A Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved.

May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

abandon To cease producing oil or gas from a well when it becomes unprofitable. A wildcat may
be abandoned after it has been proved nonproductive. Sometimes, before a well is
abandoned, some of the casing is removed and salvaged. Usually, one or more cement
plugs are placed in the borehole to prevent migration of fluids between the various
formations. In many states, abandonment must be approved by an official regulatory
agency before being undertaken.

abnormal pressure Any pore pressure which differs from normal pore pressure. It may be either higher than
normal pore pressure (super-normal) or lower than normal pore pressure (subnormal).
See overpressure and underpressure.
absolute permeability The permeability of a rock measured when only one fluid phase is present in the rock.
Usually measured in millidarcies or darcies. See permeability. Compare effective
permeability and relative permeability.

absolute pressure Pressure relative to an ideal vacuum. Gage pressure plus atmospheric pressure.

absolute temperature A measure of temperature in which zero degrees is absolute zero. Temperature measured
scale in degrees Kelvin (°K) from absolute zero (–273.16° C) or degrees Rankine (°R) from
 absolute zero (–459.69° F).

°K = °C + 273.16
°R = °F + 459.69

absolute zero A hypothetical temperature at which all thermal motion of atoms ceases. A total absence
of heat.

absorption (1) The process of soaking up or taking in by capillary, osmotic, chemical, or solvent
action.

(2) The process by which radiation loses some or all of its energy to any material
through which it passes. See also photoelectric absorption.

accelerator A device used for accelerating the velocity of electrons, or nuclear particles to high
energies. For example, an accelerator is used in pulsed neutron logging where deuterium
is accelerated to strike a tritium target to produce neutrons.

acid Any chemical compound, one element of which is hydrogen, that dissociates in solution
to produce free hydrogen ions. See ion. For example, hydrochloric acid, HCl, dissociates
in water to produce hydrogen ions, H+, and chloride ions, Cl–. This reaction is expressed
chemically as HCl H+ + Cl–. See dissociation.

acid stimulation Acidizing of a well. Process of introducing acid into a well to dissolve acid soluble
materials, in the wellbore or in reservoir rock near the wellbore, which might be
restricting fluid flow. Acid-soluble materials in the reservoir rock might occur naturally
or might have been introduced during the drilling or completion process of the well.
Commonly used acids are hydrochloric and mixtures of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric;
although other mineral acids and organic acids have been used, notably citric acid and
acetic acid.

acid treatment See acid stimulation.

acidize See acid stimulation.

acre-foot A unit of volume often used in oil-reservoir analysis. Equivalent to the volume (as of oil
or water) necessary to cover 1 acre to a depth of 1 foot.

acre-ft. acre-foot.

acoustic Of or pertaining to sound.

acoustic log A record of a well-logging measurement of one or more specific characteristics of

acoustic waves propagated in and around the liquid-filled wellbore.

(1) The interval transit time, usually of the compressional wave, is recorded on such logs
as the sonic log, continuous velocity logs, and borehole compensated sonic and
Acoustilogs.

(2) The amplitude of part of the propagated acoustic wave, such as the compressional
wave or shear wave is the measurement recorded on other well logs. These are the
amplitude log, cement bond log, and fracture logs.

(3) The acoustic wave train of the propagated acoustic wave is displayed in the
amplitude-time mode on full wave train logs such as signature logs or character logs;
whereas the wave train is shown in the intensity modulated-time mode on variable
density logs, variable intensity logs, 3-D Velocity Logs, or Micro-Seismogram Logs.

(4) Includes logs resulting from the measurements of travel time and amplitude of
reflected acoustic energy. Tools making such measurements are the borehole televiewer
and sonar caliper.

(5) Also includes logs produced by devices which detect and measure the amplitude of
sound waves in the audible frequency range. Audible sound might emanate from liquid
or gas movements in the wellbore environment. Tools developed to make such
measurements are used in audio or noise logging techniques.

acoustic travel time (1) The total time required for a specific acoustic wave to travel from one point to
 another.

(2) interval transit time. The time required for a compressional wave (usually) to travel
from one point to another separated by a distance of unit length (usually one foot).

acoustic velocity log AVL. See acoustic log part (1).

acoustic wave An elastic wave, seismic wave. A sound wave in which the disturbance propagated
through a medium is an elastic deformation of the medium. The wave train which results
from the emission of an acoustic pulse by a well logging device is detected by one or
more detectors mounted on the sonde and various aspects of it are measured (see
acoustic log). The wave train is a composite of various modes of energy transfer. The
first arrival usually results from compressional waves traveling in the formation; the
inverse of its velocity is measured by sonic tools. A second arrival is sometimes
identified as shear waves traveling in the formation. The velocity of the compressional
waves traveling through the mud is frequency dependent and has relatively high
frequency content. On the other hand, surface waves of relatively low frequency travel
along the borehole wall at lower velocities and are usually called tube waves or pseudo-
Stoneley waves. See also wave train.

Acoustilog A sonic log. See acoustic log. Acoustilog is a Dresser Atlas trademark.

activation See neutron activation.

activation logging A well-logging technique in which the formation in the near environment of the
irradiating tools is irradiated with neutrons which transform some nuclei into
radioisotopes. The specific radioactive isotopes which are produced by activation of the
nuclei can be detected by their characteristic induced radioactivity energy levels and
decay-time schemes. This provides a means for identifying the elements originally
present. See also induced spectral gamma-ray log and neutron activation.

activity The activity of an ion species is its thermodynamic equivalent concentration; i.e., the ion
concentration corrected for the deviation from ideal behavior caused by the interionic
attraction of ions. It is this interaction between ions which tends to cause the electrical
 conductivity of a solution to be less than that predicted from the number of ions present.
Only at infinite dilution are the ions completely free of the influence of other ions in
solution.

Ionic activity is used in expressing the variation of electrode potentials and other
electrochemical phenomena (e.g., SP). At low concentrations, the chemical activity of a
solution of a given salt is roughly proportional to its salt content; i.e., roughly
proportional to its conductivity or inversely to its resistivity. In concentrated solutions,
the relation between conductivity and concentration is complex and depends on
individual solute properties.

adapter A short, threaded piece or coupling used to adapt parts of the logging tool that cannot
otherwise be coupled together because of difference in thread size or design.

adiabatic An adiabatic process is one in which there is no exchange of heat with the surroundings.
The relationship of pressure and volume when a gas or other fluid is compressed or
expanded with no loss or gain of heat. In an adiabatic process, compression causes an
increase in temperature and expansion a decrease in temperature.

adsorption A type of adhesion which takes place at the surface of a solid or a liquid in contact with
liquid or gases. Adsorption results in the accumulation of molecules of gases, or ions or
molecules of liquids, at the surfaces of contacting solids or liquids.

A electrode The current-emitting electrode in the configuration of current and potential-measuring

electrodes of a resistivity-measuring device. Compare B electrode. See normal and
lateral devices.

aerated zone See zone of aeration.

AIME The American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical. and Petroleum Engineers. The New
York City-based parent group of the Society of Petroleum Engineers. The SPE,
headquartered in Dallas, Tex., publishes the "Journal of Petroleum Technology."
air drilling A method of rotary drilling that uses compressed air as its circulation medium. This
method of removing cuttings from the wellbore is as efficient or more efficient than the
traditional methods using water or drilling mud. In addition. the rate of penetration is
increased considerably when air drilling is used. A principal problem in air drilling is the
penetration of formations containing water, since the entry of water into the system
reduces its efficiency.

alkaline (1) Having the properties of a base.

(2) Containing sodium and/or potassium in excess of the amount needed to form
feldspar with the available silica; e.g., an alkaline rock-in this sense sometimes written
alkalic.

(3) Containing ions of one or more alkali metals.

(4) Waters containing more than average amounts of carbonates of sodium, potassium,
magnesium, or calcium.

alpha The ratio of the pseudo-static SP (PSP) to the static SP (SSP). Alpha bears an inverse
relationship with clayiness.

alpha particle A particle identical to the helium nucleus which has been ejected from the nucleus of an
atom as a form of radiation. When the alpha particle slows down it picks up two
electrons, becoming an atom of helium. The penetrating power of an alpha particle is
low; a thin sheet of paper will stop most alpha particles. The readjustment which takes
place within the parent nucleus results in gamma radiation.

alpha ring A common Welex name for guarded electrode.

allogenic Descriptive of detrital rock constituents and minerals derived elsewhere from older
formations and redeposited. Compare authigenic.

American Petroleum API. Founded in 1920, this national oil trade organization is the leading standardizing
Institute organization on oil-field drilling and producing equipment. It maintains departments of
 transportation, refining, and marketing in Washington, D.C., and a department of
production in Dallas.

amorphous Without form. A term applied to rocks and minerals having no definite crystalline
structure.

AM spacing The notation used to refer to the distance between the current electrode (A) and the
potential-measuring electrode (M) of the normal device.

amplified curve A curve recorded on a more sensitive scale; e.g., the amplified short normal curve.

amplitude log A record of the amplitude of the compression wave or shear wave portion of the acoustic
wave propagated through the borehole environment in acoustic logging. See also cement
bond log and fracture log.

amplitude-time An acoustic wave train display mode. A trace of the acoustic wave train in the X-Y
plane in which the amplitude of each point on the wave train is represented as a function
of time. See acoustic log. Compare intensity modulated-time or variable density. See
illustration at wave train display.

anhydrite The common name for the naturally occurring calcium sulfate. Anhydrite is calcium
sulfate (CaSO4 ) existing in the orthorhombic crystalline form. The anhydrite crystal
cannot become a gypsum crystal (monoclinic form) in a single hydration step. Anhydrite
must first become dissociated in solution before it can crystallize as gypsum (or
recrystallize as anhydrite). Compare gypsum.

anion A negatively charged ion.

anisotropic Of or pertaining to anisotropy. See anisotropy.

anisotropy The property of a rock which allows it to show different responses or measurements
when measured along different axes. Microscopic anisotropy relates to the variation of a
property measured perpendicular to the bedding from that measured parallel to the
bedding because plate-like mineral grains and interstices tend to orient themselves
parallel to the bedding. Macroscopic anisotropy relates to the variation resulting from
thin beds and fracture planes whose properties differ appreciably from those of the
remaining volume over which a measurement is made.

annular space See annulus parts (1) and (2).

annulus (1) That space between a drill pipe and the formations through which the drilling fluid
(mud) returns to the surface.

(2) The space between tubing and casing or between casing and formation.

(3) A ring of interstitial water produced by invasion processes in hydrocarbon-bearing

beds when both hydrocarbon and interstitial water phases have mobility and their
mobilities are different.

When Rxo > Ro the annulus will be more conductive than the flushed zone (Rxo) or the
uninvaded oil-bearing zone (Rt). When Rxo < Ro, the resistivity of the annulus will be
intermediate between that of the flushed zone (Rxo) and the uninvaded oil-bearing zone
(Rt).
anticline A subsurface fold structure in which beds dip in opposite directions from a common
ridge or axis. A fold that is concave downwards. See illustration in fold.

AO spacing This notation refers to the distance between the current electrode (A) and a point (O)
midway between the potential-measuring electrodes (M and N) of the lateral device. On
the reciprocal sonde, it is the distance between the M electrode and a point (O) midway
between the current electrodes (A and B).

API See American Petroleum Institute.

API gravity The measure of gravity of liquid petroleum products on the North American continent,
 derived from specific gravity in accordance with the following equation:

API gravity is expressed in degrees, a specific gravity of 1.0 being equal to 10 °API.

API log grid The API log grid is the standard format used by all logging companies for recording
well-logging measurements in the petroleum industry. This log grid has one track on the
left side of the depth column and two on the right. The tracks are 2.5 inches wide and
the depth column is 0.75 inches wide. The tracks may be divided into linear scale or
logarithmic scale. See scale for illustration.

API test pits Calibration pits, located at the API nuclear log calibration facility at the University of
Houston, used for the calibration or standardization of gamma-ray logging responses
and neutron logging responses into API units.
API unit A unit of counting rate used for scaling gamma-ray logs and neutron logs.

(1) For gamma-ray curves. The difference in curve deflection between zones of low and
high radiation in the API gamma-ray calibration pit is 200 API gamma-ray units. One
two-hundredth of this deflection is one API gamma-ray unit.

(2) For neutron curves. The difference between electrical zero and the curve deflection
opposite a zone of Indiana limestone (19% porosity) in the API neutron calibration pit is
1,000 API units. One one-thousandth of this deflection is one API neutron unit.

apparent resistivity Resistivity recorded on a resistivity well log which may differ from true resistivity
because of the influence on the measured response caused by the presence of the mud
column, invaded zone, adjacent beds, borehole cavities, etc. These values may need
correction prior to use in any computation.
apparent value The uncorrected value of a curve recorded directly on a log.

aquicide A relatively impermeable stratum that does not transmit water fast enough to supply a
well or spring.

aquifer (1) A water-bearing stratum of permeable rock, sand, or gravel capable of producing
water.

(2) In a petroleum reservoir with a natural water drive, the aquifer is that part of the
reservoir containing water.

arch Sand arch. The arch of sand created outside of an orifice or perforation on the formation
side of casing or liner. For example, in unconsolidated sandstone the rock must have the
property of dilatancy, or the property to expand, before the arch will form. The resulting
arch, caused by the interlocking and wedging together of sand grains, prevents the flow
of sand through a perforation. Cohesion is imparted to the loose grains forming the arch
when the wetting phase is at irreducible saturation.

Archie's formulas Empirical relationships between the formation resistivity factor F, porosity φ, water
saturation Sw , and resistivities in clean granular rocks.

where m = porosity exponent,

Ro = resistivity of the formation when 100%
saturated with formation water,
 Rw = formation water resistivity,
Rt = true resistivity of the formation,
n = saturation exponent.

arenaceous Pertaining to sand or sandy rocks (as, aranaceous shale).

argillaceous Rocks or substances composed of clay minerals, or having notable proportion of clay in
their composition such as shale and slate.

arkose A sandstone containing 25% or more of feldspars, usually derived from silicic igneous
rocks.

arm (1) A bow spring or lever on a downhole tool which presses against the borehole wall to
centralize the tool, to push the tool to the opposite side of the borehole, or to hold a
sensor pad to the borehole wall.

(2) To prepare a perforating gun so that it will fire when the firing switch at the surface
is operated. This usually requires connecting the detonator and/or completing the
electrical wiring in the gun.

armor Layers of steel wire wrapped around insulated electrical conductors of a survey cable.
The strength of the cable under tension is related to the number of wire strands in the
armor and their condition. See also weak point.

aromatic Pertaining to hydrocarbons, a liquid or solid hydrocarbon having the formula CnH2n–6.
Such compounds contain the benzene ring. Compare paraffinic.

arrow plot A display of dipmeter or drift measurements. See tadpole plot.

artesian water Ground water that has sufficient hydraulic pressure to rise above its aquifer. This water
might or might not have sufficient hydraulic pressureto rise above its aquifer. This water
might or might not have sufficient pressure to rise to or above the surface of the ground.

artificial lift Any method used to raise oil to the surface through a well, after reservoir pressure has
declined to the point at which the well no longer produces by means of natural energy.
Sucker-rod pumps, hydraulic pumps, submersible pumps, and gas lift are the most
common methods of artificial lift.

asphalt A dark colored bitumen found as a natural deposit. Crude oil of high asphaltic content
will leave asphalt as a residue when subjected to distillation to remove the lighter
fractions. Asphalt is dark brown or black in color ans at room temperatures usually is
solid.

atmospheric pressure The pressure exerted over the surface of the earth by the weight of the atmosphere. At
sea level, this pressure is approximately 14.7 psia.

atom The smallest particle of an element which can exist alone, or in combination with similar
particles of the same of different elements.

atomic number The number of protons within an atomic nucleus, or the number of orbital electrons in a
"neutral" atom.

atomic weight Atomic mass. The relative weight of an atom on the basis that carbon is 12. For a pure
isotope, the atomic weight rounded off to the nearest integer equal to the total number of
neutrons and protons in the atomic nucleus.

attenuation When a form of energy is propogated through a medioum, its amplitude is decreased.
This decrease is termed attenuation. See also wave train.
audio logging See noise logging.

authigenic Descriptive of rock constituents and minerals which are formed or generated in the
location where they are found.

Authigenic materials ussually are formed subsequent to deposition, but might be formed
at the time of deposition. Compare allogenic.
azimuth (1) In well logging. In a horizontal plane, it is the clockwise angle of departure from
magnetic north. See also magnetic declination.

(2) Curve recorded in dipmeter surveys. Looking down the hole, it is the clockwise
angle from magnetic north to the reference electrode number 1 on the sonde or tool.

(3) In land surveying. It is the clockwise angle of departure in a horizontal plane from
true north.
azimuth frequency plot
B Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA
background radiation
back-pressure
back-up curve
back-up galvanometer
A diagram on polar chart paper which presents only a count of the number of dip
azimuth measurements which fall within each ten-degree sector, within a given group of
dips. Dip magnitude is ignored. See illustration in azimuth.
The radiation intensity existing in the environment which is in addition to the specfic
radiation under consideration. On the surface, this is the ionizing radiation produced by
cosmic irradiation and naturally occurring trace amounts of radioactive elements. In the
subsurface, this is the naturally occurring radiation prior to the introduction of
radioactive tracer materials or activation.
The pressure maintained on equipment or systems through which a fluid flows.
A curve recorded by a back-up galvanometer.
A galvanometer which begins to record when the primary galvanometer has reached the
limit of available track width or goes off scale. The back-up galvaometer will be either
less sensitive than the primary galvanometer or have a shifted scale.
ball sealers Balls made of nylon, hard rubber, or both, and used to shut off perforations through
which excessive fluid is lost.

barefoot completion See openhole completion.

barite BaSO4. A natural mineral used as weighting material in drilling mud.

barn 10–24 cm2. A unit of measure for capture cross section.

barrel Petroleum barrel. A unit of measure for crude oil and oil products equal to 42 U.S.
gallons.

basalt A fine-grained igneous rock dominated by dark-colored minerals, consisting of

plagioclase feldspars (a calcium-sodium-aluminum-silicate, usually present in amounts
over 50%), and ferromagnesium silicates. Basalts and andesites represent about 98% of
all extrusive igneous rocks.

base A substance capable of combining with charged hydrogen atoms (ions) to form a salt. A
typical base is sodium hydroxide (caustic), with the chemical symbol NaOH.

base exchange See ion exchange.

base-line shift (1) Generally refers to a naturally occurring shift of the base line of any specific curve;
e.g., the SP curve. Usually the base line referred to is the shale base line, but could be
the sand base line or other base line.

(2) Sometimes refers to a manual or electrical shift in the curve produced by the logging
 engineer. See manual shift.

basement A complex of undifferentiated rocks that underlies the oldest sedimentary rocks. In
many places the rocks of the complex are igneous and metamorphic and of Precambrian
age, but in some places they are Paleozoic, Mesozoic, or even Cenozoic. In terms of
petroleum exploration, basement is the surface below which there is no current
exploration interest.

basin A synclinal structure in the subsurface, once the bed of an ancient sea. Basins, in which
sediments have accumulated. are regarded as good prospects for oil exploration.

bearing See relative bearing.

bed A subdivision of a stratified sequence of rocks, lower in rank than a member or

formation, internally composed of relatively homogeneous material exhibiting some
degree of lithologic unity, and separated from the rocks above and below by visually or
physically more or less well defined boundary planes.

bedding planes In sedimentary or stratified rocks, the division planes that separate the individual layers,
beds, or strata.

bedrock A general term for the rock, usually solid, that underlies soil or other unconsolidated,
superficial material.

bed thickness (1) True bed thickness is the thickness of the stratigraphic unit measured along a line
normal to the direction of extension of the unit. True thickness can be derived from
information determined by the dipmeter.

(2) The bed thickness determined from some well logs is an apparent bed thickness
corresponding to the distance the borehole remained in the bed. The borehole may not
have penetrated the bed normal to its upper or lower boundary surface because of hole
deviation and formation dip. See also true vertical depth.
B electrode A current-return electrode in the current and measure electrode configuration of a
resistivity measuring device. Compare A electrode. See also normal and lateral device.

bentonite A colloidal clay, composed of montmorillonite, which swells when wet. Because of its
gel-forming properties, bentonite is a major component of drilling muds. See gel and
mud.

beta particle A high speed disintegration electron (i.e., negatron or positron) spontaneously emitted
from an atomic nucleus as a form of radiation. Electrons (negative or positive) do not
exist in nuclei; they are created at the moment of emission and are accompanied by the
transition of a neutron into a proton, or a proton into a neutron. The atomic number of
the nuclide is changed by a +1 or a –1 with no significant change in atomic weight. A
beta particle can penetrate only a few millimeters of rock.

BHT Bottomhole temperature, usually obtained by maximum reading thermometers.

bi-metallism Existence of contact between two dissimilar metals in the logging instrument which
results in a spurious emf. If electrical leaks exist between the metals and the borehole
fluid, a circuit will be completed in the borehole fluid through which electrical current
will flow. Opposite resistive beds, the lines of current are distorted and current flow is
confined to the borehole. When this current crosses the SP electrode it distorts the SP
curve.

bit A cutting device attached to the bottom end of the drill pipe. Its function is to perform
the actual boring or drilling of the rock formations.

blasting cap Electrical blasting cap, a detonator. An electrically activated explosive device used to
detonate high explosives (e.g., shaped charges).

blind ram An integral part of a blowout preventer, serving as the closing element. Its ends do not
 fit around the drill pipe but seal against each other and shut off the space below
completely. See rams.

blind zone Shadow zone. Commonly observed on curves recorded by a lateral device. A zone
wherein the recorded resistivity is too low. This zone corresponds to the depth interval
logged while a thin resistive bed of thickness less than the AO spacing is between the A
electrode and the midpoint of the measure electrodes. See also reflection peak.

BLM See Bureau of Land Management.

blowout A sudden, uncontrolled flow of drilling fluid, oil, gas, or water from a wellbore when the
formation pressure in a permeable formation exceeds the pressure in the borehole. A
kick sometimes warns of low pressure in the borehole.

blowout preventer BOP. (1) A safety device for closing the wellhead, which has rubber rams which can be
closed down on the logging cable in the event the well begins to blow out. Blowout
preventers may be connected in series for improved control. See illustration at
lubricator. See also riser, stuffing box, hydraulic packing head, and flow tube.

(2) Equipment installed at the wellhead at surface level on land rigs and on the seafloor
of floating offshore rigs to prevent the escape of pressurized fluids either in the annular
space between the casing and drill pipe or in an open hole during drilling and
completion operations. See also rams.
blue pattern A convention used in dipmeter interpretation. A blue pattern denotes decreasing
formation dip with increasing depth with a uniform azimuth. The blue color is
sometimes drafted on the tadpole plot of the computed dipmeter log. Compare green
pattern and red pattern. See dip for illustration.

boiling point The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the pressure
exerted on the liquid by the surrounding atmosphere. The boiling point of water is 212°F
or 100°C at atmospheric pressure (14.7 psig).

bomb A thick-walled container, usually steel. used to hold samples of oil or gas under
pressure. See bottomhole pressure.

bond (1) The state of one material adhering or being joined to another material (as cement to
formation). See cement bond.

(2) To adhere or to be joined to another material.

bond index The ratio of attenuation in zone of interest (db/ft) to attenuation in well-cemented
section (db/ft). The computed bond index value is an indicator of the quality of cement
bond. Both the value of the bond index and the length of cemented interval exhibiting
the calculated index value must be considered in estimating the quality of isolation to be
expected.

BOP See blowout preventer.

borehole The hole made by the drill bit into earthen formations.

borehole camera See camera.

borehole compensated A well log of the interval transit lime: i.e., the time required for a compression wave to
sonic log travel one foot in the formation (generally in microseconds per foot); the reciprocal of
the compressional velocity. The borehole compensated sonic sonde carries two sets of
transducers, one with its transmitter above its receiver pair and one with its transmitter
below. The transmitters are pulsed alternately, and the alternate measurements are
averaged. Spurious effects caused by borehole-size changes, and sonde tilt, which would
affect a measurement with a single set of transducers, are thereby substantially reduced.

borehole effect The spurious influence on a well-logging measurement due to the influence of the
borehole environment; e.g., diameter, shape, rugosity of the wall of the borehole, type of
 borehole fluid, and presence of mud cake.

borehole gravimeter A gravimeter designed for use in a borehole and equipped for remote leveling and
reading at precisely determined well depths. It can be used to determine bulk density
deep, laterally within a formation. See gravimeter.

borehole gravity meter A borehole gravimeter.

borehole log See well log.

borehole televiewer A well-logging system wherein a pulsed, narrow acoustic (sonar) beam scans the
borehole wall in a tight helix as the tool moves up the borehole. A display of the
amplitude of the reflected wave on a cathode ray tube (television screen) is
photographed yielding a picture of the borehole wall. The picture is a representation of
the wellbore wall as if it were split vertically along magnetic north and laid out flat.
Physical discontinuities such as fractures, vugs, etc. are detailed on the log. The tool
may be used for casing inspection, without the magnetic orientation for location of
perforations or damage.

borehole volume Volume of the hole resulting from the integrated volume calculated from the hole size
recorded on a caliper log.
bottom-hole pressure The pressure in a well at a point opposite the producing formation as recorded by a
pressure measurement device.

Bouguer anomaly The gravity value existing after the Bouguer corrections to a level datum have been
applied.

Bouguer correction A correction to gravity data because of the attraction of the rock between the station and
the elevation of the datum (often sea level). The Bouguer correction is 0.01276ρh mgal
or 0.4186ρh mgal where ρ is the specific gravity of the intervening rock and h is the
difference between the station and datum elevations in feet or meters, respectively.

bound water (1) Water which has become adsorbed to the surfaces of solid particles or grains. Under
natural conditions, this water is viscous like and immobile but might not have lost its
electrolytic properties. See also adsorption and water wet.

(2) Water which is chemically bound by becoming part of a crystal lattice. This water
will have lost its electrolytic properties.

brackish water Water that contains relatively low concentrations of any soluble salts. Brackish water is
saltier than fresh.

break circulation To start the mud pump to restore circulation of the mud column. Because stagnant
drilling fiuid gels during the period of no circulation, a high pump pressure is usually
required to break circulation.

breccia (1) Fragmental rock whose components are angular and therefore, as distinguished from
conglomerates, are not waterworn.

(2) Rock made up of highly angular coarse fragments that may be sedimentary or
formed by the action of crushing or grinding along faults.

(3) Volcanic breccia is a more-or-less indurated pyroclastic rock consisting chiefly of

 accessory and accidental angular ejecta 32 mm or more in diameter lying in a fine tuff
matrix.

brick-wall effect On borehole televiewer logs. An unusual effect produced on the cathode-ray tube
display by erratic movement of the tool as it drags along the borehole.

bridge (1) Constriction in the borehole.

(2) Plugging of a perforation or other orifice by debris, cementing materials, or sand

grains. Bridging occurs inside the orifice. Compare with arch.

bridge plug A downhole device composed primarily of slips, a plug mandrel. and a rubber sealing
element, that is run and set in casing to isolate a lower zone while testing an upper
section.

bridle (1) The disconnectable, rubber insulation-covered downhole end of a survey cable on
which current and measure electrodes (cable electrodes) are mounted for resistivity
measuring electrode configurations requiring longer spacings than can be attained on a
sonde. The head, to which the sonde is attached, is an integral part of the fishing bell and
bridle.

(2) For those services which do not require bridle electrodes, it is the short
disconnectable length of cable on which the fishing bell and head are attached. The
disconnectable feature permits the quick changing of head types and sizes, and easier
servicing.

brine A highly saline solution. A solution containing appreciable amounts of NaCl and other
salts.

British thermal unit BTU. The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water 1°F at or
near its point of maximum density (equivalent to 252 calories).
bubble flow A flow regime in which relatively uniform bubbles of gas or oil, approximately
homogeneously distributed, flow upward through oil or water at a constant rate. The
relative velocity is governed mainly by the difference between the densities of the
lighter and heavier phases, and the viscosity of the heavier phase.

bubble point The temperature and pressure at which part of a liquid begins to convert to gas. For
example, if a certain volume of liquid is held at constant pressure, but its temperature is
increased, a point is reached at which bubbles of gas begin to form in the liquid. This is
the bubble point. Similarly, if a certain volume of liquid is held at a constant temperature
but the pressure is reduced, the point at which gas begins to form is the bubble point.
Compare dew point.

bubble-point pressure The pressure at which gas first begins to come out of solution at constant temperature.

bucking electrodes Bucking-current electrodes. Current electrodes on a laterolog type resistivity measuring
system from which bucking current fiows in order to confine the survey current into a
thin, horizontal investigative layer. Serve the same purpose as guard electrodes except
bucking electrodes are usually rings or point electrodes (e.g., buttons). See laterolog.

bulk density It is the value of the density of rock as it occurs in nature. In well logging, it is the
density of the rock with the pore volume filled with fiuid. Natural density. The equation
commonly used to compute porosity from well log derived bulk density is:

where φ is pore volume filled with a fluid of density ρf, ρb is the well-log-derived bulk
density, and ρma is the density of the rock framework. See density log and Z/A effect.

bulk modulus See elastic properties of rocks.

bulk volume water The quantity of formation water present in a unit volume of rock. The product of water
saturation and porosity.
bullet (1) A hollow projectile used for obtaining sidewall cores.

(2) A projectile used in gun perforating in order to create holes in casing, cement sheath,
and formation so that formation fluids can be produced.

bull plug A threaded nipple with a rounded, closed end with O-ring seals. Commonly used to plug
off the bottom end of downhole logging instruments from borehole fluids. Some logging
tools, which can be used jointly in tandem, require a bull plug for a seal when used
independently.

Bureau of Land BLM. The Bureau of Land Management was established July 16, 1946, by the
Management consolidation of the General Land Office (created in 1812) and the Grazing Service
(formed in 1934).

The Bureau is responsible for the total management of 341 million acres of public lands.
These lands are located primarily in the far west and Alaska; however, scattered parcels
are located in other States. In addition to minerals management responsibilities on the
public lands, BLM is also responsible for subsurface resource management of an
additional 169 million acres where mineral rights have been reserved to the Federal
Government.

Resources managed by the Bureau include timber, minerals, oil and gas, geothermal
energy, wildlife habitat, endangered plant and animal species, rangeland vegetation,
recreation and cultural values, wild and scenic rivers, designated conservation and
wilderness areas, and open space. Bureau programs provide for the protection (including
fire suppression), orderly development, and use of the public lands and resources under
principles of multiple use and sustained yield. Land use plans are developed with public
involvement to provide orderly use and development while maintaining and enhancing
the quality of the environment. The Bureau also manages watersheds to protect soil and
enhance water quality; develops recreational opportunities on public lands; administers
programs to protect and manage wild horses and burros; and under certain conditions,
makes land available through sale to individuals, organizations, local governments, and
other federal agencies when such transfer is in the public interest. Lands may be leased
to state and local government agencies and to nonprofit organizations for certain
purposes. The Bureau has responsibility to issue rights-of-way, in certain instances, for
crossing federal lands under other agencies' jurisdiction. It also has general enforcement
authority. The Bureau is responsible for the survey of federal lands and establishes and
maintains public land records and records of mining claims. It administers a program of
payments in lieu of taxes based on the amount of federally owned lands in counties and
other units of local government.
button A small disc-shaped, button-like electrode used on microresistivity pads.

buoyancy The apparent loss of weight of an object immersed in a fluid. If the object is floating, the
immersed portion displaces a volunme of fluid the weight of which is equal to the
weight of the object.

C Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

cable See survey cable.

cable clamp A rope socket. Also see weak point.

cable electrode An electrode mounted on a flexible insulating sheath for the purpose of providing
remote current or voltage measurement contact with the borehole fluid. This extension is
fastened intermediately between the logging cable and the rigid logging tool with
appropriate connectors at each end. See bridle.

cable hanger A device used at the rotary table to support the weight of the survey cable (usually
during fishing operations). The device clamps firmly on the cable and supports cable
weight on a cross-bar which rests on the rotary table. This removes all tension from the
survey cable between the rotary table and hoist unit.

cable head A quick-connecting and quick-disconnecting device, mounted at the end of the logging
cable, which provides the means to couple a cable electrically and mechanically to a
logging tool. See also fishing bell.

cable tool drilling A drilling method in which the hole is drilled by dropping a sharply pointed bit on the
bottom of the hole. The bit is attached to a cable and the cable is picked up and dropped,
 repeatedly, to deepen or drill the hole.

cake thickness The thickness of the mud cake.

calcite See calcium carbonate.

calcium carbonate A chemical combination of calcium, carbon, and oxygen. the main constituent of
limestone. It forms a tenacious scale in water-handling facilities and is a cause of water
hardness. Chemical symbol is CaCO3.

calcium sulfate A chemical combination of calcium, sulfur, and oxygen. It sometimes contaminates
drilling fluids but may be added to provide certain properties. Like calcium carbonate,
calcium sulfate (CaSO4) forms a hard-to-remove scale in some water-handling facilities.
See anhydrite and gypsum.

calibration The process wherein the zero and sensitivity of the measuring circuit is adjusted to
meaningful units so that the recorded measurements will be accurate with respect to an
industry standard.

calibration loop See test loop.

calibration source See test pill.

calibration tails Calibration test records documenting calibration procedures run before and/or after a
survey and attached to the logs. Sometimes the calibration tail includes a copy of the test
film.
caliper log A well log which is a record of hole diameter. Hole caliper logging tools sometimes
have 1, 2, 3, 4 or 6 arms. Some caliper logging tools use acoustic methods of
determining hole dimensions.

calorie The amount of heat energy necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1°C.
Compare British thermal unit.

CAL Systems Computer Analyzed Log Systems. A computed log analysis performed at a computer
center. CAL Systems is a Welex trademark.

camera (1) recorder. An instrument which records traces of light which have been beamed on
film by galvanometers responsive to logging tool measurements. Some cameras may use
laser technology or fiber optics.

(2) borehole camera. A downhole instrument which photographs the interior of the
borehole or casing.

capacitor An electrical device that, when connected in the line of an electrical circuit, stores a
charge of electricity and returns the charge to the line when certain electrical conditions
occur. It also is called a condenser.

cap rock Impermeable rock overlying an oil or gas reservoir that tends to prevent the upward
migration of fluids form the reservoir.

capture cross section (1) The nuclear capture cross section for neutrons is the effective area within which a
neutron passes in order to be captured by an atomic nucleus. It is a probabilistic value
dependent on the nature and energy of the particle as well as the nature of the capturing
nucleus. Nuclear capture cross section is often measured in barns (1 barn = 10–24 cm2).

(2) "Macroscopic capture cross section" Σ is the effective cross-sectional area per unit
volume of material for capture of neutrons; hence, it depends on the number of atoms
pre sent as well as their nuclear capture cross sections. Thus, the macroscopic capture
cross section is the sum of the various weighted capture cross sections. The unit of
measure for Σ is cm2/cm3 or reciprocal cm (cm–1) is often measured in "capture units" or
 "sigma units." A c.u. = 10–3 cm–1.

(3) The rate of absorption of thermal neutrons with a velocity v is vΣ.

(4) Of gamma rays. See photoelectric absorption, photoelectric effect, and photoelectric
absorption cross section index.

capture gamma ray A gamma-ray photon produced upon the capture of a thermal neutron by a neutron
absorber such as chlorine. Gamma rays of capture are important in some neutron
logging methods (n-γ) and in pulsed neutron logging methods such as the Thermal
Decay Time Log or Neutron Lifetime Log.

capture unit c.u., 10–3 cm–1. A unit of measure of macroscopic capture cross section. Same as sigma
unit.

carbonate A compound containing the radical CO3+2 or rock composed of carbonate minerals. See
carbonate rock.

carbonate analysis log A log which presents computed porosity in complex lithology and sometimes includes
secondary porosity and movable oil plots.

carbonate reef See reef.

carbonate rock A sedimentary rock primarily composed of calcium carbonate (limestone) or calcium
magnesium carbonate (dolomite).

carbon-oxygen log A log which presents a measure of the relative abundance of carbon to oxygen derived
from the detection of the gamma rays produced from both elements by the inelastic
scattering of 14-Mev neutrons. The gamma rays are measured within energy spectrum
windows representing the gamma-ray escape peaks of carbon and oxygen. The ratio of
counting rates provides a means of predicting the relative amounts of hydrocarbons and
water. The log is an alternate means for detecting hydrocarbons (particularly oil) behind
 casing in formations not subject to flushing or reinvasion by borehole fluids. The C/O
ratio is relatively independent of formation water salinity and shaliness. In order to
differentiate carbon in hydrocarbon molecules from that in the rock framework (i.e.,
carbonate solid matter), a Si/Ca ratio is also determined.

The carbon-oxygen log can be put to nearly the same uses as the pulsed neutron capture
logs, but has proved to be useful under some conditions where pulsed neutron capture
logs have shown decreased effectiveness; e.g., in rocks where formation water cannot
easily be distinguished from oil because of the lack of sufficient contrast in their neutron
capture cross sections. Carbon/Oxygen Log is a Dresser Atlas trademark.

cartridge A package which contains electronic modules or hard ware for the downhole instrument.
The package is carried in a protective housing and is attached to, or becomes a part of,
the downhole instrument (logging sonde).

cased hole A wellbore in which casing has been run.

casing Steel pipe cemented in place in an oil or gas well as the drilling progresses or when the
well is completed. The casing serves several purposes:

(1) to prevent the formation walls from caving or squeezing into the hole during drilling;

(2) to protect one formation from damage when heavy mud weights are required in
drilling another;

(3) to provide a means to isolate porous and permeable formations from one another at
the wellbore;

(4) to prevent contamination of shallow aquifers by drilling muds. See also casing string.

casing collar locator Used to locate casing collars and other features of downhole hardware (e.g., packers,
etc.) which often serve as reference depths in subsequent completion operations.

(1) a magnetic casing collar locator. Involves a system of two opposed permanent
magnets in two similar magnetic circuits which produce characteristic magnetic fields in
which flux lines pass through casing or tubing. A deformation of either of the magnetic
fields, caused by the gap between casing joints, packers, sometimes holes, etc. is
detected by a winding having a core of high permeability The resulting electromagnetic
imbalance, first in one direction and then in another, is telemetered to the surface where
 it is recorded, depth correlated, as a feature of the downhole hardware arrangement.

(2) a mechanical collar locator. May involve feelers or fingers which produce signals
sent to the surface when the feelers cross pipe connections or other irregular features
inside casing or tubing.

casing collar log A record of casing collar responses with depth as measured by a casing collar locator.
Usually is an intergral part of all well logs run in the cased borehole. The casing collar
log provides a means for depth control for other measurements and responses which
cannot in themselves be accurately correlated with the formation behind casing.

casinghead The top of the first string of casing set in a well. Usually a heavy, flanged steel fitting
which provides a means to attach various fittings or assemblies.

casing inspection log Uses a method of relating the effects of eddy currents on a magnetic field to casing wall
thickness. The instrument consists of two radial coils – an exciter and a pickup coil. The
exciter coil is fed from an AC voltage source at the surface, in turn producing a
magnetic field downhole. This field sets up eddy currents in the casing wall. These
currents cause the magnetic field to be attenuated and shifted in phase. The resulting
magnetic field is detected by the pickup coil and transmitted to the surface. The
magnetic field as detected by the pickup coil is then compared with the original field
generated by the exciter coil, and the resulting phase shift in the magnetic field that has
occurred is recorded. The phase shift can indicate casing wall thickness, splits, and
holes.

casing point The depth in a well at which casing is set, generally the depth at which the casing shoe
rests.

casing potential profile Detects corrosion by measuring the electrical potential of the casing at various levels to
detect current entering or leaving the casing. The amount of cathodic protection needed
can be determined and results monitored.

casing pressure Annular pressure between the casing and the well's tubing.
casing shoe A short, heavy, hollow, cylindrical steel section with a rounded bottom that is placed on
the end of the casing string to serve as a reinforcing shoe and to aid in cutting off minor
projections from the borehole wall as the casing is being lowered. Also called a guide
shoe.

casing string Casing is manufactured in lengths of about 30 ft, each length or joint being joined to
another as casing is run in a well. The entire length of the joints of casing is called the
casing string. See surface casing, protection casing, and production casing.

cathead A spool-shaped attachment on a winch around which rope is wound for hoisting and
pulling. The breakout cathead, a rotating spool located on the driller's side of the
drawworks, is used as a power source for unscrewing drill pipe. The makeup cathead is
a power source for screwing together joints of pipe.

cation A positively charged ion.

cation-exchange capacity Also called base-exchange capacity. A measure of the extent to which a substance will
supply exchange cations.

Compensating cations serve to compensate the excess of (usually negative) charge in

clay lattices. The cation exchange capacity is related to the concentration of
compensating cations (or counter ions) near clay-layer surfaces, which in the presence of
water, can be exchanged for other cations available in solution. The cation-exchange
capacity of a clay is expressed in terms of milliequivalents of exchangeable ions per
100 grams of dry clay. See also ion exchange.

cationic membrane A membrane which permits the passage of cations but not of anions. Clay acts as such a
membrane, allowing sodium ions to pass but not chloride ions. Important in generating
the electrochemical potential.

cat line A hoisting or pulling rope operated by the driller at a cathead. On a drilling rig, the cat
line is the rope used for lifting well logging tools from the catwalk to the drilling floor
 and for exerting a pull on pipe tongs in tightening (making up) or loosening (breaking
out) joints of pipe.

catwalk A raised, narrow walkway extending from the front of a drilling derrick or mast which
serves as a staging area or work area from which equipment is raised to the derrick.

cement (1) A powder consisting of alumina, silica, lime, and other substances which hardens
when mixed with water. Extensively used in the oil industry to bond casing to the walls
of the wellbore.

(2) A secondary mineral growth of chemically precipitated material on the surfaces and
in the interstices of clastic sediments. Authigenic clay minerals are not considered
cement.

(3) To fix the casing firmly in the hole with cement, which is pumped through the drill
pipe to the bottom of the casing and up into the annular space between the casing and
the walls of the borehole. After the cement sets (hardens) it is drilled out of the casing.
The casing can be perforated to allow reservoir fluids to enter the well.

cement evaluation log CET. A cased hole cement evaluation log that displays data processed from ultrasonic
transducers in such a way that channels in the cement sheath can be detected. The
quality of the cement is given in eight radial segments, and the orientation of a channel
can be determined from a recording of the well deviation and the relative bearing of the
first transducer. An acoustic caliper measurement is provided from eight radii
measurements. Compare cement bond log. CET is a Schlumberger mark.
cementation The process of precipitation or growth of a binding material around grains or fragments
of rocks. In clastic rocks, cementation is necessary before the rock framework can
become consolidated. Chemically the cementing material may be the same as, or
different from, the host rock.
cementation factor The porosity exponent (m) in Archie's formation resistivity factor-porosity relationship.

cement bond The adherence of casing to cement and cement to formation. When casing is run in a
well, it is set, or bonded, to the formation by means of cement.

cement bond log Used to determine the presence of cement behind casing and the quality of cement bond
to casing or formation wall. Usually an acoustic log.

The cement bond log is a continuous measurement of the amplitudes of acoustic pulses
after they have traveled a length of the casing. The amplitude of a pulse is strong after
traveling along unsupported pipe because there is nothing to restrict the vibration of the
casing. On the other hand, the vibration of the casing is dampened by the cement sheath
in well-cemented pipe, and amplitude is weak. If the formation bond is poor, acoustic
energy traveling through the formation is weak; if both the casing and formation are
well bonded, only the formation signal is strong. The log may consist of (1) an
amplitude log which represents the amplitude of a portion of the acoustic wave train, or
(2) a display of the acoustic wave train in the amplitude-time (wave train, x-y) mode or
the intensity modulated-time (variable density, x-z) mode.

cement casing To fill the annulus between the casing and formation with cement to support the casing,
improve zonal isolation, or to prevent migration of fluids between permeable zones.

cementing The application of a liquid slurry of cement andwater to various points inside or outside
the casing. See cement casing.

centigrade (Celsius) scale The metric system of temperature measurement used universally by scientists. In the
centigrade scale, 0° represents the freezing point of water and 100° its boiling point at
760-mm barometric pressure. Degrees centigrade are converted to degrees Fahrenheit by
the following equation:

°F = 9/5 (°C) + 32.

centipoise cp. One-hundredth of a poise.

centralized Positioned in the center of the hole by use of centering devices.

centralizer A device which positions the logging tool in the center or near center of the well bore.
aligned with the wellbore axis. Compare decentralize, eccentering arm and standoff.

chalcedony A transparent, or more generally, a translucent cryptocrystalline quartz; the material of

agate.

channel (l) A defect in cement quality which prevents.zone isolation, usually in the form of void
space in the annulus behind cemented casing. The channel constitutes a conduit for fluid
flow between a completed interval and other permeable strata.

(2) A course or perceptible depression where surface water has traveled.

(3) In a pulse height analyzer, an energy gate in which only pulses occurring within a
specific energy range are registered. The difference between the upper and lower limits
is the width of the channel. The detail of the spectrum thus produced is related to the
width and number of channels in the instrument.

(4) A path along which digital or other information may flow in a computer.

(5) An allocated frequency or time segment in a data multiplexing system; one of a

stream of data bands.

(6) The position in a frame or sequence of data on magnetic tape that represents a
specific measurement.

character log A display of the acoustic wave train. See X-Y plane or amplitude-time. Compare
intensity modulated-time.

check shot survey A check shot survey determines formation seismic wave velocities over specified depth
intervals. Travel times from a surface energy source to a downhole geophone located at
different depths are measured. Distance between successive geophone locations, d.
divided by the difference in travel time to the geophones at the successive locations, ∆t,
 is the average formation velocity between the geophone locations; v = d/∆t

Source and receiver positions can be switched; i.e., small energy sources can be used in
the borehole with a fixed geophone at the surface.

Interval velocities are needed for interpreting seismic reflection profiles.

chemical treatment Any of many processes in the oil industry that involve the use of a chemical to affect an
operation. Some chemical treatments are: acidizing, crude-oil demulsification, corrosion
inhibition. paraffin removal, scale removal, drilling-fluid control, refinery and plant
processes, cleaning and pumping operations, waterflood injection, and water
purification.

chert Cryptocrystalline varieties of quartz regardless of color.

chlorine log A log based on the counting rate of capture gamma rays produced by capture of thermal
neutrons by chlorine in the formation. By limiting the count to a certain energy range,
the tool is made more sensitive to chlorine and relatively less sensitive to formation
porosity. The interpretation of such curves yields a calculated water saturation. The
chlorine log's primary application is in cased holes.

choke An orifice or bean, with a small-diameter bore, installed at the wellhead in a line to
restrict and control the rate of production.

Christmas tree An assembly of valves mounted on the casinghead through which a well is produced.
The Christmas tree also contains valves for testing the well and for shutting it in if
necessary.

chromatogram The recorder chart response to an analysis of a gas air mixture. A chromatogram records
separated hydrocarbons in order of molecular size.

chromatograph See partition gas chromatograph.

circulate To pass from one point throughout a system and back to the starting point. Drilling fluid
circulates from the suction pit through the drill pipe to the bottom of the well and returns
through the annulus between pipe and formation.

circulate out The movement of drilling fluid from the bottom of the hole to the surface (without
drilling) for one or more of the following reasons: to reduce levels of produced and/or
liberated gas from the drilling fluid, to obtain a rock cuttings sample from a formation
just penetrated, to check for high or excessive levels of hydrocarbons from formations
just penetrated by drilling.

circulation The forced flow of drilling fluid out of the mud pit into a drill hole, down the drill pipe
or tubing and up the annulus to return to the surface.

clastic Sedimentary rock formed from mineral fragments which have been moved individually
from their places of origin.

clay minerals Fine, crystalline, hydrous silicates which form as a result of the weathering and
decomposition of such silicate minerals as feldspar, pyroxene, and amphibole.

clean Containing no appreciable amount of clay or shale. Applied to sandstones and

carbonates. Compare dirty.

collar (1) A coupling device with internal threads used to join two pieces of threaded pipe of
the same size.

(2) Drill collar. A thick walled steel pipe used to stabilize the bottom-hole drilling
assembly. The drill collars are used to provide the weight required to drill the hole. The
collars are usually under compression while the drill pipe is always under tension.

collar locator See casing collar locator.

collar log See casing collar log.

collimated gamma Gamma radiation in which the stream of photons is beamed in a single direction.
radiation

combination logging tool A single assembly of logging tool components, often joined in tandem, capable of
performing more than one general type of logging service with a single trip into the well
bore.

compaction correction An empirical correction applied to porosity derived from the sonic log in uncompacted
formations such as sands at shallow depths or formations under abnormally high
pressures.

In applying the empirical correction to the time-average relationship for obtaining

apparent porosities from interval transit times, the relationship becomes:

where Cp is the compaction-correction coefficient; other symbols as described in time-

average relationship. In consolidated formations Cp = 1 (corresponding to no correction).
In unconsolidated formations (which generally occur at shallow depths) Cp has values
greater than 1.

compatible scales The interpretation of well logs often requires a direct comparison of one logging
response with another, performed at the same time or at a different time. In order to
facilitate this comparison. the same grid type and equal scale sensitivities must be used.
Overlay techniques particularly require the use of compatible scales.

compensated density log See compensated formation density log.

compensated formation A dual-spacing formation density log. The compensated formation density logging
density log device employs two detectors spaced at different distances from the source. The detector
at the shorter spacing is particularly sensitive to the density of material immediately
adjacent to the face of the pad. The contribution of this material. which includes mud
cake and drilling mud filling minor borehole wall irregularities, affects the response of
each detector to a different degree. The measurements from both detectors provide a
means for making a correction for the influence of drilling mud and mud cake on the
measurements. This correction is automatically added to the uncompensated density
measurement from the detector at the longer spacing. Through the use of appropriate
instrumentation, the parameters recorded are: a corrected or compensated value of bulk
density, a measure of the correction, ∆ρ, used in making the compensation, and a caliper
curve. With the unwanted borehole effects removed, the measurement is recorded
directly in terms of bulk density on a linear scale. See also density log, spine-and-ribs
plot, and Z/A effect.
compensated log A well log made with a tool designed to correct for unwanted effects associated with the
borehole. The compensated density log uses the signal from a secondary detector to
correct for the effect of mud cake and small irregularities in the borehole wall. The
borehole compensated sonic log uses a special arrangement of the transducers to correct
tor irregularities in borehole size and sonde tilt.

compensated neutron log A well log made with a mandrel type neutron logging tool having two neutron detectors.
The neutron porosity is derived from the ratio of the counting rates of the two detectors.
Use of the count-rate ratio greatly minimizes borehole effects. This tool can be run in
liquid-filled holes, both cased and uncased, but is not usually recommended for use in
gas-filled holes. See dual spaced neutron.

Compensated Spectral CSD, a Welex trademark. This tool combines the features of the compensated density
Density tool, which measures density by compton scattering cross section of gamma rays, and
the lithology effect by measuring the low gamma-ray energies associated with the
photoelectric absorption cross-section. This lithology recognition is further enhanced by
borehole compensation of the photoelectric gamma response.

complete a well To finish work on a well by making it ready to produce oil or gas. After reaching total
depth (TD) casing is run and cemented, casing is perforated opposite the producing
zone, tubing is run and control and flow valves are installed at the wellhead. Well
completions vary according to the kind of well. depth, and the formation from which it
is to produce.

completion fluid A special drilling mud used when a well is being completed. It is selected not only for
its ability to control formation pressure, but also for its properties that minimize
formation damage.

completion tool Any tool or combination of tools designed to complete a well for production; i.e.,
perforating gun, packersetting tool, etc.

composite log Several well logs of the same or similar types, usually from different logging runs,
which have been spliced together to form a single continuous record from the shallowest
to the deepest log reading. Composite logs are valuable for correlation and
 documentation purposes.

compressibility The volumetric change in a unit volume ot fluid (usually) when the pressure on that
volume is changed.

where ∆V = change in volume, V, due to change in pressure, ∆P

compression wave, P-wave, longitudinal wave. An acoustic wave propagated parallel to the direction of
compressional wave particle displacement. Substances which tend to resist compression support the
propagation ot compression waves (e.g., liquids and solids). Compare shear wave.

compressive strength The degree of resistance of a material to a force acting along one of its axes in a manner
tending to collapse it. Usually expressed in pounds of pressure per square inch (psi) of
surface affected.

Com-Pro Log See computed log analysis. Cornputer-processed interpretation produced at a computer
center. Com-Pro is a Birdwell trademark.

Compton scattering The inelastic scattering of photons (gamma rays) by collision with orbital electrons of an
atom. When a gamma ray photon having an energy in the intermediate range from about
2 keV to about 2 MeV collides with an atom, it may transfer some energy to one of the
orbital electrons. which. as a result, is knocked out of the atom. The photon thereby
loses some energy (its frequency is lowered) and changes direction according to its
energy loss. The Compton scattering power of a material is proportional to the number
of electrons in that material. Important in density logging. One of the three interactions
of gamma rays with matter. Compare photoelectric effect and pair production.
computed log analysis Log analysis derived from computer manipulation of digital log data. Service company
organizations have different tradenames for their various. though sometimes similar,
machine interpretations.

computer-processed See computed log analysis.

interpretation

condensate A light hydrocarbon liquid obtained by condensation of hydrocarbon vapors. It consists

of varying proportions of butane, propane, pentane, and heavier fractions, with little or
no ethane or methane. Condensate generally has an APl gravity of 50 to 120 degrees and
is water-white, straw or bluish in color.

condensate reservoir A reservoir in which both condensate and gas exist in one homogeneous phase. When
fluid is drawn from such a reservoir and the pressure decreases below the critical level, a
liquid phase (condensate) appears.

conductive solid Any solid material which exhibits electrical conductivity.

conductivity The property of a solid or fluid medium which allows the medium to conduct a form of
energy; e.g., conductivity or thermal conductivity. In well logging, presently, the
conventional use of the term means electrical con. Conductivity, which is the reciprocal

of electrical resistivity. Usually expressed as the reciprocal of ohm-meters × ,

 or .

conductivity derived A calculation of the water filled porosity from electrical conductivity or resistivity.
porosity

conductor pipe A short string of large-diameter casing used to keep the well bore open and to provide a
means to direct the upflowing drilling mud from the well bore to the mud pit.

cone (1) The rolling mechanism supporting the cutting edge of a drill bit.

(2) The liner which is implanted in the shaped cavity of shaped charges.

(3) A downward displacement of a gas-liquid isosaturation surface, or upward

displacement of an oil-water isosaturation surface. Such displacement occurs around the
well bore in some wells with high oil production rates. See coning.

confirmation well A well drilled to "prove" the formation or producing zone encountered by an exploratory
or wildcat well.

conglomerate A sedimentary rock composed of coarse-grained rock fragments, pebbles, or cobbles

cemented together in a fine-grained matrix. A cemented gravel.

coning The undesirable process of creating a distortion in the gas-liquid or oil-water

isosaturation surfaces at the well bore by the withdrawal of oil at an excessive rate.
Production of oil produces pressure gradients in all directions from the depth of
withdrawal. Therefore. there is a tendency to draw fluids from above and below (as well
as laterally) to the level of withdrawal. That tendency is counterbalanced by the
tendency of gas to stay above oil because of its lighter density and water to stay below
oil because of its heavier density. Thus, when the pressure gradient required to bring oil
to the well bore exceeds the pressure gradient to the gas or water-bearing levels, coning
will occur and gas will be drawn down and water will be lifted up toward the withdrawal
level.
connate water Water entrapped in the interstices of the rock (either sedimentary or extrusive igneous)
at the time the rock was deposited. It may be derived either from ocean water or land
water. Often used incorrectly to denote formation water or interstitial water. The
composition of the original water may have been altered during the compaction process
by entrapment of ions, extrusion of water, diffusion, osmosis, etc.

consolidated Pertains to a rock framework provided with a degree of cohesiveness or rigidity by

cementation or other binding means.

contact log A generic term referring to the log produced by any logging tool which uses pad or skid
devices to make direct electrical contact with the formation wall.

continuity Property of being continuous.

(1) A term used in trouble-shooting electrical circuitry. Continuity implies continuous

electrical circuitry through connections. Broken wires, corroded contacts, cold solder
joints, poor contacts all can impair continuity.

(2) In geology, continuity implies a continuous property or pattern relating to rock type,
beds, formations, or sedimentation.

(3) In reference to immiscible fluids in rock, continuity might refer to the condition of
the nonwetting phase when droplets or insular globules of the nonwetting phase become
connected to form a continuous web throughout the pores of the rock.

continuous flowmeter A velocimeter which is designed to measure fluid velocities in the casing. Usually this
tool is capable of passing through production tubing to make fluid velocity
measurements in the casing below. The tool is held in the center of the fluid column
usually by spring centralizers and moved at a constant rate of speed against (or with) the
direction of flow. The spinner speed, a linear function of fluid velocity relative to the
tool, is recorded continually versus depth.
 Primarily, this tool should be used in monophasic flow regimes; i.e., injection wells and
high-flow-rate gas wells or oil wells.

continuous guidance log The continuous guidance tool provides a continuous gyroscopic directional
measurement in cased holes. The measurement is based on a two-axis gyroscope whose
spin axis is maintained horizontal and is aligned towards the north The position of the
gyro is sensed by an acceleronmeter and a gyro-axis positional resolver. This
information is combined with data from another accelerometer to derive the azimuth and
inclination of the hole. See also directional survey.
continuous phase The liquid in which solids are suspended or droplets of another liquid are dispersed.
Sometimes called the external phase. In a water-in-oil emulsion, oil is the continuous
phase. Compare internal phase.

continuous velocity log A log of the interval transit time of a compressional wave. See sonic log, also acoustic
log.

contour map A map that has lines marked to indicate points or areas that are the same elevation above
or below sea level. often used to depict subsurface features.

convection A process of mass movements of portions of any fluid medium (liquid or gas) in a
gravitational field as a consequence of different temperatures in the medium and hence
different densities. The process thus moves both the medium and the heat, and the term
is used to signify either or both.
core (1) A cylindrical sample of rock taken from a formation for analysis. Usually, a
conventional core barrel is substituted for the bit and obtains the sample as it penetrates
the formation.

(2) A sidewall core.

(3) To obtain a conventional core or to obtain a sidewall core.

core analysis A laboratory analysis of recovered formation samples for the purpose of measuring
porosity, directional permeability, residual fluid saturations, grain size, density, and
other properties of the rock and contained fluids. Core analysis aids formation
evaluation, reservoir development, and reservoir engineering.

core barrel (1) A hollow projectile used for obtaining sidewall cores. See sidewall core and sidewall
coring tool.

(2) Drill pipe core barrel. A hollow cylindrical device from 25 to 60 feet in length with a
hollow drill bit which can be attached to the bottom of the drill pipe for the purpose of
recovering a continuous sample of the formation while the hole is being drilled. The
sample recovered is a cylindrical core which, under ideal conditions, might be as long as
the core barrel.

core bit A special drill bit for cutting and removing a plug-shaped rock sample from the bottom
of the well bore. The core bit is attached to the bottom of the drill pipe core barrel.

coregamma A measurement of the intensity of natural gamma radiation of a core. Its primary use is
as a correlation aid with borehole gamma-ray log over the cored interval.

coregraph Results of core analysis illustrated or graphed in the form of a log. See core analysis.

core sample A solid column of rock, usually from two to four inches in diameter, taken from the
bottom of a well bore as a sample of an underground formation.
core slicer A wireline open-hole device having two diamond edged saw blades with converging
orientation and vertical travel over several feet when in position. The design allows a
wedge-shaped slice of formation to be cut from the side of a smooth borehole for
evaluation at the surface.

correlate To relate subsurface information obtained from one well to that of others so that the
formations may be charted and their depths and thicknesses noted. Correlations are
made by comparing electrical well logs, radioactivity logs, and cores from different
wells.

correlation (1) The equivalence in stratigraphic positions of formations in different wells.

Similarities in the character of well-logging responses and the occurrence of distinctive
features which serve as markers from one well to the next are used.

(2) The matching of different well-log curves and other well data either in the same well
or in different wells.

(3) The mathematical interdependence between variables.

correlation length The length of the formation interval over which a depth-related correlation is made in
order to determine the depth wise displacement between curves on which the same
geological events have been logged. The correlation length is an important parameter in
the computation of dipmeter measurements. Dipmeter log correlations are made in order
to evaluate the displacements between the correlation curves; these displacements are
used in turn in the calculation of the formation dip.

The correlation length used will depend on the purpose. Long correlation lengths (10 to
20. or even 30 feet are used for evaluating structural dip. Short correlation lengths (1, 2,
or 3 feet) are useful in determining finer details of the dip for sedimentation studies over
such stratigraphic features as bars, lenses or channels.

corrosion A complex chemical or electrochemical process by which metal is destroyed through

reaction with its environment, For example, rust is corrosion.

coupling A collar. A short pipe fitting with both ends threaded on the inside circumference used
for joining two lengths of line pipe or casing or tubing.
CPI computer-processed interpretation. See computed log analysis.

critical point The temperature and pressure at which the properties of a liquid and its vapor become
indistinguishable.

critical pressure The pressure needed to condense a vapor at its critical temperature.

critical saturation The value of saturation of the specific liquid (or gas) phase at which the liquid (or gas)
will first begin to flow as the saturation is increased. The ability to flow is related to the
continuity of the phase. A discontinuous phase will not flow under normal producing
conditions.

critical temperature The highest temperature at which a fluid can exist as a liquid or vapor. Above this
temperature the fluid is a gas and, regardless of the amount of pressure applied, cannot
be liquefied.

critical water saturation The highest water saturation a rock can maintain while producing hydrocarbons before
water will begin to flow.

crooked hole A wellbore that has deviated from the vertical. It usually occurs where there is a section
of alternating hard and soft strata steeply inclined from the horizontal.

crossflow A condition of fluid flow, in some part of the well bore, from one permeable zone to
another at lower pressure.

crossplot A plot of one parameter versus another.

cross section (1) A contraction of capture cross section.

(2) A diagram showing geological features transected by a vertical plane.

(3) A designation for a specific area (e.g., borehole cross section).

crown block A stationary pully system located at the top of the derrick used for raising and lowering
the string of drilling tools. The sheaves and supporting members to which the lines of
the traveling block and hook are attached.

crude oil Unrefined liquid petroleum. It ranges in gravity from 9 to 55 °API and in color from
yellow to black, and it may have a paraffin, asphalt or mixed base. If a crude oil, or
crude, contains a sizable amount of sulfur or sulfur compounds, it is called sour crude; if
it has little or no sulfur, it is a sweet crude. In addition, crude oils may be referred to as
heavy or light according to API gravity, the lighter oils having the higher gravities.

crystalline Having regular molecular structure; contrasted with amorphous.

curie A standard measure of the rate of nuclear transformations, or disintegrations equal to

that of one gram of radium. This rate is 3.70 × 1010 disintegrations per second.

curie temperature The temperature at which ferromagnetic ef fects are destroyed by thermal agitation in
ferromagnetic substances. In common iron alloys, the curie temperature (or curie point)
is typically 500 to 700° C.

curve In well logging, a trace representing a continuous record of some property or occurrence
in the wellbore environment versus depth. One or more curves may constitute a well log.

cushion (1) A column of water or drilling fluid placed inside drill pipe or tubing to prevent it
from being crushed by the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the annulus of the
 wellbore. Usually the pipe or tubing is full of liquid, but in certain operations it is
necessary to run the pipe or tubing nearly empty to maintain less pressure inside the pipe
than in the annulus. In such cases. a cushion may be needed to prevent collapse of the
pipe.

