98.6 722.8
6 7.0 7.3 98.8 728.0
7 7.5 7.8 99.0 733.3 579
8 8.0 8.3 99.2 738.6
9 8.6 8.8 99.4 743.9
10 9.2 9.4 99.6 749.3
9.8 10.0 99.8 754.7
n,
12 10.5 10.7 100.0 760.0 598
13 11.2 11.4 100.2 765.5
14 12.0 12.1 100.4 770.9
15 12.8 12.8 100.6 776.4
16 13.6 13.6 100.8 781.9
17 14.5 14.5 101 787.5 618
18 15.5 15.4 102 815.9 639
19 16.5 16.3 103 845.1 661
20 17.6 17.3 104 875.1 683
21 18.7 18.3 105 906.1 705
22 19.8 19.4 106 937.9 728
23 21.1 20.6 107 970.6 751
24 22.4 21.8 108 1,004.3 776
25 23.8 23.0 109 1,038.8 801
26 25.2 24.4 110 1,074.5 827
27 26.8 25.8 112 1,148.7 880
28 28.4 27.2 114 1,227.1 936
29 30.1 28.8 116 1,309.8 995
30 31.8 30.4 118 1,397.0 1,057
35 42.0 39.6 120 1,489 1,122
40 55.1 51.1 125 1,740 1,299
45 71.7 65.6 130 2,026 1,498
50 92.3 83.2 135 2,348 1,721
55 117.8 104.6 140 2,710 1,968
60 149.2 130.5 150 3,569 2,550
65 187.4 161.5 160 4,633 3,265
70 233.5 198.4 175 6,689 4,621
75 289.0 242.1 200 11,650 7,840
TABLE 3. NATURAL SINES AND COSINES

NATURAL SINES
Angle 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 Complement
difTerence
0° 0.0000 0017 0035 0052 0070 0087 0105 0122 0140 0157 0175 89°
1 0175 0192 0209 0227 0244 0262 0279 0297 0314 0332 0349 88
2 0349 0366 0384 0401 0419 0436 0454 0471 0488 0506 0523 87
3 0523 0541 0558 0576 0593 0610 0628 0645 0663 0680 0698 86
4 0698 0715 0732 0750 0767 0785 0802 0819 0837 0854 0872 85
5 0.0872 0889 0906 0924 0941 0958 0976 0993 1011 1028 1045 84
6 1045 1063 1080 1097 1115 1132 1149 1167 1184 1201 1219 83
7 1219 1236 1253 1271 1288 1305 1323 1340 1357 1374 1392 82
8 1392 1409 1426 1444 1461 1478 1495 1513 1530 1547 1564 81
9 1564 1582 1599 1616 1633 1650 1668 1685 1702 1719 1736 80
10 0.1736 1754 1771 1788 1805 1822 1840 1857 1874 1891 1908 79
11 1908 1925 1942 1959 1977 1994 2011 2028 2045 2062 2079 78
12 2079 2096 2113 2130 2147 2164 2181 2198 2215 2233 2250 77 17
13 2250 2267 2284 2300 2317 2334 2351 2368 2385 2402 2419 76
14 2419 2436 2453 2470 2487 2504 2521 2538 2554 2571 2588 75
15 0.2588 2605 2622 2639 2656 2672 2689 2706 2723 2740 2756 74
16 2756 2773 2790 2807 2823 2840 2857 2874 2890 2907 2924 73
17 2924 2940 2957 2974 2990 3007 3024 3040 3057 3074 3090 72
18 3090 3107 3123 3140 3156 3173 3190 3206 3223 3239 3256 71
19 3256 3273 3289 3305 3322 3338 3355 3371 3387 3404 3420 70
20 0.3420 3437 3453 3469 3486 3502 3518 3535 3551 3567 3584 69
21 3584 3600 3616 3633 3649 3665 3681 3697 3714 3730 3746 68
22 3746 3762 3778 3795 3811 3827 3843 3859 3875 3891 3907 67
23 3907 3923 3939 3955 3971 3987 4003 4019 4035 .4051 4067 66 i»
24 4067 4083 4099 4115 4131 4147 4163 4179 4195 4210 4226 65
25 0.4226 4242 4258 4274 4289 4305 4321 4337 4352 4368 4384 64
26 4384 4399 4415 4431 4446 4462 4478 4493 4509 4524 4540 63
27 4540 4555 4571 4586 4602 4617 4633 4648 4664 4679 4695 62
28 4695 4710 4726 4741 4756 4772 4787 4802 4818 4833 4848 61
29 4848 4863 4879 4894 4909 4924 4939 4955 ,4970 4985 5000 60
30 0.5000 5015 5030 5045 5060 5075 5090 5105 5120 5135 5150 59 "
31 5150 5165 5180 5195 5210 5225 5240 5255 5270 5284 5299 58
32 5299 5314 5329 5344 5358 5373 5388 5402 5417 5432 5446 57
33 5446 5461 5476 5490 5505 5519 5534 5548 5563 5577 5592 56
34 5592 5606 5621 5635 5650 5664 5678 5693 5707 5721 5736 55
35 0.5736 5750 5764 5779 5793 5807 5821 5835 5850 5864 5878 54
36 5878 5892 5906 5920 5934 5948 5962 5976 5990 6004 6018 53 »
37 6018 6032 6046 6060 6074 6088 6101 6115 6129 6143 6157 52
38 6157 6170 6184 6198 6211 6225 6239 6252 6266 6280 6293 51
39 6293 6307 6320 6334 6347 6361 6374 6388 6401 6414 6428 50
40 0.6428 6441 (^455 6468 6481 6494 6508 6521 6534 6547 6561 49 •
41 6561 6574 65'87 6600 .6615 6626 6639 6652 6665 6678 6691 48 "
42 6691 6704 6717 6730 6743 6756 6769 6782 6794 6807 6820 47
43 6820 6833 6845 6858 6871 6884 6896 6909 6921 6934 6947 46
44° 6947 6959 6972 6984 69?7 7009 7022 7034 7046 7059 7071 45°
Comp;ement 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 Angle
NATURAL COSINES
APPENDIX 741
TABLE 3. NATURAL SINES AND COSINES (Continued)
NATURAL SINES
Angle 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 Complement
diflFerence
45° 0.7071 7083 7096 7108 7120 7133 7145 7157 7169 7181 7193 44°
46 7193 7206 7218 7230 7242 7254 7266 7278 7290 7302 7314 43 12
47 7314 7325 7337 7349 7361 7373 7385 7396 7408 7420 7431 42
48 7431 7443 7455 7466 7478 7490 7501 7513 7524 7536 7547 41
49 7547 7559 7570 7581 7593 7604 7615 7627 7638 7649 7660 40
50 0.7660 7672 7683 7694 7705 7716 7727 7738 7749 7760 7771 39
51 7771 7782 7793 7804 7815 7826 7837 7848 7859 7869 7880 38 "
52 7880 7891 7902 7912 7923 7934 7944 7955 7965 7976 7986 37
53 7986 7997 8007 8018 8028 8039 8049 8059 8070 8080 8090 36
54 8090 8100 8111 8121 8131 8141 8151 8161 8171 8181 8192 35
55 0.8192 8202 8211 8221 8231 8241 8251 8261 8271 8281 8290 34 i»
56 8290 8300 8310 8320 8329 8339 8348 8358 8368 8377 8387 33
bl 8387 8396 8406 8415 8425 8434 8443 8453 8462 8471 8480 32
58 8480 8490 8499 8508 8517 8526 8536 8545 8554 8563 8572 31
59 8572 8581 8590 8599 8607 8616 8625 8634 8643 8652 8660 30 9
60 0.8660 8669 8678 8686 8695 8704 8712 8721 8729 8738 8746 29
61 8746 8755 8763 8771 8780 8788 8796 8805 8813 8821 8829 28
62 8829 8838 8846 8854 8862 8870 8878 8886 8894 8902 8910 27 8
63 8910 8918 8926 8934 8942 8949 8957 8965 8973 8980 8988 26
. 64 8988 8996 9003 9011 9018 9026 9033 9041 9048 9056 9063 25
65 0.9063 9070 9078 9085 9092 9100 9107 9114 9121 9128 9135 24
66 9135 9143 9150 9157 9164 9171 9178 9184 9191 9198 9205 23 '
67 9205 9212 9219 9225 9232 9239 9245 9252 9259 9265 9272 22
68 9272 9278 9285 9291 9298 9304 9311 9317 9323 9330 9336 21
69 9336 9342 9348 9354 9361 9367 9373 9379 9385 9391 9397 20 8
70 0.9397 9403 9409 9415 9421 9426 9432 9438 9444 9449 9455 19
71 9455 9461 9466 9472 9478 9483 9489 9494 9500 9505 9511 18
72 9511 9516 9521 9527 9532 9537 9542 9548 9553 9558 9563 17
Ti 9563 9568 9573 9578 9583 9588 9593 9598 9603 9608 9613 16 5
74. 9613 9617 9622 9627 9632 9636 9641 9646 9650 9655 9659 15
75 0.9659 9664 9668 9673 9677 9681 9686 9690 9694 9699 9703 14
76 9703 9707 9711 9715 9720 9724 9728 9732 9736 9740 9744 1 3 ••
77 9744 9748 9751 9755 9759 9763 9767 9770 9774 9778 9781 12
78 9781 9785 9789 9792 9796 9799 9803 9806 9810 9813 9816 11
79 9816 9820 9823 9826 9829 9833 9836 9839 9842 9845 9848 10
80 0.9848 9851 9854 9857 9860 9863 9866 9869 9871 9874 9877 9 3
81 9877 9880 9882 9885 9888 9890 9893 9895 9898 9900 9903 8
82 9903 9905 9907 9910 9912 9914 9917 9919 9921 9923 9925 7
83 9925 9928 9930 9932 9934 9936 9938 9940 9942 9943 9945 •6 2
84 9945 9947 9949 9951 9952 9954 9956 9957 9959 9960 9962 5
85 0.9962 9963 9965 9966 9968 9969 9971 9972 9973 9974 9976 4
86 9976 9977 9978 9979 9980 9981 9982 9983 9984 9985 9986 3 1
87 9986 9987 9988 9989 9990 9990 9991 9992 9993 9993 9994 2
88 9994 9995 9995 9996 9996 9997 9997 9997 9998 9998 9998 1
89° 9998 9999 9999 9999 9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0°o
Co"iplement 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 Angle
NATURAL COSINES
TABLE 4. NATURAL TANGENTS AND COTANGENTS

