sensors

Article
Measurement of Rayleigh Wave Beams Using Angle
Beam Wedge Transducers as the Transmitter and
Receiver with Consideration of Beam Spreading
Shuzeng Zhang 1 , Xiongbing Li 1, * and Hyunjo Jeong 2
1 School of Traffic and Transportation Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410075, China;
zhangshuzeng123@163.com
2 Division of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, Wonkwang University, Iksan 570-749, Korea;
hjjeong@wku.ac.kr
* Correspondence: lixb213@csu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-731-8265-5135

Academic Editor: Vittorio M. N. Passaro

Received: 5 April 2017; Accepted: 16 June 2017; Published: 20 June 2017

Abstract: A theoretical model, along with experimental verification, is developed to describe the
generation, propagation and reception of a Rayleigh wave using angle beam wedge transducers.
The Rayleigh wave generation process using an angle beam wedge transducer is analyzed, and
the actual Rayleigh wave sound source distributions are evaluated numerically. Based on the
reciprocity theorem and considering the actual sound source, the Rayleigh wave beams are modeled
using an area integral method. The leaky Rayleigh wave theory is introduced to investigate the
reception of the Rayleigh wave using the angle beam wedge transducers, and the effects of the wave
spreading in the wedge and transducer size are considered in the reception process. The effects of
attenuations of the Rayleigh wave and leaky Rayleigh wave are discussed, and the received wave
results with different sizes of receivers are compared. The experiments are conducted using two
angle beam wedge transducers to measure the Rayleigh wave, and the measurement results are
compared with the predictions using different theoretical models. It is shown that the proposed
model which considers the wave spreading in both the sample and wedges can be used to interpret
the measurements reasonably.

Keywords: Rayleigh wave; angle beam wedge transducer; leaky Rayleigh wave theory; area
integral model

1. Introduction
Rayleigh waves produce elastic displacements and stress that are confined to the surface within
a shallow depth of approximately one wavelength, so that they are suitable for detection and
characterization of damages or material property changes confined to the surface or near surface
of test components [1,2]. Compared with the bulk waves, they can propagate a long distance along
the component surface with less beam spreading [3,4]. Rayleigh wave is generated and detected
on the same side of the material, therefore, access to only one side of the material is required [5].
These advantages make Rayleigh wave a useful tool in ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation (NDE).
Rayleigh waves can be generated by angle beam wedge transducers [6,7], comb transducers [8,9],
interdigital transducers [10], etc.. Regarding an angle wedge transducer, a bulk longitudinal wave
transducer is placed on a wedge of a low speed material with a certain angle. Because Rayleigh waves
can be obtained efficiently with high energy, and the facilities are simple and cheap, angle wedge
transducers are widely used in NDE with ultrasonic surface waves.
Rayleigh waves are generally measured using angle beam wedge transducers [11], air-couple
transducers [12] and laser interferometers [13]. The laser interferometer can be used to measure the

Sensors 2017, 17, 1449; doi:10.3390/s17061449 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2017, 17, 1449 2 of 18

absolute out-plane displacement of Rayleigh wave, but the detected surface needs to be strongly
polished; moreover, the equipment is expensive. Although the air-coupled transducer can be used to
receive Rayleigh wave in a non-contact method, the received results have low signal-to-noise-ratio
because of high attenuation in air. Therefore, the angle beam wedge transducer is a good choice for
receiving Rayleigh wave.
The pitch-catch Rayleigh wave testing using two angle beam wedge transducers has been widely
used for material characterization, such as surface roughness, acoustoelastic effects or residual stress,
and microstructural changes [14–16]. These methods are based on the measurement of velocity change
and dispersion or attenuation of Rayleigh waves. In order to improve the accuracy of Rayleigh wave
detection, it is necessary to obtain accurate Rayleigh wave beams generated by the angle beam wedge
transducers and to know the reception process of Rayleigh waves. Therefore, the waves propagate
and spread in the wedge and on the sample surface should be analyzed precisely.
The propagation theory of Rayleigh waves has been widely studied since 1887, and a series
of detailed works for calculation of the Rayleigh wave beams were provided by Achenbach and
co-works [17–20], wherein elastodynamic reciprocity approach and Fourier transform approach were
developed to model the Rayleigh wave beams. In their models, an ideal point load or line load
is introduced as the sound source, so that such methods cannot be directly used for modeling the
Rayleigh wave beams generated by an angle beam wedge transducer. A 3-D point source Rayleigh
wave beam model for angle beam wedge transducers was proposed by Schmerr and co-works [21,22],
in which, the calculated sound source for Rayleigh wave is used. This 3-D model improves the accuracy
of Rayleigh wave beams of angle wedge beam transducers, but it is still an ideal model because the
actual wedge shape is not considered. Recently, a further model for angle beam wedge transducer is
developed with consideration of the wedge size, but without experiment verifications [6].
The reception process of Rayleigh waves affects the measurement results. When the propagating
wave beams are known, the received wave amplitudes with different sizes of receivers will be
considerably different, which is true for both bulk and Rayleigh waves [23–25]. The reception process
of Rayleigh waves using the angle beam wedge transducers is complicated because the wave mode
conversion and wave diffraction in the wedge need to be considered. However, there is no effective
tool to model this reception process, and in most cases, the wave propagation and diffraction in the
wedge are neglected. In some works, the on-axis wave magnitudes with a Gaussian-distributed line
source are introduced as the received results [12,26,27]. Although this simple approach can provide
some basic characteristics of the measurements and a data fitting method can make the measurements
match the predictions, the impreciseness of this method is obvious, such as large fitted attenuation
coefficients and different decreasing tendencies between the measurements and predictions in the
near distance. Therefore, a detailed knowledge of the Rayleigh wave reception process and modeling
method is essential for accurate NDE of Rayleigh waves using angle beam wedge transducers.
This paper presents a model, supported by experimental measurements, that is used to accurately
analyze the entire process of the generation, propagation and reception of Rayleigh wave using the
angle wedge beam transducers. Section 2 presents the basic modeling method, wherein the area
integral method is developed to model the Rayleigh wave beams, and a leaky Rayleigh wave theory
is introduced to analyze the Rayleigh wave reception. In Section 3, the simulation results of the
Rayleigh wave beams and received average results are provided and discussed; and they are compared
with the predictions by some other model methods. In Section 4, the experiments are conducted.
The comparisons of the theoretical and experimental results are shown, and detailed discussions on
the measurements are provided. Section 5 is devoted to the conclusions of this study.

2. Theory
We consider the case shown in Figure 1, in which, a contact transducer radiates longitudinal wave
into a wedge, the Rayleigh wave is generated on the surface of a specimen when the longitudinal
wave propagates to the specimen through the interface, and the propagating Rayleigh wave is received
 1149
Sensors 2017, 17, 1449 3 of 18

the center
Sensors of 1149
2017, 17, transducerand that of (x2y2z2) locates in the intersection of transducer center axis3 of and
18
by another angle beam wedge transducer. The origin of the coordinate (x y z )
specimen surface, and the axis z1 and z2 are taken normal to the transducer and the plane stress-free
1 1 1 is in the center of
transducer
the center
surface of ofand
the that of (x
transducer
specimen, y2 zthat
and 2 ) locates 2in
of (x2yIn
2respectively. z2)the intersection
locates
the of transducer
in the study,
following intersection centerisaxis
of transducer
the specimen and specimen
center
consideredaxisasand
an
surface, and
specimen
isotropic the half-space
surface,
elastic axis
andz1the
andaxis
z2 are
solid. taken
z1 and normal
z2 are takentonormal
the transducer and the plane
to the transducer and stress-free surface of
the plane stress-free
the specimen,
surface of the respectively. In the following
specimen, respectively. In the study, the specimen
following study, is considered
the specimenasisan isotropic elastic
considered as an
half-space solid.
isotropic elastic half-space solid.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of angle beam wedge transducers for generating and receiving Rayleigh
wave.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of angle beam wedge transducers for generating and receiving Rayleigh
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of angle beam wedge transducers for generating and receiving Rayleigh wave.
2.1. Rayleigh
wave. Wave Generation by an Angle Beam Wedge Transducer

We willWave
2.1. Rayleigh focusGeneration
on the Rayleigh
by an Angle wave Beamgeneration process in the x-z plane at the solid-solid
Wedge Transducer
2.1. Rayleigh Wave Generation by an Angle Beam Wedge Transducer
interface, as shown in Figure 2. When the bulk-wave transducer radiates a plane longitudinal wave
We will focus on the Rayleigh wave generation process in the x-z plane at the solid-solid interface,
We wedge
into the will focus on the
and this waveRayleigh waveincident
is obliquely generation
on the process
smooth in interface
the x-z plane at the wedge
between solid-solid
and
as shown in Figure 2. When the bulk-wave transducer radiates a plane longitudinal wave into
interface, as shown in Figure 2. When the bulk-wave transducer radiates a plane
the specimen, there will be both longitudinal and shear waves transmitted. We write the incident longitudinal wave
the wedge and this wave is obliquely incident on the smooth interface between the wedge and
into the wedge
longitudinal andinthis
wave wave is obliquely
a displacement incident
potential form on the smooth interface between the wedge and
as [2]
the specimen, there will be both longitudinal and shear waves transmitted. We write the incident
the specimen, there will be both longitudinal and shear waves transmitted. We write the incident
longitudinal wave in a displacement φ inc1 =A exp(ikform
potential (xsinθ  zcosθ p1 )  iωt)
asp1[2] (1)
longitudinal wave in a displacement potential
i1 form
p1 as [2]
ϕinc1 =
and the transmitted longitudinal φandi1shear
A=A exp (ikwave
exp(ikp1 (xsinθ
as: p1 +zcosθ
(xsinθ zcosθp1 − iωt)
) ) iωt) (1)
(1)
inc1 i1 p1 p1 p1

and the
and the transmitted
transmitted longitudinal
longitudinalφ tp2and
and exp  ik
=A t2shear
shear wave
wave
p2 as:p2  zcosθ p2 )  iωt 
(xsinθ
as: (2)