(2) The column of liquid in the wellbore to insure optimum performance of a perforating
gun.

cut-and-thread fishing Strip-over technique. A method of fishing for stuck logging tools which consists of
technique supporting the survey cable at the rig table, cutting the survey cable, and threading the
cable through the drill pipe until the overshot attached to the end of the drill pipe
engages the fish. The survey cable is then broken free at the weak point and retrieved
from the hole. The fish is withdrawn from the well with the drill pipe.

cutoff (1) Galvanometer cutoff. A point at minimum or maximum deflection on a

galvanometer trace where the curve begins or ends. Cutoff is produced by blocking the
reflected light beam.

(2) Parameter cutoff. Upper or lower limiting value of a reservoir-size parameter. Values
outside these limits are not used in computation or other data-handling manipulation.

cuttings Fragments of rock which are a result of the cutting action of the drill bit on the
formation. These cuttings are transported to the surface by the drilling fluid.

Cyber Log Systems Computed log analysis systems designed for use at the well site. Cyber Log Systems is a
mark of Schlumberger.

cycle skip, cycle skipping In acoustic transit time or sonic logging. When the amplitude of the first arrival form
(cycle of the acoustic wave train is large enough to be detected by the near receiver of a
receiver pair) but not large enough to be detected by the far receiver, then one or more
cycles will be skipped until a later cycle arrives which has energy above the detection
level. This situation is called "cycle skipping." Its onset is characterized by a sharp
deflection on the transit time curve corresponding to one or more added cycles of time
between receivers. "Short cycle skipping," where the near receiver is triggered a cycle
too late can also occur, resulting in an abnormally short travel time.
cyclonite A powerful, high explosive material (cyclo-trimethylenetrinitramine) used as the main
charge in shaped charges. Also called RDX.

cylindrical plot A graphic presentation of the bed boundaries intersecting the well bore. The beds are
usually plotted on a clear plastic which is rolled up to simulate the borehole so that the
observer can see the patterns cutting the well bore.

D Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

darcy, darcys, darcies A unit of measure of permeability. The permeability of a porous medium which will
allow a flow of one milliliter per second of fluid of one centipoise viscosity through one
square centimeter under a pressure gradient of one atmosphere per centimeter. The
commonly used unit is the millidarcy or 1/1000 darcy.
Darcy's equation Sometimes referred to as Darcy's law. A relationship for the fluid flow rate q through a
porous medium:

where: k = permeability. A = cross-sectional area, µ = viscosity and ∆p = pressure

difference across the distance ∆x.

dead oil (1) An oil that has undergone a lowering of pressure such that there is no longer any gas
in solution. Compare live oil.

(2) A residual oil measured at 60°F and 14.7 psia after all gas has been removed by
differential liberation at reservoir temperature.

(3) A viscous oil, asphalt. or tar which has undergone a lowering of pressure so that the
gases and lighter oil fractions have come out of solution and expanded. Leaving the
heavier hydrocarbon fractions behind.

dead time In radioactivity logging. The length of time the system requires to recover from counting
an event, in order to count a successive event. Events occurring during dead time are not
counted. Usually measured in microseconds.

decay The spontaneous reduction of an effect with time.

(1) The disintegration process of the nucleus of an unstable isotope by the spontaneous
emission of charged particles and/or photons.

(2) The equilibration process of heat transfer after the disturbance of thermal
equilibrium.

(3) The progressive reduction in amplitude of a transient signal due to damping or

energy absorption.

decay time See thermal decay time and half life.

decentralize To eccenter. To purposely force a tool against the borehole or casing wall by means of
 an arm or bow spring.

decentralizer See eccentering arm.

deep investigation The measurement of formation properties far enough from the well bore that the effects
of the invaded zone become minimal.

deep propagation log A well log that provides the resistivity and dielectric constant of the formation. The deep
propagation tool (DPT) radiates electromagnetic energy into the formation surrounding
the wellbore. Measurements of the attenuation and velocity of this electromagnetic wave
provide values to determine the resistivity and dielectric constant of the formation. The
tool operates at a frequency in the tens of megahertz range and measures signal level and
relative phase at four receivers. Compare electromagnetic propagation tool.

deep well thermometer A logging device for the continuous measurement of temperatures in a well bore.
Compare maximum reading thermometer.

deflection (1) The internal movement in a galvanometer, in response to current, which produces the
excursion on a logging trace or curve.

(2) The lateral movement or excursion of a curve is often referred to as a deflection.

(3) A change in the drilling angle of the borehole. In directional drilling, it is the angle in
degrees from vertical. The angle of deviation.

degrees API (°API) A unit of measurement of the American Petroleum Institute that indicates the weight, or
gravity, of oil. See API gravity.

dehydrate (1) To lose water.

(2) To cause to lose water.

Delaware gradient An anomalous effect on guard log and early laterolog curves first observed in the
Delaware Basin. It can be recognized as an erroneous high-resistivity gradient in
conductive beds when these beds are overlaid by thick high resitivity formations.

delay panel A memorizer panel. An electrical device which stores signals measured by the sonde so
that all measured signals can be recorded with the same depth reference. See memorizer.

delayed gamma ray As a result of some nuclear reactions, especially those involving neutrons, a nuclide will
emit prompt gamma rays and be left in a ground state, which may be unstable. To decay
further (usually by beta emission) to excited states of a different nuclide. Delayed
gamma rays are emitted in the decay of these excited states.

delta-t (∆t) The interval transit time from an acoustic log in microseconds per foot or
 microseconds per meter. It is the inverse of velocity. The official symbol of SPE of
AIME and SPWLA for ∆t is now the symbol t.

densimeter A device which measures the average density of the fluid mixture in a borehole by
means of a vibrating cylinder. The holdups for the heavy and light phases can be
determined from the measured average density, when the bottomhole densities are
known for each phase and if a contrast exists.

density Mass per unit volume (often expressed as specific gravity). Well-logging units are
g/cm3, often written g/cc.

density log A well log that records formation density. The logging tool consists of a gamma-ray
source (e.g., Cs137) and a detector shielded from the source so that it records
backscattered gamma rays from the formation.The backscattering depends on the
electron density of the formation, which is roughly proportional to the bulk density. The
source and detector usually are mounted on a skid which is pressed against the borehole
wall. The compensated density logging tool includes a secondary detector which
responds more to the mud cake and small, borehole irregularities. The response of the
second detector is used to correct the measurements of the primary detector. The density
log applies primarily to uncased holes. Sometimes called a gamma-gamma log. See also
Compton scattering, Z/A effect, and compensated formation density log. Compare
nuclear cement log.
departure In true vertical depth calculations from directional surveys. Departure is the horizontal
displacement in an east or west direction from the wellhead of a location or station in the
borehole at which directional survey measurements were taken. Compare latitude.

departure curves Graphs which show the influence of various conditions on the basic measurement. Such
curves, for example, show the effects of temperature, hole diameter, mud resistivity, bed
thickness, adjacent bed resistivity, etc. Sometimes the effects are correctable.
deplete To exhaust a supply. An oil and gas reservoir is depleted when most or all recoverable
hydrocarbons have been produced.

depositional environment The conditions under which sediments were laid down. Depositional environments are
divided into five groups: marine (oceanborne), aeolian (windborne, alluvial (river-
borne). deltaic (borne by a river at its delta), and interdeltaic (between river deltas).

depth column A depth track. A narrow column near the center of the well log in which the depths
within the well are recorded. Usually depths are recorded at l00 foot (meter) intervals
and sometimes 50-foot (meter) intervals. See API log grid.

depth-control log A well log run in cased holes for the purpose of providing correlation with open-hole
logs in order to establish depth control for certain completion operations. Usually the
depth-control log is made with a radioactivity logging tool in conjunction with a casing
collar locator. The correlation log may be a gamma-ray log and/or neutron log, or in
some cases a pulsed neutron capture log.

depth datum The zero-depth reference for well logging. A location on or above the surface (land or
water) at which an elevation can be determined for depth reference. The elevation of this
datum will be the reference for all depth measurements made in the well bore. Usually,
the top of the kelly bushing is used as depth datum in drilling wells, but could be ground
level, derrick floor, or any other specific depth reference.

depth of invasion The radial depth from the well bore to which mud filtrate has invaded porous and
permeable rock. Usually measured in inches. See also diameter of invasion and invaded
zone.

depth of investigation Radius of investigation. The radial distance from the measure point on a downhole tool
to a point usually within the formation where the predominant tool-measured response
may be considered to be centered. Varies from one type of device to another because of
design and techniques of compensation and focusing. May also change from formation
to formation because of changes in formation properties.
depth scales See scale.

derrick A tower-like load-bearing structure, usually of bolted construction. In drilling, the

standard derrick has four legs standing at the corners of the substructure and reaching to
the crown block. The substructure is an assembly of heavy beams used to elevate the
derrick and provide space to install blowout preventers, casingheads, etc. Because the
standard derrick must be assembled piece by piece, it has largely been replaced by the
mast, which can be lowered and raised without disassembly. The derrick is used to raise
and lower equipment (pipe, casing, etc.) used in the drilling and testing of a well.

derrick floor DF. The drilling rig floor. sometimes used as depth datum.

detail log A borehole log recorded on larger depth scale than correlation scale of 1 or 2 inches per
100 feet. Specifically, a log recorded at a depth scale of 5 inches of record length per
100 feet of formation logged (sometimes 1 foot per 200 feet). See scale.

detector A sensor used for the detection of some form of energy. Usually this term is used to
refer to the device used in nuclear logging tools to detect neutrons and gamma rays. See
scintillation counter and Geiger-Mueller counter.

detonate To explode in an extremely violent chemical reaction See high explosives. Compare low
explosives.

detonator Electrical blasting cap. Unstable compounds such as high explosives require initial
shock or other disturbance to set off the chemical reaction. A blasting cap is usually
used to set off Primacord, which in turn sets off shaped charges.

detrital sediment Sediment formed from accumulations of minerals and rocks derived either from
mechanical erosion of previously existing rock or from the mechanically weathered
products of these sediments.
development well A well drilled in an area in a field to complete a pattern of production. An exploitation
well.

deviated hole A borehole which has been intentionally drilled at an angle from vertical by special
downhole drilling tools to guide the drill assembly in the desired direction. Deviated
holes are drilled to reach a part of a formation or reservoir which cannot be drilled by a
straight or vertical hole because of environmental, political, or economic reasons.

deviation (1) Departure of a borehole from vertical. See deviated hole, drift, and directional
survey.

(2) Angle measured between tool axis and vertical as in dipmeter or dip log.

deviation angle The inclination of the wellbore from the vertical. The angle of deviation, angle of drift,
or drift angle is the angle in degrees that shows the variation of the borehole from the
vertical as revealed by a deviation survey or directional survey.

deviation survey An operation made to determine the angle from which a hole drilled by the bit deviated
from the vertical during drilling. There are two basic deviation survey, or drift survey,
instruments: one reveals the angle of deviation only, the other indicates both the angle
and direction of deviation.

dew point The temperature and pressure at which a liquid begins to condense out of a gas. For
example, if a constant pressure is held on a certain volume of gas but the temperature is
reduced, a point is reached at which droplets of liquid condense out of the gas. That
point is the dew point of the gas at that pressure. Similarly, if a constant temperature is
maintained on a volume of gas but the pressure is increased, the point at which liquid
begins to condense is the dew point at that temperature. Compare bubble point.

d exponent See drilling exponent.

DF Derrick floor.
diagenesis The chemical, physical, and biological changes that a sediment undergoes after initial
deposition and burial that convert the sediment to consolidated rock and/or result in the
creation of some forms of porosity. Such changes might result from compaction,
cementation, recrystallization or replacement, but exclude metamorphism and fracturing
resulting from tectonic stresses.

diagenetic porosity Porosity developed in a sediment after its initial deposition as a result of chemical and
biological changes and burial. A form of secondary porosity as opposed to primary
porosity. Fracture porosity is not thought of as diagenetic porosity.

diameter of invasion The diameter to which drilling-mud filtrate has invaded porous and permeable rock.
Usually measured in inches. See also depth of invasion and invaded zone.

diapir A dome, core, or anticlinal fold of plastic or igneous material which has been squeezed
upward to pierce overlying rocks. Common diapirs in sedimentary strata are domes of
salt or shale.

diatoms A microscopic, single celled plant growing in marine or fresh water. Diatoms have
siliceous skeletons of a great variety of forms that may accumulate in sediments in
enormous numbers.

diatomite A siliceous sediment consisting of the skeletons of diatoms.

dielectric A material having low electrical conductivity compared to that of metal.

dielectric constant Relative permittivity. A measure of the relative ability of a material to store electric
charge for a given applied field strength. Dielectrics are considered nonconductors. A
state of electric stress can exist between two conductors separated by a dielectric without
a continuous supply of energy from outside the system. For an isotropic medium, the
dielectric constant is the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor filled with a given
 medium to that of the same capacitor having only a vacuum as dielectric.

differential log A well log which records the depth-rate-of-change of a parameter measureable from the
well bore. This kind of log is sensitive to small changes measured in the absolute value
of the parameter. An example is the differential temperature survey.

differential pressure The difference between two fluid pressures. For example, the difference between the
pressure in a reservoir and in a wellbore drilled into the reservoir.

differential-pressure A condition in which the drill stem becomes stuck against the wall of the wellbore
sticking because part of the drill stem (usually the drill collars) has become embedded in the mud
cake. Necessary conditions for differential-pressure sticking (or wall sticking) are a
permeable permeable formation, a pressure differential across a nearly impermeable
mud cake, and drill stem.

differential SP A curve recorded as a result ot simultaneous SP measurements from two electrodes

located downhole, each serving as a reference potential for the other. The purpose of a
differential SP is to minimize or eliminate unwanted effects induced on the SP
measuring circuitry (i.e., electrode and survey conductor). The "twin" circuitry allows
spurious efforts induced simultaneously on each segment of the circuit to negate each
other at the recording galvanometer. The two downhole electrodes selected for this
purpose should be separated by enough distance that their equal and opposite responses
do not cancel the valid SP signals produced by different segments of the formation. See
SP, downhole ground, and telluric currents.

differential temperature A log consisting of a curve which is a continuous record of the temperature gradient in
survey the borehole. It can be measured by two separate sensors having identical thermal
characteristics separated by a fixed vertical distance on a sonde; or, by a technique
involving the use of a single temperature sensor and placing the measured signal into
storage so it can be played back after the sensor has moved a distance in the borehole
equal to a predetermined vertical distance. The differential temperature curve enhances
small changes in temperature occurring in the borehole. A differential temperature
survey should always include a recorded measurement of temperatures in the borehole.
See also temperature log.
diffuse layer In liquid. The position of a charge on the outer surface of a solid is rigidly fixed.
Adsorbed to this surface may be an essentially immobile layer of oppositely charged
ions from the liquid. This is called the Stern layer. Further in the solution is a layer of
charge in which the ions having the same charge as the immobile layer outnumber the
ions having the opposite charge. This is the diffuse layer. Beyond this layer is a region
of neutral charge where anions and cations exist as neutral pairs. Only ions in the diffuse
region and neutral region are free to move under the influence of fluid motion.

diffusion (1) Of ions. The spontaneous migration of ions from a more concentrated solution into a
more dilute solution. Compare osmosis.

(2) Of thermal neutrons. A net movement or flow of thermal neutrons from regions of
higher neutron concentration to regions of lower concentrations. The neutrons are
moving with velocities corresponding to their energies in more or less random directions
(due to repeated scattering interactions). Thus, there is a tendency for more neutrons to
leave the higher-concentration zone and for fewer to enter it.

An example case is when the neutron population in the borehole is much lower than that
in the formation because the neutrons are rapidly captured by the abundant chlorine
nuclei in the very saline borehole fluid. More neutrons will diffuse from formation to
borehole than from borehole to formation, and there will be a net flow of neutrons from
formation to borehole.

There is generally a net diffusion flow away from the source (i.e., toward zones of lower
neutron concentration) and a tendency for net flow from a zone of smaller capture cross
section to one of larger capture cross section.

diffusion effect The contribution of thermal-neutron diffusion to the thermal-neutron die-away or decay
measurement. In thick beds, diffusion effects are not readily separable from borehole
effects, and appropriate departure curves are used to correct for both at the same time.
See diffusion, thermal neutrons.

diffusion potential Liquid junction potential. See electrochemical potential.

digital Representation of quantities in discrete (quantized) units. A digital system is one in

which the information is contained and manipulated as a series of discrete numbers, as
opposed to an analog system, in which the information is represented as a continuous
trace or curve of the quantity constituting the signal.
digitize Convert data from analog trace records to digital, machine-useable numbers.

dilatancy The property of rock to expand.

(1) Consolidated rock can expand as a result of the creation of microfractures.

(2) Unconsolidated rocks, which have a large number of grain contacts, have the
property to expand by readjusting grain positions to those positions resulting in fewer
contacts.

diode error An unwanted portion of the total electrical conductivity signal sent to the surface from
downhole induction logging instruments. The diode error is produced by the measure
circuit electronics of the induction cartridge. It is isolated and measured during the
calibration operation at a step where the sonde output is zero. Once evaluated, it is
cancelled during the survey operation. See also sonde error.

dip The angle that a structural surface (e.g., a bedding or fault plane) makes with the
horizontal, measured perpendicular to the strike of the structure. Observe dip patterns on
idealized log in illustration. Also see illustration of dip at strike.
dip log See dipmeter log.

Diplog See dipmeter log. Diplog is a Dresser Atlas trademark.

dip log tool – 4 arm See high-resolution dipmeter tool.

dipmeter, dipmeter tool A downhole tool used to make a dipmeter log or dip log.

dipmeter log A dip log. (1) A well log from which formation dip magnitude and azimuth can be
determined. The resistivity dipmeter includes three or four (sometimes eight) micro-
resistivity readings made using sensors distributed in azimuth about the logging sonde
 and a measurement of the azimuth of one of these; a measurement of the hole deviation
or drift angle and its bearing; and one or two caliper measurements. The azimuth,
deviation, and relative bearing are measured by a system similar to that described for the
poteclinometer. The microresistivity curves are correlated to determine the difference in
depth of bedding markers on different sides of the hole. See also high-resolution
dipmeter and poteclinometer.

(2) Other types of dipmeters use three SP curves, three wall scratchers, etc. to produce
logs.

(3) A log showing the formation dips calculated from the above, such as a tadpole plot
or stick plot. See illustration of dip patterns at dip.

directional drilling Slant hole drilling. The technique of intentional. controlled drilling at an angle from the
vertical by deflecting the drill bit. Although wellbores are normally drilled vertically, it
is sometimes necessary or advantageous to drill at an angle from the vertical. Controlled
directional drilling makes it possible to reach subsurface areas laterally remote from the
point where the bit enters the earth. It involves the use of turbodrill, whipstocks, or other
deflecting tools.

directional hole Deviated hole. A borehole intentionally drilled at an angle from the vertical. See
directional drilling.

directional log See directional survey.

directional survey Measurements of drift, azimuth. and inclination of a borehole with the vertical. A
directional survey is often made as part of a dipmeter survey or sometimes as a
continuous log with a poteclinometer. Sometimes measurements are made at discrete
levels with a photoclinometer.

dirty Containing appreciable amounts of clay and shale of different material from the host
rock. Such material may decrease permeability and effective porosity of the rock.
Compare clean.
discontinuous phase See internal phase. Compare continuous phase.

discovery well The first oil or gas well drilled in a new field. The well that reveals the presence of a
petroleum-bearing reservoir. Subsequent wells are development wells.

disequilibrium In radioactivity logging for uranium. After a long period of disintegration, if the
radioactive parent and its daughter isotopes remain undisturbed, equilibrium will be
attained between the production and decay of the respective radioactive materials. Since
U-238 does not emit gamma rays, the gamma-ray activity recorded is due to the quantity
of daughter isotopes. When U-238 is in equilibrium with its daughter isotopes, the
amount of daughter isotopes detected is an index to the amount of U-238 present.
Disequilibrium results when anything has occurred to disturb the relative quantities of
radioactive materials (selective leaching, escape of radon gas, etc.).

dispersed A term used in well-logging to refer to solid particles distributed within the interstices of
the rock framework. A form of distribution of clays and other small particles and
crystals. Detrital and/or authigenic materials often are found dispersed in the form of
fines or crystal growths occupying pore space and lining the walls surrounding the
pores.

displacement (1) The distance between the logging tool measure points for various parameters
measured by a combination logging tool. Also, the correction necessary to record all
parameters at the same depth reference.

(2) Pertaining to the dipmeter, it is the vertical distance in the hole between equivalent
responses measured at different quadrants in the hole.

(3) Also refers to the replacement of a portion of the interstitial fluids by borehole fluids,
near the borehole, during the invasion process.

disposal well A well into which salt water is pumped, usually part of a saltwater disposal system.

dissociation The breaking up of a compound into its simpler components such as molecules, atoms,
or ions. Results from the action of some form of energy on gases and from the action of
 solvents on substances in solutions.

dissolution porosity Secondary porosity which is created when solid materials in sediment dissolve in
interstitial solutions. Dissolution porosity results from the dissolution of: sedimentary
constituents, authigenic cementing minerals, and authigenic replacive minerals.

dissolved-gas drive A solution-gas drive. See also reservoir drive mechanism and bubble point.

distillate Liquid hydrocarbons, usually water-white or pale straw color, and high API gravity
(above 60 degrees) recovered from wet gas by a separator that condenses the liquid out
of the gas stream. (Distillate is an older term for the liquid. More commonly it is called
condensate or natural gasoline.) The product obtained from the condensation of vapors
in distillation.

ditch gas Is that portion of the hydrocarbons removed from the mud at the flowline by any type of
mechanical means.

doghouse A portable, one-room shelter (usually made of light tank-iron) at a well site for the
convenience and protection of the drilling crew and others. The doghouse serves as
lunch room, change house, dormitory, and for keeping small supplies and records.

dogleg A sharp bend or change in direction of the borehole.

dolomite A type of sedimentary rock similar to limestone but rich in magnesium carbonate.
sometimes a reservoir rock for petroleum. CaMg (CO3)2.

dome A geologic structure resembling an inverted bowl. A short anticline plunging on all
sides. See salt dome.
downhole A term used to describe tools, equipment, and instruments which are run into the
borehole. Also pertains to techniques, processes, and conditions which apply to the
wellbore and its environment.

downhole ground Cable armor or a long electrode often attached to the logging cable some distance
(perhaps 100 feet) above an electrical logging sonde, or hung just below the casing, used
as the reference electrode instead of an electrode at the surface. Used in the case of bad
SP interference from electrical surface facilities or telluric currents. See differential SP.

down time (1) The length of time it takes for drilling mud to travel from a location on the surface to
the bottom end of the drill stem (assembly of drill pipe, etc.) during a drilling operation.
It is a function of the inside diameter and length of drill pipe and the output of the mud
pump.

(2) The length of time lost during an operation because of non-scheduled stoppages such
as failure, delay, etc.

(3) The period during which an item of equipment cannot be operated because of
ongoing repair or maintenance.

drainage The migration of oil or gas in a reservoir toward a wellbore due to pressure reduction
caused by production of reservoir fluids by the well. A drainage point is a wellbore (or
in some cases several wellbores) which drains the reservoir.

drainage radius The radius, measured from a wellbore, of a circular area of a reservoir which is drained
bv a single well.

drawdown (1) The difference between static and flowing bottom-hole pressures.

(2) The distance between the static level and the pumping level of the liquid in the
annulus of a pumping well.
drawworks The hoisting mechanism on a drilling rig. It is essentially a large winch that spools on or
off the drilling line and thus raises or lowers the drill stem and bit.

drift The attitude of a borehole. The drift angle or hole deviation is the angle between the
borehole axis and the vertical; the drift azimuth is the angle between north and the
vertical projection of the borehole on a horizontal surface.

drift angle See deviation angle.

drill bit See bit.

drill collar A heavy, thick-walled pipe, usually steel, used between the drill pipe and the bit in the
drill stem to weight the bit in order to improve its performance.

driller One who operates a drilling rig. The person who is in charge of drilling operations and
who supervises the drilling crew.

drilling break An increase in the penetration rate of the drill bit caused by a change in the formation,
often indicative of penetration into a porous zone.

drilling exponent The drilling exponent (d), the exponent corrected for mud density (dc), and the exponent
corrected for mud density and bit wear (dcs) are used to detect undercompacted shaly
formations and associated high-pressure zones.
(1) d = uncorrected drilling exponent

when: R = drilling rate (ft/hr)

K = rock drillability (~ 1 for shales)
 N = rotary speed (rpm)
W = weight on bit (lb)
D = bit diameter (in.)
(2) dc = drilling exponent corrected for mud density

where: d1 = equivalent mud density of normal pore pressure gradient.

d2 = equivalent mud density of actual pore pressure gradient

(3) dcs = drilling exponent corrected for nmud density and bit wear.

Same as "dc" except that instead of R (drilling rate at time t) the drilling rate Ro
(corrected for bit wear) is used.

drilling log A log of drilling parameters such as penetration rate, rotary speed, weight on the bit
pump pressure, pump strokes, etc.

drilling mud See mud.

drilling riser See marine drilling riser.

drilling-time log A record of the time to drill a unit thickness of formation.

Drilling Porosity Log DPL. A log derived from a mathematical treatment of drilling parameters (e.g.,
penetration rate, rotary speed, weight on the bit, pump pressure, pump strokes, etc.)
which has been calibrated to indicate porosity in known rock types. Drilling Porosity
Log trademark of The Analysts.

drill pipe Heavy, thick-walled, seamless steel pipe used in rotary drilling to turn the drill bit and to
 provide a conduit for the drilling mud. Joints of drill pipe are about 30 feet long.

Drill Pipe Electric Log A resistivity well log which is obtained from a logging instrument which has a self-
contained recording mechanism. The log consists of a SP and short and long normal
curves. The tool is lowered through the drill pipe, and the flexible electrode assembly is
pumped through a port in the bit. The log is recorded by a tape recorder within the tool
during the process of withdrawing pipe from the hole. The tape is played back to obtain
the log. Drill Pipe Electric Log is a trademark of Welex.

drill stem The drill stem is comprised of the drill pipe, drill collars, bottomhole assembly, and drill
bit. The drilling fluid is pumped down this pipe at a desired pressure and then jetted out
the bit. The drill stem imparts certain characteristics on the dynamics of the drilling
operation.

drill-stem test DST. A procedure for testing a formation through drill pipe. Often defined as a
temporary completion of a well to determine the fluid content of a reservoir and its
ability to produce. Formation fluid is recovered in the drill pipe through temporary relief
of backpressure imposed on the formation. Hydrostatic, flowing and shut-in pressures
are recorded versus time.

drill string The column, or string, of drill pipe, not including the drill collar or kelly. Often,
however, the term is loosely applied to include both the drill pipe and drill collars.

dry gas Natural gas from the well free of liquid hydrocarbons. Gas that has been treated to
remove all liquids.

dry hole Any well that does not produce oil or gas in commercial quantities. A dry hole may flow
water, gas, or even oil, but not enough to justify production.

dry rock Rocks beneath the earth's surface that do not have meteoric or juvenile water supplied to
them by an aquifer or any other source.
DST See drill-stem test.

dual completion A single well that produces from two separate zones at the same time. Production from
each zone is segregated by running two tubing strings with packers inside the single
string of production casing; or one tubing string with a packer may be run through one
zone while the other is produced through the annulus.

Dual Dipmeter Four dual electrodes record eight microconductivity curves allowing side-by-side button
correlations and pad-to-pad correlations for high-density dip results. The solid state
inclinometer system has a triaxial accelerometer and three magnetometers for
information on tool deviation and azimuth. Also see dipmeter tool and dipmeter log.
Dual Dipmeter is a mark of Schlumberger.

dual guard log A formation resistivity log made from a system consisting of both very deep and
shallow investigative guard log schemes. The tool records, in combination, deep and
shallow guard log curves and a gamma ray and/or SP curve. The dual guard-FoRxo is a
simultaneously recorded dual guard log and FoRxo. See also guard log and FoRxo log.

dual induction log DIL. An induction log consisting of two induction curves representing electrical
conductivity measurements taken at different depths of investigation. Usually run in
conjunction with a focused resistivity device with a shallow depth of investigation, such
as a shallow laterolog or guard log. See also induction log. DIL is a mark of
Schlumberger.

dual laterolog DLL. A formation resistivity log made from a system consisting of both very deep and
shallow investigative laterolog schemes. The tool records. in combination, deep and
shallow laterolog curves and a gamma ray and/or SP curve. The dual laterolog-Rxo, is a
simultaneously recorded dual laterolog which also includes flushed zone resistivity
information derived from a micro-Spherically Focused Logging device. See also
laterolog. DLL is a mark of Schlumberger.
dual-spaced density log See compensated density log.

dual-spaced thermal TDL. A log made with a pulsed neutron tool utilizing two radiation detectors. See
decay log Thermal Multigate Decay Log.

dual-spaced neutron log DSN. A well log made with a tool having two thermal neutron detectors. The neutron
porosity is derived from the ratio of the counting rates of the two detectors. Use of the
count-rate ratio greatly minimizes borehole effects. This tool can be run in liquid-filled
holes, both cased and uncased, but is not usually recommended for use in gas-filled
holes.

dual porosity CNL DNL. The dual porosity compensated neutron tool has two thermal and two epithermal
 neutron detectors for separate porosity measurements. The epithermal measurement can
also be made in air- or gas-filled holes. Also see compensated neutron log. See Dual
Porosity CNL Tool diagram.

dual-spacing formation See compensated formation density log.

density log
Dual-Spacing Thermal
Decay Time Log
dynamic
dynamic measure point
dynamic positioning
E Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA
eccentering arm
effective permeability
effective porosity
TDT. A well log produced by a thermal decay time tool utilizing two radiation detectors.
TDT is a mark of Schlumberger. See Thermal Decay Time Log.
In a state of motion. In well logging, it usually refers to borehole fluid in motion;
specifically, fluid (liquid or gas) moving in the well bore under injecting, producing, or
crossflowing conditions.
A depth reference point on the downhole instrument where measurements are taken. On
most instruments, the measure point and the dynamic measure point are found at the
same point or place on the sonde. In nuclear tools, lag makes the dynamic measure point
appear below the static measure point by the distance of the lag. See lag.
A method by which a floating offshore drilling rig is maintained in position over an
offshore well location. Generally, several motors called thrusters are located on the
hull(s) of the structure and are actuated by a sensing system. A computer to which the
system feeds signals then directs the thrusters to maintain the rig on location. See
illustration of marine drilling rig at marine drilling riser.
Eccentralizer. decentralizer. A protrusible arm (sometimes a bow spring) which presses
the sonde body against the borehole wall.
The ability of the rock to conduct a fluid in the presence of another fluid, immiscible
with the first, is called its effective permeability to that fluid. It not only depends on the
permeability of the rock itself, but also upon the relative amounts of the two (or more)
different fluids in the pores. Usually measured in millidarcies, or darcies. Compare
relative permeability.
(1) Interconnected pore volume occupied by free fluids. Hydrodynamically effective

effluent
Eh
elastic collision
elastic constants
elastic properties of rocks
pore volume. Compare total porosity. See porosity.
(2) Also electrically effective porosity. May differ from hydrodynamically effective pore
volume.
A fluid that flows out.
See oxidation-reduction potential.
A collision of particles wherein the resultant sum of kinetic energies of the particles
remains the same after collision as before. In well logging. the elastic collision between
a fast neutron and nucleus of a hydrogen atom (proton) is the predominant means by
which the neutron loses energy to reach epithermal or thermal energy levels. Elastic
collision and the resulting elastic scattering is important in neutron-logging methods
involving neutron-neutron interactions. See also epithermal neutron and thermal
neutron. Compare inelastic collision.
See elastic properties of rocks.
Those properties that serve to describe the ability of a material to withstand stress
without undergoing permanent deformation. All solid substances, including rocks,
follow Hooke's law, that is, the proportionality relation between strain (or deformation)
and stress (or force per unit area). The stress-strain ratio in simple linear compression or
expansion is Young's modulus of elasticity (E),
where F/A is the force per unit area or stress, and ∆L/L is the strain or elongation or
shortening per unit length under the application of expansion or compression.
The stress-strain ratio under hydrostatic compression or expansion is the bulk modulus
of elasticity (K),
where ∆V/V is the volume expansion or shrinkage per unit volume under the application
of expansion or compression.