NATURAL TANGENTS
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 Complement

Angle 0.7 0.9
difference
0° 0.0000 0017 0035 0052 0070 0087 0105 0122 0140 0157 0175 89°
1 0175 0192 0209 0227 0244 0262 0279 0297 0314 0332 0349 88
2 0349 0367 0384 0402 04l9 0437 0454 0472 0489 0507 0524 87
3 0524 0542 0559 0577 0594 0612 0629 0647 0664 0682 0699 86
4 0699 0717 0734 0752 0769 0787 0805 0822 0840 0857 0875 85
5 0.0875 0892 0910 0928 0945 0963 0981 0998 1016 1033 1051 84
e7 1051 1069 1086 1104 1122 1139 1157 1175 1192 1210 1228 83
1228 1246 1263 1281 1299 1317 1334 1352 1370 1388 1405 82
8 1405 1423 1441 1459 1477 1495 1512 1530 1548 1566 •1584 81
9 1584 1602 1620 1638 1655 1673 1691 1709 1727 1745 1763 80
10 0.1763 1781 1799 1817 1835 1853 1871 1890 1908 1926 1944 79 "
11 1944 1962 1980 1998 2016 2035 2053 2071 2089 2107 2126 78
12 2126 2144 2162 2180 2199 2217 2235 2254 2272 2290 2309 77
13 2309 2327 2345 2364 2382 2401 2419 2438 2456 2475 2493 76
14 2493 2512 2530 2549 2568 2586 2605 2623 2642 2661 2679 75
15 0.2679 2698 2717 2736 2754 2774 2792 2811 2830 2849 2867 74
16 2867 2886 2905 2924 2943 2962 2981 3000 3019 3038 3057 73 "
17 3057 3076 3096 3115 3134 3153 3172 3191 3211 3230 3249 72
18 3249 3269 3288 3307 3327 3346 3365 3385 3404 3424 3443 71
19 3443 3463 3482 3502 3522 3541 3561 3581 3600 3620 3640 70
20 0.3640 3659 3679 3699 3719 3739 3759 3779 3799 3819 3839 69
21 3839 3859 3879 3899 3919 3939 3959 3979 4000 4020 4040 68 2»
22 4040 4061 4081 4101 4122 4142 4163 4183 4204 4224 4245 67
23 4245 4265 4286 4307 4327 4348 4369 4390 4411 4431 4452 66
24 4452 4473 4494 4515 4536 4557 4578 4599 4621 4642 4663 65 "
25 0.4663 4684 4706 4727 4748 4770 4791 4813 4834 4856 4877 64
26 4877 4899 4921 4942 4964 4986 5008 5029 5051 5073 5095 63
27 5095 5117 5139 5161 5184 5206 5228 5250 •5272 5295 5317 62 22
28 5317 5340 5362 5384 5407 5430 5452 5475 5498 5520 5543 61
29 5543 5566 5589 5612 5635 5658 5681 5704 5727 5750 5774 60 "
30 0.5774 5797 5820 5844 5867 5890 5914 5938 5961 5985 6009 59
31 6009 6032 6056 6080 6104 6128 6152 6176 6200 6224 6249 58 "
32 6249 6273 6297 6322 6346 6371 6395 6420 6445 6469 6494 57
33 6494 6519 6544 6569 6594 •6619 6644 6669 6694 6720 6745 56 2*
34 6745 6771 6796 6822 6847 6873 6899 6924 6950 6976 7002 55
35 0.7002 7028 7054 7080 7107 7133 7159 7186 7212 ' 7239 7265 54 26
36 7265 7292 7319 7346 •7373 7400 7427 7454 7481 7508 7536 53 27
37 7536 7563 7590 7618 7646 7673 7701 7729 7757 7785 7813 52 28
38 • 7813 7841 7869 7898 7926 7954 7983 8012 8040 8069 8098 51 28
39 80^8 8127 8156 8185 8214 8243 8273 8302 8332 8361 8391 50 29
40 0.8391 8421 845 i 8481 8511 8541 8571 8601 8632 8662 8693 49 «»-
41 8693 8724 8754 8785 8816 ,8847 8878 8910 8941 8972 9004 48 =1
42 9004 9036 9067 9099 •9131 '9163 9195 9228 9260 9293 9325 47 »2
43 9325 9358 9391 9424 9557 9490 9523 9556 9590 9623 9567 46 s'
44° 9657 9691 9725 9759 9793 9827 9861 9896 9930 9965 1.0000 45034
Compl ement 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 Angle
'NATURAL COTANGENTS
APPENDIX 743
TABLE 4. NATURAL TANGENTS AND COTANGENTS (Continued)
NATURAL TANGENTS
Angle 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 Comp.
45° 1.0000 1.0035 1.0070 1.0105 1.0141 1.0176 1.0212 1.0247 1.0283 1.0319 44°
46 1.0355 1.0392 1.0428 1.0464 1.0501 1.0538 1.0575 1.0612 1.0649 1.0686 43
47 1.0724 1.0761 1.0799 1.0837 1.0875 1.0913 1.0951 1.0990 1.1028 1.1067 42
48 1.1106 1.1145 1.1184 1.1224 1.1263 1.1303 1.1343 1.1383 1.1423 1.1463 41
49 1.1504 1.1544 1.1585 1.1626 1.1667 1.1708 1.1750 1.1792 1.1833 1.1875 40
50 1.1918 1.1960 1.2002 1.2045 1.2088 1.2131 1.2174 1.2218 1.2261 1.2305 59
51 1.2349 1.2393 1.2437 1.2482 1.2527 1.2572 1.2617 1.2662 1.2708 1.2753 38
52 1.2799 1.2846 1.2892 1.2938 1.2985 1.3032 1.3079 1.3127 1.3175 1.3222 37
53 1.3270 1.3319 1.3367 1.3416 1.3465 1.3514 1.3564 1.3613 1.3663 1.3713 36
54 1.3764 1.3814 1.3865 1.3916 1.3968 1.4019 1.4071 1.4124 1.4176 1.4229 35
55 1.4281 1.4335 1.4388 1.4442 1.4496 1.4550 1.4605 1.4659 1.4715 1.4770 34
56 1.4826 1.4882 1.4938 1.4994 1.5051 1.5108 1.5166 1.5224 1.5282 1.5340 33
57 1.5399 1.5458 1.5517 1.5577 1.5637 1.5697 1.5757 1.5818 1.5880 1.5941 32
58 1.6003 1.6066 1.6128 1.6191 1.6255 1.6319 1.6383 1.6447 1.6512 1.6577 31
59 1.6643 1.6709 1.6775 1.6842 1.6909 1.6977 1.7045 1.7113 1.7182 1.7251 30
60 1.7321 1.7391 1.7461 1.7532 1.7603 1.7675 1.7747 1.7820 1.7893 1.7966 29
61 1.8040 1.8115 1.8190 1.8265 1.8341 1.8418 1.8495 1.8572 1.8650 1.8728 28
62 1.8807 1.8887 1.8967 1.9047 1.9128 1.9210 1.9292 1.9375 1.9458 1.9542 27
63 1.9626 1.9711 1.9797 1.9883 1.9970 2.0057 2.0145 2.0233 2.0323 2.0413 26
64 2.0503 2.0594 2.0686 2.0778 2.0872 2.0965 2.1060 2.1155 2.1251 2.1348 25
65 2.145 2.154 2.164 2.174 2.184 2.194 2.204 2.215 2.225 2.236 24
66 2.246 2.257 2.267 2.278 2.289 2.300 2.311 2.322 2.333 2.344 23
67 2 .'356 2.367 2.379 2.391 2.402 2.414 2.426 2.438 2.450 2.463 22
68 2.475 2.488 2.500 2.513 2.526 2.539 2.552 2.565 2.578 2.592 21
69 2.605 2.619 2.633 2.646 2.660 2.675 2.689 2.703 2.718 2.733 20
70 2.747 2.762 2.778 2.793 2.808 2.824 2.840 2.856 2.872 2.888 19
71 2.904 2.921 2.937 2.954 2.971 2.989 3.006 3.024 3.042 3.060 18
72 3.078 3.096 3.115 3.133 3.152 3.172 3.191 3.211 3.230 3.250 17
73 3.271 3.291 3.312 3.333 3.354 3.376 3.398 3.420 3.442 3.465 16
74 3.487 3.511 3.534 3.558 3.582 3.606 3.630 3.655 3.681 3.700 15
75 3.732 3.758 3.785 3.812 3.839 3.867 3.895 3.923 3.952 3.981 14
76 4.011 4.041 4.071 4.102 4.134 4.165 4.198 4.230 4.264 4.297 13
77 4.331 4.366 4.402 4.437 4.474 4.511 4.548 4.58& 4.625 4.665 12
78 4.705 4.745 4.787 4.829 4.872 4.915 4.959 5.005 5.050 5.097 11
79 5.145 5.193 5.242 5.292 5.343 5.396 5.449 5.503 5.558 5.614 10
80 5.67 5.73 5.79 5.85 5.91 5.98 6.04 6.11 6.17 6.24 9
81 6.31 6.39 6.46 6.54 6.61 6.69 6.77 6.85 6.94 7.03 8
82 7.12 7.21 7.30 7.40 7.49 7.60 7.70 7.81 7.92 8.03 7
83 8.14 8.26 8.39 8.51 8.64 8.78 8.92 9.06 9.21 9.36 6
84 9.51 9.68 9.84 10.0 10.2 10.4 10.6 10.8 11.0 11.2 5
85 11.4 11.7 11.9 12.2 12.4 12.7 13.0 13.3 13.6 14.0 4
86 14.3 14.7 15.1 15.5 15.9 16.3 16.8 17.3 17.9 18.5 3
87 19.1 19.7 20.4 21.2 22.0 22.9 23.9 24.9 26.0 27.3 2
88 28.6 30.1 31.8 33.7 35.8 38.2 40.9 44.1 47.7 52.1 1
89° 57. 64. 72. 82. 95. 115. 143. 191. 286. 573. 0°
Angle 1.0 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 1 0.1
NATURAL COTANGENTS
TABLE 5. LOGARITHMS
Only the mantissa (or fractional part) of the logarithm is given. Each mantissa
should be preceded by a decimal point and the proper characteristic
100-500
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 0000 0043 0086 0128 0170 0212 0253 0294 0334 0374
11 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 0607 0645 0682 0719 0755
12 0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 0969 1004 1038 1072 1106
13 1139 1173 1206 1239 1271 1303 1335 1367 1399 1430
14 1461 1492 1523 1553 1584 1614 1644 1673 1703 1732
15 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 1903 1931 1959 1987 2014
16 2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 2175 2201 2227 2253 2279
17 2304 2330 2355 2380 2405 2430 2455 2480 2504 2529
18 2553 2577 2601 2625 2648 2672 2695 2718 2742 2765
19 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2900 2923 2945 2967 2989