ϕtp2ψφ=tp2=B t2t2exp ikp2 iωtiωt

=A exp ik p2 (xsinθ
h
(xsinθ zcosθ ) ))iωt
i
A
ts2 t2
(xsinθp2p2+
s2
zcosθ
zcosθ
s2
p2 p2
s2
−  (2)
(2)
(3)

where Ai1 , At2 and Bt2 are

ψ ts2
ψts2 ==B
the t2 exp[ik s2(xsinθ
exp
Bamplitudes (xsinθ s2 +zcosθ
zcosθs2
of potentials ) )−iωt
for  ] longitudinal wave and
iωt
incident (3)
(3)
t2 s2 s2 s2

transmitted
where Ai1 , Alongitudinal
and Bt2 are and shear waves,
the amplitudes respectively,
of potentials k  ω/clongitudinal
for incident is the wavewave
number, θ p1 is the
and transmitted
where A i1
, t2At2 and Bt2 are the amplitudes of potentials for incident longitudinal wave and
longitudinal
incident angle, andθ shear
and waves,
θ s2 are respectively,
the transmittedk =angles
ω/c isfor the wave number,
transmitted θp1 is theand
longitudinal incident angle,
shear wave,
transmitted
θp2 and θs2 are
p2
longitudinal
the transmittedand shear
angleswaves, respectively,
for transmitted k  ω/c and
longitudinal is the wave
shear number,
wave, θ p1 is The
respectively. the
respectively. The subscripts ‘1’ and ‘2’ denote that these parameters are for the wedge and specimen,
subscripts
incident ‘1’ and
angle, θ p2‘2’
anddenote thatthe
θ s2 are these parameters
transmitted are for
angles forthe wedge and
transmitted specimen, respectively.
longitudinal and shear wave,
respectively.
respectively. The subscripts ‘1’ and ‘2’ denote that these parameters are for the wedge and specimen,
respectively.

Generation of Rayleigh wave by an angle beam wedge transducer in the x-z plane.
Figure 2. Generation

When
When the
theincident
Figure 2.
incident angle
Generation ofisRayleigh
angle islarger than
largerwave the
than second
bythe anglecritical
an secondbeam angle,
wedge
critical these transmitted
transducer
angle, these in the x-zwaves
plane.
transmitted are both
waves are
inhomogeneous waves. At a certain incident angle, these longitudinal and
both inhomogeneous waves. At a certain incident angle, these longitudinal and shear waves will shear waves will
When on
propagate thethe
incident angle
surface is larger than
of specimen as athe second wave.
Rayleigh criticalWe
angle, these transmitted
introduce a Rayleighwaves
wave are both
number
inhomogeneous
using Snell’s law:waves. At a certain incident angle, these longitudinal and shear waves will
propagate on the surface of specimen as a Rayleigh wave. We introduce a Rayleigh wave number
using Snell’s law:
Sensors 2017, 17, 1449 4 of 18

propagate on the surface of specimen as a Rayleigh wave. We introduce a Rayleigh wave number
using Snell’s law:
kr = kp1 sin θp1 = kp2 sin θp2 = ks2 sin θs2 (4)

where kr = ω/cr , and cr is the speed of the Rayleigh wave. Note, that in order to have an incident
angle that satisfies Equation (4), it is necessary to have cp1 < cr , i.e., the longitudinal wave speed of
the wedge must be less than the Rayleigh wave speed of the specimen. Then the inhomogeneous
longitudinal and shear waves can be written in terms of kr and cr :

ϕtp2 = At2 exp[−ηz2 |kr |] exp[ikr (x2 − cr t)] (5)

ψts2 = Bt2 exp[−ζz2 |kr |] exp[ikr (x2 − cr t)] (6)

1/2 1/2
with η = (1 − c2r /c2p2 ) and ζ = (1 − c2r /c2s2 ) . It can be seen that these waves propagate mainly
along the surface of the specimen and decay exponentially in the depth direction.
Then we can get the expressions for x2 - and z2 - component displacements and stresses through
the wave motion function of Equations (5) and (6), as follows:

ux2 = [ik r At2 exp(−ηkr z2 ) − ζkr Bt2 exp(−ζkr z2 )] exp[ikr (x2 − cr t)] (7)

uz2 = [−ηkr At2 exp(−ηkr z2 ) − ikr Bt2 exp(−ζkr z2 )] exp[ikr (x2 − cr t)] (8)
h i
τzz2 = µ2 (ζ2 k2r + k2r )At2 exp(−ηkr z2 ) + 2iζk2r Bt2 exp(−ζkr z2 ) exp[ikr (x2 − cr t)] (9)
h i
τxz2 = µ2 −2iηk2r At2 exp(−ηkr z2 ) + (k2r + ζ2 k2r )Bt2 exp(−ζkr z2 ) exp[ikr (x2 − cr t)] (10)

where µ2 is the Lamé constant of the specimen.

The boundary condition at the interface z2 = 0 of the specimen must satisfy:
(
− p⊥1 under-wedge
τzz2 = (ζ2 k2r + k2r )At2 + 2ik2r ζBt2 = (11)
0 stress-free

τxz2 = −2iηk2r At2 + (ζ2 + 1)k2r Bt2 = 0 (12)

We can get the relationship between At2 and Bt2 from the stress-free boundary of Equation (11) as:

2iζ
At2 = − 2
Bt2 (13)
ζ +1

and the stress-free boundary condition of Equation (11) requires that:

2 1/2 1/2
c2r c2 c2r
(2 − 2
) − 4(1 − 2r ) (1 − ) =0 (14)
cs2 cp2 c2s2

which is the equation for the phase velocity of the Rayleigh wave.
We set arbitrary constant Bt2 = 1 and introduce the relationship between amplitudes of potential
and displacement amplitudes to simplify the expressions of the Rayleigh wave displacements of
Equations (7) and (8). We also introduce ur (x2 , y2 , 0) as the propagation Rayleigh wave beam on the
surface of the specimen, so we can describe the displacement amplitudes of the Rayleigh waves in the
three-dimensional coordinate as:
2iζ
ux2 (x2 , y2 , z2 , t) = ur (x2 , y2 , 0)[− 2
exp(−ηkr z2 ) + iζ exp(−ζkr z2 )] exp[ikr (x2 − cr t)] (15)
ζ +1
Sensors 2017, 17, 1449 5 of 18

2ηζ
uz2 (x2 , y2 , z2 , t) = ur (x2 , y2 , 0)[ 2
exp(−ηkr z2 ) − exp(−ζkr z2 )] exp[ikr (x2 − cr t)] (16)
ζ +1
Equations (15) and (16) are the widely used expressions for describing the propagating Rayleigh
waves on the surface. It can be seen that when these inhomogeneous waves reach the end of the
wedge, they will satisfy the stress-free boundary conditions and continue to propagate as a Rayleigh
wave. Therefore, Rayleigh waves can be efficiently generated by an angle beam wedge transducer if
the wedge material and incident angle are chosen reasonably. Note that in the analysis process it is
assumed only a longitudinal wave is radiated by the contact transducer, and reflected longitudinal
and shear wave back to wedge are not listed. In addition, Rayleigh wave will re-radiate energy into
the wedge (as a leaky Rayleigh wave) when it is generated underneath the wedge. However, here we
just treat the propagating wave underneath the wedge as Rayleigh wave because the length of the
wedge is usually very short and the wave speeds of Rayleigh wave and leaky Rayleigh wave are close,
as we will analyze later.
From the boundary condition at the interface of the specimen under the wedge one can find
that the longitudinal wave sound pressures underneath the wedge will work as the sound source for
generating Rayleigh wave [6]. Since the driving crystal of the contact transducer is in contact with
the wedge through a couplant layer, it is reasonable to model this transducer as that of a uniform
distributed source over the entire active area of its interface [2]. Based on the reciprocity theorem,
the Sommerfeld-Rayleigh integral method can be used to obtain longitudinal wave pressures in the
wedge as [2]:
Z
p1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = −2ikp1 ρcp1 v0 (x10 , y10 , 0)G(x1 , y1 , z1 |x10 , y10 , 0)dST (17)
ST

where ρ is the density of the wedge, v0 is the initial longitudinal wave particle velocity in the sound
exp(ik R1 )
source, ST is the surface area of the bulk wave transducer, G(x1 , y1 , z1 |x10 , y10 , 0) = p1
4πR1 is the
q
2 2
Green’s function for 3-D wave motion equation [28], and R1 = (x1 − x10 ) + (y1 − y10 ) + (z1 )2 is
the distance from the sound source to the target point. Note that the wave attenuation in the wedge
can be neglected because the propagation distance is short.