The stress-strain ratio in shearing, or application of a force, tangential to the surface

displaced, is the rigidity or shear modulus of elasticity (µ).

where F/A is the shearing stress and ∆L/L is the shearing strain or deformation without
change in bulk volume.

Poisson's ratio (σ) is a measure of the geometric change of shape

where W stands for width. It is always comprised between 0 and 1/2, its theoretical
value being 1/4 for elastic bodies. The above-mentioned properties are responsible for
the propagation of sound or acoustic waves through rocks.

Two types of body waves are propagated through elastic media: (a) longitudinal or
compressional waves wherein the back and forth oscillations of particles are in the
direction of propagation, their velocities being given by

where ρb is bulk density of rock. (b) Transverse or shear waves wherein the back and
forth oscillations of particles are in a direction perpendicular to the direction of
propagation, their velocities being given by
 The longitudinal waves always arrive before the transverse waves, and to the present
time, the former only have been used extensively in well logging. (From Pirson.)

elastic scattering Scattering produced by elastic collisions. See elastic collision.

elastic wave See acoustic wave.

electrical coring The name given to a series of well-surveying operations in open holes, for the
determination of borehole and geophysical data, by C. and M. Schlumberger and E. G.
Leonardon in 1932. The survey measurements made in this early well-logging program
were:

(1) Resistivity of the rocks. By a lateral device.

(2) Delineation of porosity in rocks by electrofiltration potential measurements made

with an SP electrode.

(3) Electrical anisotropy of the rocks. Determination of the direction of dip by an early
form of dipmeter.

(4) Temperature measurements.

(5) Resistivity of the mud. Location of water flows.

(6) The electromagnetic teleclinometer. Survey of crooked holes.

electrical log See electric log.

electrical survey A generic term used to refer to the specific resistivity well log which usually consists of
short normal, long normal, lateral, and SP curves. Often used incorrectly to refer to
borehole electric logs of other types. Compare electric log.
The electrical survey (i.e., normal and lateral formation-resistivity measuring systems) is
suitable for use in wells drilled with relatively fresh mud.

In the early years of the development of electrical resistivity measuring well-logging

tools. several different devices were employed utilizing a number of different electrode
spacings. These devices were used in making the electrical surveys often referred to as
"ancient" resistivity surveys, or sometimes ancient well logs. The curves on these
resistivity logs were simply referred to as first curve, second curve, third curve, and
fourth curve. The first, second, and third curves usually could be recorded
simultaneously while logging upward during the depth-controlled survey. The fourth
curve was recorded usually while the tool was being run into the hole. From time to time
attempts were made to standardize the electrode spacings of the respective devices used
within certain geographical regions. But, it was difficult to arrive at a common standard
because of the diversity of rock types, bed thicknesses, environmental conditions, and
customer (or user) preferences. It was not until 1947 that the API recommended
spacings (for different devices) were adopted throughout the oil and gas industry. From
that time on, the standard API spacings were offered to the industry, except where
customers specifically asked for spacings tailored to meet their specific requirements.
After 1947, the spacings were to appear on the log heading and the curve types and
spacings were standardized (with few exceptions) as follows:

First Second Third Fourth

Curve Curve Curve Curve

SP 16" normal 64" normal 18'8" lateral

Between l932 and the late 1940s, before the API standards were adopted, the electrical
survey could have consisted of the following curves and spacings for various geographic
locations.

FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH

REGION CURVE CURVE CURVE CURVE

Gulf Coast SP 8" normal 16' lateral

SP 10" normal 18'8" lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 16' lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 18'8" lateral

West Texas and SP 16" normal 55" normal

New Mexico
SP 16" normal 64" normal
SP 18" normal 28" limestone 13' lateral
curve
 SP 18" normal 28" limestone 18' lateral
curve
SP 10" normal 28" limestone 19' lateral
curve
SP 10" normal 32" limestone 19' lateral
curve
SP 10" normal 32" limestone 24' lateral
curve

North Texas SP 16" normal 24' lateral

Oklahoma SP 18" normal 14' lateral

SP 18" normal 16' lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 15' lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 19' lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 24' lateral

Rocky Mtns SP 18" normal 16' lateral

SP 16" normal 64" normal 15'8" lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 19' lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 24' lateral

Kansas SP 16" normal 64" normal 16' lateral

California SP 20" normal 12' lateral

SP 20" normal 20' lateral
SP 10" normal 8.5' Iateral 19' lateral

Northeast U.S. SP 16" normal 64" normal 24' lateral

Canada SP 16" normal 64" normal 18'8" lateral

SP 16" normal 64" normal 24' lateral

Quite often, today's user of the old or "ancient" electrical surveys will discover that the
 18'8", etc.) will be missing from the log heading. In that event, the user must determine
what kind of devices and what spacings were used for the second, third. or fourth curves
by a careful examination of the behavior of each curve through different bed thicknesses
and as the curve approaches surface casing. The preceding table might provide some
guidance.

electrical zero The electrical zero is the recorded output of the electronic measure circuit when no
signal is being measured. Any imbalance or false response is cancelled in the calibration
process so that the output corresponds to the zero measured input. The result is an
electrical zero.

electric log A generic term used to mean electric well log or electrical well log, without specific
reference to type. Compare electrical survey.

electrochemical potential The component of the SP comprised of the sum of the liquid-junction potential and the
shale-membrane potential, both of which are related to the ratio of the activity of the
formation water to that of the mud filtrate. The liquid junction potential is produced in
the formation at the interface between the invading filtrate and the formation water, as a
result of the differences in ion diffusion rates from the more concentrated to the more
dilute solution. The negatively charged chloride ions have greater mobility than the
positive sodium ions and an excess negative charge tends to cross the boundary,
resulting in an emf. The shale membrane potential results because the shale bed acts as a
cationic membrane, permitting the sodium cations to flow through it but not the chloride
anions. That results in an excess of positive charges in the dilute solution and an excess
of negative charges in the concentrated solution. The liquid junction potential and shale
potential are additive. See SP and SSP.
electrode In resistivity well logging, an electrical terminal in that part of the electrical circuit
exposed to the drilling mud or drilled formation wall. The electrode is the electrical
contact between the electrical circuit of the measuring device and the medium which is
to be measured. The electrode can be a current electrode, through which electrical
current enters or leaves a medium; or it can be a measure electrode, which is used for
measuring the potential resulting from the flow of electric current. Also used in SP

electrofiltration potential
electrokinetic potential
Electrolog
electrolyte
electromagnetic casing
inspection log
electromagnetic
propagation log
logging. See A electrode and M electrode, also normal device and lateral device.
See electrokinetic potential.
Streaming potential, electrofiltration potential. A component of the SP produced as a
result of movement of the invasion fluid through the mud cake or permeable formation.
The electrokinetic potential is the potential difference which arises across a capillary
when a stream of invading fluid is passed through it. The ions in the diffuse layer are
swept along by the invading fluid so that a displacement of charge occurs. Opposite
charges are built up at opposite ends of the capillary.
An electrofiltration potential also exists at the interface between the borehole and shale
beds, a circumstance which tends to nullify somewhat the effect of the mud-cake
electrofiltration potential in producing variations on the curve. In rare instances, in the
case of a very low-permeability formation, little mud cake may be formed and a large
electrofiltration potential may be generated across the formation itself.
EL. See electrical survey. Electrolog is a Dresser Atlas trademark.
(1) A material in which the flow of electric current is accompanied by a movement of
ions.
(2) Any chemical compound which when dissolved in water dissociates into positive
and negative ions, thus increasing its electrical conductivity. See dissociation.
See casing inspection log.
A well log that shows the propagation time and attenuation of a 1.1-GHz
electromagnetic energy wave propagation through the formation near the borehole. The
pad-type antenna assembly of the electromagnetic propagation tool contains two
transmitters and two receivers to minimize the effect of hole rugosity and tool tilt.
Because the propagation time of water differs sharply from that of oil, gas, or rock, the
electromagnetic propagation tool measurement provides a means to identify
 hydrocarbon zones regardless of the formation water salinity.

electromagnetic EPT. The EPT is a device that measures the propagation time (TP1) and attenuation rate
propagation tool (A1) of a microwave frequency electromagnetic wave that is propagated through the
formation near the borehole. These two measurements can be related to the (composite)
dielectric constant of the formation close to the borehole. The EPT is a shallow
investigation device that has a depth of investigation of 1 to 4 in., depending on the
formation conductivity. As a result, the EPT responds primarily to the flushed or
invaded zone of the formation. The utility of the EPT arises from two basic facts. First,
the dielectric constant of earth formations is dominated by the amount of water
contained in the rock pores. That results from the fact that the dielectric constant of
water is an order of magnitude greater than that of the other constituents of reservoir
rocks; namely, oil, gas, and the rock matrix. Second, at microwave frequencies, the
dielectric constant of water saturated rocks is relatively independent of water salinity,
except in ranges corresponding to very high salt concentrations. Those two facts imply
that the dielectric constant inferred from the EPT measurements is effectively a salinity
independent datum capable of distinguishing between water and oil in the zone of
investigation. Also, these measurements can be used to derive values for formation
porosity and water saturation that are essentially salinity independent. EPT is a mark of
Schlumberger.
electromagnetic thickness The inspection tool is composed basically of a sonde with two coils. The upper
log (transmitter) coil generates an electromagnetic field in the borehole, casing. and
formation. For all practical purposes only the field passing through the casing in front of
the coils, and through the medium behind the casing between the coils, creates an
electromotive force into the lower (receiver) coil. This electromotive force is out of
phase with the transmitted signal. This difference in phase is recorded and is
proportional to the average thickness of the casing in front of both coils. Changes in
average casing thickness can generally be attributed to corrosion or other damage.
Interpretation is greatly enhanced by having a base log, run early in the life of the
casing, for comparison with subsequent logs.

electromotive force emf. (1) The force that drives electrons and thus produces an electric current.

(2) The voltage or electric pressure that causes an electric current to flow along a
 conductor.

electron density Electron population/unit volume.

electronic casing caliper A technique which uses an electromagnetic noncontact method of relating currents
logging induced on the inner surface of casing or tubing to the inner diameter of that casing or
tubing. A coil system generates an electromagnetic field which induces currents on the
inner surface of pipe. These currents are detected by a second coil system. The
measurement obtained is related to the average inner diameter of the pipe over a length
of one or two inches. The technique can be used to record the inner diameter of pipe
through scale, paraffin. or cement adhering to the inner surface, and to detect some
vertical splits and holes.

electron volt eV. A unit of energy equal to the kinetic energy acquired by an electron passing through
a potential difference of 1 volt. Equal to 1.6 × 10–12 erg.

electropolarization An emf produced at the surface of electrodes. Usually considered a result of corrosion.
potential Electropolarization potential generally is large when an electrode is first placed into a
medium (ground or drilling mud), and decreases with the passage of time.
Electropolarization on a remote SP electrode produces spurious displacement on the SP
curve which is balanced electrically by a compensation voltage applied by a millivolt
box. Since the applied voltage is constant and the electropolarization potential changes
with time, a drift on the SP curve can result.

elevation It is the distance measured above or below, a specific depth reference. In well logging, it
is the vertical distance between the depth datum used for depth measurements in the
well bore and sea level (with appropriate sign). See depth datum.

elevator bails The linkage between the elevators and traveling block.

elevators A heavy, hinged clamp attached to the hook and traveling block by bail-like arms and
used for lifting drill pipe, casing, and tubing and lowering them into the hole. In hoisting
 a joint of drill pipe, the elevators are latched onto the pipe just below the tool joint
(coupling) which prevents the pipe from slipping through the elevators. Also used to
support the upper sheave wheel, over which survey cable moves, during the well-
logging operation

embrittlement See hydrogen embrittlement.

empty hole A cased or uncased borehole filled only with air or gas.

emulsion A stable mixture of two immiscible fluids in which one phase is dispersed in droplets or
globules in a continuous phase of the other. The continuous phase is said to be external;
and the discontinuous phase, internal.

endothermic Characterized by or formed with absorption of heat.

enhanced oil recovery EOR. An enhancement of the conventional methods of oil recovery at any stage of their
applica tion. Enhanced oil recovery method refers to any recovery method other than
primary and the conventional secondary recovery methods of flooding by injecting
water or gas. All tertiary recovery methods are enhanced, but not all enhanced methods
are tertiary.

environmental calibrator In nuclear logging. An environmental calibrator is a manufactured environment in which

the logging instrument can be placed. or which can be placed about the detection
mechanism of the instrument, which provides a known reference response related to the
accepted standard (i.e., API test pits). Provides a means to calibrate logging instruments
at remote locations (e.g., wellsite).

environmental oil- A mud in which water is emulsified in a continuous oil phase made up of paraffinic oils.
emulsion mud Few or no aromatic compounds are present in the oil of an environmental oil mud. Such
mud as this is sometimes referred to as nontoxic oil-emulsion drilling fluid.
Epilog See computed log analysis. Epilog computations are computer-processed interpretations
performed at a computer center. Epilog is a Dresser Atlas trademark.

epithermal neutron A neutron (with a lower kinetic energy level of a few hundredths eV to an upper energy
of about 100 eV) which has been slowed down in the moderation process from a high
kinetic energy level of about 100 keV. The energy level of an epithermal neutron is just
above that of a thermal neutron (about 0.025 eV). See neutron and neutron log. Compare
thermal neutron.

evaporite A sedimentary rock (as gypsum or salt) that originates from the evaporation of seawater
in enclosed basins.

excavation effect A decrease in the neutron log apparent porosity reading below that expected on the basis
of the hydrogen indices of the formation component. Excavation effect results from the
presence of a second formation fluid with a hydrogen index lower than that of the water.
Thus, for example, in the presence of gas saturation:

φN = φSgHg + φSwHw – ∆φNex

where φN is derived for the existing lithology type and where Sg and Sw are respectively
gas and water saturation. Hg and Hw are respectively the hydrogen indices of gas and
water, and ∆φNex is the excavation effect.

The term "excavation effect" originates from the comparison of a fully water-saturated
formation with another one containing the same water content, but having a larger
porosity, the additional pore space being filled with zero hydrogen-index gas. On the
basis of hydrogen index. both formations should give the same neutron porosity
response. However, the second formation differs from the first in that the additional pore
space occupied by the gas has been provided by "excavating" some of the rock
framework. The two formations give neutron log apparent-porosity responses which
differ by the amount of the excavation effect for this case.

Excavation effect is greater for larger contrasts between the hydrogen indices of the
second fluid and the formation water, for higher formation porosities, and for
intermediate water saturations.

exchange cation A positive ion that exists in the lattice or on a broken edge of some clay minerals which
has the property of being easily replaced by another cation from a water solution that
comes in contact with the clay. The most common exchange cations in clay materials are
 Ca++, Mg++, H+, K+, NH4+, and Na+.

excursion Lateral movement of a well logging curve or trace in response to a galvanometer

deflection. "Excursion" is often referred to as deflection.

exothermic Designating or pertaining to a reaction that occurs with a liberation of heat.

expendable gun A perforating gun that consists of a metal strip upon which are mounted shaped charges
in special capsules. After firing, nothing remains of the gun but debris. See gun
perforating.

exploratory well Well drilled to find the limits of a hydrocarbon-bearing formation only partly developed.

external phase See continuous phase.

extrusive A term applied to those igneous rocks that have cooled and solidified after reaching the
earth's surface.

F Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

facies Appearance, character. Characteristics of a bed which reflect the conditions of its origin.
Such characteristics may change relative to the same bed. or other beds which are
deposited at the same time, reflecting changes in the depositional environments.

Fahrenheit scale A temperature scale devised by Gabriel Fahrenheit. in which 32° represents the freezing
point and 212° the boiling point of water at standard sea-level pressure. Fahrenheit
 degrees may be converted to centigrade degrees by using the following formula:

°C = 5/9 (°F – 32)

fault Fracture or break in subsurface strata. Strata on one side of the fault line have been
displaced (upward, downward, or laterally) relative to their original positions.

fault block A mass bounded on at least two opposite sides by faults. It may be elevated or depressed
relative to the adjoining regions, or it may be elevated relative to the region on one side
and depressed relative to that on the other. See illustration in fault definition.
fault trap A subsurface hydrocarbon trap created by faulting, which causes an impermeable rock
layer to be moved to a location opposite the reservoir bed.

feldspar A group of abundant rock-forming minerals of the general formula, MAl (Al,Si)3O8
where M can be K, Na, Ca, Ba, Rb, Sr, and Fe. Most widespread of any mineral group,
feldspar may constitute 60% of the earth's crust, occurring in all types of rock. When the
positive ion is K+, the mineral is orthoclase; when it is Na+, it is albite; when it is Ca+2, it
is anosthite.

felsic A mnemonic term derived from "fe" for feldspar, "l" for lenads or feldspathoids, and "s"
for silica. The term is applied to light-colored rocks containing an abundance of one or
all of these constituents. Also applied to the minerals themselves. The chief felsic
minerals are quartz, feldspars, feldspathoids, and muscovite. Compare mafic.

FFI Free fluid index. See nuclear magnetism log.

field A geographical area in which a number of oil or gas wells produce from a continuous
reservoir. A field may refer to surface area only or to underground productive
formations as well. In a single field, there may be several separate reservoirs at varying
depths.

field print A preliminary print of the well log presented in the field at the completion of the survey
operation.

field tape A magnetic tape on which well-log data were recorded during the logging operation.

film badge A small piece of x-ray or similar photographic film in a light-proof paper usually
crossed by lead or cadmium strips, carried in a small metal or plastic frame. The badge
is used to estimate the amount of radiation to which an individual wearing the badge has
been exposed.
filter A porous medium through which a fluid is passed to separate it from material suspended
in it.

filter cake See mud cake.

filter loss The amount of tluid that can be delivered through a permeable filter medium after being
subjected to a differential pressure for a specified time.

filter press A device used in separating the suspended colloidal material from the liquid of drilling
mud.

filtrate Usually refers to mud filtrate.

filtration The process of filtering a fluid.

filtration loss The escape of the liquid part of a drilling mud into permeable formations.

final print A print generally supplied as the permanent well-log record. This is a composite log (if
the current survey is the last of a series) which has been printed on high quality
reproduction paper after final entry of all pertinent log heading information, addition of
calibration tails, and necessary drafting.

fines Fragments or particles of rock or mineral which are too minute to be treated as ordinary
coarse material. When found in pore spaces of reservoir rock, fines sometimes can be
moved by produced fluids to cause formation damage. See skin effect.

fire flood In-situ combustion.

first curve The self potential curve, SP. See further discussion under electrical survey and SP.

first reading FR (1) The depth of the first useable reading or value recorded on a curve at the onset of
the survey.

(2) Usually the depth in the hole of the deepest reading for any given curve normally
recorded in the bottom-to-top direction. See also pick-up.

Fischer assay A prescribed laboratory procedure for assaying the production of liquid and gaseous
products upon pyrolysis of organic matter contained in rock. The destructive distillation
from this process can give the content of water, oil, and ash. The residue rock can
contain coke.

fish (1) A foreign object (such as tool or pipe) lost in the borehole which obstructs routine
functions performed in the well. Usually must be removed or by-passed.

(2) To attempt to retrieve the object lost in the well bore.

(3) A portable surface electrode, attached to the end of a line, making a remote ground
electrical connection. The fish is usually placed in a shallow hole dug into the ground
and filled with mud. Compare ground stake.

fishing bell The cable end of the housing enclosing the connectors at the downhole end of the survey
cable. The housing has a neck or reduced diameter at the cable end which is designed to
enter an overshot and be caught securely during fishing operations.

fishing neck Cable end of the fishing bell.

fissure A crack or fracture in a subsurface formation.

flat-topping Forming a plateau of maximum recorded values. A result of the loss of sensitivity
caused by saturation of some part of the measuring or recording system.

float collar A special coupling device. inserted one or two joints above the bottom of the casing
string, that contains a check valve to permit fluid to pass downward but not upward
through the casing. The float collar prevents drilling mud from entering the casing while
it is being lowered, allowjng the casing to float during its descent and also decreasing
the load on the derrick. The float collar also prevents a backflow of cement during the
cementing operation.

floating pad A term used to refer to the pad of any contact logging tool that does not make
sufficiently good contact with the formation wall to record quality information. For
example. dipmeter pads in oval shaped holes and microlaterolog pads in slant holes
where the weight of the tool might pull the pad away from the borehole wall.

float shoe A short, heavy, cylindrical steel section with a rounded bottom, attached to the bottom
of the casing string. It contains a check valve and functions similarly to the float collar
but also serves as a guide shoe for the casing.

flood To drive oil from a reservoir into a well by injecting water under pressure into the
reservoir formation. See water flood.

flow check An interruption in circulation with no or very little movement of the drill pipe. It is
performed in order to determine if there is an influx of gas, oil, or water into the hole
and drilling mud.

flowing pressure The pressure registered at the wellhead of a flowing well.

flowing well A well that produces oil or gas by its own reservoir pressure rather than by use of
artificial means (as pumps).
flowline Large-diameter pipe which conducts mud coming out of the hole from the annulus to the
shale shaker and mud tanks.

flowmeter A downhole tool used to measure the rate-of-flow and sometimes direction-of flow of
borehole fluids. Usually these tools utilize impellers. During use the tools are run
continuously with or against the direction of fluid flow. Sometimes the flowmeter
measurements are made at stationary levels when fluid is diverted past the impeller
blades by an inflatable packer. See also continuous flowmeter, fullbore-spinner
flowmeter, packer flowmeter, spinner survey, and radioactive-tracer log.

flow tube The lower end of the hydraulic packing head (control head) of a lubricator. Grease or
other viscous material is injected into flow tubes (containing seals, etc.) providing
additional seal and lubrication. Flow tubes can be stacked for additional pressure control
through step-down pressure reduction.

fluid Any substance which will undergo continuous deformation when subjected to shear
stress. Liquids and gases are fluids.

fluid level A misnomer. Often used incorrectly to refer to liquid level in the open or cased
borehole.

fluid loss The loss of the liquid part of the drilling mud into a formation, often minimized or
prevented by the blending of additives with the mud.

fluid travel log FTL. A record of borehole fluid flow rate. See radioactive-tracer log. Compare
flowmeter.

fluid sampler A device used to recover accurately depth-controlled fluid samples of wellbore fluids for
PVT analysis. The taking of the fluid in the well bore and the transfer of the fluids to a
PVT receptacle is accomplished in a way to avoid pressure loss.
fluid wave A compressional wave in the liquid column. The wave form arrival which has been
transmitted to the receiver directly through the liquid column within the well bore.

flushed zone The zone at a relatively short radial distance from the borehole, immediately behind
mud cake, which is considered to be flushed by mud filtrate (i.e., is considered to have
all mobile formation fluids displaced from it). See also invaded zone.

focused log Refers to a well log produced by any well-logging device in which survey-current flow
is focused or otherwise controlled. Examples of focused logs are: laterolog, guard log,
microlaterolog, induction log, and spherically focused log.

There are two main purposes for focusing survey current of resistivity-measuring
devices: (1) To increase vertical resolution of the logging tool; i.e., improve its
capability to resolve thin beds. That reduces the influence of adjacent beds on the
measurements. (2) To reduce the influences of borehole and mud cake in the presence of
saline drilling mud.

fold A flexure of rock strata into arches and troughs, produced by earth movements. See
anticline and syncline.
formation (1) A general term applied in the well-logging industry to the external environment of
the drilled well bore without stratigraphic connotation.

(2) The basic or fundamental rock-stratigraphic unit in the local classification of rocks,
consisting of a body of rock (usually a sedimentary stratum of strata, but also igneous
and metamorphic rocks) generally characterized by some degree of internal lithologic
homogeneity or distinctive lithologic features (such as chemical composition, structures,
textures, or gross aspect of fossils).

Formations may be combined in groups or subdivided into members and beds. A

formation name should preferably con sist of a geographic name followed by a
descriptive lithologic term (usually the dominant rock type) or by the word formation if
the lithology is so variable that no single lithologic distinction is appropriate
formation damage See skin effect.

formation density log See density log.

formation dip The angle at which a formation bed inclines away from the horizontal. See dip. See
illustration at strike.

formation evaluation The analysis and interpretation of well-log data, drill-stem tests, etc. in terms of the
nature of the formations and their fluid content. The objectives of formation evaluation
are (1) to ascertain if commercially producible hydrocarbons (or other forms of energy
and minerals) are present, (2) to determine the best means for their recovery, and (3) to
derive lithology and other information on formation characteristics for use in further
exploration and development.

formation factor See formation resistivity factor.

formation factor log A log in which the formation resistivity factor curve derived from a resistivity or
porosity estimating device is shown as a function of depth. Usually recorded on a
logarithmic grid.

formation fracturing See hydraulic fracturing. A less common means of formation fracturing employs the use
of explosives.

formation interval tester A formation tester.

formation pressure The pore pressure existing within reservoir rock or non-reservoir rock at a specified
time. The pressure exerted by fluids in a formation, recorded in the hole at the level of
the formation with the well shut in. It is also called reservoir pressure or shut-in bottom-
hole pressure. See reservoir pressure. Compare geopressure.
formation resistivity Formation factor, F. Equal to the ratio of the resistivity of the l00% water-saturated rock
factor framework to the resistivity of the water solution contained in the rock. The limiting
formation factor is an intrinsic characteristic of the rock, obtainable with reliability only
when the interpore water solution is highly salt saturated. The apparent formation factor.
most often obtained, is a function of porosity, salinity of water filling the pores, pore
geometry, clay content, and presence of electrically conductive solid matter. See
Archie's formulas.

formation signal The signal related to the formation. with the logging tool at a given depth in the
borehole, as opposed to signals generated from the tool itself (e.g., diode error, sonde
error) or coming from borehole fluids.

formation strike See description and illustration under strike.

formation tester A wireline tool used for recovering fluid samples from the formation and recording
hydrostatic, flowing, and shut-in pressures versus time.

formation testing The gathering of data on a formation to determine its potential productivity before
installing casing in a well. The conventional method is the drill-stem test. Incorporated
in the drill-stem-testing tool are a packer. valves, or ports that can be opened and closed
from the surface, and a pressure-recording device. The tool is lowered to bottom on a
string of drill pipe and the packer set, isolating the formation to be tested from the
formations above and supporting the fluid column above the packer. A port on the tool
is opened to allow the trapped pressure below the packer to bleed off into the drill pipe,
gradually exposing the formation to atmospheric pressure and allowing the well to
produce to the surface, where the well fluids can be sampled and inspected. From a
record of the pressure readings, a number of facts about the formation can be inferred.

formation volume factor The ratio of the volume of gas or liquid with its dissolved gas at reservoir conditions of
tempcrature and pressure to its volume at standard conditions.

formation water See interstitial water. Compare connate water.

FoRxo Log A focused resistivity log recorded from a pad which contains a small button electrode
surrounded by a guarding electrode and which is forced against the side of the bore hole.
The current from the button electrode is forced to flow out into the first few inches of
the formation, which would be the Rxo zone in a permeable formation. FoRxo is a Welex
trademark.

fossil fuel A deposit of organic material containing stored solar energy that can be used as fuel.
The most important are coal, natural gas, and petroleum.

fourth curve A name given to a deep investigation resistivity curve appearing on electrical surveys in
the 1930s and 1940s. Usually, this was a lateral curve. See further discussion under
electrical survey.

FR See first reading.

frac job See hydraulic fracturing.

fracture A break, parting, or separation in brittle rock.

Fracture Finder log An acoustic well log used in the location of fractures. Usually the log consists of one or
more curves in which the amplitudes of the compression and/or shear wave forms are
shown across a formation segment. Fractures may produce attenuation of both
compressional and shear waves, if the fractures are properly oriented. Fracture Finder is
a Welex trademark.

fracture gradient Is the pressure per unit depth required to fracture or cause the rock of the formation to
separate. See also hydraulic fracturing.
fracture log See Fracture Finder log, an acoustic method. Other types of fracture logs employ
resistivity measurements to show possible fractures.

fracture porosity Porosity resulting from the presence of openings produced by the breaking or shattering
of brittle rocks.

free-air correction A correction for the elevation of a gravity measurement required because the
measurement was made at a different distance from the center of the earth than the
datum. The first term of the free air correction is 0.09406 mgal/ft or 0.3086 mgal/m.

free fluid index FFI. The percent of the bulk volume occupied by fluids which are free to flow, as
recorded on the nuclear magnetism log. Gas gives a low FFI.

free interstitial water Mobile interstitial water. Compare bound water.

free pipe Pipe or casing in a well bore which is free to vibrate or respond to stress. Casing or
tubing which is free of the restraint of a cement sheath or formation materials.

free point The deepest depth in the well bore that stuck casing or drill pipe is free and can be
salvaged.

free-point indicator A tool designed to measure the amount of stretch in a string of stuck pipe and to indicate
the deepest point at which the pipe is free. The free-point indicator is lowered into the
well on a conducting cable. Each end of a strain-gauge element is anchored to the pipe
wall by friction springs or magnets, and, as increasing strain is put on the pipe, an
accurate measurement of its stretch is transmitted to the surface. The stretch
measurements indicate the depth at which the pipe is stuck.

frequency (1) The number of cycles or waves completed in a unit of time. In electronics, one cycle
 per second is a frequency unit called a hertz.

(2) The number of occurrences or events over a specified period of time or length of
borehole.

fresh mud A relative, though inaccurate, term which describes the condition where the make-up
water for the drilling mud is fresher than the water in the formations to be drilled.

fresh water Very low in dissolved salts. Sometimes used comparatively with respect to normal sea
water (which has 35,000 parts of dissolved salts per million). Sometimes used
comparing mud filtrate with formation water.

froth flow In producing wells, a fluid-flow condition in well bores in which larger bubbles and
slugs of gas have united to move up the center of the column. The gas carries some oil
droplets, although most of the oil flows up along the pipe walls.

fullbore-spinner A flowmeter with retractable impeller blades which can be used below the bottom of
flowmeter tubing where the impeller blades open to almost full inside diameter of the casing.

The measurement made is related to the velocity of the fluid relative to the tool, which
in turn is related to the volumetric flow rates. In polyphasic flow, however, much higher
threshold flow rates are needed for useful measurements. A continuous log can be
recorded with or against the flow of fluid.

full waveform recording A representation of the acoustic wave train in the amplitude-time mode. A trace in the
X-Y plane illustrating the wave amplitude vs. time. See acoustic log. Compare Micro-
Seismogram or intensity modulated-time. See wave train and illustration at wave train
display.

full wave train See wave train.

funicular saturation See description and illustration under saturation.

funnel viscosity Viscosity as measured by the Marsh funnel, based on the number of seconds it takes for
1,000 cm3 of drilling fluid to flow through the funnel.

G Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

gal A unit of acceleration used in gravity measurements. One gal = 1 cm/sec2 = 10–2 m/sec2.
The earth's normal gravity is 980 gal. See milligal and gravity unit.

galvanometer A sensitive ammeter which has a miniature mirror fastened to the moving coil. Through
a system of precision-placed mirrors, light from a source is directed onto the
galvanometer mirror from which it is reflected onto a moving photoraphic film where it
traces a curve. Galvanometers often are part of the recorder or camera.

galvanometer drift A change in the mechanical zero of a recording galvanometer during the course of a
survey. The drift sometimes is a result of a change in temperature of the galvanometer or
the occurrence of a bubble in the galvanometer fluid.

gamma-gamma log See density log.

gamma ray A photon having neither mass nor charge. It is a high-energy electromagnetic wave
which is emitted by atomic nuclei as a form of radiation. Gamma rays are emitted by
nuclei in their transition from an excited state to a lower energy state, in transmutations,
and in radioactive disintegrations. Gamma rays have characteristic energy levels which
can be used to identify the parent substance.

gamma-ray absorption See mass absorption.

gamma-ray detectors See ionization chamber, Geiger-Mueller counter and scintillation counter.
gamma-ray index GRI. A clayiness index determined from the difference between the radioactivity level
of the zone of interest and that of clean rock compared to the difference between the
radioactivity level in clay shale and that in the clean rock.

gamma-ray interactions Gamma rays interact with matter in three different ways: see photoelectric absorption,
with matter Compton scattering, and pair production.

gamma-ray log A well log of the natural formation radioactivity level.