20 3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201
21 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404
22 3424 3444 3464 3483 3502 3522 3541 3560 3579 3598
23 3617 3636 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 3747 3766 3784
24 3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 3892 3909 3927 3945 3962
25 3979 3997 4014 4031 4048 4065 4082 4099 4116 4133
26 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281 4298
27 4314 4330 4346 4362 4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456
28 4472 4487 4502 4518 4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609
29 4624 4639 4654 4669 4683 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757
30 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 4900
31 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4997 5011 5024 5038
32 5051 5065 5079 5092 5105 5119 5132 5145 5159 5172
33 5185 5198 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 5302
34 5315 5328 5340 5353 5366 5378 5391 5403 5416 5428
35 5441 5453 5465 5478 5490 5502 5514 5527 5539 5551
36 5563 5575 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 5647 5658 5670
37 5682 5694 5705 5717 5729 5740 5752 5763 5775 5786
38 5798 5809 5821 5832 5843 5855 5866 5877 5888 5899
39 5911 5922 5933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 5999 6010
40 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6096 6107 6117
41 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 6222
42 6232 •6243 6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304. 6314 6325
43 6335 6345 6355 6365 6375 6385' 6395 6405' 6415 6425
44 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 6522
45 6532 6542 6551 6561 6571 6580 6590 6599 6609 6618
46 6628 6637 6646 6656 66i55 6675 6684 6693 6702 6712
47 •^6721 .6730 6739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803
48 6812 6821 6830 6839 6848 6857 6866 6875 6884 6893
49 690'2 6911 6920 6928 •6937 6946 6955 6964 6972 6981
50 6990 6998 7007 7616 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 7067
N 0 ., 1 2 , "3 4 5 6 7. 8 9
100-500
APPENDIX 745
TABLE 5. LOGARITHMS (Continued)
500-1000
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
50 6990 6998 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 7067
51 7076 7084 7093 7101 7110 7118 7126 7135 7143 7152
52 7160 7168 7177 7185 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 7235
53 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 7300 7308 7316
54 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7396
55 7404 7412 7419 7427 7435 7443 7451 7459 7466 7474
56 7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7528 7536 7543 7551
57 7559 7566 7574 7582 7589 7597 7604 7612 7619 7627
58 7634 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701
59 7709 7716 7723 7731 7738 7745 7752 7760 7767 7774
60 7782 7789 7796 7803 7810 7818 7825 7832 7839 7846
61 7853 7860 7868 7875 7882 7889 7896 7903 7910 7917
62 7924 7931 7938 7945 7952 7959 7966 7973 7980 7987
63 7993 8000 8007 8014 8021 8028 8035 8041 8048 8055
64 8062 8069 8075 8082 8089 8096 8102 8109 8116 8122
65 8129 8136 8142 •8149 8156 8162 8169 8176 8182 8189
66 8195 8202 8209 8215 8222 8228 8235 8241 8248 8254
67 8261 8267 8274 8280 8287 8293 8299 8306 8312 8319
68 8325 8331 8338 8344 8351 8357 8363 8370 8376 8382
69 8388 8395 8401 8407 8414 8420 8426 8432 8439 8445
70 8451 8457 3463 8470 8476 8482 8488 8494 8500 8506
71 8513 8519 8525 8531 8537 8543 8549 8555 8561 8567
72 8573 8579 8585 8591 8597 8603 8609 8615 8621 8627
73 8633 8639 8645 8651 8657 8663 8669 8675 8681 8686
74 8692 8698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 8739 8745
75 8751 8756 8762 8768 8774 8779 8785 8791 8797 8802
76 8808 8814 8820 8825 8831 8837 8842 8848 8854 8859
77 ' 8865 8871 8876 8882 8887 8893 8899 8904 8910 8915
78 8921 8927 8932 8938 8943 8949 8954 8960 8965 8971
79 8976 8982 8987 8993 8998 9004 9009 9015 9020 9025
80 9031 9036 9042 9047 9053 9058 9063 9069 9074 9079
81 9085 9090 9096 9101 9106 9112 9117 9122 9128 9133
82 9138 9143 9149 9154 9159 9165 9170 9175 9180 9186
83 9191 9196 9201 9206 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232 9238
84 9243 9248 9253 9258 9263 9269 9274 9279 9284 9289
85 9294 9299 9304 9309 9315 9320 9325 9330 9335 9340
86 9345 9350 9355 9360 9365 9370 9375 9380 9385 9390
87 9395 9400 9405 9410 9415 9420 9425 9430 9435 9440
88 9445 9450 9455 9460 9465 9469 9474 9479 9484 9489
89 9494 9499 9504 9509 9513 9518 9523 9528 9533 9538
90 9542 9547 9552 9557 9562 9566 9571 9576 9581 9586
91 9590 9595 9600 9605 9609 9614 9619 9624 9628 9633
92 9638 9643 9647 9652 9657 9661 9666 9671 9675 9680
93 9685 9689 9694 9699 9703 9708 9713 9717 9722 9727
94 9731 9736 9741 ^"9745 9750 9754 9759 9763 9768 9773
95 9777 9782 9786 9791 9795 9800 9805 9809 9814 9818
96 9823 9827 9832 9836 9841 9845 9850 9854 9859 9863
97 9868 9872 9877 9881 9886 9890 9894 9899 9903 9908
98 9912 9917 9921 9926 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9952
99 995"6 9961 9965 9969 9974 9978 9983 9987 9991 9996
100 0000 0004 0009 0013 0017 0022 0026 0030 0035 0039
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
500-1000
Index
Angle, of contact, 220
table, 221
Aberration, chromatic, 667 critical, 608, 622
spherical, 596, 621, 623 of incidence and reflection, 318, 585, 597
Absolute potential, 381, 385 of minimum deviation, 609, 623
Absolute temperature scale, 238, 285 of polarization, 698, 709
Absorption of sound, 337, 338, 357 of refraction, 319, 602
coefficient of, 357 of repose, 69, 72
table, 358 Angstrom unit, 564
Acceleration, 33, 38, 42 Angular acceleration. 111
angular. 111, 118 Angular impulse, 129
due to gravity, 35, 44 Angular momentum, 128, 134
Accuracy, 10, 730 Angular motion, 110
Achromatic lens, 666, 676 Newton's laws for, 115, 119
Achromatic prism, 666, 676 imiformly accelerated, 111
Acoustics, 4, 343 vector properties of, 129
of rooms, 357 Angular speed, 110
Action and reaction, 141 Anode, 459
Addition of vectors, 14 Anticyclone, 299, 304
component method, 19 Antinode, 321, 323
parallelogram method, 15 Aperture, lens, 689
polygon method, 17 mirror, 589
Additive production of colors, 654, 662 Arc lamp, 567
Adhesion, 2 n , 224 Archimedes' principle, 178, 182
Adiabatic lapse rate, 298 Armature, 393, 517
Adiabatic process, 280, 288
current in, 522
Air, 202
Astigmatism, lens, 622, 623
mass of, 302, 305 ocular, 631
pressure, 202 Atmosphere (a unit), 174
resistance, 37, 59, 62, 70 Atmospheric pressure, 205
Airfoil, 194, 198
and height, table, 295
Alnico, 491
Atom, ionization of, 714
Alpha particle, 721, 724, 726
structure of, 375
Alternating current, 393, 517, 539, 548
Atomic mass, 719, 727
Alternating-current circuit, 545, 548, 555
Atomic number, 375, 718, 723, 727
power in, 546, 549
Audibility, limits of, 349
Altimeter, 295
Ammeter^ 436, 440
Ampere, 3, 396, 398 B
international, 461
Ampere turns, 491 Back emf, 499, 511
Ampere's law, 422, 425, 426 in motor, 522, 525
Amplification of sound, 330 Ballistics, 55
Amplifier, electron-tube, 558 Banking of curves, 143, 147
Amplitude, 315, 323 Bar, 206
Analyzer, 696, 697 Barkla, 263
Anderson, 563 Barometer, aneroid, 206, 210, 295
Angle, 110 mercury, 204, 210
747
Barometric pressure, 205, 294, 304 Cathode, 459, 559