2.2. The Propagating Rayleigh Wave Beams

Rayleigh wave generation by incident longitudinal wave is analyzed and the actual Rayleigh
sound source distributions can also be calculated numerically, but to get a better knowledge of the
propagating Rayleigh wave beams of an angle beam wedge transducer, a Rayleigh wave model with
the actual sound source is needed. The workaround for solving this problem is that we apply the
reciprocity theorem to develop the integral representation theorem, derive fundamental solution of
the wave motion equations using Green’s function method, and apply the solution into the actual
condition [6].
As we mentioned above, when the Rayleigh wave beam ur (x2 , y2 , 0) on the surface of the specimen
is known, the Rayleigh wave distributions in 3-D space can be obtained. Thus, we will first describe the
method to model the Rayleigh wave beams in the x2 -y2 plane. Figure 3 shows the case for modeling
Rayleigh wave beams in the x2 -y2 plane, in which, the active region of the Rayleigh sound source
is in the so-called ‘footprint’ area which can be obtained using the exact geometry optics, when the
sound beam in the wedge radiated by the contact transducer is assumed well collimating [29,30]. Since
Rayleigh wave propagates in one direction only when an angle beam wedge transducer is used as the
transmitter, we will model the Rayleigh wave beams in the forward propagating direction. We divide
the area sound source into multiple banding sources which are perpendicular to the Rayleigh wave
propagation direction and narrow enough to be treated as line sources. Considering one line source
Sensors 2017, 17, 1449 6 of 18

with the length of LS , based on the reciprocity theorem, the Rayleigh wave beams generated by this
line source can be expressed as the combination of the integral representation and Green’s function:

−2
Z
ur (x2 , y2 , 0) = v10 (x20 , y20 , 0)G(x2 , y2 |x20 , x20 )dLS (18)
cr LS
q
where G(x2 , y2 |x20 , y20 ) = −4i kr πR 2i
exp(ikr R2 ) is the Green’s function for modeling the Rayleigh
2
q
wave beams, R2 = (x2 − x20 )2 + (y2 − y20 )2 , and v10 (x20 , y20 , 0) is the particle velocity of the Rayleigh
Sensors 2017,
sound 17, 1149
source. 6 of 18

Figure 3. Geometry for calculating Rayleigh wave beams using an area sound source in the x-y plane.
Figure 3. Geometry for calculating Rayleigh wave beams using an area sound source in the x-y plane.

As we mentioned above, when the Rayleigh wave beam u (x 2 ,y 2 ,0) on the surface of the
Considering all the contributions from the actual sound sourcer positions, the area sound source
specimen
can is known,
be replaced the Rayleigh
by these line sourceswaveanddistributions in 3-D
the line integral space from
formula can be obtained.
Equation Thus,
(18) weextended
can be will first
describe
to the method
the following formtoto model
expressthe theRayleigh wave beams
surface integral as [6]:in the x2-y2 plane. Figure 3 shows the case
for modeling Rayleigh wave beams in the x2-y2 plane, in which, the active region of the Rayleigh
−2 area
Z
sound source is in the so-called ‘footprint’ which can be obtained using the exact geometry
ur (x2 , y2 ) = v10 (x2 , y2 )G(x2 , y2 |x20 , y20 )dSF (19)
optics, when the sound beam in the cwedge r Lx SF radiated by the contact transducer is assumed well
collimating [29,30]. Since Rayleigh wave propagates in one direction only when an angle beam wedge
where Lx is the equivalent length of the footprint area source, which is introduced to calculate the
transducer is used as the transmitter, we will model the Rayleigh wave beams in the forward
sound beams out of the footprint and given as:
propagating direction. We divide the area sound source into multiple banding sources which are
perpendicular to the Rayleigh wave propagation L = 2a/direction
cos θ and narrow enough to be treated as (20) line
x p1
sources. Considering one line source with the length of LS , based on the reciprocity theorem, the
where
Rayleigha iswave
the radius
beams of the contact
generated by thistransducer.
line source Thecan integral
be expressedarea should cover
as the the wholeofarea
combination the
underneath the wedge, although
integral representation and Green’s function: the sound sources out of the footprint have little effect on the
Rayleigh wave beam distributions. Note that the equivalent length Lx is introduced when the footprint
2
is completely included underneath u (x ,ythe
r 2 2
Before we obtain the final integral expression
,0)wedge.

c
 v  (xfor
LS
 ,y ,0)G(x ,y |x  ,y )dL
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 S
Rayleigh waves, we had to address the problem
(18)
r

with the calculated longitudinal wave sound pressures that could not be employed directly as the
Rayleigh sound source. i In order
2i to make sure that the pressures in the wedge are the same as
where G(x 2 ,y 2 |x 2 ,y2 )  exp(ik r R 2 ) is the Green’s function for modeling the Rayleigh wave
those acting on the specimen from below at the interface, we introduce the following transmission
4 k r πR 2
coefficient [21]:
v1 (x2 ,yc2 2p2
2 2
beams, R 2  (x 2  x 2 )  ρ(y1 c2 p1  y2 ) , cand ,0) is the particle
s
c2p2 cvelocity
2 of the Rayleigh sound
p;p s2 s;p cs2 s2
T= (T ( 2 − 2 2 ) − 2iT 2
− 1) (21)
source. ρ2 cr2 cp2 cs2 cr2 cr2 cr2
Considering all the contributions from the actual sound source positions, the area sound source
where (Tp;p , Ts;p ) are ordinary plane wave transmission coefficients for the longitudinal and shear
can be replaced by these line sources and the line integral formula from Equation (18) can be extended
waves, respectively, for two elastic solids in smooth contact.
to the following form to express the surface integral as [6]:
Combining Equations (17) and (21) yields the Rayleigh sound source expression using particle
velocity. Then, we place the source expression 2 into Equation (19) and construct the expression for the
u
propagating Rayleigh wave beams outside (x
r 2
,y 2
) 
cL F
of the
v  (xregion
S
12 2
,y |x 2 ,y2 )dSthe
,y )G(xunderneath2 2 F wedge. We also introduce(19)
r x

where Lx is the equivalent length of the footprint area source, which is introduced to calculate the
sound beams out of the footprint and given as:

L x  2a/cosθ p1 (20)
Sensors 2017, 17, 1449 7 of 18

an attenuation coefficient αr of Rayleigh wave to account the energy loss when the wave propagates
on the surface, and get the final expression as:
Z Z exp(ik R )
1 kp1 v0 (x0 , y0 , z0 )T exp(iπ/4) p1 1 exp(ikr R2 − αr R2 )
ur (x2 , y2 , 0) = √ √ dST dSF (22)
Lx 2πcr 2kr π SF ST R1 R2

The Rayleigh wave beams can be obtained when the initial sound source over the transducer
interface is used for the integrations. When the Rayleigh sound beam expression, Equation (22),
is substituted into Equations (15) and (16), the Rayleigh wave distributions in 3-D space can be obtained.
It is well known that, by the virtue of reciprocity, acoustic coupling between the incident
longitudinal wave in the wedge and the Rayleigh wave on the surface of the solid is the same
as that of the surface wave back into the wedge via leakage, therefore the wedge transducer has to be
truncated before the end of the acoustic footprint to achieve maximum sensitivity. We should note
that this model equation is also valid for this case. When the wedge partially covers the footprint,
the actual sound source should be used, and the new equivalent length Lx0 should also be selected [6].

2.3. Leaky Rayleigh Wave Theory and Reception of Rayleigh Wave

When another angle beam wedge transducer is introduced as the receiver, Rayleigh wave
propagates along the specimen-wedge interface but will re-radiate wave energy into the contact
wedge, and the reradiated wave is received by the bulk wave transducer. The coupled longitudinal
wave re-radiated by Rayleigh wave is measured, and this process is described in Figure 4. In this case,
a new boundary condition supporting wave propagation in the smooth contact solid-solid interface
should be considered. In addition, the diffraction of the coupled wave propagating in the wedge
should be considered; moreover, the effect of the receiver size on the received average wave results in
the reception process should be taken into account.
The theory of interface waves passing along a solid-solid interface has been researched in many
studies [11,31]. There is a variety of interface wave types dependent on the parameters of the two solid
materials and contact states (smooth contact or weld contact) between the two solids. In this study,
the longitudinal wave speed in the wedge is lower than the Rayleigh wave speed observed on the
specimen surface. Hence, the leaky Rayleigh wave and its theory can be introduced to investigate the
reception process of Rayleigh wave [32].
In the boundary conditions of the smooth-contact wedge-specimen interface, the solution to the
leaky Rayleigh wave speed will be a complex number, wherein the real part denotes the actual sound
speed and the imaginary part implies the attenuation due to the leakage of energy [32–34]. In addition,
the leaky Rayleigh wave speed cLr is slightly higher than the Rayleigh wave speed, i.e., cLr > cr .
When Rayleigh wave propagates on the stress-free surface of the specimen and reaches the smooth
contact wedge-specimen interface, it will propagate as the leaky Rayleigh wave and radiates energy
into the wedge in the form of a coupled longitudinal wave at a leaky Rayleigh angle, as shown in
Figure 4. The leaky angle θLr can be calculated using the Snell’s law as:

θLr = sin−1 (cp1 /cLr ) (23)

One should note that since the leaky Rayleigh wave speed is close to the Rayleigh wave speed, we
have θLr ≈ θp1 , which indicates that the same angle beam wedge transducers can be used to generate
and receive Rayleigh wave. In addition, the slight changes of the Rayleigh wave beams underneath
the receiving wedge induced by the change of wave speed can be also neglected.
 θ Lr  sin
1
c p1
c Lr  (23)

One should note that since the leaky Rayleigh wave speed is close to the Rayleigh wave speed,
we have θ Lr  θ p1 , which indicates that the same angle beam wedge transducers can be used to
generate
Sensors 2017,and receive
Rayleigh wave. In addition, the slight changes of the Rayleigh wave beams
17, 1449 8 of 18
underneath the receiving wedge induced by the change of wave speed can be also neglected.

Figure 4. Sketch of Rayleigh wave reception by an angle beam wedge transducer, where (leaky)
Figure 4. Sketch of Rayleigh wave reception by an angle beam wedge transducer, where (leaky)
Rayleigh wave propagates on the specimen surface, and the decreasing length of the arrows in the
Rayleigh wave propagates on the specimen surface, and the decreasing length of the arrows in the
wedge describes the amplitude diminishing of the leaky field under the wedge.
wedge describes the amplitude diminishing of the leaky field under the wedge.