(1) In sediments the log mainly reflects clay content because clay contains the
radioisotopes of potassium, uranium, and thorium. Potassium feldspars, volcanic ash,
granite wash, and some salt deposits containing potassium (potash for example) may
also give significant gamma-ray readings. The log often functions as a substitute for the
SP for correlation purposes in nonconductive borehole fluids in open holes, for thick
carbonate intervals, and to correlate cased-hole logs with open-hole logs.

(2) Used in exploration for radioactive minerals.

gamma-ray source An encapsulated radioactive material used in density logging. Usually Cesium-137.
Compare test pill.
gamma spectometry log The gamma spectometry tool (GST) measures both inelastic and capture gamma ray
spectra, providing a detailed measurement of formation response to neutron
bombardments. Eight essential elements are identified and their concentrations are
determined. Measurements of carbon, oxygen, silicon, calcium, iron, chlorine, hydrogen,
and sulfur are used to compute the hydrocarbon saturation, salinity, lithology, porosity,
and shaliness of the formation. See also carbon-oxygen log. GST is a mark of
Schlumberger.
gas A fluid, compressible substance that completely fills any container in which it is
confined. Its volume is dependent of the size of the container.

gas cap A free-gas phase overlying an oil zone and occurring within the same reservoir as the
oil. See reservoir.

gas-cap drive Drive energy supplied naturally (as a reservoir is produced) by the expansion of gas in a
cap overlying the oil in the reservoir. See reservoir-drive mechanism.

gas chromatograph An analytical instrument used for separating the various components of a gas mixture,
and measuring the relative concentrations of each. These instruments are used routinely
by mud logging contractors to identify the types of hydrocarbons encountered in the
drilling process. See partition gas chromatograph.
gas condensate Liquid hydrocarbons present in casinghead gas that condense upon being brought to the
surface; formerly distillate, now condensate. Also casinghead gasoline; white oil.

gas cone See cone and coning.

gas-cut mud Drilling mud aerated or charged with gas from formations downhole. Because a large
amount of gas in mud lowers its density, gas-cut mud often must be treated to lessen the
chance of blowout.

gas detector An electrochemical device used by mud logging contractors to determine the presence
and relative concentration of the total combustible fraction of the gas and air mixture
drawn off the return stream of drilling mud.

gas drilling See air drilling.

gas drive The use of the energy that arises from gas compressed in a reservoir to move crude oil to
a well bore. Gas drive is also used in a form of secondary recovery, in which gas is
injected into input wells to sweep remaining oil to a producing well.

gas hydrate A combination of natural gas and water under pressure which forms solid crystals at
temperatures above the freezing point of water. These solids are an expanded form of ice
(gas molecules trapped inside) and look like dirty ice.

gas in solution (1) Gas dissolved in water or crude oil.

(2) Gas dissolved in crude oil decreases the specific gravity and viscosity of the oil in a
reservoir. Dissolved-gas energy is freed by the expansion of the gas released from
solution as the pressure drops along the gradient from the reservoir, through the well.
and to the tank As gas expands, it moves along the pressure gradient carrying or driving
oil along with it.
gas lift The process of raising or lifting fluid from a well by injecting gas down the well through
tubing or through the tubing-casing annulus. Injected gas aerates the fluid to make it
exert less pressure than formation pressure; consequently, the higher formation pressure
forces the fluid out of the wellbore. Gas may be injected continuously or intermittently,
depending on the producing characteristics of the well and the arrangement of the gas-
lift equipment.

gas-lift valve A device installed on a gas-lift mandrel, which in turn is put on the tubing string of a
gas-lift well. Tubing and casing pressures cause the valve to open and close thus
allowing gas to be injected into the fluid in the tubing to cause the fluid to rise to the
surface.

gas-oil contact The lowest depth (deepest depth in a well) opposite a formation at which virtually 100%
gas can be produced. This depth is at the top of the gas-oil transition zone.

gas-oil interface See gas-oil contact.

gas-oil ratio GOR. A measure of the volume of gas produced with oil, expressed in cubic feet per
barrel or cubic meters per metric ton.

gas tracer A radioactive isotope (e.g., I131 in a methyl iodide carrier) used to follow gas flow in a
well bore and determine a velocity flow profile.

gate A window or opening, usually in time, during which certain measurements are made.
The gate has specific beginning and ending time boundaries.

gauge hole A borehole with a diameter the same size as the drill bit.
gauge ring Gage ring. A nonrecording device run into cased boreholes in order to determine
minimum inside diameter of the casing before running tools that might be easily
damaged or become stuck because of the close tolerances involved.

Geiger-Mueller counter A form of gamma-ray detector. Similar to the ionization chamber in that a center rod
electrode is maintained at a positive potential relative to the cylindrical chamber wall.
The difference is that the Geiger-Mueller tube chamber contains gas at a low pressure
and maintains the center electrode at a high positive voltage (e.g., 900-l000 volts).
Incident gamma rays cause the ejection of electrons from detector walls into the gas. As
the ejected electron is drawn toward the highly charged center electrode, other collisions
occur between each electron and gas atoms, thus producing additional electrons which in
turn cause additional ionization by collision. That results in a multiplication of the
ionization events, and an avalanche of electrons arrives at the central electrode. The
surge of electrical current must be quenched before another surge can be determined.
That results in a number of easily detectable pulses related to the number of gamma-ray
interactions. Increased length and additional plates and baffles are used to increase the
number of interactions by incident gamma rays. The increased length tends to decrease
vertical resolution. Compare scintillation counter.

gel A semisolid, jellylike state assumed by some colloidal dispersions at rest. When
agitated, the gel converts to a fluid state. See thixotropy.

geofluid Any natural fluid found in earth formations or rocks. Formation fluid.

Geolograph A trade name for a patented device used on a drilling rig which records automatically
the depth and rate of penetration during each consecutive 24-hour period.

geology The science that relates to the study of the structure, origin, history, and development of
the earth as revealed in the study of rocks, formations, and fossils

geometrical factor The geometry-dependent weighting factor for determining how the conductivities of
each medium in the vicinity of an induction logging tool affect the apparent conductivity
measurement. The only well-logging devices for which this concept is sound are the
induction tools, because when Rxo > Rt, only with these tools is the measuring geometry
 independent of variations in Rxo/Rt.

When conductivities are not high, skin effect may be neglected, and the response of
induction logs can be described in terms of conductivities and "geometrical factors" of
the volumes surrounding the tool. The geometrical factor, (G), of a volume having a
specific geometrical orientation with the sonde is simply the fraction of the total signal
that would originate with that volume in an infinite homogeneous medium. For
computation of geometrical factor to be practical. it is necessary to assume that the
volumes conform to symmetry of revolution about the sonde.

The magnitude of the signal in conductivity units is the product of the geometrical factor
and the conductivity of the material, and the total signal sensed by the tool is the sum of
these products for all volumes within range (which extends to infinity, but can be
circumscribed to practical limits).

Since the G's add up to unity by definition, this can be stated:

CIL = C1G1 + C2G2 + C3G3 . . . + CNGN

where the C's and G's refer to the zones of differing conductivity, and N is the total
number of such zones.

The chief significance of this concept is the fact that a volume of space defined only by
its geometry relative to the sonde has a fixed and computable geometric factor. That
permits the construction of mathematically sound correction charts to account for the
effects of borehole mud, the invaded zone, and adjacent beds on the R measurement,
providing symmetry of revolution exists. Compare pseudo-geometrical factor.

geophone An instrument that detects vibrations passing through the earth's crust, used in
conjunction with seismography. The geophone, also referred to as a seismometer,
converts seismic oscillations of the ground into electrical signals. The most common
type consists of a coil and magnet: one fixed rigidly with respect to the ground and the
other suspended from a fixed support by a spring. Relative motion between the coil and
magnet produces a current in the coil. Vertical and horizontal ground motion can be
measured. Exploration geophones operate in the 5-200 Hz range. They can be used on
the surface or in special downhole packages. Downhole geophones must be "locked" to
the borehole wall when recording. Downhole geophones are used in velocity check
surveys and vertical seismic profiling.

geopressure (1) Pressure pertaining to the earth, ground, or crust of the earth. A specific pressure
regime, as geothermal pertains to a specific temperature regime.

(2) Undisturbed formation pressure. The pore pressure existing within a body of interest
 prior to disturbance.

(3) Historically misused to indicate high abnormal pore pressure.

geopressure gradient The change in pore pressure observed per unit change in depth. If the pore pressures are
normal, then the geopressure gradient pertains to the normal pressure gradient (on the
Gulf Coast about 0.465 psi/foot depth).

geostatic Of or pertaining to overburden or the aggregate of overlying rock column and fluid.

geostatic load Overburden. The combined load of the overlying rock column and the fluids contained
within the pores of the rock from the depth of the stratum of interest to the surface.

geostatic pressure That pressure exerted by the weight of the entire geostatic load.

geothermal Pertaining to temperatures in the earth, ground, or crust of the earth

geothermal energy The internal energy of the earth. Available to human beings as heat from heated rocks or
water.

geothermal gradient The rate of increase of temperature in the earth with depth. The gradient near the surface
of the earth varies from place to place depending on the heat flow in the region and on
the thermal conductivity of the rock. Caused by the continuous flow of heat outward
through the crust of the earth.

gilsonite A mineral form of asphalt. Softens on heating and soluble in carbon disulfide.
GL Ground level.

glands Used in a stuffing box and hydraulic packing head. Rubber seals that can be squeezed
down over logging cable to form a pressure seal in the event pressure develops at the
surface. Cable can be moved in closed down glands if the cable is lubricated by fluid or
injected grease. If glands should cut out, the blowout preventer can be closed and glands
replaced. Compare rams.

globular saturation Insular saturation. See description and illustration under saturation.

gooseneck A curved device that fits over the fishing bell. Used during the process of lifting heavy
downhole tools from a horizontal position to a vertical position. The logging cable or
bridle fits into the curvature of the device thus minimizing localized stress and flexure
on survey line and conductors.

graben A block of the earth's crust that has slid downward between two faults; the opposite of a
horst. See illustration in fault.

grade ore Weight percent of a mineral of interest in a volume of ore containing the mineral.

grade thickness The macroscopic ore grade determined by a logging instrument which investigates a
volume of formation of greater than unit thickness. The average grade ore determined by
the instrument (e.g., gross-count gamma-ray tool) would be grade thickness divided by
thickness.

gradient The change in any parameter per unit change of another parameter.

gradiomanometer A device used to measure the average density of the fluids contained in a fixed length of
the well bore located between sensitive membrane-type pressure sensors, irrespective of
 the fluid distribution. The measurement recorded as a function of depth is called specific
gravity. The recorded curve would represent a specific gravity profile of fluids in the
borehole for the conditions under which the survey was run. In some cases it may be
affected by hole deviation, a friction component. and a kinetic component.

granite In a broad sense, a coarse-grained igneous rock consisting essentially of quartz, feldspar,
and mafic minerals, by far the most abundant of all plutonic rocks. See also pluton.

grain density The density of a unit volume of a mineral or other rock matter at zero porosity. The
density of the rock framework. Sometimes called matrix density. Usual units are g/cm3.
grand slam A combination of logs or a computation procedure for calculating the depth of invasion
and the resistivity of both invaded and uncontaminated zones, based on a dual induction-
laterolog and a proximity log or microlaterolog.

graphic log Strip log.

gravel pack A mass of very fine gravel placed around a slotted liner in a well.

gravel packing A method of well completion in which a slotted or perforated liner is placed in the well
and surrounded by small-sized gravel. The well is enlarged by underreaming at the point
where the gravel is packed. The mass of gravel prevents sand from flowing into the well
but allows continuous rapid production.

gravel pack log The gravel pack logging tool is a neutron-type device that evaluates the condition of the
gravel pack. Count rates from two detectors are used to compute porosity. The count
rates from both detectors are presented with the cased-hole porosity and compared to the
porosity measured in the open hole if open-hole measurements are available. The log
provides a quantitative analysis of the areas in the pack that need to be replaced before
the well is placed on production.

gravimeter An instrument for measuring variations in gravltational attraction; a gravity meter. Most
present gravimeters are of the unstable or astatic type. The gravitational force on a mass
in the meter is balanced by a spring arrangement, and a third force is provided which
acts when the system is not in equilibrium. This third force intensifies the effect of
changes of gravity and increases the sensitivity of the system. In the LaCoste-Romberg
gravimeter, the main spring that balances out the gravitational pull on the weight is a
"zero-length spring" inclined at an angle. A zero length spring has a stress-strain curve
that passes through zero length when projected back to zero strain. (For example, a
spring that requires an initial stress before the coils begin to separate.) Zero-length
springs have very long periods and high sensitivity.

gravimetry The measurement, correction, mapping, and interpretation of the earth's gravitational
 field by surface or borehole measurements.

gravity (1) The force of attraction between bodies of finite mass. Usually expressed in milligals.

(2) API gravity. A method for specifying the density of crude petroleum. The density in
°API is equal to

where P is the specific gravity of the oil measured at 60°F.

gravity anomaly Difference between theoretical calculated and observed terrestrial gravity; excess
observed gravity is positive and deficiency is negatively anomalous.

gravity drainage The movement of oil in a reservoir toward a wellbore resulting from the force of gravity.
In the absence of water drive or effective gas drive, gravity dramage is an important
source of energy to produce oil. It is also called segregation drive.

gravity meter See gravimeter.

gravity unit A unit of gravitational acceleration, equal to 0.1 mgal or l0–6m/sec2. Sometimes called
G unit.

graywacke A variety of sandstone generally characterized by its hardness, dark color, and angular
grains of quartz, feldspar, and small rock fragments set in a matrix of clay sized particles

green pattern A convention used in dipmeter interpretation. The "green pattern" represents structural
dip as denoted by a succession of dips of relatively constant direction and magnitude.
Becomes more evident after removal of blue pattern and red pattern. Compare blue
pattern and red pattern. See dip for illustration.
grid See API log grid.

gross-count gamma-ray A tool that can be applied to a much wider range of radioactivity than natural gamma-
tool ray logging tools used in the petroleum industry. Responds to changes in gamma-ray
activity at very high radiation levels. Used in the exploration for radioactive minerals.

ground electrode A ground stake. With SP and resistivity logging, it is a portable surface grounding
electrode placed at some remote location from the rig and logging unit and connected
with a conductor line to provide ground connection for the instruments.

ground level GL. Elevation of the undisturbed ground surface. Sometimes used as a depth datum.

ground line (1) With SP and resistivity logging. It is the conductor line, to which is attached a
portable surface electrode, which is extended to some remote location from the rig and
logging unit to provide electrical ground connection.

(2) With perforation safety. Ground strap. It is a heavy-gauge, low-resistance line

provided with appropriate connectors or clamps to electrically connect together the
masses of the hoist unit, rig, and surface casing (wellhead). This negates voltage
differences which may occur between the masses.

ground safety line A ground strap used for perforation safety. See ground line Part (2).

ground stake Portable surface electrode used in SP and resistivity logging. Makes a remote electrical
connection with earthen mass. A metal stake, connected to the end of an electrical
ground line, which is driven into the ground. Compare fish. See also ground electrode.

guarded electrode The short center electrode of a guard tool. The electrode on which most measurements
are based.
guard electrode (1) One of the long electrodes above and below the short center electrode, or guarded
electrode, of a guard tool.

(2) Sometimes used, incorrectly, to refer to the guarded electrode or the entire guard
tool.

guard log A well log of formation resistivity which involves the use of a guard tool.

guard logging tool See guard tool.

guard logging sonde See guard tooll.

guard tool The guard tool behaves similarly to one elongated current electrode from which current
flows radially in all directions to a distant current-return electrode. In practice, the
current-emitting electrode is separated into three parts by insulation so that the center
part, which is made short, can be treated as a discrete electrode without alteration of the
current-flow pattern. The current from the center electrode, which serves as both a
current and measure electrode, flows in a thin horizontal layer at an angle of 90° to the
tool because of its central location in the configuration.
 Through the method of focusing described above, this arrangement provides good
resolution of thin beds and permits the use of the tool in boreholes filled with saline
muds.

The log usually is presented with one resistivity curve and a gamma-ray curve and/or SP
curve (recorded from an electrode not physically a part of the guard electrode). Compare
laterolog.

gun An assemblage including a carrier, electrical circuitry, explosive charges, and either
percussion-type bullets or core barrels for taking formation samples, or projectiles or
shaped charges for gun perforating or formation testing.

gun perforating The wireline procedure involving the use of a gun in introducing holes through steel
casing into a formation so that fluids can flow from the formation into the casing. The
gun can be selectively positioned opposite the formation and has the capability of firing
 bullets or shaped charges.

gusher An oil well which has come in with such great pressure that the oil jets out of the well
like a geyser. In reality, a gusher is a blowout and is extremely wasteful of reservoir
fluids and drive energy. In the early days of the oil industry, gushers were common, and
many times were the only indications that a large reservoir of oil and gas had been
found.

gypsum A naturally occurring crystalline form of hydrated calcium sulfate. Gypsum is a calcium
dihydrate (CaSO4·2H2O) in the monoclinic crystalline form. At elevated temperatures
the dihydrate in a dry environment may lose some of its water of crystallization to
become the unstable hemihydrate (which will rehydrate when exposed to water). A
monoclinic crystal of gypsum cannot become an orthorhombic crystal of anhydrite by
simple dehydration. Compare anhydrite.

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half-life The length of time required for a radioactive material to lose one-half of its radioactivity
by decay (i.e., half of the radioactive element has spontaneously disintegrated).

half thickness Half value thickness. That thickness of an intervening absorbing material which is
necessary to reduce the intensity of incident radiation by one-half.

halite Natural salt, sodium chloride. A common mineral of evaporites.

hard rock In the petroleum industry, a hard rock is a cemented, well-consolidated formation.

hardware Physical entities such as computers, electronic circuits and components, peripherals such
as tape machines, etc. Contrasted with software.
head (1) The connector end of the fishing bell. Located at the downhole end of the survey
cable. The head consists of insulated electrical connectors or pins and a threaded
connector which will attach to various downhole instruments.

(2) The threaded connector end(s) of downhole logging instruments.

heading The form attached to the top of a well log which supplies and documents all vital
information and supplementary data regarding the well, the survey, and the wellbore
conditions.

heaving shale Shale which becomes dislodged by bit, drill pipe, or jet action. Also shale which
becomes hydrated during the drilling process and falls into the well bore. Heaving shale
quite often leaves cavities and ledges. Heaving shale is not necessarily related to
overpressure. Compare plastic shale.

hertz Hz. A unit of frequency measurement equal to one cycle per second.

high-angle borehole An expression which applies to a method developed for the purpose of logging highly
logging system deviated holes and holes with serious bridging problems. At the present time, systems
such as this involve the use of drill pipe to carry specially designed well-logging tools
through highly deviated boreholes or past wellbore constrictions to a depth where
logging can be performed. A survey cable connects the downhole logging instrument to
the surface where the measurements are recorded.

Usually, this is an operation designed for performing openhole surveys below a surface-
or protective casing string, but can be used for performing some cased-hole surveys as
well. Examples are Slant-hole Express and Toolpusher.
high explosives High explosives are unstable chemical compounds that are sensitive to shock.
temperature, and their own detonative wave. High explosives detonate with a violent
chemical reaction. The detonative wave velocity is a density phenomenon and is in the
order of magnitude of 30,000 feet/second. Shaped charges and Primacords are high
explosives. Compare low explosives.

high-resolution dipmeter A dipmeter tool which records four high-resolution microresistivity curves and has an
tool additional electrode on one pad which yields another curve at displaced depth. The
displaced-depth curve is used to correct for variations on sonde speed. Provides not only
improved resistivity resolution. but also improved dip resolution or refinement.

high-resolution A small-diameter, surface recording, fast-response downhole temperature tool for

thermometer logging open or cased horeholes.
holdup In a producing well, the volume fraction of a specific fluid phase (e.g., water holdup, oil
holdup) in the upward moving flow stream. The relative quantities of the fluids
produced at the surface are related to the holdup and upward velocity of each phase.

hollow carrier gun A perforating gun consisting of a hollow, thick-walled. cylindrical metal case into which
are loaded shaped charges or bullets. Upon firing, debris from the detonated charges
falls into the carrier to be retrieved with the reusable gun.

horns Spurious high-resistivity anomalies found on induction log curves inside the upper or
lower boundary of a resistive bed in which the apparent resistivity markedly contrasts
with that of a conductive adjacent bed. A result of improper boundary compensation for
the level of formation resistivity being logged.

horst A block of the earth's crust that has been raised between two faults. The opposite of a
graben. See illustration in fault.

hostile environment Hostile wellbore environment. Any well bore that meets one of the following criteria:

(1) depth greater than 20,000 ft.

(2) pressure greater than 20,000 psi
(3) temperature greater than 325°F
(4) hole deviation greater than 50°
(5) H2S or gas-cut mud

Any one or a combination of these will severely affect or restrict the logging operations.

hot rock Pertains to any rock that is volcanically or radiogenically heated.

hot-water system A system that is dominated by a circulating liquid that transfers most of the heat and
largely controls subsurface pressures. Characterized by hot springs that discharge at the
surface.
hot wire analyzer A device used to detect hydrocarbon gases returned to the surface by the drilling mud.
Basically a Wheatstone bridge, two arms of which are kept at a high temperature.
Hydrocarbon gases become oxidized as they pass over one arm, which increases its
temperature, changes its resistance, and unbalances the bridge. The hot wire analyzer
response is sometimes plotted as a strip log.

housing A cylindrical metal case which protects downhole electrical circuitry. Particularly, a
housing which encases the electronic cartridge of the downhole logging instrument. The
housing protects the cartridge from damage from pressure and moisture.

huff-and-puff Cyclic steam injection. A form of enhanced oil recovery.

Humble formula A modified form of Archie's formation factor/porosity relationship.

F = 0.62φ–2.15
where F = formation resistivity factor, and φ = porosity.

HVT Half value thickness. See half thickness.

hybrid scale A resistivity scale used with laterologs and guard logs which compresses high resistivity
values. Below midscale. the scale is linear with resistivity. Above midscale, the scale is
scaled in resistivity units. but is linear with conductivity (reciprocal of resistivity). The
hybrid scale presentation has been replaced by the logarithmic scale on modern
laterologs and guard logs.
hydrate (1) To combine with water.

(2) A hydrocarbon and water compound that is formed under reduced temperature and
pressure in gathering, compression, and transmission facilities for gas. Hydrates often
accumulate in troublesome amounts and impede fluid flow. They resemble snow or ice.

hydration A process by which water molecules become associated (or react) with other substances
without destruction of the water molecule.

(1) Water molecules (dipoles) become adsorbed on ions or on solid surfaces exhibiting
 electrostatic charge.

(2) Water molecules become imbibed as a result of conditions which tend to cause
osmotic absorption of water into the space between the crystal surfaces (as in
montmorillonite clays).

(3) Water molecules become bound chemically at fixed points as part of the crystal
lattice of hydrated substances. The water becomes water of crystallization and loses the
properties of the original water.

hydraulic conductivity Ratio of flow velocity to driving force for viscous flow under saturated conditions of a
specific liquid in a porous medium.

hydraulic fracturing The breaking or parting of reservoir rock through the use of injected fluids. Hydraulic
fracturing is a method of stimulating production or injection at a specific depth in a
formation of low permeability by inducing fractures and fissures in the formation by
applying high fluid pressure to its face. Fluids (liquids, gases, foams, emulsions) are
injected into reservoir rock at pressures which exceed the strength of the rock and
overcome internal stresses of the rock. The fluid enters the formation and parts or
fractures it. Sand grains, aluminum pellets, glass beads, or similar materials are carried
in suspension by the fluid into the fractures. These are called propping agents or
proppants. When the pressure is released at the surface, the fracturing fluid returns to the
wellbore as the fractures partially close on the proppants, leaving paths with increased
permeability for fluid flow.

hydraulic head The pressure caused by the weight of an equivalent column of liquid upon a unit area
expressed by the height or distance of the liquid above the point at which the pressure is
measured. Although head refers to distance or height, it is used to express the pressure
resulting from the weight of a body of liquid since the weight is directly proportional to
the height.

hydraulic packing head Replaces stuffing box when high pressure exists at the surface. Grease under pressure
hydraulically packs the glands around the cable and provides cable lubrication. Cable
can be moved under pressure in the packing head. When glands become cut, the blowout
preventer can be closed and glands replaced.

hydraulic pad An articulating, liquid-filled pad used to place current and measure electrodes in direct
 contact with the drilled formation wall. Used on microresistivity devices (i.e., microlog,
microlaterolog, etc.). The liquid-filled pad allows better electrode contact by improving
pad conformity with the wall.

hydraulic pressure (1) As applied to an aquifer, the rate of change of pressure head per unit of distance for
gradient flow past a given point and in a given direction.

(2) A vector point function equal to the decrease in hydraulic head per unit distance in
direction of greatest decrease in rate.

hydrocarbon porosity The product of hydrocarbon saturation and porosity and the number of feet exhibiting
feet those values of saturation and porosity.

hydrocarbon saturation Fraction of the pore volume filled with hydrocarbons (oil or gas).

hydrodynamic pressure Fluid pressure directed laterally along the bed from a higher to a lower pressure head.
Compare hydrostatic pressure.

hydrofracture See hydraulic fracturing.

hydrogen embrittlement The corrosive effect produced on steel armor of survey cables and other steel equipment
by the penetration of hydrogen released from the decomposition of hydrogen sulfide,
H2S. The presence of H2S in wellbore fluids will result in a degree of embrittlement in
steel equipment unless the steel has been protected by an inhibitor, or the pH of
solutions has been otherwise controlled.

hydrogen index The ratio of the number of hydrogen atoms per unit volume of a material to that number
in pure water at 75°F. Neutron logging response depends mainly on the hydrogen index.
hydrogen sulfide A gaseous compound, H2S, of sulfur and hydrogen commonly found in petroleum.
which causes the foul smell of sour petroleum fractions. It is extremely poisonous and
corrosive. See also hydrogen embrittlement.

hydrostatic head The pressure exerted by a body of water at rest. The hydrostatic head of fresh water is
0.433 psi per foot of height. Those of other liquids may be determined by comparing
their gravities with the gravity of water. See pressure gradient.

hydrostatic level That level, which for a given point in an aquifer, passes through the top of a column of
water that can be supported by the hydrostatic pressure of the water at that point.

hydrostatic load The weight of formation fluid filling the pores of the rock and in communication with
the water table at the well site, or sea surface. Usually the fluid is considered to be
formation water.

hydrostatic pressure That pressure due to the weight of a column of liquid (formation water, drilling mud,
etc.) extending from the depth of interest to the liquid level which might or might not be
at the surface.

hydrothermal Pertains to heated or hot aqueous-rich solutions, to the processes in which they are
concerned, and to the rocks, ore deposits, and alteration products produced by them.
Hydrothermal solutions are of diverse sources, including magmatic, meteoric, and
connate waters.

hydrothermal alteration The phase changes resulting from the interaction of hydrothermal fluids with pre-
existing solid phases. Included are the chemical and mineralogical changes in rocks
brought about by the addition or removal of materials through the medium of
hydrothermal fluids.

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ID Inside diameter of pipe or tubing. Compare OD.

Ideal gas A gas which obeys the general gas law perfectly (PV = NRT). The term implies (1)
atomic-sized gas particles, (2) the molecules are in random motion and obey Newton's
laws of motion, (3) the total number of molecules is large, (4) the volume of the
molecules is a negligibly small fraction of the volume occupied by the gas, (5) no
appreciable forces act on the molecules except during a collision, and (6) collisions are
elastic and are of negligible duration.

igneous rock Rock formed from a melt or magma by cooling and solidification. The solidification
may occur beneath the surface of the earth from magma (intrusive) or at the surface
from lava (extrusive or volcanic). If the solidification occurred at depth, the rock is
called "plutonic"; if formed from magma erupted onto the surface, it is called "volcanic."

igniter Usually a small device containing an electrical filament used to ignite low explosives.
Used in sidewall coring tools and perforating guns firing bullets.

impedance The opposition that an electrical circuit presents to the flow of an alternating current
(AC). The ratio of the maximum voltage in an AC circuit to the maximum current.
Compare resistance.

impermeable Preventing the passage of fluid. A formation may be porous yet impermeable if there is
an absence of connecting passages between the voids within it. See permeability.

immiscible Not capable of mixing or being permanently mixed (as oil and water).

inclination Deviation angle. Measured in directional surveys and used in calculating true vertical
depths. It is the angle between the axis of the measuring tool (hence, borehole axis) and
true vertical. The inclination can also be measured with respect to true horizontal.
inclinometer A device for measuring hole inclination and azimuth. See directional survey.

index A relative parameter; e.g., resistivity index, hydrogen index, gamma-ray index, etc.

induced polarization IP. An exploration method involving measurement of the slow decay of voltage in the
ground following the cessation of an excitation current pulse (time domain method) or
low-frequency (below 100Hz) variations of earth impedance (frequency-domain
method).

induced spectral gamma- An activation log wherein the formations have been bombarded by high-energy
ray log neutrons. Specific atoms upon irradiation transform into isotopes which emit gamma
rays exhibiting specific energy levels within the energy spectrum. Identification of the
energy levels of the induced gamma radiation is a means of identifying the original
atoms in place in the formation. The quantity of material containing the original atoms is
deduced from the amount of gamma radiation at specific energy levels. Downhole
instruments may use encapsulated sources, which emit neutrons continuously as the tool
is moved along the formation wall, or neutron generators, which emit neutrons in cyclic
pulses with measurements made between pulses. The type of source used depends on the
substances searched for. Compare spectral gamma-ray log. Also see neutron activation.

Induction-Electrolog IEL. A log made by combining an induction logging device and a short normal or
laterolog device. Induction-Electrolog is a Dresser Atlas trademark.

induction log A log recorded in uncased boreholes which involves the use of electromagnetic
induction principles for the measurement of formation conductivity or resistivity. The
induction logging tool has advantages for use in nonconductive borehole fluids (air. oil
gas) where other electrical resistivity logging tools cannot be easily used or should not
be used. The induction log is widely used in electrically conductive drilling muds where
it works well provided the formations are not too resistive and borehole effects are
known and not too great (i.e., mud not too saline and hole diameter not too large).
 Practical induction sondes include an array of several transmitter and receiver coils
designed to provide focusing and deep investigation and to minimize borehole and
adjacent-formation effects. A high-frequency alternating current, constant in magnitude,
is passed through the transmitter coils. The resulting alternating magnetic field induces
currents in the formation which flow in circular ground-loop paths coaxial with the
sonde. Those ground-loop currents generate their own magnetic fields which induce in
the receiver coils signals which at low conductivities are essentially proportional to
formation conductivity. At high conductivities, the reading may be affected by skin
effect. Receiver-coil signals produced by direct coupling with the transmitter coil are
balanced out by the measuring circuits.