and height, table, 295 Cathode rays, 714, 725
Batteries, 409, 411 Cathode-ray tube, 715, 725
storage, 455, 468 Caustic, 596, 606
Beats, 336, 338, 354 Cell, Daniell, 466
Becquerel, 41 dry, 464
Bel, 350, 359 Edison, 466
Belt horsepower, 83 nonpolarizing, 466
Bemouilli's theorem, 191, 198 in parallel, 410, 413
Beta particle, 722, 726 primary, 391
Binaural effect, 356 in series, 409, 413
Binocular, prism, 639 standard, 467, 468
Binocular vision, 633, 642 storage, 465
Blackbody, 268, 271 voltaic, 463, 468
Blackbody radiation, 671 Center of gravity, 102, 105
Bohr, 343 Centigrade scale, 229, 243
Boiling point, 255, 259 Centimeter, 7
table, 739 of mercury, 174
Boyle's law, 207, 210, 240, 280 Central acceleration, 138, 146
Bragg, W. H., 227 Centrifugal reaction, 142, 147
Bragg, W. L., 247 Centripetal force, 139, 147
Brake horsepower, 82 Chadwick, 539
Braun, 149 Change of state, 251, 255
Breaking stress, table, 165 Charge, electric, 374, 377
Brewster's law, 698, 709 unit, 378, 384
Bridge, Wheatstone, 444, 454 Charges, force between, 377
Bridgman, 711 Charging of condenser, 534
Brightness, 648, 662 Charles's laws, 241
Brinell hardness number, 169, 171 Chemical equivalent, 461
table, 165 ; Choke coil, 546
British thermal unit (Btu), 248, 259, Chromatic aberration, 667
277 Circle, of contusion, 641
Brownian movement, 223, 224 of reference, 152
Bulk modulus, 166, 171 Circuits, 401, 408
table, 167 a-c, 545
Buoyancy, 178, 202 inductive, 500, 508
parallel, 406, 412
C series, 404, 412
Circular mil, 448
Calorie, 248, 259, 277 Circulation of air, 266, 297, 304
Calorimeter, 250, 259 Clock diagram, for a-c circuit, 545
electric, 47*4 Cloud, 301, 305
Camera, 640 i , Coefficient, of absorption, 358
Candle, 569, 579 of expansion, 232, 243
Capacitance, 528, 536 table, 234, 235
of parallel-plate condenser, 530, 536 of friction, 67, 72
Capacitive reactancfe, 544, 548 of pressure change, 237
Capillarity, 221 of restitution, 127
Camot cycle, 283, 285 of rigidity, 167, 171
INDEX
749
Coefficient, of viscosity, 71 Conduction, electrolytic, 458
of volume elasticity, 166, 171, 208 thermal, 264, 271
Coercive force, 490 Conjugate foci, 591
Cohesion, 217, 224 Conservation, of angular momentum, 128,
Collecting rings, 517 134
Collisions, elastic and inelastic, 127 of energy, 92, 93, 278, 499
Color, 648, 662 of mass and energy, 720, 726
by absorption, 655, 662 of momentum, 125, 134
by addition, 654, 662 Consonance, 354
physical correlates of, 649, 662 Convection, 266, 271, 297
production of, 663, 676, 704 Conventional current, 392
of sky, 672 Convex mirror, 589, 597
specification of, 660, 662 Copper loss, 506
surface, 649 Corpuscular theory of light, 579
unattached, 649 Cosine, 733
Color blindness, 652 table, 740
Color filters, 658 Cost of electric energy, 478, 482
Color mixtures, 654, 662 Coulomb, 396, 398
Color photography, 674 Coulombmeter, 461
Color printing, 675 'Coulomb's law, in electrostatics, 377, 384
Color solid, 649 in magnetism, 363, 369
Color vision, 651, 653 Couple, 104, 105
Colorimetry, 660 Critical angle, 608, 622
Commutator, 518 Critical point, 257, 260
Compass,,magnetic, 367 Crookes dark space, 713
Complementaries, 654, 662 Crystal, dichroic, 701
Complexity of sound wave, 344, 346, 359 doubly refracting, 700
Component of vector, 17, 27 Curie, Marie, 65
Component method of adding vectors, 19, Curie, Pierre, 55
27 Current, 390, 398 -^
Compressibility, 167, 171 alternating, 393, 517, 539
Compressional wave, 310, 326, 337, 343 direct, 518
Compton, 'A. H., 429 direction of, 392, 422
Computation, rules for, 730 effective (rms), 541, 548
Concave mirror, 589, 597 effects of, 394, 398, 417
Concurrent forces, 101 force on, 421, 426
Condensers, 527, 536 heating effect of, 472, 482
air, 529 induced, 498
capacitance of, 528 direction of, 499, 501
charging of, 534 • sources of, 391
discharging of, 535 unit of, 396
electrolytic, 529 Current sensitivity, 432, 440
energy of, 535, 536 Curvature, center of, 589
in parallel, 531, 536 radius of, 589
parallel plate, 530,,536 Curvilinear motion, 145
in series, 532, 536 Cycle, 281, 517, 541
Conduction, electrical, 376 Camot, 283, 285
of electricity through gases, 712, 725 Cyclone, 299, 304
D Doppler's principle, 337, 339