As shown in Figure 4, the decreasing length of the arrows for describing the coupled
As shown
longitudinal in Figure
wave under4,the
the wedge
decreasing
duelength
to the of the arrows
strong for describing
attenuation of leakythe coupledwave
Rayleigh longitudinal
energy
wave under the wedge due to the strong attenuation of leaky Rayleigh wave energy with
with increasing distance. In addition, when the coupled longitudinal wave propagates in the wedge, increasing
distance.
it In spread.
will also addition,Therefore,
when the coupled longitudinal
the propagating wave propagates
longitudinal wave beamin theinwedge, it willisalso
the wedge spread.
expressed
Therefore,
as [2]: the propagating longitudinal wave beam in the wedge is expressed as [2]:
Z
up1 (x2u, yp12(x
, z22,y) 2=
,z 2−
) p1
2ik 0 
2ik p10 T T 
x202,,yy220 ,0)exp(
uurr((x
S S
αα
, 0) exp(− l)G(x
Lr Lr
x22 ,,zy22|x, z2 ,y
l)G2(,y 2 |x
0 0 
2 ,0)dS
2 , y2 , 0)d S
0
(24)
(24)

0 0 exp(ik
expp1(R
ik 3 ) R3 )
p1
where
where GG(x , z2 2|x|x
(x22,,yy22,z ,y, y,0), 0) =
2 2 2 2 4πR3 is is thetheGreen’s
Green’sfunction
functionwhich
whichisisthe thesamesameas asthat
that for
for 3-D
3-D wave
q 4πR 2
motion equations, R3 = (x20 − x2 ) + (y20 − y2 )2 , is the distance from the receiver surface to sound
3

2 2
motion equations,
source, the integral area (x2  x 2 )the
R 3 S0 denotes 2  y 2 )area
+(ywhole , isunderneath
the distance thefrom the receiver
receiving wedge, T 0 is an unknown
surface to sound
0
reflected coefficient, and T uSr(x2 , y2 , 0) denotes the magnitude of sound source generating the radiated
source, the integral area denotes the whole area underneath the receiving wedge, T is an
longitudinal wave in the wedge. The exponent term denotes the energy loss due to leakage, in which
unknown reflected coefficient, and Tu r (x 2 ,y 2 ,0) denotes the magnitude of sound source generating
αLr is the attenuation coefficient for leaky Rayleigh wave and l is the distance from the underneath
the radiated
source position longitudinal
to the front waveedgeinofthe thewedge.
wedge.The Whenexponent termbeam
the wave denotesin the thewedge
energyisloss due to
calculated,
leakage,
the (x2 y2in
z2 )which
coordinate α Lr issystem
the attenuation coefficient
for the Rayleigh wavefor beams
leaky Rayleigh
is used. In wave and l iswe
addition, thedo distance from
not need to
consider
the the actual
underneath source direction
position of these
to thecoupled
front edge longitudinal waves
of the wedge. Whenbecause
the wave the phases
beam in arethe
included
wedge in
is
the term u (
calculated,r the x ,
2 (xy , 0 ) .
2 y z ) coordinate system for the Rayleigh wave beams is used. In addition, we do
2 2 2
These diffracted longitudinal waves are received by the contacted bulk wave transducer. However,
not need to consider the actual direction of these coupled longitudinal waves because the phases are
the magnitudes of the received waves are affected by the receiver sizes. Therefore, considering the
included
finite sizeinofthe theterm receiver, u r (x 2the
,y 2 ,0) .
received average wave results are described by introducing another
These
integral diffracted
process as: longitudinal waves are received by the contacted bulk wave transducer.
However, the magnitudes Z of Z the received waves are affected by the receiver sizes. Therefore,
1 of the0 receiver,
considering theu finite
e (x) = size T ur (x20 , y20 , 0)the
expreceived
(−αLr l)Gaverage
(x2 , y2 , z2wave 0)dS0 dSare
|x20 , y20 ,results r
described(25)
by
introducing another integral process as: Sr Sr S 0

where Sr denotes the active 1 area of the receiver interface. Note that the sensitivity of the receiver
u(x)
 to be
interface is assumed  equal. By
S r S r S
r  
T usubstitution
(x 2 ,y2 ,0)exp(  α Lr l)G(x
Equation ,y 2 ,z
(22) into
2
|x 2 ,y2 ,0)dS
Equation
2 (25), the
dS r last expression
(25)
for
the received average wave results can be obtained. But in this study, we will focus on the distributions
of the received results. So we can neglect these parameters which do not affect wave distributions, and
obtain the further simplified expression as:
Z Z Z Z exp(ikp1 R1 ) exp(ik R2 − αr R2 ) exp(ikp1 R3 )
e (x) ∼
u r√
exp(−αLr l)dST dSF dS0 dSr (26)
Sr S0 SF ST R1 R2 R3

We can obviously see from Equation (26) that when the wave frequency is known, the received
results mainly depend on the transmitter and receiver sizes, the wedge sizes, Rayleigh wave attenuation
and leaky Rayleigh wave attenuation. All these effects will be discussed in the following section.
 We can obviously see from Equation (26) that when the wave frequency is known, the received
results mainly depend on the transmitter and receiver sizes, the wedge sizes, Rayleigh wave
attenuation and leaky Rayleigh wave attenuation. All these effects will be discussed in the following
section.
Sensors 2017, 17, 1449 9 of 18

3. Simulation and Discussion

3. Simulation and Discussion
3.1. Rayleigh Sound Source under the Wedge
3.1. Rayleigh
In thisSound Source
section, under the Wedge
the longitudinal wave sound fields in the wedge radiated by a contact transducer
are Incalculated. In the following simulations, the contact
this section, the longitudinal wave sound fields transducer
in the wedge radius
radiated a is 6.35
by a contact mm, the
transducer
are calculated.
excitation frequency f is 2.25
In the following simulations,
MHz, and the thecontact transducer
initial uniform radius a issound
distributed 6.35 mm, v0 in the
the excitation
velocity
frequency f is 2.25 MHz, and the initial uniform distributed
transducer face is assumed to be 1 m/s. The longitudinal wave propagates in sound velocity v in the transducer
0 a Lucite wedge, in face is
which
assumed to be 1 m/s. The longitudinal wave propagates in a Lucite wedge, in which the longitudinal
the longitudinal wave speed c is 2725 m/s and the shear wave speed ct is 1120 m/s. The incident
wave speed cl is 2725 m/s and thel shear wave speed ct is 1120 m/s. The incident angle θ is 68◦ and the
angle θfrom
distance is 68°
theand theofdistance
center from thetocenter
the transducer of the
the center oftransducer
footprint isto40the center
mm. The of footprint
length is 40 mm.
and width of
The length
wedge are aboutand 28width
mmof wedge
and 33 mm,are respectively.
about 28 mmItand 33 mm,
is well knownrespectively.
that the wedgeIt is well
willknown that the
be truncated
wedge
before thewill
endbeoftruncated
the acousticbefore the end
footprint of the acoustic
to achieve maximum footprint to achieve
sensitivity, so it ismaximum
assumed that sensitivity,
only halfso
it is assumed that only half footprint
footprint is included in the underneath wedge. is included in the underneath wedge.
Figure5 5shows
Figure showsthe thelongitudinal
longitudinalwave wavesound
soundfield
fielddistribution
distributionunder
underthe thewedge,
wedge,ininwhich
whichthethe
half-ellipse denotes the exact footprint. The wave fields are numerically calculated
half-ellipse denotes the exact footprint. The wave fields are numerically calculated using Equation (17) using Equation
in(17)
the in
(x1the
y1 z1(x) 1coordinate.
y1z1) coordinate. Notethere
Note that thatisthere is a transformation
a transformation of the coordinate
of the coordinate systems,systems, and the
and the sound
sound fields are plotted in the (x 2y2z2) coordinate. It is observed that the main energy is concentrated
fields are plotted in the (x2 y2 z2 ) coordinate. It is observed that the main energy is concentrated in the
in the footprint
footprint althoughalthough there isout
there is energy energy outregion
of this of thisbecause
region ofbecause
the waveof the wave spreads.
spreads. Since theSince
wedge the
wedge width in the y2 direction is much larger than the main beam width, the effects of vertical wall
width in the y2 direction is much larger than the main beam width, the effects of vertical wall on
on the side wedge will be very small and can be neglected. This sound wave fields will be used as
the side wedge will be very small and can be neglected. This sound wave fields will be used as the
the Rayleigh sound source for calculating the Rayleigh wave beams in the following section. Also
Rayleigh sound source for calculating the Rayleigh wave beams in the following section. Also note
note that a line source with calculated or assumed distributions cannot be representative of the actual
that a line source with calculated or assumed distributions cannot be representative of the actual area
area sound source distributions, which will be discussed later.
sound source distributions, which will be discussed later.

Figure5. 5.Longitudinal
Figure Longitudinalwave
wavefield
fielddistributions
distributionsunderneath
underneaththe
thewedge
wedgegenerated
generatedbybya auniform
uniform
distributed contact transducer. Attenuation in the wedge is neglected.
distributed contact transducer. Attenuation in the wedge is neglected.