Induction tools can be run separately or can be combined with other devices to run
combination services. Integrated tools, combining in one tool the devices necessary to
perform different resistivity-measuring operations, are commonly used in the well-
logging industry. Examples of such tools are the induction device with a deep depth of
investigation in combination with: another induction device having a shallower depth of
investigation, invaded zone investigative devices (e.g., short normal device, short
laterolog or guard log, or Spherically Focused Logging device), long lateral, and SP.

inelastic collision A collision in which the total kinetic energy of the colliding particles is not the same
after the collision as before the collision. For example. in the case of a fast moving
 neutron colliding with a nucleus of an element, the nucleus becomes excited and excess
energy is reduced by emitting a gamma ray that is characteristic of the element.
Compare elastic collision.

inelastic scattering Scattering produced by inelastic collisions. See inelastic collision.

injection well A well into which fluids have been pumped, and from which fluids have been injected
into an underground stratum to increase or maintain reservoir pressure.

in situ In place. In its natural location.

in-situ combustion A method of enhanced oil recovery in which heat is generated within the reservoir by
injecting air, oxygen, or mixtures of air and oxygen and burning a portion of the oil in
place. The heat of in-situ combustion cracks the crude hydrocarbons, vaporizes the
lighter hydrocarbons, and deposits the heavier hydrocarbons as coke. As the fire moves
from the injection well in the direction of producing wells, it burns the deposited coke,
releases hot combustion gases. and converts interstitial water into steam. The vaporized
hydrocarbons and the steam move ahead of the combustion zone, condensing into
liquids as they cool, and moving oil by miscible displacement and hot water flooding.
Combustion gases provide additional gas drive. Carbon dioxide generated is dissolved in
oil, causing oil to swell. and heat lowers the viscosity of the oil. These allow oil to flow
more freely. This method is used to recover heavy, viscous oil. Also called fire flooding.

insular globules A nonwetting phase exists in the form of insular globules when it is found as discrete,
isolated spheroids suspended in the wetting phase.

insular saturation See description and illustration under saturation.

insulation (1) The covering on electrical wiring (or other conductive materials) which provides
electrical isolation.

(2) The quality of electrical isolation, measurable with a test set, necessary for proper
 operation of logging instruments and calibrated measurement of downhole properties of
formation and borehole.

integrate To add or to accumulate all the increments of a specific property within the formation or
borehole. For instance, to accumulate the interval transit time (microseconds/foot) over a
length of formation (feet) to arrive at a total travel time (microseconds) for that length of
formation.

integrated travel time See time-depth integration.

intensity modulated-time An acoustic wave train display form. A display mode of the acoustic wave train in the
X-Z plane in which the intensity of the photographic beam is modulated with the
amplitude of the wave form to produce a variable photographic density pattern as a
function of time. All positive half-cycles appear as dark streaks, and all negative cycles
which have been cut off appear as light streaks. See acoustic log and variable density.
Compare amplitude-time or X-Y plane. See illustration at wave train display.

interface The contact surface between two boundaries of immiscible fluids, dissimilar solids, etc.

intermediate casing The string of casing set in a well after the surface casing in order to keep the hole from
string caving. Sometimes the blowout preventers are attached to it. The string is sometimes
called protection casing.

internal phase The fluid droplets or solids that are dispersed throughout another liquid in an emulsion.
Compare continuous phase.

international system of S.I. units. A system of units of measurement based on the metric system, adopted and
units described by the Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures. It involves
seven base units: (1) meter for length; (2) kilogram for mass; (3) second for time; (4)
Kelvin for temperature; (5) ampere for electric current; (6) candela for luminous
intensity; and (7) mole for amount of substance.
interstitial water Water occupying interstices or pore volumes in rock.

interval transit time The travel time of a compressional wave (usually) over a unit distance, hence
proportional to the reciprocal of compression wave velocity. Measured in the sonic log,
usually in microseconds per foot.

interval transit time See transit time integration.

integration

interval transit-time An increase in interval transit time which occurs when attenuation of the acoustic energy
stretch is significantly greater at the far receiver (of a receiver pair) than at the near receiver The
stretching of interval transit time is not related to skipping of a cycle. Compare cycle
skip.
intervalometer A device used for setting the amount of delay (distance along a formation) before a
signal in storage is played back. See memorizer.

intrinsic thermal decay (1) The thermal-neutron decay time intrinsic to a particular material or medium. defined
time by (1/vΣabs)where v is neutron velocity and Σabs is the macroscopic capture cross section
of the medium.

(2) The thermal-neutron decay time of a particular formation corrected for borehole and
diffusion effects. See thermal decay time, Thermal Decay Time Log, and capture cross
section.

intrusive Having been forced while in a fluid state into or between other rocks, but solidifying
before reaching the surface. Said of plutonic igneous rocks and contrasted with
extrusive.

invaded zone The portion of formation surrounding a well bore into which drilling fluid has
penetrated. displacing some of the formation fluids. This invasion takes place in porous,
permeable zones when the pressure of the mud is greater than that of the formation
fluids. A mud filter cake builds on the formation wall, limiting further invasion into the
formation by mud filtrate. Directly behind the mud cake is a flushed zone from which
almost all of the formation water and most of the hydrocarbons have been displaced by
filtrate. The invasion process alters the distribution of saturations and other properties
and, consequently, alters the values which are recorded on logs. The depth of invasion is
the equivalent depth in an idealized model rather than the maximum depth reached by
filtrate. In oil-bearing zones, the filtrate may push a bank of formation water ahead of it
to produce what is referred to as an annulus.
invasion diameter See diameter of invasion.

invert oil emulsion An emulsified drilling mud in which oil is the continuous lexternall phase and the
aqueous discontinuous (internal) phase occupies more than ten percent of the volume.
Electrically nonconductive. Compare oil emulsion and oil-base mud.
invert oil mud See invert oil emulsion.

ion(s) Atoms, or groups of atoms, which have either taken on or given up one or more orbital
electrons. As a result of the gain or loss of one or more electrons, each ion bears
electrical charge. Positively charged ions are called cations and negatively charged ions
are called anions.

In solutions, the ions interact with the solvent to become hydrated and the properties of
the ion become modified by the solvent molecules attached in varying degrees to the
ion. Other than in solutions, ions may exist in the solid state as in a crystal lattice; or in
the gaseous state, where they are produced by the action of high-energy radiation on
neutral atoms or molecules of the gas.

ion exchange Base exchange. The reversible chemical reaction in which certain ions in a crystal lattice
on particle surfaces or edges can become hydrated in the presence of aqueous solutions
with the result that they can be replaced, equivalent for equivalent, by ions (usually
cations) exhibiting similar charge from the solution without a loss in the crystal
structure.

According to a widely held view, the cations do not occupy precise sites: some are
located in a plane parallel to and within a few angstroms of the clay surface (Helmholtz
layer); others are contained in a zone of diminishing concentration (called the diffuse
layer) extending outward from the Helmholtz layer.

Materials, particularly clays, which exhibit this property support surface conductance
with their exchangeable cations.

ionization The process by which a neutral or uncharged atom or molecule (of gases, liquids, solids)
acquire a charge, thus becoming an ion.

When a substance dissolved in a liquid (or the liquid itself) undergoes ionization,
electrolytic ion pairs of opposite charge are produced at once. A substance in the
gaseous state requires a source of energy for ionization. When a substance in gaseous
state is ionized, usually by radiation, only positively charged molecules or ions are
formed as the result of the loss of one or more electrons. Both the positive ions and
electrons are free to cause further ionization of the gas and produce both positive and
negative ions. In all cases, the charged particles and ions are subject to motion or
deflection in electric fields. Their motion constitutes a flow of electric current.
ionization chamber (1) A type of gamma-ray detector. Consists of a gas-filled cylindrical metal shell
containing a center rod (i.e., electrode) maintained at about 100 volts positive to the
cylinder wall. An incident gamma ray interacts with the cylinder wall material or the gas
maintained at high pressure in order to produce a high-speed electron. The high-speed
electron, drawn to the positively charged center rod, produces additional electrons and
ions in the collision with gas atoms. The electrons (along with some negative ions)
moving to the center electrode constitute a minute flow of electrical cur rent, the size of
which is proportional to the number of gamma-ray interactions. Long chamber lengths
and high gas pressures are used in order to improve detector efficiency, but vertical
resolution suffers with increased chamber size. See also pair production. Compare
Geiger-Mueller counter, proportional counter, and scintillation counter.

(2) Has been used as a slow-neutron detector.

IR drop Voltage drop, potential difference. The difference in potential (E) produced by a flow of
current (I) through a length of material exhibiting resistance (R). Mathematically
represented in Ohm's law: E = IR.

irradiation The exposure of a material to radiation. In well logging, irradiation is the process in
which the elements in the formation are exposed to radiation or bombardment by nuclear
particles (e.g., neutrons in neutron logging or induced spectral gamma-ray logging).

irreducible saturation The irreducible saturation of a fluid is the minimum saturation of that fluid attainable
when that fluid is displaced from a porous medium by another fluid immiscible with the
first.

irreducible water The fraction of the pore volume occupied by water in a reservoir at maximum
saturation hydrocarbon saturation. In water-wet rock. it represents the layer of adsorbed water
coating solid surfaces and the pendular water around grain contacts and at pore throats.
Irreducible water saturation is an equilibrium situation. It differs from "residual water
saturation," measured by core analysis because of filtrate invasion and the gas expansion
that occurs when the core is removed from the bottom of the hole and brought to the
surface.

isopach map A geological map of subsurface strata slowing the various thicknesses of a given
lormation underlying an area. It is widely used in calculating reserves and in planning
secondary-recovery projects.
isosaturation surface In a zone where saturations are changing, as in a transition zone, it is an imaginary
surface which passes through all saturations of a specific fluid which have the same
value.

isothermal That process which takes place at a constant temperature. Isothermal relationships
between pressure and volume of a gas or other fluid result when the temperature is
constant and when heat is added or subtracted by an outside substance or body. Compare
adiabatic.

isotopes Atoms of a single element which have differing masses. Isotopes are either stable or
unstable (radioactive). Radioisotopes emit particulate (alpha, beta) or electromagnetic
(gamma) radiation as they transform or decay into stable isotopes. Daughter products
produced by primary distintegration or irradiation are isotopes. See also Z/A, alpha
particle, beta particle, and gamma ray.

isotropy The property of homogeneity or uniformity of a rock which allows it to show the same
responses or characteristics when measured along different axes. Compare anisotropy.

iterative Describes a procedure which repeats until some condition is satisfied. Successive
approximations, each based on the preceding approximations, are processed in such a
way as to converge onto the desired solution.

J Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

jet (1) A high-speed stream of fluid exiting a nozzle.

(2) A high-pressure, high-velocity, vapor stream exhibiting mass which is produced by

the detonation of high explosives with shaped, lined cavities. Used in gun perforating
and salvage operations. See shaped charge.
jet charge See shaped charge.

joint A length of pipe, casing, or tubing usually from 20 to 30 feet long. On drilling rigs, drill
pipe and tubing are run the first time (lowered into the hole) one joint at a time. When
pulled out of the hole and stacked in the rig, they are usually pulled two, three, or four at
a time depending upon the height of the derrick. These multiple-joint sections are called
stands.

joule A unit for all forms of energy or work. The joule is equal to 107 ergs which is on the
order of 1 watt-second. It is approximately equal to 0.738 foot-pound of 0.239 calorie.

Joule-Thomson effect A thermal phenomenon produced by passing a gas at a higher pressure through an
aperture or porous material to an environment at lower pressure. Hydrogen and helium
gain heat (become warmer) in the process of expansion, whereas all other gases
(nonperfect) lose heat (become cooler).

junk Any kind of debris, extraneous to the formation, and that has become detached from
some part of equipment used in an operation on a well and has become lodged or lost in
some part of the borehole or borehole wall. Junk may be a lost bit, pieces of a bit, milled
pieces of pipe, wrenches, or any relatively small object that impedes drilling. It often
obstructs casing, tubing. or open hole and must be fished out. See also fish.

junk basket (1) A device made up on the bottom of the drill stem to cut a core into the bottom of the
hole on which junk rests. As the core is cut, the junk enters a barrel in the tool and is
held by metal projections, or catchers. When the basket is brought back to the surface,
the junk is removed with the core.

(2) A basket-like device which can be run on a wireline survey cable for the purpose of
removing small debris from inside a cased well bore.

juvenile water Water that is derived from the interior of the earth and has not previously existed as
atmospheric or surface water.
 K Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

KB Kelly bushing.

kelly The heavy steel, pipe-like, four- or six-sided member suspended from the swivel
through the rotary table and connected to the top-most joint of drill pipe which turns the
drill stem as the rotary table turns. It has a bored passageway that permits fluid to be
circulated into the drill stem and up the annulus, or vice versa. Sometimes called kelly
joint.

kelly bushing KB. The heavy bushing at the rotary table, through which the kelly passes, which
transmits the rotary motion of the rotary table to the drill pipe. The top of the bushing is
often taken as a depth datum.

kelly joint See kelly.

kelly hose Flexible steel-reinforced hose which carries mud between the standpipe and the kelly.
Permits the drill string to be moved vertically while mud-pumping and drilling
operations continue.

Kelvin temperature scale A temperature scale with the degree interval of the centigrade scale and the zero point at
absolute zero. On the Kelvin scale, water freezes at 273° and boils at 373°. See absolute
temperature scale.

kerogen Organic matter found in rock in the form of a mineraloid which is of indefinite
composition, insoluble in petroleum solvents. Kerogen is a pyrobitumen, and oil is
formed from kerogen by heating. It consists chiefly of low forms of plant life such as
algae, of pollen, spores, spore coats, enzyme shells, coal, and protein material.
Chemically it is a complex mixture of hydrocarbon compounds of large molecules,
containing hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Kerogen is the chief source
of oil in oil shales.
key-seat A crevice or groove in the formation wall of the well bore or a split in casing in which a
survey cable can become wedged. Most likely to occur at "dog legs" in deviated
boreholes.

kick An eruption or flow of drilling mud from a wellbore resulting from the entry of
formation fluids, oil, gas, or water into the borehole. Such entry occurs when the
pressure in the borehole does not counterbalance the pressure in permeable formation.

kill a well (1) To bring under control a well that is threatening to blow out.

(2) To circulate water and mud into a completed well before starting well-servicing
operations.

L Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

lag In continuous nuclear logging techniques, radioactivity measurements are made over a
period of time in order to average statistical variations. During the statistical averaging
period (time constant), the detector is continually moved while surveying. The distance
the detector moves during one time constant is commonly called the amount of lag. See
dynamic measure point.

lag time Up time. The time it takes for a sample of rock cut from a formation by the drilling bit to
be carried from its depth of origin to a location on the surface, where it is collected. Lag
time is calculated by subtracting down time from the total time it takes for a marker,
introduced into the drilling mud at the surface, to travel to the bottom of the borehole
and back to the surface where it can be detected or collected.

laminar In the form of a thin layer(s) of sedimentary rock which is of different mineralization or
lithology and is visually separable from the host rock or other laminae. Laminae of sand
or other permeable sediment sometime show unusually high productivity. Laminae of
clay, sandwiched between layers of a host rock, not only support overburden but also
take the place of some of the host rock and whatever porosity the host rock would
 contain.

laminar flow Nonturbulent fluid flow. A smooth flow at relatively low velocity in which the fluid
elements follow paths that are straight and are parallel to the channel walls. Compare
turbulent flow.

last reading LR. (1) Refers to the depth of the last useable reading or value recorded on a curve at the
completion of the survey.

(2) Usually the depth in the hole of the shallowest reading for any given curve normally
recorded in the bottom-to-top direction. Often coincides with casing depth for open-hole
logging operations.

lateral curve An unsymmetrical resistivity curve recorded by a lateral device.

lateral device A resistivity measuring system using a "lateral" electrode configuration. A constant
current is passed between an electrode A on the bridle and a distant electrode B, while
the potential difference is measured across two electrodes, M and N, located on the
sonde. The MN distance is small compared to the AO spacing, which is the distance
between the current electrode and the midpoint between the potential-measuring
electrodes, typically about 18 feet 8 inches. A short lateral sometimes uses a spacing of
6 to 9 feet. The potential electrodes described above are located below the current
electrodes, but on the reciprocal sonde the functions are interchanged so that potential
electrodes are above the current electrodes. The measure point is the midpoint between
the two electrodes separated by the shortest distance (i.e., MN electrodes; or, AB
electrodes on the reciprocal sonde).

The lateral device has a deeper depth of investigation than the normal devices with
which it is generally used, but has the disadvantage that it requires thick homogeneous
beds for optimum usefulness and produces an unsymmetrical curve.
laterolog A resistivity log (run in uncased hole filled with electrically conductive mud) made with
a tool that achieves focusing through the use of additional current electrodes above and
below a central measure-current electrode. Bucking currents from the additional
electrodes serve to confine the measure current to essentially a narrow disc of current
flowing outwardly perpendicular to the sonde. Should the survey current tend to flow
vertically in the mud column (because of highly resistive beds), currents from the
symmetrically positioned bucking electrodes are caused to increase or decrease in order
to maintain the horizontal attitude of the survey-current flow.

The currents from the bucking electrodes are automatically adjusted for proper focusing
of the measure-current beam by use of a monitor voltage signal, either from
monitorelectrode pairs on either side of the measure-current electrode, or from the
voltage difference between bucking and measure electrodes. Because of the
comparatively small thickness of the focused sheet of current (which is usually a few
inches to a few feet thick. the laterolog gives a very detailed curve and puts clearly in
evidence the sharp contrasts between successive beds, however conductive the mud may
be.
 The laterolog tool differs from the guarded electrode logging tool, or guard tool, in the
use of smaller-sized electrodes and the use of a monitored bucking-current system to
achieve focusing. Compare guard tool.

latitude In true vertical depth calculations from directional surveys. Latitude is the horizontal
displacement in a north or south direction from the wellhead of a location or station in
the borehole at which directional survey measurements were taken. Compare departure.

latitude correction (1) A correction of gravity data because ol variation in centrifugal force resulting from
the earth's rotation as the distance to the earth's axis varies with latitude θ and for
variation of the earth's radius because of polar flattening. The International Gravity
Formula (1930) for such variation is

g = 978,049 (1 + 0.0052884 sin2θ – 0.0000059 sin22θ) mgal.

The latitude correction amounts to 1.307 sin2θ mgal/mile = 0.812 sin2θ mgal/km.

(2) A gyrocompass correction for the rotation of the horizontal north vector is a function
of latitude. (The horizontal north vector is tangent to the earth and hence the rotation is
the result of the earth curvature.)

lava Fluid rock that issues from a volcano or a fissure in the earth's surface. Also the same
material solidified by cooling.

lay down pipe To pull drill pipe or tubing from the hole and place it in a horizontal position on a pipe
rack.

leak, leakage A condition which allows electrical current to bleed off or leak out of the electrical
circuit. The electrical current remaining in the circuit is uncalibrated or does not
otherwise meet design specifications. Leaks can result fronm damage to insulation
coverings or, more frequently, from small amounts of moisture which bridges insulating
spacers at connecting pins.

lease (1) A legal document executed between a landowner, or lessor, and a company or
 individual, as lessee, that grants the right to exploit the premises for minerals or other
products.

(2) The area where production wells, stock tanks, separators, and other production
equipment are located.

least-squares fit An analytic function which approximates a set of data such that the sum of the squares
of the distances from the observed points to the curve is a minimum. One must
determine the functional form of the fit (whether linear, quadratic, etc.) in order to
define the problem.

lens (1) A porous, permeable, irregularly shaped sedimentary deposit surrounded by

impervious rock.

(2) A lenticular sedimentary bed that pinches out, or comes to an end, in all directions.

liberated gas Gas (from a formation) physically liberated into the drilling fluid by the bit as it
penetrates the formation.

limestone A bedded sedimentary rock consisting chiefly of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) yielding
lime when burned. Limestone is the most important and widely distributed of carbonate
rocks and is the consolidated equivalent of limy mud, calcareous sand, or shell
fragments.

limestone device See limestone sonde.

limestone sonde Also called limestone device, which is now obsolete. Uses a combination of electrodes
in a symmetrical, double, short lateral electrode configuration which gives a resistivity
curve with constant values opposite thick, highly resistive beds and which shows sharp
minima at the level of conductive beds.
line (1) Ground line.

(2) Survey cable. Logging cable.

liner (1) A smaller diameter casing hung inside a larger diameter casing. A liners top is
located below the surface.

(2) The cone-like metallic liner used to provide jet mass and shape the cavity in shaped
charges.

liner hanger A slip device that attaches the liner to the casing.
line wiper (1) Stuffing box with glands.

(2) Rubber spiral line stripper or wheel type line stripper which removes excess mud or
oil from the line as it emerges from the wellhead. Prevents excessive mud or oil in work
areas.

liquefied natural gas LNG. A liquid composed chiefly of natural gas (i.e., mostly methane). Natural gas is
liquefied to make it easier to transport if a pipeline is not feasible (as across a body of
water). Not as easily liquefied as liquefied petroleum gas, LNG must be put under low
temperature and high pressure to become liquefied.

liquefied petroleum gas LPG. A mixture of heavier, gaseous, paraffinic hydrocarbons, principally butane and
propane. These gases, easily liquefied at moderate pressures, may be transported as
liquids but converted to gases on release of the pressure. Thus, liquefied petroleum gas
is a portable source of thermal energy that finds wide application in areas where it is
impracticable to distribute natural gas. It is also used as a fuel for internal-combustion
engines and has many industrial and domestic uses. Principal sources are natural and
refinery gas, from which the liquefied petroleum gases are separated by fractionation.

liquid A state of matter in which the shape of the given mass depends on the containing vessel,
but the volume of the mass is independent of the vessel. A liquid is practically
incompressible fluid.

liquid-junction potential Diffusion potential. See electrochemical potential.

lithification The conversion of unconsolidated deposits into solid rock.

Litho-Density Log The Litho-Density tool (LDT) uses a pad-mounted gamma-ray source and two
scintillation detectors to measure the bulk density and the photoelectric absorption cross
section (Pe). The Pe measurement is closely related to the lithology of the formation. A
spectral analysis of the detected gamma rays is used for the Pe measurement and to
improve the response of the density measurement. See also compensated formation
density log. Litho-Density is mark of Schlumberger.
lithologic log A log showing lithology as a function of depth in a borehole. Sometimes a strip log
based on samples; sometimes a computed log derived from other borehole logs.

lithology (1) The physical character and composition of the rock. Refers to the different rock
strata within the formations penetrated by the borehole.

(2) The study of rocks, usually macroscopic.

lithostatic load The weight of the overlying rock column without the fluids contained in the pore
volumes of the rock.
little slam See small slam.

live oil Oil that contains dissolved gas. See also gas in solution. Compare dead oil.

log (1) Well log. A record containing one or more curves related to properties in the well
bore or some property in the formations surrounding the well bore.

(2) To run a survey or well-logging operation.

logarithmic grid (1) A well-log grid scaled in logarithmic divisions. Usually used with resistivity logs.
The use of the logarithmic grid serves to enhance resolution or magnify resistivity
readings in the low-resistivity range and eliminates the need for back-up galvanometers
and associated curves in the high-resistivity range. Permits the use of overlay techniques
in the solution of some exponential relationships.

(2) On the API log grid, tracks 2 and 3 of the grid are divided usually into 4 logarithmic
cycles and the grid lines follow logarithmic scales. See scale for illustration.

logging cable See survey cable.

logging tool An openhole or cased-hole tool for performing downhole well log data gathering
services for determining properties of the formation, or characteristics of the well bore
environment.

log scale insert A section bearing scale information, well identification, and other pertinent information.
It is inserted in the log between depth-scale changes, different runs, tool changes, etc.

log zero Depth datum for the survey.

longitudinal wave See compression wave.

long normal curve A symmetrical resistivity curve representing measurements made by a normal device
with the spacing between the A and the M electrodes. Usually equal to 64 in.

long-spaced sonic log Long-spaced sonic tools are used to provide shear wave analysis, formation travel time
through casing, and more accurate acoustic data in enlarged boreholes and in areas
where formations are altered by the drilling process. See sonic log.

long string The last string of casing set in a well. The string of casing which is set through the
producing zone. Production casing.

lose returns An occurrence which can happen during the drilling process in which less drilling fluid
returns to the surface than is pumped into the hole. This indicates that some drilling fluid
is lost into porous rock, fractures, or sizable formation cavities.

lost circulation The loss of quantities of whole mud to a formation, usually in cavernous, fissured, or
coarsely permeable beds, evidenced by the complete or partial failure of the mud to
return to the surface as it is being circulated in the hole.

lost-circulation material A substance added to cement slurries or drilling muds to prevent the loss of cement or
mud to the formation.

low explosive Low explosives burn rapidly at various rates to form a gas. They are self-sufficient and
do not require the presence of air or oxygen to sustain the reaction. The gas confined to
limited space is at elevated pressure and exerts considerable force. The rate of burning is
controlled by the size and shape of the explosive grain. Burning is a surface
phenomenon. Time and high temperature are necessary for igniting low explosives.
Used in sidewall coring tools, wireline plug-setting tools, and bullet perforators.
Compare high explosive.
LR See last reading.

lubricator Refers to the assembly of wireline pressure-control equipment consisting of blowout

preventer, riser, flow tube, and stuffing box (or hydraulic packing head).
 M Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

machine computation A computed log analysis.

macroscopic anisotropy See anisotropy.

macroscopic capture See capture cross section.

cross section

magma Molten rock material within the earth from which an igneous rock results by cooling.

magmatic water Water which exists in or is derived from molten igneous rock or magma.

Magnaflux A trade name for the equipment and processes used for detecting cracks and other
surface discontinuities in iron or steel. A magnetic field is set up in the part to be
inspected. and a powder or paste of magnetic particles is applied. The particles arrange
themselves around discontinuities in the metal, revealing defects.

magnetic declination The acute angle between the direction of true north and magnetic north determined at or
for a specific geographic location.

magnetostriction The change in dimension of a body when subjected to a magnetic field. A

magnetostrictive transducer, for example, is one which converts electromagnetic energy
to mechanical energy and vice versa.

make a trip To hoist the drill stem out of the wellbore to perform one of a number of operations such
as changing bits, attaching core barrel, etc. and then to return the drill stem to the
 wellbore.

mandrel A support member for sensors or actuator assemblies of a downhole tool.

manometer A continuous, borehole-pressure measuring device used in some production-logging

tools.

manual shift Usually an intentional electrical or mechanical shift given to a specific curve by the
logging engineer during a survey in order to maximize the utility of a curve or otherwise
keep the curve within a given track.

marine drilling riser Marine riser, drilling riser. A string of specially designed steel pipe which extends from
a drill ship or platform to the subsea wellhead. Marine risers are used to provide a return
fluid-flow conductor between the well bore and the drill vessel and to guide the drill
string to the wellhead on the ocean floor. The riser is made up of several sections
including flexible joints and a telescoping joint to absorb the vertical motion of the ship
or platform caused by wave action.
mark (1) A magnetic mark or metal shim on a survey cable. Usually located every 100 feet for
depth-control purposes.

(2) To measure cable. The act of placing magnetic marks at 100 foot intervals over the
 useful length of the survey cable.

(3) One of a number of marks on a log used to compute logging speed. See minute-
mark.

(4) tic-mark. See tic mark.

mark detector A device utilizing a moving-coil pickup which produces an electric output when it is
moved in the magnetic field of the magnetic marks on survey cable, or vice versa. Often
portable.

marker bed A distinctive, easily identified rock stratum, especially one used as a guide for drilling.

marl A semisolid or unconsolidated clay, silt, or sand.

Marsh funnel A calibrated funnel used in field tests to determine the viscosity of drilling mud.

mass absorption The absorption of nuclear particles or photons by the mass of material through which the
energy must pass. In nuclear logging, this refers to the loss of radiation caused by the
collective mass of materials in the wellbore environment through which the radiation
energy must pass before being detected. With respect to the natural radioactivity level of
some rock formations, it is sometimes referred to as self-absorption.

mast See explanation under derrick.

master bushing The rotary bushing in the rotary table of a drilling rig, which mates with the kelly
bushing. The master bushing transmits the torque of the rotary table to the kelly bushing
during the drilling process. The kelly bushing, in turn, rotates the kelly and drill string.
matrix (1) The solid framework of rock which surrounds pore volume.

(2) In a rock in which certain grains are distinctly larger than the others, the grains of
smaller size comprise the matrix.

(3) The natural material in which any metal, fossil, pebble, or crystal is imbedded.

(4) In mathematics, a rectangular array of numbers which obey certain rules.

maximum pressure Pertaining to well logging, this is the maximum pressure for satisfactory operation of a
rating specific downhole instrument.

maximum-reading A mercury-filled thermometer with a constriction in the capillary tube which registers
thermometer the maximum temperature attained. When in use, it is contained in a protective case and
attached to the downhole instrument or bridle.

maximum temperature Pertaining to well logging, this is the maximum temperature for satisfactory operation of
rating a specific downhole tool.

md Millidarcy. 1/1000 darcy.

measured depth MD. Depth measured along the drilled hole. Reported in drilling records, measured by
well-logging cables, and shown on well logs. This depth has not been corrected for hole
deviation. Compare true vertical depth.

measurements-while- MWD. A wireless system for making downhole measurements of azimuth, inclination,
drilling and tool facing from sensors mounted inside of a nonmagnetic drill collar located near
the drill bit. Formation properties can be measured, such as: natural radioactivity,
resistivity, and temperature. These measurements are sent to the surface by means of
pressure pulses induced in the drilling mud by a mud-pulse transmitter, or stored
downhole and brought to the surface when the bit and MWD collar are brought out of
the hole.
measure point A depth reference point on a logging tool at which measurements are taken. Usually the
lowermost sensor or lowermost measure point. Static measure point. Compare dynamic
measure point.

mechanical shift See manual shift.

mechanical zero The reading of a galvanometer at rest, or the reading of any other recording system
when no signal is input. With no potential applied, this is a zero reference for
galvanometer deflections.