Daldn, 187 Drag of airfoil, 190, 195
Damping, 316 Dry cell, 464
Daniell cell, 466 Ductility, 169
Davisson, 583 Dynamo, 518
de Broglie, 471 Dyne, 43, 50, 738
Decibel, 350, 359
Declination, 368, 370 E
Density, 175, 182
tables, 176, 203 Ear, 351
Depth of field, 641 sensitivity of, 348
Detector, electron-tube, 558 Echo, 335, 338
Deuterium, 720, 724 Eclipse, 566
Deviation, minimum angle of, 665, 675
Eddy currents, 506, 511
Dew point, 300, 304
Edison cell, 466
Dewar flask, 269 •
Effective current and voltage, 541, 548
Diamagnetism, 487, 493
Efficiency, 78, 83
Diatonic scale, table, 354
Dichroic crystals, 701 of heat engine, 284, 286, 289
Dielectric, 529 luminous, 576
Dielectric constant, 378 - Einstein, 325
Elastic fatigue, 168
table, 531 Elastic limit, 165, 170
Diffraction, 319, 323 Elasticity, 164, 170
of light waves, 686, 692
coefficients of, table, 165
by circular aperture, 689 of shear, 167
by double slit, 680 volume, 166
at edge of shadow, 687 Electric calorimeter, 474
by grating, 689, 692 Electric currents in gases, 712, 725
by screen, 682 Electric energy, 472, 481
by sUt, 687 cost, 478, 482
Diffraction grating, 689, 692
distribution of, 504
Diffraction pattern, 687
Electric field, 378, 384
Diffusion, 222, 224
intensity of, 380, 384
Diode, 556, 561
Electric furnace, 475
Diopter, 618
Dip needle, 368 Electric lamp, 567
Dirac, 527 Electric potential, 380, 385
Discharge, of condenser, 535 Electricity, 4, 373
Electrification, 374
electric, 713, 725
Electrochemical equivalent, 461
Dispersion, optical, ,664, 676
anomalous, 665 table, 462
table, 6651 Electrolysis, 459
Displacement, 1'4 , Faraday's laws of, 460, 468
Dissociation, 458 Electrolytes, 458, 467
Dissonance, 354 Electrolytic cell, 395
Distribution of electric energy, 504 Electromagnet, 419
Dominant wavelength, 650 Electromagnetic induction, 498
Double refraction, 699 Electromagnetic units, 363, 398
Doldrums, 297 Electromagnetic waves, 565, 651, 696
INDEX
751
Electromotive force, 402 Eye, blind spot of, 629
{See also Emf) refractive errors, 630, 642
Electron, 375, 390, 724 sensitivity, 632
free, 376
Electron flow, 392
Electron tubes, 556, 561
Electron volt, 718, 726 /-number, 640, 643
Electronics, 551 Fahrenheit scale, 229, 243
Electroplating, 460 Falling bodies, 35, 38
Electrostatic units, 378, 398 table, 36
E i f , 402 terminal speed of, 37, 38, 70
back, 499, 511, 522, 525 Farad, 529, 536
forward, 499, 511 Faraday, 462, 468
in generator, 520, 524 Faraday dark space, 713
induced, 498, 501 Faraday's laws, 460, 468
direction of, 499, 501 Farsightedness, 630, 642
in straight wire, 502, 511 • Fathometer, 335
measurement of, 453 Fatigue, elastic, 168
Energy, 77, 83, 87, 93, 477 Fermi, 627
conservation of, 92, 93, 278, 499 Ferromagnetism, 488, 493
electric, 472, 475, 481 Field,-electric, 378, 384
distribution of, 504 magnetic, 364, 370
heat, 248, 263, 276 Field magnet, 518, 519
kinetic, 77, 89 Figures, significant, 10, 731
of rotation, 116, 119, 120 Filters, color, 658
potential, 77, 88 First law of thermodynamics, 278, 288, 473
transformations of, 92 Fission, nuclear, 723, 727
Engine, Carnot, 283, 285 Fixed point, 229, 243
diesel, 288 Fleming's generator rule, 501
internal combustion, 287 Fluid, 174, 187
steam, 281 internal friction in, 70, 72
Equilibrant, 23 Fluid flow, 71, 188
Equilibrium, 20, 27, 98 steady, 189
first condition for, 20, 27, 101, 105 turbulent, 189
second condition for, 102, 105 Fluorescence, 672, 676
Equipotential surface, 383, 385 Fluorescent lamp, 567, 672
Erg, 76 Fluoroscope, 717
Evenly tempered scale, table, 355 Flux, luminous, 567, 579
Exit pupil, 638 magnetic, 486, 493
Expansion, 232, 243 Flux density, 486, 493
coefficient of, table, 234, 235 Focal length, 590, 597, 611
of gases, 236 Focus, principal, 590, 597, 611
linear, 232 Fog, 301, 305
of solids, 234 Foot-candle, 571, 580
volume, 235 Foot-candle meter, 575, 580
of water, 236 Foot-pound, 76, 277
Extraordinary ray, 700 Force, 42
Eye, 628, 642 concurrent and nonconcurrent, 101
accommodation, 629, 642 on current, 421, 426
Force, between currents, 425, 426 Generator, d-c, 518, 524

moment of, 100 emf in, 520
reacting, 48, SO rule, 501
Forward emf, 499, 500, 511 two- and three-phase, 520
Foucault currents, 506, 511 Geometrical optics, 564
Franck, 389 Gilbert, 491
Fraunhofer lines, 670 Governor, 143
Free electrons, 376, 390 Gradient, temperature, 264, 271
Freezing point, 229, 255, 259 Gram, 7, 738
Frequencies of vowel sounds, table, 353 Graphs, construction of, 734
Frequency, 152, 159, 313, 322, 517 Grating, diffraction, 689, 692
of alternating current, 541, 548, 555 Grating spectrometer, 691
of sound, 345, 359 Gravitation, 49, 51
Friction, 65, 72 Gravitational constant (G), 49
coefficient of, 67, 72 Gravity, 8, 35, 49, 51
fluid, 70 specific, 179, 182
limiting, 68 Grid, 557
rolling, 69 Guillaume, 307
sliding, 66 Gyroscope, 132, 134
static, 68
Front (air mass), 303, 305 H
Fundamental quantities, 6, 10
Fundamental units, 6, 10 Half-wave plate, 705
Furnace, electric, 475 Hardness, 169
Fuse, 475 table, 165
Harmonic motion, 150
G Harmonics, 331, 338
g (acceleration due to gravity), 35, 38, 44 Heat, 4, 248, 259, 263, 271, 276
Gain plate, 461 of fusion, 251, 259
Galilean telescope, 639, 643 transfer of, 264
Galvanometer, 430, 440 by conduction, 264, 271
Galvanometer sensitivity, 431, 440 by convection, 266, 271
Galvano-volt-ammeter, 434 by radiation, 267, 271
Gamma rays, 721, 726 of vaporization, 252, 259
Gas, 173 Heat engines, 281
coefficient of volume expansion of, 237 efficiency of, 284-286, 289
kinetic theory of, 214 Heating effect of current, 472, 482, 541
pressure coefficient of, 237 Heating element, 473 '
ratio of specific heats of, 279, 329 Heisenberg, 497
Gas constant,. 241 Helix, 418, 420 f''
Gas law, 241, 243 Henry, 509
Gas therrtfometer, 237 Hertz, 401
Gases, con'duction of êlectricity through, Hess, 551 _ ^^
712, 725 Hooke's law, 164, 171';;,
Gauge pressure, 207, 210 Horse latitudes, 297
Gauss, 486, 493 Horsepower, 80, 83
Geissler tube, 713' •. brake, 82
Generator, 393, 398,f515, 524 Horsepower-hour, 81
a-c, 517, 519, 524''>> Hue, 648, 662
INDEX 753
Humidity, 300, 304 Interference, measurement of wavelength
Huygens's principle, 320, 584, 595,-603, by, 686
611,680,700 Newton's rings, 684, 692
Hydraulic press, 181 of polarized light, 703
Hyperfocal distance, 641 of waves, 316, 323, 336, 338
Hysteresis, elastic, 166 Young's experiment on, 680
magnetic, 490, 493 Interference fringes, 681
Hysteresis loop, 490, 493 Interferometer, 685, 692
Internal resistance, 402
Internal-combustion engine, 287
International ampere, 461
Ideal radiator, 268 ^ Interval, musical, 353
Illuminance, 567, 570, 579 diatonic, 355
table, 572 tempered, 355
Illumination, 570 Inverse square law, 351
Image, formation of, by lens, 613 Ionization by collision, 714
by mirror, 591 Ions, production of, 712, 714, 725
real and virtual, 591, 593, 613, 623 Iron loss, 506
virtual, 586, 597 Irreversible process, 280
Impedance, 544, 548 Isobars, 300, 304
Impulse, 126, 133 Isogenic lines, 368
angular, 129 Isothermal process, 279, 288
Index of refraction, 602, 622 Isotopes, 719, 726
absolute, 603, 622
measurement, 610
table, 605, 665
Indicator diagrain, 282 Joule, J . P., 277
Induced current, 498 Joule, 76, 81, 277
direction of, 499, 501 Joule's law, 473
Induced emf, 498, 511
direction of, 499, 501 K
in a straight wire, 502, 511
Inductance, mutual, 509, 512 Kelvin, Lord, 285
self-, 507, 511 Kelvin temperature scale, 239, 285, 289
Induction, electromagnetic, 498 Kepler's laws, 146
magnetic, 486, 493 Kilogram, 7
magnetization by, 364 KUowatt, 80
Induction motor, 523, 525 Kilowatt-hour, 81
Inductive circuit, 500, 508, 510 Kinetic energy, 77, 89, 94
Inductive reactance, 543, 548 of rotation, 116, 119
Inertia, 7, 42* Kirchhoflf's law (radiation), 671
Infrared radiation, 565
Insulators, 376, 534
Intensity, luminous, 568, 579
of a wave, 315 Lagging current, 542, 548
Intensity level, 350, 359 Lamps, 567
table, 351 fluorescent, 672
Interference, conditions for, 317, 681, 692 Lapse rate, 298, 304
of light waves, 679, 691 Laue, von, 213
Lawrence, 647 Looming, 607