3.2. Rayleigh Wave Beam Distributions on the Stress-Free Surface

In this section, the Rayleigh wave beams on the aluminum specimen surface radiated by this angle
beam wedge transducers will be simulated. The longitudinal, shear and corresponding Rayleigh wave
speeds in aluminum are 6350 m/s, 3170 m/s and 2960 m/s, respectively. Two different attenuation
coefficients of Rayleigh wave are used, i.e., αr = 0 and 0.5 Np/m. The numerical calculated Rayleigh
angle is very close to the incident angle in the wedge, so we can assume that the Rayleigh wave can be
effectively generated. The Rayleigh wave beams are calculated using Equation (22) with the calculated
Rayleigh wave sound source. Note that when half-footprint is covered by the wedge, as shown in
Figure 5, the equivalent length Lx0 has to be selected for the new values.
Figure 6 shows the fundamental Rayleigh wave beams calculated using the proposed model
when the Rayleigh wave attenuation coefficient is set 0. Note that the Rayleigh wave beams under the
wedge are also shown. The wave beam behaviors have been well discussed in the references [6,29].
 attenuation coefficients of Rayleigh wave are used, i.e., αr = 0 and 0.5 Np/m. The numerical calculated
covered by the wedge, as shown in Figure 5, the equivalent length Lx has to be selected for the new
Rayleigh angle is very close to the incident angle in the wedge, so we can assume that the Rayleigh
values.
wave can be effectively generated. The Rayleigh wave beams are calculated using
Equation (22) with the calculated Rayleigh wave sound source. Note that when half-footprint is
covered
Sensors 2017, by the wedge, as shown in Figure 5, the equivalent length Lx has to be selected for the
17, 1449 10 ofnew
18

values.

Figure 6. Rayleigh wave beam distributions on the surface predicted by the proposed model when
the Rayleigh wave attenuation is neglected.

Figure 6 shows the fundamental Rayleigh wave beams calculated using the proposed model
Figure
whenFigure 6. 6.
the RayleighRayleigh
Rayleigh wave wave
wave beam
attenuation
beam distributions
coefficient
distributions onisthe
on the setsurface
surface predicted
0. predicted
Note thatbythe byRayleigh
the the proposed
proposed wavemodel
model beams
when when
theunder
the
the Rayleigh Rayleigh
wedge wave wave
are also attenuation
shown.
attenuation is neglected.
The wave beam behaviors have been well discussed in the
is neglected.
references [6,29].
Figure7a6 shows
Figure shows thethe normalized
fundamentalmagnitudes
Rayleigh wave thebeams
of the calculated
Rayleigh wave beamsusing the
beams proposed
in the
the model
propagation
Figure 7a shows the normalized magnitudes of Rayleigh wave in propagation
when the Rayleigh wave attenuation coefficient is set 0.
direction. The decreasing tendency of the Rayleigh wave beams can be observed Note that the Rayleigh wave
observed from beams
from the under
the on-axis
on-axis
direction.
the wedge
results, andthetheare magnitude
also shown. The wave
decreases beam behaviors have been well discussed inThe the
results, and magnitude decreases more more
quicklyquickly
when the when the
attenuation attenuation is considered.
is considered. The normalized
references
normalized [6,29].
results in theresults
lateralin the lateral
direction at xdirection at xand
2 = 0.05, 0.1 2 = 0.05,
0.15 m,0.1 are
andshown
0.15 m,inare shown
Figure 7b. in
It Figure 7b. Itseen
can be also can
be alsoFigure
seen 7a shows
from the the normalized
lateral results that magnitudes
the main beam of is
thelocated
Rayleigh near wave
the beamsaxis,
central in the
and propagation
the beam
from the lateral results that the main beam is located near the central axis, and the beam widths
direction.
widths getasThe decreasing
larger tendencydistance
of the Rayleigh wave beams can be observed from the in
on-axis
get larger the as the propagation
propagation increases.
distance increases. In addition,
In addition, thethesideside lobes
lobes cancanbe beseen
seen this
in this
results,
figure. and
These the magnitude
distributions show decreases
a basic more
behavior quickly
of the when
propagating the attenuation
Rayleigh wave is considered.
beams, however, The
figure. These distributions
normalized
the received
receivedwave results in
waveresults the lateral
resultsobtained
obtained direction
using at x2 = 0.05, 0.1 and 0.15 m, are shown in Figure 7b. It can
another angle beam wedge transducer
the using another angle beam wedge transducer may may be different
be different from
be also
from theseseen from the
results. lateral results that the main beam is located near the central axis,
areand the beam
these results. In theInfollowing
the following section,
section, detailed
detailed comparisons
comparisons between
between thesethese results
results presented.
are presented.
widths get larger as the propagation distance increases. In addition, the side lobes can be seen in this
figure. These distributions show a basic behavior of the propagating Rayleigh wave beams, however,
the received wave results obtained using another angle beam wedge transducer may be different
from these results. In the following section, detailed comparisons between these results are presented.

(a) (b)
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Normalized
Normalized Rayleigh
Rayleigh wave
wave beam
beam magnitudes
magnitudes along
along (a)
(a)xx2-axis,
-axis, and
and(b)
(b)yy2-axis.
-axis. Different
Different
2 2
Rayleigh wave attenuation coefficients are used in (a), but attenuation is neglected in
Rayleigh wave attenuation coefficients are used in (a), but attenuation is neglected in (b).(b).
(a) (b)
3.3. Received Wave Results by an Angle Beam Wedge Transducer
Figure 7. Normalized Rayleigh wave beam magnitudes along (a) x2-axis, and (b) y2-axis. Different
InRayleigh
this simulation, two same
wave attenuation angle beam
coefficients wedge
are used in (a),transducers areis used
but attenuation as the
neglected transmitter and
in (b).
receiver. Their parameters are the same as described above. Although it is well known that the leaky
Rayleigh wave will attenuate severely, there is no exact attenuation coefficient to account for the lost
energy numerically yet. Here, in order to investigate the effect of leaky Rayleigh wave attenuation,
we show the normalized received average magnitudes in the propagation distance of x2 = 0.1 m, but
using different leaky wave attenuation coefficient values. The results are shown in Figure 8a. It can
be seen that the received magnitudes will be much smaller when a larger attenuation coefficient is
used. The normalized received average magnitudes in different propagation distances using different
leaky wave attenuation coefficient values (αLr = 0, 10, 40 Np/m) are shown in Figure 8b, but we
can find that there are no obvious differences between these normalized results. So we can draw
that although the received magnitudes will be much smaller when a large leaky wave attenuation
 using different leaky wave attenuation coefficient values. The results are shown in Figure 8a. It can
be seen that the received magnitudes will be much smaller when a larger attenuation coefficient is
used. The normalized received average magnitudes in different propagation distances using different
leaky wave attenuation coefficient values ( α Lr = 0, 10, 40 Np/m) are shown in Figure 8b, but we can
find 2017,
Sensors that17,
there
1449 areno obvious differences between these normalized results. So we can draw 11 of that
18
although the received magnitudes will be much smaller when a large leaky wave attenuation
coefficient is used, the leakage does not affect the tendency of the received results in the propagation
coefficient is used, the leakage does not affect the tendency of the received results in the propagation
distance. Compared to the effect induced by the attenuation coefficient of Rayleigh wave, the
distance. Compared to the effect induced by the attenuation coefficient of Rayleigh wave, the influence
influence of the attenuation coefficient of the leakage on the distributions of the received results is
of the attenuation coefficient of the leakage on the distributions of the received results is insignificant,
insignificant, though its value can be much larger than that of Rayleigh wave. Hence, in the following
though its value can be much larger than that of Rayleigh wave. Hence, in the following simulations,
simulations, the attenuation factor for the leaky Rayleigh wave is neglected. If we compare the
the attenuation factor for the leaky Rayleigh wave is neglected. If we compare the received results
received results obtained using an angle beam wedge transducer and the on-axis beam distribution,
obtained using an angle beam wedge transducer and the on-axis beam distribution, one can clearly see
one can clearly see that the decreasing tendencies are different.
that the decreasing tendencies are different.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 8. Distributions of normalized magnitudes of received wave results using an angle beam
Figure 8. Distributions of normalized magnitudes of received wave results using an angle beam wedge
wedge transducer,
transducer, (a) at the (a) at the of
distance distance
x2 = 0.1ofm, = 0.1
x2 (b) m, (b)
along alongand
x2 -axis, x2-axis, and (c)
(c) along y2 along y2-axis. Different
-axis. Different leaky
Rayleigh wave attenuation coefficients are used in (a,b), but attenuation is neglected in (c). in (c).
leaky Rayleigh wave attenuation coefficients are used in (a,b), but attenuation is neglected

The normalized magnitudes of the received results in the lateral direction at propagation
The normalized magnitudes of the received results in the lateral direction at propagation distances
distances of x2 = 0.05, 0.1 and 0.15 m are indicated in Figure 8c. The results show that the maximum
of x2 = 0.05, 0.1 and 0.15 m are indicated in Figure 8c. The results show that the maximum value exists
value exists at the central axis, and these magnitudes decrease quickly when the transducer moves
at the central axis, and these magnitudes decrease quickly when the transducer moves away from
away from the central axis. Compared with the lateral results shown in Figure 7b, it is found that the
the central axis. Compared with the lateral results shown in Figure 7b, it is found that the received
magnitudes using the angle wedge transducer have very smooth behaviors, and the effects of side
lobes are insignificant.