M electrode The potential-measuring electrode nearest the A electrode in the electrode configuration
of a resistivity measuring device. Compare N electrode. See also normal and lateral
devices.

memorizer An electronic storage device which delays the measured signal. Different logging
measurements made simultaneously by one downhole instrument quite often do not have
the same measure point. For example, one system may be located above another and,
therefore, when logging "up," the upper will record entry into a formation while the
other is still below the formation. The upper logging system measurements must be
delayed or memorized to play back at the measure point of the lower device so that all
measurements will be recorded on film simultaneously and at the same depth.

merged data Refers to well-log data derived from different well logging measurements which have
been adjusted for differences in depths of the measurements.

metamorphic rock An igneous or sedimentary rock which has partially or completely recrystallized in
response to elevated temperature, pressure, and chemical environnment. The change the
metamorphic rocks have undergone generally occurs in the solid state and at depth in the
earth.

meteoric water Water which is found in or is derived from the atmosphere.

metric system A decimal system of weights and measures based on the meter as the unit of length. the
gram as the unit of weight, the cubic meter as the unit of volume, the liter as the unit of
capacity. and the square meter as the unit of area.

metric ton A measurement equal to 1000 kg or 2204.6 lb avoirdupois. In many oil-producing

countries, production is reported in metric tons. One metric ton is equivalent to about
7.4 barrels (42 U.S. gal = 1 bbl) of crude oil with specific gravity of 0.84, or 36 °API
gravity.

mho A unit of electrical conductance. Equal to the reciprocal of ohm.

mho per meter 1000 mmho per nmeter. A unit of electrical conductivity. The conductivity of a cubic
meter of material which offers a resistance of one ohm between opposite faces.
Reciprocal of ohm-meter.

mica A silicate mineral characterized by sheet cleavage. Biotite is ferromagnesian black mica.
and muscovite is potassic white mica. Sometimes mica is used as a lost-circulation
material in drilling.

microannulus A type of impairment in cement bond quality. Can occur opposite poorly consolidated
formations after cemented casing has been subjected to internal pressure. The
application of internal pressure results in an expansion of the casing and the cement
sheath into soft formations. Removal of the pressure and the resultant contraction of the
pipe leaves a microannulus between the casing and the cement sheath. Can be produced.
for example, by pressure testing, perforating, fracturing, or cement squeeze operations.

microinverse A very short lateral electrode arrangement used in obtaining microresistivity

measurements for one of the curves of a microlog.

microlaterolog A microresistivity log made from a tool of the laterolog type with a bucking electrode
 and two monitor electrodes arranged concentrically on a sidewall pad which is pressed
against the formation. The survey current flow is concentrated into a gradually flaring
tube shape. Because the spacing is small, the measurement is responsive to the
resistivity of a small volume of formation in front of the pad. Measurements of the
resistivity of the flushed zone are made. A caliper curve is recorded simultaneously.
Compare proximity log and microspherically focused log.

microlog A type of microresistivity log recorded from a tool that uses three button electrodes
spaced 1 in. apart in a line, located on a pad that is pressed against the formation wall.
The lower electrode is the A current electrode. The potential of the upper electrode with
respect to a remote reference electrode gives a 2 in. micronormal, and the difference
between the two upper electrodes gives a 1.5 in. microinverse (lateral type)
measurement. Because mud cake usually has appreciably lower resistivity than the
formation, the microinverse will read less than the micronormal when mud cake is
present. This difference (called positive separation) usually indicates a permeable
formation. A caliper curve is usually recorded at the same time.
micronormal A very short normal-electrode arrangement used in obtaining microresistivity
measurements for one of the curves of a microlog.

microresistivity log A log of the resistivity of the flushed zone around a borehole, measured with electrodes
on a pad pressed against the formation wall. See microlog, microlaterolog, proximity
log, and microspherically focused log.
Micro-Seismogram MSG. An acoustic log showing the wave train in the intensity modulated-time mode.
Micro-Seismogram is a Welex trademark.

microspherically focused A microresistivity log produced by a tool of the spherically-focused type which has
log electrodes mounted on a sidewall pad which is pressed against the drilled formation.
Because of the kind of focusing method used, the tool gives improved flushed zone
measurements over those made from microlaterolog- and proximity log-type tools. Mud
cakes with thicknesses up to 3/4 in. have little effect on the measurements of the
microspherically focused tool; and, resistivity measurements are made from the region
just behind the mud cake where the flushing is most effective. A caliper curve usually is
recorded simultaneously.

migration The movement of oil from the area in which it formed to a reservoir rock where it can
accumulate.

millidarcy md. Equal to 1/1000 of a darcy.

milligal mgal. A unit of acceleration used in gravity measurements. Equivalent to 10-3 gal or
10 microns per second which is approximately one millionth of normal acceleration of
gravity at the earth's surface.

millivolt box A source for calibrated emf which usually is applied to offset unwanted signals during
logging or calibration procedures. See manual shift and electropolarization potential.

mineral A naturally occurring material having a definite chemical composition and, usually, a
characteristic crystal form. May be disseminated in some other mineral or rock. Most
mineralogists include the requirements that a mineral have inorganic origin and internal
crystalline structure. In accord with the latter requirement, an amorphous compound
such as opal would be considered to be mineraloid.
mineral composition of The crust of the earth contains only eight elements (oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron,
rocks calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium) with concentrations greater than l% by
weight. Minerals are compounds of these elements. each mineral having a specified
crystalline structure. The most abundant minerals represent only five types of chemical
compounds: silicates, carbonates, sulfates, halides, and oxides. Of these minerals, the
silicates are more abundant than all the rest combined, comprising 95% of the rest.

Minerals Management The Minerals Management Service, an agency of the Department of the Interior, was
Service (MMS) and created January 19, 1982. It is responsible for the Nation's Federal Offshore leasing
Royalty Management program as well as collection and management of all Federal and Indian mineral
Operations (RMO) revenues.

The Minerals Management Service is headquartered in Washington D.C.

Offshore leasing activities are conducted largely through the MMS's four Outer
Continental Shelf Regional Offices located in Anchorage, Alaska; Los Angeles,
California; Metairie, Louisiana; and Vienna, Virginia.

All onshore leasing is the responsibility of the Bureau of Land Management.

Royalty and Accounting activities are conducted in Lakewood, a suburb of Denver,

Colorado. Satellite offices, near principal energy development areas, augment the
program.

Responsibility for overseeing mineral revenue activities on Indian lands is shared by the
Bureau of Indian Affairs and the MMS. Indian mineral revenues, like Federal mineral
revenues, are administered under the Royal Management Program but are given priority
attention.

minute-mark Tattle tale. A mark or grid line interruption which is placed on the film every 60 seconds
during the survey. Usually found near the outside edge of track 1. Used in documenting
logging speed.

miscible drive A method of enhanced recovery in which various hydrocarbon solvents or gases (as
propane, LPG, natural gas, carbon dioxide, or a mixture thereof) are injected into the
reservoir to reduce interfacial forces between oil and water in the pore channels and thus
displace oil from the reservoir rock.

mist flow A producing flow condition in a well bore in which gas and oil flow at very high
 velocities. The oil film on the pipe wall becomes very thin and most of the oil is
transported in the form of very small droplets nearly homogeneously dispersed in the
gas. Therefore, the two phases move at essentiallv the same velocity.

MKS Meter, kilogram, solar second system of fundamental standards.

mmho Millimho. A unit of electric conductance equal to 1/1000 of a mho, the reciprical of
ohm.

MMS See Minerals Management Service.

MN spacing The distance between the two potential-measuring electrodes in the electrode
configuration of an electrical resistivity-measuring device. See normal and lateral
devices.

mobility Of a fluid, a measure of the ease with which a fluid can be moved in a specific medium
i.e., rock). Equal to the ratio between the effective permeability to the fluid and the
viscosity of the fluid.

modified Schmidt A plot of dipmeter information on polar chart paper where 0° dip is represented on the
diagram circumference and 90° at the center. Dips close to structural form a group near the
circumference. The center of this group represents the structural dip. Compare Schmidt
diagram.
mol Abbreviation of mole. See mole.

mold See moldic porosity.

moldic porosity Porosity formed by the preferential dissolution of a former constituent of sedimentary
rock. Once the constituent (such as a shell. other detrital material, or oölith) has
dissolved, a void or empty mold remains which bears the shape of the former material.

mole The quantity of a substance whose unit weight is numerically equal to the molecular
weight of the substance. For example, one mole of water (H2O) is 18 weight units
(pounds, grams, tons, etc.) because the molecular weight of water is 18 (two atoms of
hydrogen. each of which is 1 unit; one atom of oxygen, the weight of which is l6 units).

molecule The smallest part of a substance that can exist on its own. It usually consists of a group
of atoms that are either different (e.g., water, H2O, consists of two atoms of hydrogen
and one of oxygen) or that are alike (e.g., hydrogen, H2 in which each molecule is made
up of two atoms of hydrogen).

molecular weight The sum of the atomic weights in a molecule. For example, the molecular weight of
water, H2O, is l8 because the atomic weight of each of the hydrogen atoms is 1 and the
 atomic weight of oxygen is 16.

mole percent The ratio of the number of moles of one substance to the total number of moles in a
mixture of substances, all multiplied by l00 (to put the number on a percentage basis).

monitor curve A curve recorded on a well log which is a measure of some aspect of tool performance
or stability. An indicator to the quality of measurements being made by the instrument.

monocable An armored single conductor cable for surveying or perforating.

monoelectrode A single electrode for measuring formation resistance in electrically-conductive, liquid-

filled boreholes. See single-point resistance log.

montmorillonite It is a hydrous aluminum silicate capable of reacting with such substances as magnesium
and calcium. A clay mineral often used as an additive to a drilling mud. See bentonite.

MOP Movable oil plot.

movable oil plot MOP. A computed log, based on several logging operations. prepared for the purpose of
determining the presence and quantity of movable hydrocarbon (usually oil) at difterent
parts of a formation. For example:

(1) The first curve of the log will be said to represent the pore volume of the rock
framework. It must be determined by a technique in which derived porosity is least
influenced by the type of fluid occupying pore volume (sometimes a single porosity
curve; i.e., sonic; sometimes computed from several porosity curves).

(2) The second curve will represent the pore volume occupied by the water in the
flushed zone (i.e., the product of water saturation in the flushed zone and porosity from
the first curve). Focused microresistivity tools are usually used to determine flushed-
zone water saturation (e.g., microlaterolog, FoRxo, etc.).
 (3) The third curve represents the pore volume occupied by water in the uninvaded zone
(i.e., the product of water saturation beyond the depth of invasion and porosity from the
first curve). Deep resistivity measuring tools are usually used, such as deep induction
tools or deep laterolog tools.

The first curve represents void volume or pore volume. The difference between the first
and second curves is related to the volume occupied by immovable hydrocarbon. The
difference between the second and third curves represents the bulk volume of movable
hydrocarbon. And the third curve represents the bulk volume of water present (including
adsorbed water, if part of the original porosity measurement).

mud Drilling mud. A drilling mixture consisting of one or two liquid phases and dissolved
and undissolved solids with properties tailored to a particular problem. It cools and
lubricates the drilling bit, conditions the formation wall. removes cut tings from the
borehole, brings traces of formation fluids to the surface, and, when it possesses certain
characteristics, it provides a wellbore medium suitable for some electrical, acoustic, and
nuclear well-logging measurements. See also oil emulsion, invert oil emulsion, oil-base
mud, and water-base mud.

mud ball An accumulation of mud solids that sometimes builds up on the drilling bit during
circulation prior to logging. It can present a problem to logging if the ball should
become dislodged in the borehole or scrape off on the face of porous and permeable
reservoir rock.

mud cake Filter cake. The residue deposited on the borehole wall as the mud loses filtrate into
porous, permeable formations. The mud cake generally has very low permeability and
hence tends to retard further loss of fluid to the formation. See invaded zone.

mud cup (1) A cup-like device containing electrodes which is used to measure mud resistivity. A
common item on logging trucks.

(2) A receptacle for drilling-mud samples.

mud density The density of the drilling mud usually measured in pounds per U.S. gallon or pounds
per cubic foot.
mud filtrate The effluent of the continuous (external) phase liquid of drilling mud which penetrates
porous and permeable rock, leaving a mud cake on the drilled face of the rock.

mud hose See kelly hose.

mud log (1) See mud resistivity log.

(2) A record of information derived from examination of drilling fluid and cuttings from
the formation.

mud logging Hydrocarbon well logging. The analysis of samples of the circulated drilling fluid (or
mud) and formation cuttings to detect signs of fluids which have entered the mud from
the formations. Hydrocarbons may be detected by fluorescence, by chromatographic
analysis, gas, and other ways. Also, the mud may be monitored for salinity and
viscosity. Plots of such data often include a sample log and a drill time curve.

mud pit Excavation or tank near the rig into which drilling mud is circulated. Mud pumps
withdraw the mud from one end of the pit as the circulated mud (bearing rock chips
from the borehole) flows in at the other end. As the mud moves to the suction line, the
cuttings drop out leaving the mud "clean" and ready for another trip to the bottom of the
borehole.

mud resistivity log A log made with a microlog- or microlaterolog-type sonde with the arms collapsed so
that the measuring pad loses contact with the formation wall. Used to record the mud
resistivity at downhole conditions.

mud pump A large, reciprocating pump used to circulate the mud on a drilling rig. A typical mud
pump is a double- or triple-acting, two- or three-cylinder piston pump whose pistons
travel in replaceable liners and are driven by a crankshaft actuated by an engine. A mud
pump also is called a slush pump.
mud viscosity
mud weight
multiphase flow
multiple completion
multishot survey
MWD
N Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA
natural gamma ray log
natural gamma ray
spectrometry log
Viscosity of drilling mud. See viscosity.
A misnomer, see mud density.
A flow regime in which gas, oil, and water are all flowing.
An arrangement for producing a well in which one wellbore penetrates two or more
petroleum-bearing reservoirs that lie one over the other. The tubing strings are
suspended side by side in the production casing string. each a different length and each
packed off to prevent the commingling of different reservoir fluids. Each reservoir is
then produced through its own tubing string.
See directional survey.
See measurements-while-drilling.
See gamma ray log.
The natural gamma spectrometry (NGS) tool uses five-window spectroscopy to resolve
total natural gamma ray spectra into the three most common components of naturally
occurring radiation – potassium, thorium, and uranium. NGS is a mark of Schlumberger.
natural gas A highly compressible, highly expansible mixture ot hydrocarbons having a low specific
gravity and occurring naturally in a gaseous form. The principal component gases of
natural gas, with typical percentages, are –

methane 80.0%
ethane 7.0%
propane 6.0%
isobutane 1.5%
butane 2.5%
pentane plus 3.0%

In addition to these gases, natural gas may contain appreciable quantities of nitrogen,
helium, carbon dioxide, and contaminants (as hydrogen sulfide and water vapor).
Although gaseous at normal temperatures and pressures, certain of the gases comprising
the mixture that is natural gas are variable in form and may be found either as gases or
as liquids under suitable conditions of temperature and pressure.

negative separation A term usually used in reference to microlog curves to describe the condition where the
longer spaced resistivity curve reads a lower value than the shorter spaced curve.
Compare positive separation.
N electrode The potential-measuring electrode most distant from the current A electrode in the
electrode configuration of electrical resistivity-measuring devices. See also normal and
lateral devices.

net hydrocarbon porosity Hydrocarbon porosity feet after applying appropriate cutoffs. See hydrocarbon porosity
feet feet.

net overburden That part of the overburden (geostatic load) which is supported by grain to-grain contact
of the rock. Net overburden usually is less than (total) overburden because of two
reasons:

(1) Pore pressure within the bed of interest supports the weight of the column of
formation fluid above it. If the pore pressure is higher than normal, then it supports part
of the lithostatic load.

(2) The stress on the rock concentrated at the grain-to-grain contact may be less than that
caused by the weight of overlying dry rock, because of the buoyant effect on the porous
rock column produced by the liquid in the pore volumes.

net overburden pressure Effective stress exerted by porous rock. That support by the grain-to-grain contact of the
rock which when combined with the formation pressure is assumed to equal the stress
due to overburden.

net pay Within the limitations of given cutoffs for porosity, water saturation, etc., it is that
portion of reservoir rock which will produce commercial quantities of hydrocarbon.

net sand thickness The accumulated thickness of sandstone of a specified quality which is found within a
specific interval of formation.

neutron An electrically neutral, elementary nuclear particle having a rest mass of 1.674×10–
24
gram or an atomic mass of 1.00898. (i.e., very nearly the same as that of a proton),
 which exists in all nuclei except that of hydrogen.

Neutrons exhibit a broad variation of kinetic energies ranging from as little as 0.025 eV
to as much as 50 MeV. Neutrons are used in logging as a means of measuring the
quantity of hydrogen important in the moderation process (energy transfer) or as a
means to induce radiation in stable isotopes.

neutron activation All stable isotopes are capable of capturing thermal neutrons. In well logging, neutron
bombardment of a formation and the subsequent capture of thermal neutrons causes
excitation of certain elements. Following the capture of a thermal neutron by a stable
isotope, the compound nucleus de-excites by the prompt emission of one or more
gamma-ray protons. If the resulting product nucleus is a radioisotope its later decay to a
stable state can be detected and the energy level of emitted gamma rays is characteristic
of the specific element. The analysis of the energies of the decay gamma rays is neutron
activation analysis.

neutron capture cross See capture cross section.

section

neutron detector See scintillation counter and proportional counter.

neutron generator An electromechanical device operating at high voltage (125-l30,000 volts DC) which
focuses a beam of high-energy deuterons on a target surface containing tritium. Nuclear
fusion of the deuteron ions and target atoms produces high-energy (14-MeV) neutrons.
The neutron radiation can be controlled in precise cyclic bursts or pulses, with time in
between pulses for the measurement of induced-radioactivity and decay-time schemes.

neutron interactions with The three possible processes are elastic scattering, inelastic scattering, and absorption.
matter The latter includes all processes in which the neutron becomes part of the absorbing
nucleus. Also see neutron activation.

Neutron Lifetime Log NLL. The Neutron Lifetime logging technique employs a pulsed neutron source which
is periodically actuated to produce short bursts of neutrons and is quiescent between
bursts. During the interval between bursts, the neutrons (as well as the various types of
radiation which always result from neutron interactions) die away. Their average
lifetime can be measured by measuring the length of time required for the neutron
population at a particular instant to die away to half value. The radiation intensity is
measured in each of two preselected intervals and, by intercomparing these
measurements, determine thc rate of neutron die-away. This measured rate has been
shown both by theory and experiment to be a measure of the thermal-neutron capture
cross section of the medium in which the neutrons are captured. The thermal-neutron
capture cross section per unit of volume of formation material is referred to as Σ. It is
related to L, termed the lifetime of neutrons in a material, by the equation

Thermal neutrons are captured mainly by the chlorine present. Hence the tool responds
to the amount of salt in formation waters. Hydrocarbons result in longer lifetimes than
salt water. Tool measurements are porosity-dependent and sensitive to clay content. Can
be used in cased holes where resistivity logs cannot be run or to monitor reservoir
changes to opt-imize production. Resembles a resistivity log with which it is generally
correlatable. Neutron Lifetime Log is a Dresser Atlas registered trademark.
neutron log A log of a response primarily related to hydrogen concentration but also affected by
mineralogy and borehole effects. The neutron log does not distinguish between the
hydrogen in the pore fluids (i.e., water, oil, gas), in water of crystallization, or water
bound to solid surfaces. In clean oil-filled or water-filled formations the apparent
porosity reading ot the neutron log reflects the amount of liquid-filled pore volume.
Used with other porosity information. the neutron log is useful to ascertain the presence
of gas and determine mineralogy and shaliness.

The tool contains a continuously emitting neutron source and either a neutron- (n-n tool)
or a gamma-ray detector (n-γ tool). High energy neutrons from the source are slowed
down by collisions with atomic nuclei. The hydrogen atoms are by far the most effective
in the slowing down process because their mass is nearly equal to that of the neutron.
Thus, the distribution of the neutrons at the time of detection is primarily determined by
the hydrogen concentration. Depending on the tool type, detection is made of either (1)
thermal neutrons; (2) gamma rays, generated when thermal neutrons are captured by
thermal-neutron absorbers in the formation (primarily chlorine); or (3) epithermal
 neutrons (neutrons having energies higher than thermal).

Neutron curves are scaled in API units or in terms of apparent porosity. The neutron log
can be recorded in open or cased liquid-filled well bores. There is a maximum hole size
limitation in empty holes for running tools in which the detector does not contact the
formation wall. See also sidewall neutron log and compensated neutron log.

neutron source (1) An encapsulated radioactive material which produces neutrons for neutron logging.
The neutrons usually are produced in alpha-berillium reactions. The alpha particle
producing element may be americium, plutonium, or sometimes radium. Californium-
252. which is sometimes used in special applications, is an intense source of 2.3-MeV
neutrons but has a short half life of 2.65 years.

(2) A neutron generator. An electromechanical device which emits high-energy (14-

MeV) neutrons in controlled cyclic pulses. Pulsed neutron radiation is required in
Thermal Decay Time Logging, Neutron Lifetime Logging, carbon-oxygen logging, and
activation logging instruments.

noise (1) Sudden spurious readings on a curve. These may be random events or caused by
instrumentation problems.

(2) A sound. In well logglng, a sound related to some source in the wellbore
environment, e.g., fluid flow, the production of formation fluids through perforations,
leakage of fluid through apertures, etc.
noise logging Audio logging. A logging process for measuring the amplitude of background noise in
the wellbore environment, for specific frequencies in the audible range, at selected
stations in the hole. Moving fluids, liquids or gases, generate characteristic sounds
having frequency spectra and amplitudes which can be interpreted. The signal amplitude
is proportional to the amount of work performed by the fluids in motion and to the
location of the tool with respect to the level from which noise emanates. Can be useful
in ascertaining fluid-movements behind tubing or casing.

nonconformity Where the older rocks were metamorphosed and exposed by profound erosion before the
strata were laid down on them, there is a major unconformity, representing a hiatus of
great duration. To distinguish unconformities of this significance, the term
"nonconformity" is used.

normal curve A symmetrical resistivity curve recorded by a normal device.

normal device A resistivity-measuring system using a "normal" electrode configuration. A constant
current is passed between a current electrode on the sonde (A electrode) and one at the
surface (B electrode) while the potential difference is measured between another on the
sonde (M electrode) and a reference electrode (N electrode). The "spacing" is the
diference between the A and M electrodes. Usually spacing of about 16 inches is used
for a the short normal and 64 inches for the medium or long normal. The measure point
is midway between the A and M electrodes.

A normal device has a depth of investigation said to be about twice the AM spacing. The
normal is an unfocused device which produces a symmetrical curve which has been
particularly useful in correlation and indetermination of lithology. Formation detail can
be increased by decreasing the AM spacing, but depth of investigation suffers.
normal formation See normal pore pressure.
pressure

normalize (1) To adjust two log curves (or any other pairs of data) for environmental differences in
order that one value may be compared with others.

(2) To adjust two log curves or similar data to the same, or equivalent, units so that the
data values can be compared.

normal pore pressure In a reservoir rock it is the hydrostatic pressure resulting from the head of water solution
(formation water) filling the pores of the rock in communication with the mean water
table or sea surface.
normal (pore) pressure The amount of change in pore pressure per unit change in depth when the pores of the
gradient rock exhibit normal pore pressure. In parts of the Gulf Coast. the normal pressure
gradient has been found to correspond to 0.465 psi/ft change in depth (equivalent to
weight of water containing about 100,000 ppm total solids in solution).

nuclear Of or pertaining to the reactions involving atomic nuclei and their transformations, and
to the well-logging operations dependent on such reactions. See nuclear log and
radioactivity log.

nuclear cement log A well log of scattered gamma rays, differing from the density log in that the gamma-
 ray source and detector are so spaced as to be sensitive to the density of material in the
annulus between casing and formation. Used for distinguishing between cement and
fluids behind casing. Can be run in liquid-filled or empty holes.

nuclear cross section See capture cross section.

nuclear flow log A record of borehole-fluid flow rate. See radioactive tracer log and fluid travel log.
Compare flowmeter.

nuclear log A well log of some parameter in the well bore environment derived from techniques
utilizing nuclear reactions taking place in the downhole logging tool and/or in the
formation. Nuclear logs usually are well logs obtained by using radiation sources in the
logging tool.

nuclear magnetic A phenomenon exhibited by atomic nuclei which is based on the existence of nuclear
resonance magnetic moments associated with quantized nuclear spins. In well logging, it pertains
to the measurement of properties related to the nuclear spin states of hydrogen nuclei.
See nuclear magnetism log.

nuclear magnetic See nuclear magnetism log.

resonance log

nuclear magnetism log A free fluid log. A well log that is dependent on the alignment of the magnetic moment
of protons (hydrogen nuclei) with an impressed magnetic field. Protons tend to align
themselves with the magnetic field; and when it is removed, they precess in the earth's
magnetic field and gradually return to their original state. Proton precession in free fluid
produces a radio frequency signal. The amplitude of this radio frequency signal is
measured in the nuclear magnetism log as the free fluid index. The rate of decay of the
precession signal depends on interactions with neighboring atoms and hence on the
nature of the molecule of which the proton is a part. The signal from the borehole fluid
decays very rapidly when disseminated iron is present (artificially introduced, or from
steel worn from drill pipe and bits). By slightly delaying the time of measuring, the hole
signal is minimized. Fluids bound to surfaces (as water adsorbed to clays and silts) and
dead oil do not give appreciable response. Thus, the free fluid index indicates the free
 fluid (the hydrogen in free-fluid hydrocarbons and water). Gas gives a low signal
because of its low hydrogen content.

nucleus The central, dense, positively-charged core of an atom. The nucleus makes up
practically the entire mass of an atom. The nucleus of an atom is composed of one or
more protons and one or more neutrons; except in the case of the hydrogen atom, which
has only one proton as its nucleus (in its most common isotope).

nuclide A species of atom characterized by the number of neutrons and protons in its nucleus.
An isotope. The atom must be capable of existing for a measurable lifetime, generally
greater than 10–10 second.

O Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

Occupational Safety and OSHA. A U.S. government agency that establishes and enforces safety standards for
Health Administration industry employees.

OCS Outer Continental Shelf.

offset well (1) A well drilled on the next location to the original well. The distance from the first
well to the offset well depends upon spacing regulations and whether the original well
produces oil or gas.

(2) A well drilled on one tract of land to prevent the drainage of oil or gas to an
adjoining tract where a well is being drilled or is already producing.

offshore drilling
Drilling for oil in an ocean or large lake. A drilling unit for offshore operations may be a
mobile floating vessel with a ship or barge hull, a semisubmersible or submersible base,
a self-propelled or towed structure with jacking legs (jack-up drilling rig), or a
permanent structure used as a production platform when drilling is completed. In
general, wildcat wells are drilled from mobile floating vessels (as semisubmersible rigs
and drill ships) or from jack-ups. while development wells are drilled from platforms.
ohm A unit of electrical resistance. The resistance of a conductive material in which a
potential difference of one volt produces a current of one ampere.

ohmic A term which describes a material or substance which has electrical resistance.

ohm-meter A unit of electrical resistivity, also written ohm meter2/meter The resistivity of a cubic
meter of material which offers a resistance of one ohm to the flow of electrical current
between two opposite faces. The reciprocal is mho per meter.

Ohm's law E = IR, where E is the potential in volts produced by the flow of current (I) in amperes
through a length of material exhibiting resistance (R) in ohms.

oil-base mud An emulsified drilling mud in which the continuous phase is oil and the discontinuous
aqueous phase occupies less than ten percent of the volume. Electrically nonconductive.
Compare invert oil emulsion, oil emulsion, and water-base mud.

oil-cut Containing less than measurable amounts of oil (describes a liquid; as oil-cut mud
recovered in a drill-stem test).

oil emulsion Refers to a fluid mixture, usually drilling mud, in which the continuous phase (external
phase) is water and the discontinuous phase (internal phase) is oil. Electrically
conductive. Compare oil-base mud and invert oil emulsion.

oil field The surface area overlying an oil reservoir or reservoirs. Commonly, the term includes
not only the surface area but may include the reservoir, the wells, and production
equipment as well.
oil in place The amount of crude oil that is estimated to exist in a reservoir and which has not been
produced.

oil mud A drilling mud in which oil is the continuous phase.

oil patch A term referring broadly to the oil field and the activities of oil and gas exploration and
production.

oil shale The term applied to several kinds of organic and bituminous shales, most of which
consist of varying mixtures of organic matter with marlstones, shale, and clay. The
organic matter is chiefly in the form of a mineraloid, called kerogen. Oil shales are
widely distributed throughout the world and become of economic interest because of the
large amounts of oil which can be obtained from them. See kerogen.

oil stain Visible oil seen on surfaces of grains or fragments of rock samples.

oil-water contact The highest depth (shallowest depth in a well) opposite a formation at which virtually
l00% water can be produced. This depth is at the bottom of the oil-water transition zone.

oil-water interface See oil-water contact.

oil wet Oleophilic. A condition in which oil wets the rock surfaces. Often described by the
angle of contact of an oil droplet on the solid surface. The lower the angle (measured
inside the oil phase) the greater the adhesion and the greater the degree of wettability for
oil. If the nonwetting aqueous phase should be forced to move, it would advance over
the adhesive layer of the oil.

oleophilic Having a strong affinity for oils. Preferentially oil wet.

open hole Uncased hole, or uncased portion of the hole.

openhole completion A method of preparing a well for production in which no production casing or liner is
set opposite the producing formation. Reservoir fluids flow unrestricted into the open
well bore.

operator The person or company, either proprietor or lessee, actually operating an oil well or
lease. Compare unit operator.

OSHA Abbreviation of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration.

osmosis The spontaneous flow of molecules of the solvent of a more dilute solution into a more
concentrated solution when separated from one another by a suitable semipermeable
membrane. Compare diffusion.

outcrop (1) The exposed portion of a buried layer of rock.

(2) To appear on the earth's surface (as a rock).

overburden Geostatic load. The aggregate of overlying rock column including the fluids contained
within the pores of the rock.

overlay (1) To place one recorded curve over another. See also normalize.

(2) A well log in which one curve has been drafted or recorded over another and the
relationship between the curves can be observed. The position of one curve with respect
to the other and the amount of separation between the two curves provides specific
information with regard to rock properties, lithology, mineralogy, and fluid saturations.
overpressure Is an expression which has been used commonly to refer to high pressure found in some
formations; super-normal pressure or surpressure. Technically, it should be said that
overpressure is that amount of pore pressure which is in excess of normal pore pressure
in overpressured formations.

Any pore pressure greater than normal pore pressure can result from a number of
conditions, some of which are listed below:

(1) Abnormally high pore pressure related to geostatic load. As geostatic load increases.
porous clay rock compresses with the resulting expulsion of associated water. Fractures
and porous and permeable reservoir beds serve as conduits to carry off the expelled
water. If the water in the pore spaces of the reservoir rock cannot be expelled, the water
will be trapped. Under these conditions, as overburden is increased, the clay rock is
prevented from further compaction and the compressive stress is transmitted to the
interstitial water. Pore pressure in isolated reservoir beds will increase along with the
pore pressures in the overlying clay rock (shale).

(2) Abnormally high pore pressure related to the density contrast between reservoir fluid
(if oil or gas) and interstitial water. Some reservoirs (which when filled with water,
exhibit normal pore pressures) exhibit abnormal pressure at the crest of the structure
when containing a column of oil or gas. For example. in a gas-filled reservoir, the
normal pore pressure at the level of the gas-water contact may be transmitted through
the gas column to the crest of the structure with only a small reduction (since the
pressure exerted by the weight of a substantial column of gas is low compared to that of
the same height of interstitial water). This results in higher than normal pore pressure at
the crest of the structure.

(3) Abnormally high pore pressure related to causes other than those found in (1) or (2).
For example, high pressure may result from the charging of one bed in communication
with another at higher pressure.

overshot Cable-guided overshot used in wireline fishing operations. A device mounted on an

appropriate adapter which can be attached to the bottom end of the drill pipe or tubing.
The overshot is open-ended, hollow, and contains a spiral grapple. When used in fishing
for stuck logging tools, for example, it is guided into position by the unbroken cable.
The grapple engages the fishing bell housing when rotated slowly to the right. See also
cut-and-thread fishing technique.

oxidation-reduction Redox potential. Eh. A quantitative measure of the energy of oxidation. Oxidation is
potential equivalent to a net loss of electrons by the substance being oxidized, and reduction is
equivalent to a net gain of electrons by the substance being reduced. The oxidation-
 reduction reaction involves a transfer of electrons. The oxidation-reduction potential
may be expressed as the ability to give or receive electrons and is expressed in terms of
millivolts.

P Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

packer A downhole, expanding plug-like device which is used to seal off certain parts of tubing,
casing, or open hole when cementing, acidizing, or isolating specific zones of a
formation for production or testing. Packers can be run on logging cables, tubing, drill
pipe, or casing and when in position can be expanded to form a seal to confine fluid
flow to the inside bore of the packer.

packer flowmeter A spinner-type velocimeter which utilizes an inflatable packer bag. After the proper-size
bag is pumped up to fill the annulus between tool and casing, all the fluid is diverted
through the spinner assembly which measures the velocity of the fluid, which, in turn, is
related to the volumetric flow rate. A profile in bbl/day for either "up or down" flow is
recorded; also flow direction. The profiles are determined by fixed point recordings. The
tool operates at lower rates than the minimum required for a continuous flowmeter.
pad See sidewall pad.

pair production The conversion of a photon (gamma ray), which has more than twice the rest mass
energy of an electron (about 0.51 MeV per electron), into an electron and a positron
when the incident photon passes through the strong electric field surrounding an atomic
nucleus and vanishes. This is an example of creation of matter (the electron pair, one
 negative and one positive) from energy (the photon) according to Einstein's law:
E = mc2. Relatively unimportant in density logging because of the high threshold energy
(greater than 1.02 MeV) required for the incident gamma ray. Important in the detection
of gamma rays in the ionization chamber and Geiger-Mueller counter. One of the three
interactions of gamma rays with matter. Compare photoelectric effect and Compton
scattering.

paraffin A hydrocarbon having the formula CnH2n+2 (methane, CH4; ethane, C2H6, etc.). Heavier
paraffin hydrocarbons (i.e., those of C18H38 and heavier) form a waxlike substance that is
called paraffin. Heavier paraffins often accumulate on the walls of tubing and other
production equipment, restricting or stopping the flow of desirable lighter paraffins.

paraffinic Pertains to an oil of the methane series having the formula CnH2n+2. Such compounds are
chain-like molecules. Compare aromatic.

partition gas A device for quantitative analysis of hydrocarbon constituents. A fixed quantity of
chromatograph sample is carried with a stream of sweep gas through a partition column packed with an
inert solid coated with a nonvolatile organic liquid. The lighter fractions traverse the
column faster than the heavier fractions so that the components appear separately at the
column exit, where their amounts can he measured.

parts per million ppm. Refers to concentration by weight for both solute and solution. Parts per million
(wt./wt.) differs from mg/liter (wt./vol.) when the specific gravity of the solution differs
from that of pure water at standard conditions.