Leading current, 543, 548 Lorentz, 31
Left-hand rule, 422 Loudness, 344, 348, 359
Lenard, 87 Loud-speaker, 355
Length, 6 Lubrication, 68, 71
Lens, achromatic, 666, 676 Lumen, 569, 579
chromatic aberration of, 667 Luminance, 650
circle of confusion, 641 Luminous efficiency, 576
in contact, 617 Luminous flux, 567, 579
converging and diverging, 610, 623 Luminous intensity, 568, 579
depth of field of, 641, 643 mean spherical, 569
eyepiece, 635, 637 Luminous reflectance, 661
/ - n u m b e r of, 640, 643 Luminous transmittance, 661
focal length of, 611, 618, 623 Lummer-Brodhun prism, 574
magnification by, 634 Lux, 570
microscope, 635
objective, 635, 637 M
power of, 618
resolving power of, 688, 692 Machines, 77, 83
telescope, 637, 639, 642 Magnetic alloys, 490, 494
Lens equation, 615, 623 Magnetic circuit, 491
Lens-maker's equation, 618, 623
Magnetic compass, 367
Lenz's law, 499, 511
Magnetic dip needle, 368
Lift, airfoil, 194
Magnetic effect of current, 418, 425
Light, 564, 579
Magnetic field, in circular loop, 420, 426
electromagnetic theory of, 696
due to current, 418, 425
monochromatic, 650
direction of, 364
plane polarized, 696, 709
of solenoid, 418, 426
sources, 566, 579
near straight current, 419, 426
wave property of, 584, 597
strength of, 365, 370
Light rays, 565, 579
in torroidal coil, 421
Light vector, 696
Magnetic hysteresis, 490, 493
Light waves, 565
Lighting, 572 Magnetic lines of force, 367, 370
Lightness, 649 Magnetic pole, 362, 369
Limiting angle, 69, 72 unit, 363, 369
Line loss, 505 Magnetic reluctance, 491, 494
Linear and angular motion, compared, 118 in series and in parallel, ,492
Linear magnification, 615, 623 Magnetic saturation, 489, 493
Lines offeree, electric, 379, 383 Magnetism, 4, 361
magnetic, 367, 370 Magnetization curve, 488
Lippman, 123 Magnetizing force, 488
Liquid flow, 188;, Magnetomotive force, 491, 494
through constriction, 190, 192 Magnets, 362, 369
trom orifice, 195 Magnification, 595, 597, 615, 623
Liquid pressure, 174, 177, 182 Magnifier, 634, 642
Local action, 464 Malleability, 169
Logarithms, table, 744 Manometer, 207
Longitudinal wave, 310, 322 Marconi, 137
INDEX 755
Mass, 7 Momentum, angular, 128, 134
variation of, with speed, 720, 726 conservation of, 125, 134
Mass spectrograph, 718 Motion, 31
Mass-energy equation, 720, 726 accelerated, 33
Maxwell, 486, 493^ angular, vector properties of, 129
Mean spherical luminous intensity, 569 laws of, 42
Measurement, 5, 10 linear and angular compared, 118
direct and indirect, 6 projectile, 55
Mechanical advantage, actual, 77, 83 uniformly accelerated, 33, 38
ideal, 78, 83 uniformly accelerated angular. 111
Mechanical equivalent of heat, 277, 288, Motor, 515
473, 482 back emf in, 522, 525
Mechanics, 4 induction, 523, 525
Megohm sensitivity, 432, 440 torque in, 521
Meson, 724 Motor rule, 422
Meteorology, 293, 304 Multiplying resistor, voltmeter, 435, 440
Meter, 7 Munsell color atlas, 660
Meter errors, 439 Musical scales, 353, 359
Meter-candle, 571, 580 Mutual inductance, 509, 512
Meter-range formulas, 439, 440
Method of mixtures, 250, 259 N
Michelson, 109, 577
Michelson interferometer, 685, 692 Nearsightedness, 630, 642
Microfarad, 529 Negative glow, 713
Micron, 564 Neutrino, 724
Microphone, 356 Neutron, 375, 722, 724, 726
Microscope, 635, 642 Newton, Sir Isaac, 8, 42, 49
. Millibar, 206, 210 Newton (unit), 738
Millikan, 361 Newton's law of cooling, 270
Minimum deviation by prism, 609, 622, Newton's law of gravitation, 49, 51
665, 675 Newton's laws of motion, 42, 48, 50, 115
Mirages, 607, 622 units in, 43, 44, 50, 738
Mirror equation, 593, 597 Nicol prism, 701
Mirro)^ plane, 586 Node, 321, 323
spherical, 589, 597 Noise, 344
Mixtures, method of, 250, 259 Nonpolarizing cell, 466
Modem physics, 5, 711 Nuclear physics, 722
Modulus of elasticity, 165, 171 Nucleus, 375
bulk, 166, 171, 209
O
shear, 167, 171
Young's, 165,171 Occlusion, 304, 305
Moist-adiabatic lapse rate, 298 Octave, 354
Molecular theory of gases, 214, 224 Oersted, 365, 370
Moment, of force, 100 Ohm, 396
of torsion, 157, 159 Ohm's law, 396, 399, 402, 403, 412, 500
of inertia, 112, 119 Onnes, Kamerlingh, 201
table, 113 M Optic axis, 699
Moment arm, 99, 105 Optical dispersion, 664, 673, 676
Momentum, 124, 133 Optical lever, 587, 597
Optical rotation, 703, 709 Planck's constant, 565