3.4. Received Wave Results Using Different Sizes of Receivers

We will discuss the effect of the receiver sizes on the received result distributions. In this
simulation, three different sizes of the receiver elements (3, 4.75 and 6.35 mm radii) are used. The other
parameters used here will be the same as mentioned previously. The attenuations are neglected as we
focused on the magnitude tendency of the received results. Figure 9 shows the simulated results, in
which, the on-axis wave beam results and received magnitudes using different sizes of angle beam
wedge receivers are included and are normalized by their results for a distance of x2 = 0.45 m. It can
be observed clearly from these results that at far distance, all these magnitudes will damp as follows:
 simulation, three different sizes of the receiver elements (3, 4.75 and 6.35 mm radii) are used. The
other parameters used here will be the same as mentioned previously. The attenuations are neglected
as we focused on the magnitude tendency of the received results. Figure 9 shows the simulated
results, in which, the on-axis wave beam results and received magnitudes using different sizes of
angle
Sensors beam
2017, wedge receivers are included and are normalized by their results for a distance12of
17, 1449 of x
182 =
0.45 m. It can be observed clearly from these results that at far distance, all these magnitudes will
√
e damp
u ∼ 1/ as x,follows: u  1/ to
which is similar x ,that
which is similar
observed for to that observed
cylindrical waves.for cylindrical
However, waves.
in the nearHowever, in the
distance cases,
nearresults
these distance
havecases, thesedamping
different results have differentand
tendencies, damping tendencies,
a basic discipline is and
that athe
basic discipline
results obtainedis that the
using
results obtained using a smaller size receiver will damp more quickly. These
a smaller size receiver will damp more quickly. These results indicate that the measured Rayleigh results indicate that the
measured
wave Rayleigh
distributions willwave distributions
be influenced willreceiver
by the be influenced
size, andbyit the receivertosize,
is essential and itthe
consider is essential
receptionto
consider
process the practical
in the receptionmeasurement.
process in the practical measurement.

Figure
Figure 9. 9. Tendencies
Tendencies ofof
thethe received
received wave
wave results
results using
using different
different sizes
sizes of of receivers.
receivers. Attenuations
Attenuations are
are
neglected in the simulations.
neglected in the simulations.

3.5. Comparison Results with Other Models

3.5. Comparison Results with Other Models
In order to illustrate the importance of considering the beam spreading in the wedge and the
In order to illustrate the importance of considering the beam spreading in the wedge and the
receiver size when Rayleigh wave is receipted by an angle beam wedge transducer, the received
receiver size when Rayleigh wave is receipted by an angle beam wedge transducer, the received results
results predicted by the proposed model are compared with the simulations using other simple
predicted by the proposed model are compared with the simulations using other simple methods.
methods. In the first simple model (Model 1), the wave propagation and spreading in the receiving
In the first simple model (Model 1), the wave propagation and spreading in the receiving wedge are
wedge are neglected, so that the whole Rayleigh wave values underneath the receiving wedge are
neglected, so that the whole Rayleigh wave values underneath the receiving wedge are numerically
numerically added together to yield the received results. In the second model (Model 2), we introduce
added together to yield the received results. In the second model (Model 2), we introduce the on-axis
the on-axis results predicted using Equation (22) as the received results. Since the energy of Rayleigh
results predicted using Equation (22) as the received results. Since the energy of Rayleigh waves is
waves is concentrated on the surface of the substrate and decays exponentially with depth, Rayleigh
concentrated on the surface of the substrate and decays exponentially with depth, Rayleigh waves on
waves on a free surface can be expressed in a general form with a 2-D wave equation. A line source
a free surface can be expressed in a general form with a 2-D wave equation. A line source is usually
is usually used to model the Rayleigh wave beams and account for the beam spreading behaviors
used to model the Rayleigh wave beams and account for the beam spreading behaviors [2,17,35].
[2,17,35]. Therefore, in the third model (Model 3), the angle beam wedge transmitter is replaced by a
Therefore, in the third model (Model 3), the angle beam wedge transmitter is replaced by a Gaussian
Gaussian distributed line source, and the calculated on-axis results are used as the received results,
distributed line source, and the calculated on-axis results are used as the received results, which is
which is described in the reference [26].
described in the reference [26].
The normalized simulations along the propagation distance by different models are plotted
in Figure 10. The angle beam wedge transducer in Section 3.1 will be used as the transmitter and
receiver. All the attenuations are neglected. Note that the element size of the receiver does not affect
the simulation results of these simple models. When the Gaussian distributed line source is used,
its half-length is assumed as the transducer radius. We can find that there are significant differences
among these predictions. In general, the results in Model 1 have the lowest decreasing tendency and
the predicted results will increase in the near propagation distance, while the results predicted by
Model 2 decrease quickly in the near propagation distance. The results provided by Model 3 are
similar to these predicted by the proposed model, however, the differences between them are obvious:
in the propagation distance from 0.02 to 0.25 m, the results of Model 3 decrease slowly at first and
then quickly; while the predictions of the proposed model show the opposite tendency. The different
tendencies can cause some measured parameters for Rayleigh wave, such as attenuation, deviate from
each other greatly, as will be shown in the following section. The experiments will be conducted to
check the received results along the propagation distance and test the validities of these models later.
Sensors 2017, 17, 1449 13 of 18
Sensors 2017, 17, 1149 13 of 18

Figure
Figure 10. 10. Received
Received results
results alongalong
the the propagation
propagation distance
distance predicted
predicted using
using different
different models.
models.
Attenuations
Attenuations are neglected
are neglected in theinsimulations.
the simulations.

The normalized
4. Experiments and Results simulations along the propagation distance by different models are plotted in
Figure 10. The angle beam wedge transducer in Section 3.1 will be used as the transmitter and
The experimental
receiver. setup usingare
All the attenuations theneglected.
angle beamNotewedge thattransducers
the element tosize
generate
of theand receive
receiver Rayleigh
does not affect
wave is depicted in Figure 11. A basic summary of the measurement follows here.
the simulation results of these simple models. When the Gaussian distributed line source is used, its The generating
system is an acrylic
half-length wedge (ABWSL-1045,
is assumed as the transducerOlympus)
radius.coupled
We can withfindanthat
ultrasonic
there aregenerating transducer
significant differences
(V404,
among these predictions. In general, the results in Model 1 have the lowest decreasing excited
Panametrics, Waltham, MA, USA, center frequency of 2.25 MHz and 6.35 mm radius), tendency byand
an waveform generator (33611A, Keysight Technilogies, Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA).
the predicted results will increase in the near propagation distance, while the results predicted by The parameters
of the angle2beam
Model wedge
decrease transducer
quickly in thearenearthepropagation
same as those in the simulation
distance. The results section,
providedand by
only half of3 are
Model
the footprint is covered by the wedge. The input pulse shape was a 2.25 MHz sine
similar to these predicted by the proposed model, however, the differences between them are obvious:wave modulated by
a rectangular window of
in the propagation 30 cycles,
distance fromso 0.02
that toRayleigh
0.25 m,wave with narrow
the results of Model band can be obtained.
3 decrease slowly atInfirst
the and
reception port, the angle beam wedge transducer is the same as the one in the
then quickly; while the predictions of the proposed model show the opposite tendency. The different transmission port.
Rayleigh wave can
tendencies propagates
cause someon an Al-6061 surface
measured and for
parameters willRayleigh
be received wave,by such
the receiver. The signal
as attenuation, deviate
is amplified by a pulser-receiver (Panametrics-NDT 5072PR, Panametrics, Waltham,
from each other greatly, as will be shown in the following section. The experiments will be conducted MA, USA) and
digital using the
to check a Waverunner oscilloscope
received results along the (TBS1154, Tektronix,
propagation distance Inc,and
Wilsonville, OR, USA).
test the validities Lightmodels
of these oil
is used
later.to couple the transducers to the wedges, as well as the wedges to the specimen. During
the experiment process, the transmitter is fixed and the receiver is replaced when the propagation
distance
Sensors
changes.
4. 2017,
Experiments
17, 1149 and Results 14 of 18

The experimental setup using the angle beam wedge transducers to generate and receive
Rayleigh wave is depicted in Figure 11. A basic summary of the measurement follows here. The
generating system is an acrylic wedge (ABWSL-1045, Olympus) coupled with an ultrasonic
generating transducer (V404, Panametrics, Waltham, MA, USA, center frequency of 2.25 MHz and
6.35 mm radius), excited by an waveform generator (33611A, Keysight Technilogies, Inc., Santa Clara,
CA, USA). The parameters of the angle beam wedge transducer are the same as those in the
simulation section, and only half of the footprint is covered by the wedge. The input pulse shape was
a 2.25 MHz sine wave modulated by a rectangular window of 30 cycles, so that Rayleigh wave with
narrow band can be obtained. In the reception port, the angle beam wedge transducer is the same as
the one in the transmission port. Rayleigh wave propagates on an Al-6061 surface and will be
received by the receiver. The signal is amplified by a pulser-receiver (Panametrics-NDT 5072PR,
Panametrics, Waltham, MA, USA) and digital using a Waverunner oscilloscope (TBS1154, Tektronix,
Figureoil
Inc, Wilsonville, OR, USA). Light 11. Sketch
used of
toexperiment
couple thesetup.
Figure 11.isSketch of experiment transducers to the wedges, as well as the
setup.
wedges to the specimen. During the experiment process, the transmitter is fixed and the receiver is
4.1. Results in the Propagation Distance
4.1. replaced
Results inwhen the propagation
the Propagation Distancedistance changes.
Under the condition that two angle beam wedge transducers are aligned to each other, the
Under the condition that two angle beam wedge transducers are aligned to each other, the received
received wave magnitudes in different propagation distances are measured first. A ruler is used to
wave magnitudes in different propagation distances are measured first. A ruler is used to keep the two
keep the two wedges aligned and determine the distance between two front wedge edges. The
wedges aligned and determine the distance between two front wedge edges. The measured distances
measured distances are from 0.02 to 0.2 m with the gap of 0.01 m, and the measurements will be
repeated five times with all experiment setups kept in the same condition. Since the Specifications of
the angle beam wedge transmitter and receiver are the same as those described in the simulation
section, the measurements will be compared with the simulated results in Section 3.
The normalized experiment results will be compared with the theoretical predictions using
different models. Figure 12 compares the measurements and the predictions using our proposed
Sensors 2017, 17, 1449 14 of 18

are from 0.02 to 0.2 m with the gap of 0.01 m, and the measurements will be repeated five times with
all experiment setups kept in the same condition. Since the Specifications of the angle beam wedge
transmitter and receiver are the same as those described in the simulation section, the measurements
will be compared with the simulated results in Section 3.
The normalized experiment results will be compared with the theoretical predictions using
different models. Figure 12 compares the measurements and the predictions using our proposed
model. The experiment results show the average and the standard deviation of five measurements.
As we have analyzed in Section 3, only the attenuation of Rayleigh wave affects the distributions
of the received wave results. Hence, in the predicted results, different Rayleigh wave attenuation
coefficients are used: αr = 0 and 0.45 Np/m. In the first case, the attenuation is neglected, while the
second attenuation coefficient is extracted by fitting the predictions and average measured results.
It can be observed that the measured results are in good agreement with the predictions when the
attenuation is considered. The correlation coefficient between the predictions and measured average
results is 0.98. Note that it is easy to distinguish the differences caused by attenuation and wedge
geometry or receiver size in the simulated results, as in the propagation distance, the attenuation effect
can be modeled using an exponential decay but the measured Rayleigh wave distribution behaviors
are determined by the transducer geometry. Therefore, the agreement indicates the proposed model is
effective in accounting for the wave spreading and receiver size.
Figure 13 shows the measurements and predictions using Model 1 and Model 2. One can observe
that the results predicted by Model 1 are much different from the measurements, especially in the near
distance range. We cannot obtain a good agreement between theoretical predictions and measurements
even when a very large attenuation coefficient of Rayleigh wave is introduced. In addition, the
predicted results using Model 2 without considering the attenuation will decrease more quickly than
the measured results, thus, they cannot be used to predict the experiment results accurately.
The comparisons between predictions using Model 3 and measurements are shown in Figure 14.
In order to make the theoretical calculations match with the experiment results, an attenuation
coefficient of Rayleigh wave, αr = 1 Np/m, is used. It is found that although the theoretical
calculations will get close to the measurements, the differences between them in the decreasing
tendencies are still significant. When a different size of receiver is used, the measurement results may
have different behaviors, but this model cannot predict this change. Although when Model 3 is used
one can match the theoretical predictions to measurements by adjusting the width of Gaussian source,
it is hard to execute because different ranges of measurements are involved, one may obtain different
width values. Thus, it has many limitations in the practical applications.
It should be stressed that when the measurements and theoretical predictions are compared,
the attenuation coefficients of Rayleigh wave are introduced. In order to distinguish the effects of
the Rayleigh wave attenuation from these of beam spreading, the attenuation coefficients should be
measured at first. However, accurate measurement of Rayleigh wave attenuation is still in study. It is
shown that the attenuation of Rayleigh wave is very sensitive to surface roughness [36], and in some
recent researches, the measured attenuation coefficients of Rayleigh wave at the polished surface of
al6061 specimens vary from 0.6 to 2 Np/m at 2.25 MHz [26,27]. Part of reason for the variation of
measured attenuations may be the differences of roughness and material composition. But in these
measurements, Model 3 was used as the theoretical method to account for the wave spreading; through
our analysis, this method is not so accurate and different attenuation coefficients can be extracted if the
measurements in different propagation ranges are used, as shown in Figure 12.
 surface of al6061
surface al6061 specimens vary
vary from 0.60.6 to 22 Np/m
Np/m at 2.25
2.25 MHz [26,27].
[26,27]. Part of
of reason for
for the
surface ofof al6061 specimens
specimens vary fromfrom 0.6 toto 2 Np/m at at 2.25 MHz
MHz [26,27]. Part
Part of reason
reason for thethe
variation
variation of
of measured
measured attenuations
attenuations may
may be
be the
the differences
differences of
of roughness
roughness and
and material
material composition.
composition.
variation of measured attenuations may be the differences of roughness and material composition.
But in these
But these measurements, Model
Model 3 was usedused as thethe theoretical method
method to account
account for the
the wave
But inin these measurements,
measurements, Model 33 was was used as as the theoretical
theoretical method to to account for
for the wave
wave
spreading;
spreading; through our analysis, this method is not so accurate and different attenuation coefficients
spreading; through
through our
our analysis,
analysis, this
this method
method isis not
not so
so accurate
accurate and
and different
different attenuation
attenuation coefficients
coefficients
can be
can be extracted ifif the
the measurements in in different propagation
propagation ranges are are used, asas shown in in
be extracted
can 2017,
Sensors extracted
17, 1449 if the measurements
measurements in different
different propagation ranges
ranges are used,
used, as shown
shown
15 of 18in
Figure 12.
Figure
Figure 12.
12.

Figure 12.Measured
Figure Measured normalized
normalized results
results inthethe propagation
propagation distance
distance and
and comparisons
comparisons with
with the
the
Figure12.12.
Figure 12. Measured
Measurednormalized resultsinin
normalizedresults in the
thepropagation
propagationdistance
distanceand andcomparisons
comparisonswith
withthe
the
predictions
predictions
predictions by
byby our
our
our proposed
proposed
proposed model
model
model using
using
using different
different
different attenuation
attenuation
attenuation coefficients.
coefficients.
coefficients.
predictions by our proposed model using different attenuation coefficients.

Figure13.13.Measured
Figure
Figure Measurednormalized
normalizedresults
resultsininthe
thepropagation
propagationdistance
distanceand
andcomparisons
comparisonswith
withthe
the
Figure 13.
13. Measured
Measured normalized
normalized results
results in
in the
the propagation
propagation distance
distance and
and comparisons
comparisons with
with the
the
predictions
predictions
predictions byby Model
Model 1 and
1 and Model
Model 2. 2.
predictions by
by Model
Model 11 and
and Model
Model 2.
2.

Figure14.14.Measured
Figure
Figure Measurednormalized
normalizedresults
resultsinin
inthe
thepropagation
propagationdistance
distanceand
andcomparisons
comparisonswith
withthe
the
Figure 14.
14.byMeasured
predictions Measured
the Model
normalized
normalized
3 using
results
results
different in the
the propagation
attenuation propagation distance
distance and
coefficients. and comparisons
comparisons with
with the
the
predictions by
predictions by the
the Model
Model 33 using
using different
different attenuation
attenuation coefficients.
coefficients.
predictions by the Model 3 using different attenuation coefficients.

Since good agreement is observed between the predictions by our proposed model and the
measurement results in the whole propagation range, it is more reasonable to think the extracted
attenuation coefficient only accounts for dissipation. As an inverse problem, if the wave spreading on
the surface and in the wedges is well considered, the attenuation of Rayleigh wave induced by the
material dissipation can be measured accurately.

4.2. Results in the Lateral Distance

The received results in the lateral distance from −0.02 to 0.02 m will be measured at propagation
distances of 0.05 and 0.15 m, respectively. The distance gap used in the measurements is selected as
4 mm. Figure 15a,b compares the experiment results with the predicted results obtained using the
material dissipation can be measured accurately.

4.2. Results in the Lateral Distance

The received results in the lateral distance from −0.02 to 0.02 m will be measured at propagation
Sensors 2017,of
distances 17,0.05
1449and 0.15 m, respectively. The distance gap used in the measurements is selected 16 ofas
18

4 mm. Figure 15a,b compares the experiment results with the predicted results obtained using the
proposed
proposed model
model when
when thethe propagation
propagation distances
distances areare 0.05
0.05 and
and 0.15
0.15 m,
m, respectively.
respectively. In
In the
the theoretical
theoretical
predictions
predictions for each case, all of the attenuations are neglected because the wave propagates aa same
for each case, all of the attenuations are neglected because the wave propagates same
distance. It can be found that in the lateral position, the measured results will
distance. It can be found that in the lateral position, the measured results will decrease smoothly, decrease smoothly,
coinciding
coinciding withwith the
the predicted
predictedresults.
results.InInaddition,
addition,because
because thethe
main
main sound
soundbeams
beams become
become wider
widerin
the longer propagation distance, the magnitudes of the results will decrease slowly
in the longer propagation distance, the magnitudes of the results will decrease slowly in the lateral in the lateral
distance.
distance. Generally
Generallyspeaking,
speaking,the the proposed
proposed model
model cancan effectively
effectively predict
predict measured
measured lateral
lateral results.
results.
The
The tiny deviations between the predictions and measurements may be caused by the inaccuracy
tiny deviations between the predictions and measurements may be caused by the inaccuracy of of
the equipment and measurement
the equipment and measurement errors. errors.
The
The deviations
deviations in in these
these experiments
experiments are are considerable,
considerable, though
though thethe experiment
experiment conditions
conditions remain
remain
largely
largely the same. The coupling state between the sample surface and the wedge, which is
the same. The coupling state between the sample surface and the wedge, which is decided
decided by by
the amount of coupling agent and clamping pressure, will affect the experiment
the amount of coupling agent and clamping pressure, will affect the experiment results. In addition, results. In addition,
the errorsininthethe
the errors measurement
measurement distances
distances and misalignment
and misalignment willthe
will affect affect the experiment
experiment results.
results. However,
However, in general, the predictions by the proposed model and experiment
in general, the predictions by the proposed model and experiment results show good agreement. Based results show good
agreement. Based on these
on these comparisons, it can comparisons,
be concluded it can
that beproposed
the concluded that provides
model the proposed
a moremodel provides
effective method a
more effective method than other simple models to consider the generation and
than other simple models to consider the generation and reception process of Rayleigh waves using reception process of
Rayleigh
the angle waves using the
beam wedge angle beam
transducers wedge
as the transducers
transmitter as the transmitter and receiver.
and receiver.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 15.
15. Measured normalized results
Measured normalized resultsininthe
thelateral
lateraldirection
directionatatthe
thepropagation
propagation distances
distances (a)(a) 0.05
0.05 m
m and (b) 0.15 m and comparisons with the predictions by our proposed
and (b) 0.15 m and comparisons with the predictions by our proposed model. model.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
The generation, propagation and reception of Rayleigh waves using the angle beam wedge
The generation, propagation and reception of Rayleigh waves using the angle beam wedge
transducers employed as the transmitter and receiver are modeled in this study. The wedge size is
transducers employed as the transmitter and receiver are modeled in this study. The wedge size is
considered and calculated sound wave distributions under the wedge are used as the Rayleigh wave
considered and calculated sound wave distributions under the wedge are used as the Rayleigh wave
source, thus, this model can be used to predict more accurate Rayleigh wave beams. In the reception
source, thus, this model can be used to predict more accurate Rayleigh wave beams. In the reception
process, the leaky Rayleigh wave theory is introduced and the wave spreading in the wedge is taken
process, the leaky Rayleigh wave theory is introduced and the wave spreading in the wedge is taken
into account. It is shown that the distributions of the received wave results in different propagating
into account. It is shown that the distributions of the received wave results in different propagating
distances are dependent on the receiver sizes and the attenuation of Rayleigh wave. The simulated
distances are dependent on the receiver sizes and the attenuation of Rayleigh wave. The simulated
results using the proposed model and three other simple models are compared, and the differences
results using the proposed model and three other simple models are compared, and the differences
among these results are discussed in detail. The experiment measurements for Rayleigh wave on the
among these results are discussed in detail. The experiment measurements for Rayleigh wave on
the surface of aluminum specimen helped in confirming the accurate predictions of the received
wave distributions.
The research provides an effective tool for Rayleigh wave nondestructive testing and evaluation
using angle beam wedge transducers in practice. However, further works are still needed. In the
derivation, the last results are obtained with four integrations, and it is shown that only a few
parameters, such as transducer sizes, driving frequency and wave numbers affect the Rayleigh
wave beam distributions. Therefore simplifying the calculation algorithms and defining diffraction
corrections for the angle beam wedge transducers are necessary. In addition, when the leaky Rayleigh
wave generates the coupled longitudinal wave in the solid-solid interface, the coupled coefficient
Sensors 2017, 17, 1449 17 of 18