Optical thickness, 605 Plane of polarization, 696
Optically active material, 703, 709 Plane mirrors, 586, 597
Optics, 4, 564 Plane polarization, 321, 696
geometrical, 564 Planetary motion, 146, 147
physical, 564 Poise, 71, 72
physiological, 564 Polar easterlies, 297
Ordinary ray, 700 Polarimeter, 703
Oscillations, electric, 554, 561 Polarization, 320, 323, 464, 468
Oscilloscope, 348 of light, 695, 708
cathode-ray, 715, 725 by Nicol prism, 701
Osmosis, 223, 224 plane of, 696
Overtones, 331, 338 by reflection, 697
by scattering, 703
by selective absorption, 701
Polarized light, applications of, 706
Parallel circuit, 406, 410 circular, 705
Parallelogram method of adding vectors, 15 elliptical, 705
Paramagnetism, 487, 493 interference of, 703
Pascal's law, 181, 182 rotation of the plane of, 703, 709
Pauli, 695 Polarizer, 696, 697
Period, 152, 313, 322 Polarizing angle, 698, 709
Permalloy, 491 Polaroid polarizers, 702
Permeability, 363, 486 Pole, magnetic, 362, 369
Perrin, 417 unit, 363, 369 •
Phase, 313, 323, 542 Polygon method of adding vectors, 17
Phase angle, 314, 543 Positive column, 713
Phase diagrams, 256, 258 Positive rays, 718, 726
Phases of matter, 258 Positron, 724
Phonodeik, 347 Potential, absolute, 381, 385
Phosphorescence, 672, 676 electric, 380, 385
Photoelasticity, 708, 709 Potential difference, 380, 385, 396, 399
Photoelectric cell, 394, 398 Potential energy, 77, 88, 94
Photoelectric effect, 393, 559, 561 gravitational, 88, 94
Photometer, 572, 580 Potential gradient, 531
bar, 572 Potentiometer, 451, 454
Jolly, 574 Pound, 8, 738
Lummer-Brodhun, 574 Poundal, 738 • ,
Photometry, 4, ,567, 572, 580 Power, 80, 83, 116, 477
Photovoltaic cell, 559, 561 in a-c circuit, 546, 549
Physical opjtics, 564 electric, 477
Physics, 3 human, 82
Physiological optics, 564 measurement of, 81
Pendulum, 92, 156, 159 ' , in rotational motion, 116, 119
torsion, 157, 159 in sound, 349, 359
Periodic motion, 1.50 units, table, 80
Pitch, 344, 345, 359 Power of lens, 618
-V-
Titot-tube indicator, 193 Power factor, 547, 549
Planck, M a x , 275 Power losses, 506
INDEX
757
Power transformer, 503, 511 Radiation constant, 565
Precession, 131, 134 Radio, 554, 556, 558
Pressure, 174, 177, 182 • Radioactivity, 721, 726
critical, 257 Radius, of curvature, 589
in gas, 215, 224 of gyration, 114, 119
due to gravity, 174, 182 Rainbow, 672
osmotic, 223 Raman, 485
Prevailing westerlies, 297 Range, of meter, 439, 440
Prevost's theorem, 269 of projectile, 59, 62
Primaries, 654 Rankine temperature scale, 239
addition of, 655 Ray diagrams, for lenses, 613
negative, 658 for mirrors, 587, 592
subtraction of, 659 Rayleigh, Lord, 75
Primary cell, 391 Rayleigh effect, 672
Principal axis, 590, 611 Rays, 565, 579
Principal focus, 590, 597, 611 extraordinary, 700
Principal section, 699 ordinary, 700
Prism, 609, 622 Reactance, 543, 548
achromatic, 666, 676 Reacting forces, 48
dispersion by, 664 Receiver, radio, 558
minimum deviation in, 609, 665 Rectangular components, 18, 27
Prism binocular, 639 Reflection, 318, 323, 583
Problems, solution of, 44, 729 angle of, 318,585, 597
Projectile motion, 55, 62 diffuse, 586
Projectiles, 60-62 law of, 585, 597
Prony brake, 81 of light, 583
Proton, 375, 724 regular, 586
Purity, colorimetric, 622, 650 of sound, 335
Pyrometers, 232 total, 608, 622
optical, 232 Refraction, 318, 323
thermocouple, 231, 481 atmospheric, 607
double, 699
index of, 602
table, 605, 665
Quality, tone, 344, 346, 359
of light, 601, 622
Quantity of electricity, 377, 396
of sound, 333, 338
unit, 378, 396
Regelation, 256
Quantum, 565
Relative humidity, 301, 304
Quarter-wave piate, 705
Relativity, 720, 726
R Reluctance, magnetic, 491, 494
in series and parallel, 492
Rabi, 679 Remanence, 490
Radian, 110, 118 Reproduction of sound, 345, 355
Radiant energy, 268, 564, 579 Residual magnetism, 490
Radiation, 267, 271 Resistance, air, 59
infrared, 565 electric, 396, 399, 447, 454
solar, 286 internal, 402
ultraviolet, 565, 579 temperature coefficient of, 449, 454
visible, 564, 579 table, 450
Resistance thermometer, 231, 450 Sensation curves, color, 653

Resistivity, 448, 454 Sensitivity, galvanometer, 431, 440
table, 450 Series circuit, 404, 409, 412
Resistors, in parallel, 406, 412 Sextant, 588
in series, 404, 412 Shadow, 565
Resolving power of a lens, 688, 692 Shallowing effect of refraction, 605
Resonance, 157, 159 Shear modulus of elasticity, 167, 171
electric, 547, 549, 555 table, 167
Rest mass, 720 Shunt, ammeter, 437, 440
Resultant, 14, 16, 27 Siegbahn, 373
Retardation of light waves, 683, 704, 705 Significant figures, 10, 731
Reverberation, 357, 359 Simple harmonic motion (SHM), 150, 158
Reverberation time, 357 acceleration in, 152, 154
Reversible process, 280, 289 amplitude in, 152, 159
Richardson, 457 angular, 156, 159
Right-hand rule, 418, 425, 501 circle of reference for, 152
Rigidity, coefficient of, 167, 171 frequency in, 152, 159
Rockets, 61 period of, 153, 159
Rockwell heirdness number, 169 speed in, 153
Romer, 577 Sine, 733
Rontgen, 1, 716 table, 740
Root-mean-square (rms) current and volt- Sink of electric energy, 476
age, 541, 548 Siphon, 209
Rotary motion, 110 Sky, color of, 672, 703
acceleration in. 111, 118 Slide-wire potentiometer, 452, 454
compared with linear motion, 118 Slide-wire Wheatstone bridge, 446, 454
kinetic energy in, 116, 119 Slip rings, 517
Newton's laws for, 115, 119 Slug,-738
power in, 116, 119 Solar radiation, 296
speed in, 110, 118 Solenoid, 418, 420
Rotational inertia, 112, 119 Solid angle, 569
Rumford, 276 ' Solution of problems, 44, 729
Sound, 4, 325, 337
absorption of, 337, 338
Saturated vapor, 301 amplification of, 330
Saturated water-vapor table, 739 audibility,-of, 348
Saturation, light, 648, 652, 662 complexity of, 344, 346, 359
magnetic, 489, 493 detection of, 327, 356'
Saturation current, 557 frequency of, 345, 359
Scalar quantities, 14, 27 intensity of, 348, 359
Scale, musical, 353, 359 interference of, 336, 338
diatonicj; table, 354 location by, 356
evenly temp,ered, table, 355 loudness of, 344, 348, 359
Schrodinger, 515 ^ nature of, 326
Science, 2 pitch of, 344, 345
Second, 8 power in, 350, 359 v
Second law of thermodynamics, 284, 289 production of, 355 ,
Selective absorption of light, 655,-662 quality of, 344, 359
Self-inductance, 507, 511 reflection of, 335
INDEX 759
Sound, refraction of, 333, 338. Spherical mirrors, 589, 597
reproduction of, 345, 355 Standard cell, 467, 468
resonance in, 330, 338 Standing waves, 321
sources of, 330 Stark, 293
speed of, 327, 338 Statcoulomb, 378
variation of, with temperature, 329, 338 State, change of, 251, 255
wavelength of, 314, 328 Steam engine, 281
Sound wave, 325, 328 indicator diagram for, 282
Sounds, voice, 352 Steam turbine, 286
Space charge, 556 Stefan-Boltzman law, 270, 271
Specific gravity, 179, 182 Stereoscopic vision, 632, 642
table, 203 Stem, 663
Specific heat, 249, 259 Stopping distance, 90
of gas, 278 table, 91
ratio of, 280, 329 Storage cell, 465, 468
table, 249 Strain, 164, 166
Specific humidity, 301, 304 Stratosphere, 298
Spectra, absorption, 668, 676 Streamlines, 189
atomic, 670 Strength, dielectric, 531
bright line, 668, 676 of materials, 168
continuous, 668, 671, 676 ultimate, 168
electromagnetic, 651 Stress, 164, 166
emission, 668, 676 String, vibration of, 331
solar, 653, 670 Strutt, 75 fl
visible, 651 Sublimation, 255
x-ray, 718 Subtractive production of colors, 659, 662
Spectrograph, 668 Supersonic waves, 344
mass, 718 Surface tension, 218, 224
Spectrometer, 668, 676, 691 table, 219 '
Spectrophotometry, 661
Spectroscope, 667
Spectrum, characteristic, 669
. distribution of energy in, 671 Tangent, 733
order of, 690 table, 742
solar, 653, 670 Telegraph, 552, 561
types of, 668 Telephone, 553, 561
visible, 651, 662 Telescope, 636, 639, 642
white light, 653 Temperature, 228, 243
Spectrum line, 668, 676 absolute, 238
order of, 690 critical, 257
Speed, 32 , Temperature coefficient of resistance, 449,
angular, 110, 118 454
average, 32 table, 450
of lens, 640, 643 Temperature gradient, 264, 271
of light, 576, 580 Temperature scales, 229, 243
of sound, 327 centigrade, 229
table, 328 Fahrenheit, 229
of wave, 311, 322 Kelvin, 239
Spherical aberration, 596, 621, 623 Rankine, 239
Tensile strain, 164 Troposphere, 298

Tensile stress, 164 Tubes of flow, 189
Tension, interfacial, 222 Tuning a circuit, 548, 556
surface, table, 219 Turbine, 196, 286
Terminal speed, 37, 70 •<•
Terminal voltage, 403, 412 U

Terrestrial magnetism, 367, 370
Testing procedures, 170 Ultimate strength, 168
Thermal capacity, 249 Ultraviolet radiation, 555
Thermal conductivity, 255, 271 Uncertainty, 10, 730
Thermionic emission, 556, 561 Uniform circular motion, 137, 145
Thermocouple, 231, 392, 398, 481, 482 acceleration in, 138, 146
Thermodynamics, first law of, 278, 288, 473 Unit pole, 363, 369
second law of, 284, 289 Unit stress, 164
Thermoelectricity, 480 Units, cgs system of, 9
Thermometers, 228 electromagnetic, 363
. expansion, 231 equivalent, table of, 9
gas, 237 fps system of, 9
resistance, 231 fundamental and derived, 6, 10
thermoelectric, 231 mks system of, 9
Thermopile, 481, 482 systems of electrical, 397
Thermos flask, 269
Thin-lens equation, 615, 623
Thomson, G. P., 601 Q
Thomson, J . J., 97 V-2 rocket, 61
Time constant, 534 Vacuum tubes, 555, 561
Tone, musical, 344 Van der Waals, 153
Tone quality, 346, 359 Vapor, 254
Toroid, 421 pressure of saturated, 255, 301
Torque, 97, 100, 104, 105, 112, 115 ' water, table of saturated, 739
on coil, 423, 426 Vaporization, 254
Torricelli's theorem, 195, 198' heat of, 252, 259
Torsion, moment of, 157, 159 Variation, 368, 370
Total absorption, 357 Vector diagram, a-c circuit, 545
Total reflection, 608, 622 Vector properties in angular niotion, 129,
Transformation of energy, 92, 93 ^134' ,
in electric circuit, 475 Vector quantities, 14, 27 'J
Transformer, 503, 511 Vectors, \A,11 ^ ,'
losses in, 506 addition of, 15, 27
Transmission line, 505 Velocity, 32, 38
Transmutations, nuclear, 722 Velocity ratio, 78
Transverse wave, 308, 322 Venturi flow meter, 193, 198
Triad, 3$4 Venturi tube, 193
Trigonorhetry, 732 • Vibration, 149
Triode, 557, 561 of air column, 331
Triple point, 256, 260 forced, 157
Tristimulus .system of color specification, fundamental, 331
660 natural frequency of, 157
Tropopause, 298 of a string, 331
INDEX 761
Virtual focus, 590, 612 Wave, sound, 325, 337
Virtual image, 586, 597 speed of, 311, 322
Viscosity, 70 standing, 321, 323
coefficient of, 71 transverse, 308, 322
Visibility curve, 568 water, 310
Vision, color, 651, 653 Wave form, 347
distance of distinct, 633, 642 Wave front, 319
limitations of, 633 diagram of, for lenses, 611
persistence of, 632 for mirrors, 594
stereoscopic, 632, 642 Wave motion, 307
Voice sounds, 352 Wave properties of light, 584, 597
Voltage, 396, 399 Wave theory of light, 578
Voltage sensitivity, 432, 440 Wavelength, 314, 323
Voltaic eel), 463, 468 dominant, 650
Voltmeter, 435, 440 Weather map, 299
Volume coefficient of expansion, 235, 243 Weight, 8, 44
table, 235 Weight-density, 175
Vowel sounds, table, 353 table, 176
Weston standard cell, 467
W Wheatstone bridge, 444, 454
box form of, 445
Water waves, 310 slide-wire, 446
Watt, James, 3 White light, 650, 653
Watt, 80, 83 Wien, 173
Watt-hour meter, 479, 482 Wilson, 443
Wattmeter, 478, 482 Work, 76, 83, 116, 276, 473
, Wave, 308, 322
amplitude, 315, 323 X
complex, 346
compressional, 310, 326, 337 X-ray tube, 560, 561
damped, 316 X-rays, 716, 726
diffraction of, 319
in flexible cord, 311
frequency of, 313, 322 Yard (British), 7
intensity of, 315 Young-Helmholtz theory, 651
interference of, 316, 323 Young's double-slit experiment, 680
longitudinal, 310, 322 Young's moduliis, 165, 171
period in, 313, 322
polarization of, 320, 323
reflection of, 318
refraction of, 319 Zeeman, 13

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I

All of The Pennsylvania State College

New York and London

COPYRIGHT, 1947, BY THE

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

All rights reserved. This booh, or parts

T H E MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORX, P A .

problems. Included also in the Appendix is a brief discussion of the

32. Electric Instruments '. 429

The portraits are arranged in the order of the

In the brief biographical note that accom-

BORN Iivj LENNEP, RHENISH PRUSSIA. PROFESSOR AT WtJRZBURG AND

The Fields and Uses of Physics Measurement

This is a scientific age. Our material prosperity, the conveniences of

If all units are inserted into an equation, they can be handled as

Example: Express 50 mi/hr in feet per second.

5. D o all sciences make use of experimentation?

12. A cubic centimeter of water weighs approximately one gram. H o w many

BORN IN ZONNEMAIRE, HOLLAND. LECTURER AT LEYDEN UNIVER-

Vectors; Forces at a Point

Tlie most elementary kind of measxirement is simple counting, the

3 sec + 5 sec = 8 sec.

For the complete specification of certain other quantities, it is neces-

form a resultant vector which represents the combined effect of

The direction of R can be determined by use of the law of sines.

from which we can determine the angle cj)-

{a) (*) {c) W W (/)

The resultant of two forces may be greater or less in magnitude

P o l y g o p M e t h o d . T h e parallelogram method just described

(a) (b) (c)

Some of the components are negative (for example, Dx and Ay)

a = 40° and /3 = 240°

Note that a vector has no component at right

Equi^rbrium. The state in which there is no change in the motion

FIG. 10.—.\n example of equilibrium.

secessary to make use of \'ecior addition. Thus the pre\'ious study of

Jog = tan 30° = 0.58

FIG. 13.—Finding a resultant by the method of components.

The equilibrant is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to R. Hence it is a

Fi — F2 sin 30° = 0 (horizontal)

FIG. 16.—Horizontal^<d vertical con>ponents of the icxfCKSvx a stretched rope.

VlS.O^-f 4.02 ft = v ^ 4 T f t = 15.5 ft

F r o m Eq. (7), Fi = F2. Substituting in Eq. (8),

F i sin 0 + Fi sin 9 - 100 lb = 0

Two things should be noticed about the problem just solved:

B = (1000 lb) sin 30° = (1000 ]b)(0.500) = 500 lb

T h e value of A, the perpendicular force exerted by the plane, can be found by

A^ PKcos 30° = (1000 lb)(0.866) = 866 lb

20. A tightrope walker weighing 150 lb performs on a horizontal wire 15 ft long

BORN IN ARNHEM, HOLLAND. PROFESSOR AT LEYDEN. IN I 9 0 Q

3. Velocity and Acceleration

without getting anywhere. At one instant its velocity may be 20 m i / h r

Multiplying both sides of this equation by t gives

Three equations for uniformly accelerated motion have been

By combining these, two other useful equations can be obtained.

s = 0+ 14(2.2 ft/sec2)(20 sec)2 = 440 ft

Example: A train traveling with a speed of 60 mi/hr is brought to an emergency

Freely Falling Bodies; Acceleration D u e to Gravity. T h e

Table I and Fig. 1 show the speed at the end

At the highest point the object stops and hence

From Eq. (5)

This is the greatest elevation reached by the object.

Terminal Speed. I n the preceding discussion we have assumed