should be derived. The measurement of absolute amplitudes or velocities of Rayleigh wave will
be investigated.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(Grant No. 51575541 and 5161101582), and the Basic Science Research Program through the National Research
Foundation of Korea (Grant Nos. 2016R1A2B4013953 and 2016M2A2A9A03913683).
Author Contributions: S. Zhang and X. Li conceived and designed the experiments; S. Zhang performed the
experiments; H. Jeong contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools; S. Zhang and X. Li wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Viktorov, I.A. Rayleigh and Lamb Waves: Physical Theory and Applications; Plenum Press: New York, NY,
USA, 1967.
2. Schmerr, L.W. Fundamentals of Ultrasonic Nondestructive Evaluation—A Modeling Approach; Plenum Press:
New York, NY, USA, 1998.
3. Lee, F.W.; Chai, H.K.; Lim, K.S. Assessment of reinforced concrete surface breaking crack using Rayleigh
wave measurement. Sensors 2016, 16, 337. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Spies, M. Elastic wave propagation in transversely isotropic media. II. The generalized Rayleigh function
and an integral representation for the transducer field. Theory. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1995, 97, 1–13.
5. Zhang, S.; Li, X.; Jeong, H. A more general model equation of nonlinear Rayleigh waves and quasilinear
solutions. Model. Phys. Lett. B 2016, 30, 1650096. [CrossRef]
6. Zhang, S.; Li, X.; Jeong, H.; Hu, H. Modeling linear Rayleigh wave sound fields generated by angle wedge
transducers. AIP Adv. 2017, 7, 015005. [CrossRef]
7. Li, W.; Cho, Y. Quantification and imaging of corrosion wall thinning using shear horizontal guided waves
generated by magnetostrictive sensors. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2015, 232, 251–258. [CrossRef]
8. Barnard, D.J. A variable pitch comb fixture for Rayleigh wave generation and reception. Rev. Prog. Quant.
Nondestr. Eval. 2007, 26, 1684–1690.
9. Hurley, D.C. Nonlinear propagation of narrow-band Rayleigh waves excited by a comb transducer. J. Acoust.
Soc. Am. 1999, 106, 1782–1788. [CrossRef]
10. Moulzolf, S.C.; Behanan, R.; Pollard, T.; Lad, R.J.; Cunha, M.P. Capacitively coupled IDT for high temperature
SAW devices. In Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Ultrasonics Symposium (IUS), Prague,
Czech Republic, 21–25 July 2013; pp. 255–258.
11. Rose, J.L. Ultrasonic Waves in Solid Media; Cambridge University Press: London, UK, 2004.
12. Torello, D.; Thiele, S.; Matlack, K.H.; Kim, J.-Y.; Qu, J.; Jacobs, L.J. Diffraction, attenuation, and source
corrections for nonlinear Rayleigh wave ultrasonic measurements. Ultrasonics 2015, 56, 417–426.
13. Jacobs, L.J.; Owino, J.O. Effect of aggregate size on attenuation of Rayleigh surface waves in cement-based
materials. J. Eng. Mech. 2000, 126, 1124–1130. [CrossRef]
14. Alberto, R.M.; Nagy, P.B. Diffraction correction for precision surface acoustic wave velocity measurements.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2002, 112, 835–842.
15. Norouzian, M.; Turner, J.A.; Fuller, A.J.; Wilson, B.M. Subsurface inclusion quantification using
multi-frequency ultrasonic surface waves. Rev. Prog. Quant. Nondestr. Eval. 2016. Available online:
http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/qnde/2016/abstracts/78/ (accessed on 17 June 2017).
16. Lo, W.-C. Propagation and attenuation of Rayleigh waves in a semi-infinite unsaturated poroelastic medium.
Adv. Water Res. 2008, 31, 1399–1410. [CrossRef]
17. Achenbach, J.D. Reciprocity in Elastodynamics; Cambridge University Press: London, UK, 2003.
18. Achenbach, J.D. Calculation of surface wave motions due to a sub-surface point force: An application of
elastodynamic reciprocity. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2000, 107, 1892–1897. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
19. Achenbach, J.D. Calculation of wave fields using elasodynamic reciprocity. Int. J. Solids. Struct. 2000, 37,
7043–7053. [CrossRef]
20. Phan, H.; Cho, Y.; Achenbach, J.D. Validity of the reciprocity approach for determination of surface wave
motion. Ultrasonics 2013, 53, 665–671. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Sensors 2017, 17, 1449 18 of 18

21. Schmerr, L.W.; Sedov, A. Ultrasonic beam models for the generation of surface waves and plate waves with
angle beam transducers. Rev. Prog. Quant. Nondestr. Eval. 2011, 30, 771–778.
22. Zhao, X.; Schmerr, L.W.; Sedov, A.; Li, X. Ultrasonic beam models for angle beam surface wave transducers.
Res. Nondestruct. Eval. 2016, 27, 175–191. [CrossRef]
23. Baker, A.C.; Ward, B.; Hunphrey, V.F. The effect of receiver size on nonlinear pressure field measurements.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1996, 100, 2062–2069. [CrossRef]
24. Jeong, H.; Zhang, S.; Cho, S.; Li, X. Development of diffraction and attenuation corrections for linear and
nonlinear Rayleigh surface waves using multi-Gaussian beam models. AIP Adv. 2016, 6, 045313. [CrossRef]
25. Zhang, S.; Li, X.; Jeong, H.; Cho, S.; Hu, H. Theoretical and experimental investigation of the pulse-echo
nonlinearity acoustic sound fields of focused transducers. Appl. Acoust. 2017, 117, 145–149.
26. Liu, M.; Kim, J.-Y.; Jacobs, L.; Qu, J. Experimental study of nonlinear Rayleigh wave propagation in
shot-peened aluminum plates—Feasibility of measuring residual stress. NDT E Int. 2011, 44, 67–74.
27. Huang, C.-L. Effect of Beam Diffraction on Nonlinear Rayleigh Surface Wave Measurement. Master’s Thesis,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA, 2013.
28. Watanabe, K. Integral Transform Techniques for Green’s Function; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2014.
29. Zhang, S.; Li, X.; Jeong, H.; Hu, H. Modeling nonlinear Rayleigh wave fields generated by angle beam wedge
transducers—A theoretical study. Wave Motion 2016, 67, 141–159.
30. Zhang, S.; Li, X.; Jeong, H. Phased array beam fields of nonlinear Rayleigh surface waves. Chin. Phys. Lett.
2016, 33, 074302.
31. Wang, H.; Han, Q.; Qian, M. Interface wave measurement at s solid-solid interface with laser ultrasonics.
Chin. Phys. Lett. 2012, 29, 104304. [CrossRef]
32. Titov, S.; Maev, R.; Bogachenkov, A. Measurements of velocity and attenuation of leaky waves using an
ultrasonic array. Ultrasonics 2006, 44, 182–187. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
33. Neuenschwander, J.; Schmidt, T.; Luthi, T.; Romer, M. Leaky Rayleigh wave investigation on mortar samples.
Ultrasonics 2006, 45, 50–55. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
34. Mozhaev, V.G.; Weihnacht, M. Subsonic leaky Rayleigh waves at liquid-solids interfaces. Ultrasonics 2002, 40,
927–933. [CrossRef]
35. Shull, D.J.; Kim, E.E.; Hamilton, M.F.; Zabolotskay, E.A. Diffraction effects in nonlinear Rayleigh wave beams.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1995, 97, 2126–2137. [CrossRef]
36. De Billy, M.; Quentin, G.; Baron, E. Attenuation measurements of an ultrasonic Rayleigh wave propagating
along rough surfaces. J. Appl. Phys. 1987, 61, 2140–2145. [CrossRef]

© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).