Many salinities that have been measured in units of mg/liters are reported routinely in
ppm without proper conversion to ppm.
patch panel A surface panel which serves as a junction board between the survey panels and various
survey lines. The patch panel allows easy access to all cable and ground line conductors.
Conductor functions can be interchanged or checked rapidly for continuity, insulation,
or quality of signal brought to the surface. Also, provides easy access to output of
surface panels.

pay The part of a formation which produces or is capable of producing oil or gas, or other
economic product.

pendular saturation See description and illustration under saturation.

perforating See gun perforating.

perforation record A log sometimes run after a perforating operation in order to record perforations at
actual depths. Usually performed with a casing collar locator.

permafrost Perenially frozen ground.

permeability Absolute permeability. A measure of the ability of a rock to conduct a fluid through its
interconnected pores when that fluid is at 100% saturation. Measured in darcies or
millidarcies. See also effective permeability.

petroleum Oil or gas obtained from the rocks of the earth.

petroliferous Containing petroleum (of rocks).

pH An expression representing the negative logarithm of the effective hydrogen-ion
concentration or hydrogen-ion activity (in gram equivalents per liter). The pH value is a
unit of measure of the acid or alkaline condition of a substance. A neutral solution (as
pure water) has a pH of 7; acid solutions are less than 7; basic, or alkaline solutions are
above 7. The pH scale is a logarithmic scale; a substance with a pH of 4 is more than
twice as acid as a substance with a pH of 5. Similarly, a substance with a pH of 9 is
much more than twice as alkaline as a substance with a pH of 8.

phase (1) Any portion of a nonhomogeneous system that is bounded by a surface. is

homogeneous throughout, and may be mechanically separated from the other phases.
The three phases of H2O, for example, are ice (solid) water (liquid), and steam (gas).

(2) In physics, the stage or point in a cycle to which a rotation, oscillation, or variation
has advanced.

photoclinometer A well-logging device which photographically records the borehole azimuth and
deviation from the vertical.

In the cartridge of the downhole instrument. a compass needle indicates magnetic north
and a steel ball rolling freely on a graduated concave glass indicates the hole deviation.
A lens focuses these images on photographic film which is exposed, frame by frame,
when the tool is held motionless, centered in the borehole at preselected stations.
Compare poteclinometer.

photoelectric absorption When a photon (gamma ray) collides with an atom, it may be completely absorbed and
its total energy used to eject one of the orbital electrons from those surrounding the
nucleus. Part of the photon's energy is used to overcome the binding energy holding the
electron in the atom; the remainder serves to impart a velocity to the recoiling electron.
In general, this photoelectric effect is greater for low energy incident gamma rays
(below about 100 keV), and occurs at higher energies for atoms of higher atomic
number. The rate of absorption varies only with the energy of the incident gamma ray
and the nature of the atom.

Photoelectric absorption is the process which produces the high-speed ionizing particle
(i.e., electron) which causes the scintillation to appear in the phosphors of scintillation
detectors. Produces an effect in the formation which influences some density logging
measurements.
photoelectric absorption Pe. A downhole measurement recorded with the Litho-Density and Compensated
cross section index Spectral Density tools that is related to the atomic number of the formation and therefore
the lithology. See photoelectric absorption also.

photoelectric effect Changes in the electrical characteristics of substances due to radiation, generally in the
form of light. The photoelectric absorption of photons (gamma rays) in the photoelectric
effect is one of the interactions between gamma rays and matter. See further explanation
under photoelectric absorption, and compare pair production and Compton scattering.

photomultiplier Used with a scintillation crystal to make up a scintillation counter. The flash of light
produced in the phosphor of a radiation detector strikes the sensitive surface of a
photocathode in the photomultiplier, causing the emission of a number of primary
electrons. These electrons are drawn to an anode maintained at a higher potential, and a
number of secondary electrons are emitted for each impinging electron. The secondary
electrons are drawn to a second anode maintained at a higher potential than the first.
whereupon additional multiplication occurs. This process is repeated in about ten stages
until the initial current has been multiplied about a millionfold. The amplitude of the
output of the photomultiplier is proportional to the intensity of the scintillation in the
phosphor. See also scintillation counter.
photon A quantity of energy emitted in the form of electromagnetic radiation; e.g., radio waves,
light, x-rays, and gamma rays.

photon log A well log of scattered gamma rays differing from a density log in that the tool is not
pressed against the borehole wall and hence is especially sensitive to changes in hole
diameter or density of the fluid in the borehole. It has been used for determining changes
in the density of fluids in the well bore and location of cement in the casing-formation
annulus.

pick-up (1) On a well log, it is the recorded point on a curve at which the curve begins to vary in
response to variations in the wellbore environment.

(2) During the survey operation, it is the depth at which the logging tool lifts off the
bottom of the borehole. Signified by curve movement and increase in cable tension as
shown on the weight indicator.

piercement dome A mass of material usually salt, that rises and penetrates rock formations. See dome and
salt dome.

pinch out The progressive thinning of a stratum to its point of disappearance.

Pipe Analysis Log PAL. A well log which combines magnetic-flux-leakage and eddy-current
measurements in such a manner as to locate defects or flaws on the inner or outer wall of
a casing, as well as to provide a measurement which is indicative of the extent of such
defects.

Magnetic-flux-leakage testing relies upon the detection of perturbations in a magnetic

field caused by defects anywhere on the inside or outside casing wall. For the eddy-
current test, the frequency of the eddy current is chosen so that the depth of investigation
will be limited to the inner casing wall. The electromagnetic thickness log is frequently
run in conjunction with the Pipe Analysis Log where concentric casing strings are set in
order to provide information helpful in the analysis of the outer casing string. PAL is a
mark of Schlumberger.

pipe inspection log See casing inspection log and Pipe Analysis Log.

plastic shale Shale in a state of plasticity which is capable of squeezing or extruding into the well
bore. Plastic shale contains a large amount of water and lacks rigidity. Plastic shale
flows as a result of the geostatic load it is bearing. Compare heaving shale.

platform A platform is an immobile structure which provides a base for drilling and producing
hydrocarbons in offshore areas. A fixed platform, which is made of steel or concrete,
extends above the water surface and is supported by the sea bed by means of piling or
spread footings. Other platforms are jack up platforms used in shallow waters and
tension-leg platforms used in deep waters.

plug (1) See plug and abandon.

(2) A sample. See sidewall core and core. See also core analysis.

(3) A large underground feature such as a salt plug or salt dome. Not a popular usage of
the term. See diapir, pluton, and salt dome.

plug and abandon P&A. To place a cement plug into a dry hole or noneconomic well and abandon the
well.
plug back To place cement in or near the bottom of a well to exclude bottom water, sidetrack, or
produce from a formation already drilled through. Plugging back also can be
accomplished by a mechanical plug set by wireline, tubing, or drill pipe.

plugged back total depth PBTD. A depth above the original total depth, to which the well bore has been cemented
or plugged .

pluton In the strictest sense, a body of igneous rock which has formed beneath the surface of
the earth by consolidation from magma.

poise p. The viscosity of a liquid in which a force of 1 dyne (a unit of measurement of small
amounts of force) exerted tangentially on a surface of 1 cm2 of either of two parallel
planes 1 cm apart will move one plane at the rate of 1 cm per second in reference to the
other plane with the space between the two planes filled with the liquid.

Poisson's ratio See elastic properties of rocks.

polar compound A compound (as water) with a molecule that behaves as a small bar magnet with a
positive charge on one end and a negative charge on the other.

polar plot Plots on polar coordinate paper usually used to aid dipmeter interpretation. Polar plots
may take different forms; e.g., modified Schmidt plot, azimuth frequency diagrams, etc.

pool A reservoir or group of reservoirs. The term is a misnomer in that hydrocarbons seldom
exist in pools but rather in the pores of rock.

pore An opening or void within a rock or mass of rock, usually small and filled with fluid
(water oil, gas, or all three). See porosity. Compare vug.
pore pressure Pressure exerted by fluids contained within the pores of rock. See formation pressure.

porosity The ratio of void space to the bulk volume of rock containing that void space. Porosity
can be expressed as a fraction or percentage of pore volume in a volume of rock.

(1) Primary porosity refers to the porosity remaining after the sediments have been
compacted but without considering changes resulting from subsequent chemical action
or flow of waters through the sediments. See primary porosity.

(2) Secondary porosity is the additional porosity created by chemical changes,

dissolution, dolomitization, fissures, and fractures. See secondary porosity.

(3) Effective porosity is the interconnected pore volume available to free fluids,
excluding isolated pores and pore volume occupied by adsorbed water. In petroleum
engineering practices, the term porosity usually means effective porosity.

(4) Total porosity is all void space in a rock and matrix whether effective or
noneffective. Total porosity includes that porosity in isolated pores, adsorbed water on
grain or particle surfaces, and associated with clays. It does not include water of
crystallization wherein the water molecule becomes part of the crystal structure.

porosity exponent The exponent (m) of the porosity term in formation resistivity factor-porosity
relationship. (See Archie's formulas.) The porosity exponent is influenced by those
properties of the rigid rock which influence the shape of the electrically conductive
solution occupying the pore volumes. Sometimes referred to as cementation factor and
shape factor.

porosity overlay A log of porosity values computed from different logs plotted on top of each other.

positive separation A term usually used in reference to microlog curves to describe the condition where the
micronormal (deeper) resistivity curve reads a higher value than the microinverse
(shallower) curve. This condition usually denotes the presence of mud cake on the face
of the drilled formation. Compare negative separation.
poteclinometer A device for making a continuous measurement of the angle and direction of borehole
deviation during a survey. A pendulum moves the wiper arm of a potentiometer so that a
simple resistance measurement corresponds with the position of the pendulum and
therefore the angle between the tool axis and verticle. A compass moves the wiper arm
of another potentiometer so that another resistance measurement corresponds to a
measure of azimuth. Another pendulum moves the wiper of a third potentiometer to
make a measurement of relative bearing. See deviation, azimuth, and relative bearing.
Used in dipmeter surveys. Compare photoclinometer.

potential (1) Voltage level with respect to a reference level.

(2) emf. electromotive force.

(3) Potential drop = IR drop. See IR drop and Ohm's law.

pour point In the case of an oil (or any other liquid), it is a temperature 5°F above that temperature
at which the oil is solid. The lowest temperature at which an oil will flow.

ppm Parts per million.

precession A comparatively slow gyration of the rotational axis of a spinning body about another
(intersecting) axis so as to describe a cone. Caused by the application of a torque tending
to change the direction of a rotational axis. See nuclear magnetism log.
pressure The force per unit area that is exerted on a surface (as that exerted against the inner wall
of a container or piping system by a fluid or that exerted on a wellhead by a column of
gas in the well). In the U.S., pressure is usually expressed in pounds per square inch
(psi).

pressure case See housing.

pressure drop A loss of pressure resulting from friction as a fluid passes through a porous medium
from one area to another.

pressure gauge An instrument for measuring fluid pressure that usually registers the difference between
atmospheric pressure and the pressure of the fluid by indicating the effect of such
pressures on a measuring element (as a column of liquid, a Bourdon tube, a weighted
piston, a diaphragm, or other pressure-sensitive device).

pressure gradient A scale of pressure differences in which there is a uniform variation of pressure from
point to point. For example, the pressure gradient of a column of pure water is about
0.433 psi/ft of vertical elevation (9.79 kPa/m).

pressure maintenance A method for increasing ultimate oil recovery by injecting gas, water, or other fluids
into the reservoir before reservoir pressure has dropped appreciably, usually early in the
life of the field, to reduce or prevent a decline in pressure.

pressure transient testing A pressure transient test is a test during which the flow rate of a well is carefully
and analysis controlled in order to obtain pressure transient data. Pressure transient analysis is the
careful evaluation of pressure variation as a function of time in order to determine
qualitatively those parameters which control fluid flow.

pressure, volume, and An examination of reservoir fluids in a laboratory under various pressures, volumes, and
temperature (PVT) temperatures to determine the characteristics and behavior of the fluid.
analysis

Primacord A trade name for a cord containing a core of high explosive material which is used to
detonate high explosives or a series of explosive charges; e.g., shaped charges. The cord
detonates at the velocity of the detonative wave of the explosive material. Sometimes
liquid-proof and pressure-proof for exposed applications.

primary porosity Porosity which is present in sediment at the time of deposition or formed during
sedimentation. Compare secondary porosity.

primary recovery Recovery of petroleum oil from underground reservoirs by taking advantage of the
natural energy (pressures) in these reservoirs. The most common types of these sources
of reservoir pressures are solution-gas drive, gas-cap-expansion drive, and water
(aquifer) drive. More than one of these natural drives may occur in a single reservoir.
See also secondary recovery and tertiary recovery.

probe In well logging, a probe is a downhole logging instrument. A sonde. A tool.

producibility index log A computed well log showing a comparison of various parameters important to the
producibility of a formation (e.g., effective porosity, clayiness. permeability index. etc.).

production (1) The amount of oil or gas produced in a given period.

(2) That phase of an energy related industry which deals with bringing the formation
fluids to the surface and preparing the product for pipeline or other transportation.

production casing Long string. The last string of casing set in a well prior to production.

production log A well log run in a production or injection well. Small diameter tools are used so that
 they can be lowered through tubing. Services and devices include continuous flowmeter,
packer flowmeter, gradiomanometer, manometer, densimeter, watercutmeter,
thermometer, radioactive-tracer logs, temperature logs, calipers, casing collar locator,
fluid sampler, water entry survey, etc.

Prolog A computed log analysis system. Prolog computer-processed interpretations are

designed to be performed at the well site. Prolog is a mark of Dresser Atlas.

prompt gamma ray Gamma radiation given off "promptly" following a nuclear reaction: ie., fission, or by
the interaction of a neutron and a stable nucleus. For example, a nucleus excited by
capturing a neutron, or by the inelastic scattering of a very fast neutron. sheds excess
energy by the emission of one or more prompt gamma-ray photons. See also delayed
gamma ray.

propagation effect See skin effect.

proportional counter Similar in construction and operation to an ionization chamber. Usually the proportional
counter is a metal chamber. filled with gas, with a central electrode maintained at a
positive voltage with respect to the shell. The voltage level of the central electrode is
related to the critical voltage value where gas amplification begins. The proportional
counter is operated in that limited voltage range where the charge flow across the
counter is proportional to the primary ionization.

In well logging, it is designed for the detection of neutrons. A gas is used which is
suitable for the production of ionizing particles upon reaction with incident neutrons.
The gas commonly used is He3 but may be BF3. The BF3 gas, maintained at about 1
atmosphere, requires a voltage level of 2400-2500 volts and produces a larger pulse than
that in He3; but, the He3 maintained at higher pressure and operating at about 1300 volts
is more efficient in the detection of neutrons. Compare ionization chamber, Geiger-
Mueller counter, and scintillation counter.

proration A system enforced by a state or federal agency or by agreement between participants

that limits the amount of petroleum that can be produced from a well or field within a
given period.
protection casing A string of casing set to protect a section of the hole and to permit drilling to continue to
a greater depth. Intermediate casing.

proton An elemental particle which is identical to the nucleus of the lightest hydrogen atom.
Both proton(s) and neutron(s) are constituents of nuclei of elements heavier than
hydrogen. A proton carries a positive charge numerically equal to the charge of an
electron and has a mass of 1.6724 × 10–24 gram or 1.0075 atomic mass unit.

proximity log A microresistivity log, similar to the microlaterolog, made from a tool which focuses
survey current issuing from a sidewall pad. The electrodes are mounted on a wider pad
than that used by the microlaterolog, and survey current is focused deeper into the
formation. These design features result in measurements which have less sensistivity to
the mud cake. A caliper curve usually is recorded simultaneously. Compare
microlaterolog and microspherically focused log.

pseudo-geometrical A weighting factor used for estimating uninvaded formation resistivity from the
factor response (Ra) recorded on a laterolog (or guard log). True resistivity can be estimated
from the relationship
Ra = RxoJ + Rt(1 - J)
where Rxo = flushed zone resistivity, Rt = uncontaminated zone resistivity, and J =
pseudo-geometrical factor, a function of invasion depth. It must be emphasized that a
pseudogeometrical factor relating to an electrode-type resistivity device is applicable in
only one set of conditions, and therefore charts of this type are not valid as general-
purpose invaded-zone correction charts. The most useful feature of such a chart is the
graphic comparison it allows of the relative contrihution of invaded zones to the
responses of the various tools. Compare geometrical factor.

pseudo-static SP PSP. Similar to static spontaneous potential (SSP), but applies to measurement or
calculation in dirty rock, whereas SSP refers to that in clean rock. Compare SSP.

PSP See pseudo-static SP.

p.u. Porosity unit: one percent pore volume.

pulsator A device used in early electrical-resistivity well logging instrumentation to pulsate (or
alternate) the survey current and measured signals.

pulsed neutron capture Neutron Lifetime Log, Thermal Decay Time Log, or Thermal Multigate Decay Log.
log

pulsed neutron log
A term with broad application. Includes all logs made while using neutron bursts or
pulses. This term quite often is used in referring to neutron decay time logs such as the
Thermal Decay Time Log, Neutron Lifetime Log, and Thermal Multigate Decay Log. A
neutron generator, which emits neutrons in controlled cyclic pulses, is the source of
radiation. The term also applies to other nuclear logs where cyclic neutron pulses must
be used; e.g., some induced spectral gamma-ray logs.

pulse-height analyzer
An instrument used to indicate the number of occurrences of counter-output pulses
falling within each of one or more specified amplitude (i.e., energy) ranges; used to
obtain the energy spectrum of gamma radiations. It is possible to separate and count the
pulses corresponding to one or more specific energy ranges which serve as an indicator
of some specific radioactive isotope in the formation. See also spectral gamma-ray
logging, induced spectral gamma-ray logging, and channel.

PVT analysis Abbreviation of pressure, volume, and temperature analysis.

P-wave compression wave.

pyrobitumen A dark-colored, hard, nonvolatile, native, asphaltic substance which is infusible, is

relatively insoluble in carbon disulfide, and destructively decomposes with pyrolysis.

Q Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA
q A term representing the fraction of clay occupying pore space.Sometimes calculated by

where: φz represents the porosity of the framework ot the rock and φe represents
effective porosity.

quartz A hard mineral composed of silicon dioxide. A common component in igneous,

metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.

quartzite A metamorphic rock composed of quartz which has been formed by the metamorphism
of sandstone.

quebracho (1) A tree in South America from which tannin is extracted.

(2) A thinning agent, tannin, used in drilling muds.

quick look, quicklook A preliminary, well site, computed well-log analysis.

R Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

rack pipe To stand pipe on the derrick floor when coming out of the hole.

radial flow The flow of fluids into a wellbore from the surrounding drainage area. Also, could be
descriptive of the flow from an injection well to the surrounding area.

radiation The emission and propagation of energy through space or matter, distinguished by the
fact that the speed of propagation equals that of light and requires no intervening
 medium for its transmission. Any form of energy propagated as rays, waves, or streams
of particles; especially light and other electromagnetic waves, sound waves, and the
emissions from radioactive substances. See alpha particle, beta particle, gamma ray,
neutron generator, gamma ray source, and neutron source.

radioactive tracer A radioactive material put into a well to allow observation of fluid or gas movements by
means of a radioactive-tracer survey.

radioactive-tracer log A form of radioactivity log used in production logging for the study of tracer
movements and, therefore, fluid movements in the immediate vicinity of the well bore
(e.g., in casing. tubing, annulus, open hole). Usually one or more slugs of radioactive
material are ejected into the fluid phase to be studied, and the direction and velocity of
the introduced slug is monitored over different parts of the well bore. Tracer logs are
helpful in estimating fluid flowrates, points of fluid exit or entry into the well bore,
crossflow, leaks, etc.

radioactivity A property of unstable isotopes. which undergo spontaneous atomic readjustment with
the liberation of particles and/or energy (e.g., alpha or beta particles, neutrons, and
gamma rays). Alpha and beta enmission change the chemical nature of the element
involved. The loss of energy will result in the decay or transformation of the unstable
isotope into a stable isotope; or transmutation into an isotope of another element,
sometimes giving rise to emission of neutrons.

The process of radioactive decay is one of conversion of mass to energy in accordance

with Einstein's relationship, E = mc2. Nearly all of the energy of emitted particles and
photons is converted to heat in the near vicinity of the radioactive parent. This is one
means by which the temperature of the earth is maintained.

radioactivity log A well log of natural or induced radiation. Usually refers to a gamma-ray log; but,
sometimes the expression radioactivity log is used to refer to a density log, neutron log.
or other nuclear logs.

radioisotope A nuclide. A radioactive isotope (unstable isotope) which spontaneously emits

particulate (alpha beta) or electromagnetic (gamma) radiation as it decays to a stable
state.
radiometric grade Grade ore determined by radioactivity measurement in the borehole
(Σgrade × thickness/ Σthickness). It is the weighted mean of the grades, with the
thickness of each grade taken as the weight.

rams (1) Heavy rubber seals in a blowout preventer which can be closed to provide pressure
control. One of three types – blind, pipe, or shear – may be installed in several
preventers mounted in a stack on top of the wellbore.
(a) Blind rams, when closed, form a seal on a hole which has no part of
equipment extending through the blowout preventer.
(b) Pipe rams, when closed, seal around any pipe standing in the hole.
(c) Shear rams, cut through drill pipe and then form a seal.

(2) Well-logging companies furnish blowout preventers with modified rams which can
be closed down over logging cable to provide pressure control. Will not damage cable.

Rankine temperature A temperature scale with the degree interval of the Fahrenheit scale and the zero point at
scale absolute zero. On the Rankine scale, water freezes at 491.60° and boils at 671.69°. See
absolute temperature scale.

rate of penetration ROP. The measured distance that the drill bit or other drilling tool penetrates subsurface
formations in a unit length of time.

rathole (1) A hole in the rig floor 30 to 35 feet deep. Lined with casing that projects above the
floor into which the kelly is placed when hoisting operations are in progress.

(2) A hole of a diameter smaller than the main hole. It is drilled in the bottom of the
main hole.

ratio (1) A mathematical relationship between two values, where one value is divided by the
other, commonly expressed as a fraction.

(2) In Thermal Decay Time Logging. A measurement recorded with the Dual-Spacing
Thermal Decay Time tool which is derived from the counting rates of the two detectors.
The ratio measurement has characteristics similar to those of a neutron log and for
 specific cases can be calibrated to serve as such. Used with the measurement of the
Thermal Decay Time tool, it provides an apparent porosity and an apparent formation
water salinity, useful for cased-hole formation evaluation.

(3) With other dual-spaced radiation detector systems, it is the count-rate ratio (of near
to far detector) sometimes recorded with two-detector tools such as the compensated
neutron log.

Rayleigh wave A surface acoustic wave (propagated along a flat surface; e.g., a ground surface) in
which the particle motion is elliptical and retrograde with respect to the direction of
propagation. Rayleigh waves probably are induced by shear wave components and result
from differential velocities between the surface layer and deeper layers within the
medium.

RDB Rotary drill bushing.

reaction value See water analysis.

reading A value taken from a recorded curve for a specific depth in the well.

ream To enlarge the wellbore by drilling it again with a special bit. Often a rathole is reamed
or opened to the same size as the main wellhore.

reamer A tool used in drilling to smooth the wall of the borehole, enlarge the hole to the
specified size, stabilize the bit, straighten the wellbore if kinks or doglegs are
encountered, and drill directionally. See ream.

receiver A transducer used to receive a form of energy which has been propagated through the
formation or induced in the formation. Used in the acoustic logging, induction logging,
induced polarization methods, etc. Compare transmitter.
reciprocal sonde A sonde (and associated equipment) in which the current and measure electrodes are
interchanged according to a specific rule; i.e., A electrode for M electrode and B
electrode for N electrode with no resulting change in logging measurements. An
unexplained exception may be the lateral curve in thick salt sections.

reciprocator An electronic module designed for the reciprocation of conductivity measurements into
resistivity (e.g., induction conductivity signals to resistivity).

record (1) A print of a well log.

(2) A sequence of data on magnetic tape.

recorder A device which records well-log data on film, chart, or tape. See camera.

recovery (1) The amount of core recovered compared to the amount cut.

(2) The height of fluid in the drill pipe on a drill-stem test which did not produce enough
fluid to rise to tlme surface.

(3) The total volume of hydrocarbons that has been or is anticipated to be produced from
a well or field.

recovery factor The percentage of oil or gas in place in a reservoir that ultimately can be withdrawn by
primary and/or secondary techniques. The percentage of the oil or gas in place
(expressed in stock tank barrels or in cubic feet) that will ultimately be recovered.

rectify An obsolete term meaning to adjust records on a borehole log for true vertical depth.
Logs in slant holes are usually recorded in distance measured along the well bore, which
makes them difficult to correlate with other logs from other wells which intersect the
formations differently. This adjustment is necessary in order to observe the true
structural relationships between corresponding strata in different wells. See true vertical
depth.
redox logging The continuous measurement of the oxidation-reduction potential of formation
penetrated by the well bore. Chemical reactions depending on the transfer of protons and
electrons depend on the pH and Eh of the systems in which the reactions cccur. A
measurement of the oxidation-reduction potential is a measurement of the tendency for
such reactions to occur.

redox potential See oxidation-reduction potential.

red pattern A convention used in dipmeter interpretation to denote increasing formation dip with
increasing depth with a constant average azimuth. The red color is sometimes drafted on
the tadpole plot of the computed dipmeter log. Compare blue pattern and green pattern,
See dip for illustration.

reef A type of reservoir composed of rock (usually limestone) formed from the skeletal
remains of marine plants and animals.

reference point (1) measure point. A mark or position on a tool to which all measurements are related. A
tool zero. See measure point.

(2) A depth datum.

reflection peak An increase in the value of resistivity recorded on a lateral curve as the A electrode
passes a thin highly resistive bed (of thickness less than AO spacing). The recorded
location of the reflection peak is one AO spacing removed from the actual depth of the
thin resistive bed. See illustration under blind zone or lateral curve.

reinjection The process of pumping produced water back into a porous and permeable formation by
means of an injection well.

relative bearing In dipmeter interpretation. Looking down the hole, it is the clockwise azimuthal angle
from the upper side of the tool to the reference electrode number 1.
relative permeability The ratio between the effective permeability to a given fluid at a partial saturation and
the permeability at 100% saturation. The ratio of the amount of a specific fluid that will
flow at a given saturation, in the presence of other fluids, to the amount that would flow
at a saturation of 100%, other factors remaining the same. It ranges in value from zero at
low saturation to 1.0 at 100% saturation of the specific fluid. Since different fluid phases
inhibit the flow of each other, the sum of the relative permeabilities of all phases is
always less than unity.

relief well A well drilled near and deflected into a well that is out of control, making it possible to
bring the wild well under control.

reluctance The characteristic of a magnetic circuit which determines the total magnetic flux in the
circuit when a given magnetomotive force is applied.

repeat formation tester The repeat formation tester (RFT) is operated by an electrically driven hydraulic system
so that it can be set and retracted as often as necessary to pressure test all zones of
interest on one trip in the well. Two separate fluid tests can also be taken on one trip.
Formation pressures are recorded at the surface in both digital and analog form. See
 formation tester. RFT is a mark of Schlumberger.

repeat section A log rerun over a short section of hole, generally 200 feet, to enable comparison of
similarity with the main survey to show instrument stability and repeatability.

reserves The unproduced but recoverable oil or gas in place, in a formation, that has been proved
by production.

reservoir A subsurface, porous, permeable rock body in which oil or gas or both can be stored.
Most reservoir rocks are limestones, dolomites, sandstones, or a combination of these.
The three basic types of hydrocarbon reservoirs are oil, gas, and condensate. An oil
reservoir generally contains three fluids: gas, oil, and water, with oil the dominant
product. In the typical oil reservoir, these fluids occur in different phases as a result of
the variation in their gravities. Gas, the lightest, occupies the upper part of the reservoir
rocks; water, the lower part; and oil, the intermediate section. In addition to occurring as
a cap or in solution, gas may accumulate independently of the oil. If so, the reservoir is
called a gas reservoir. Associated with the gas, in most instances, are salt water and
 some oil. In a condensate reservoir, the hydrocarbons may exist as a gas, but, when
brought to the surface, some of the heavier gases condense to a liquid or condensate. At
the surface, the hydrocarbons from a condensate reservoir consist of gas and a high-
gravity crude (i.e., the condensate). Condensate wells are sometimes called gas-
condensate reservoirs.

reservoir-drive The natural energy by which reservoir fluids are caused to flow out of the reservoir rock
mechanism and into a wellbore. Solution-gas drives depend on the fact that, as the reservoir is
produced, pressure is reduced, allowing the gas to expand and provide the driving
energy. Water-drive reservoirs depend on water pressure to force the hydrocarbons out
of the reservoir and into the wellbore.

reservoir pressure Formation pressure. The pressure found within a reservoir at a specific point in time.
Sometimes reservoir pressure is thought of as original pressure or geopressure (prior to
disturbance) but at other times is thought of as pressure existing after disturbance.
Reservoir or formation pressure should be qualified as to time, condition, and place.

reservoir temperature The field average temperature encountered in the particular phase being investigated. In
a liquid analysis of a reservoir containing an extensive gas cap, it would be the average
temperature of the oil zone.

residual That which remains after a removal or displacement process.

residual oil Oil remaining in the reservoir rock after the flushing or invasion process, or at the end of
a specific recovery process or escape process.

resistance (1) The opposition to the flow of direct current. Equal to the voltage drop (E) across the
material in which the current is flowing divided by the current (I) flowing through the
material. See Ohm's law and IR drop. Also, see impedance.

(2) In fluid flow, see viscosity.

resistivity Specific resistance. The property of a material which resists the flow of electrical
current. The reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity. See ohm meter. See also apparent
resistivity.

resistivity index Rt/Ro. The ratio of the resistivity of a formation bearing hydrocarbons to the resistivity it
would have if 100% saturated with formation water. See also Archie's formulas.

resistivity logs Any of a number of basic logs on which some aspect of formation resistivity has been
recorded.

(1) Most resistivity logs derive their readings from 10 to 100 ft3 of material about the
sonde. See electrical survey, laterolog, and induction log.

(2) microresistivity logs, on the other hand, derive their readings from a few cubic
inches of material near the borehole wall.

returns The drilling fluid, cuttings, etc. which circulate up the hole to the surface.

reversal An interval of characteristic distortion on a normal curve across a resistive bed which
has a thickness less than the AM spacing. The distortion is in the form of a depression of
resistivity opposite the bed and two small symmetrical peaks located to either side of the
depression outside the bed boundaries. The two peaks are separated by a distance equal
to the AM spacing plus the bed thickness. The resistivity value of the depression is
lower than the actual bed resistivity and, therefore, is deceptive.
rig The derrick, drawworks, and attendant surface equipment of a drilling or workover unit.
See also rotary rig and platform.

rig down To dismantle equipment after the completion of an operation.

rig floor The area immediately around the rotary table and extending to each corner of the derrick
or mast. The area immediately above the substructure on which the drawworks, rotary
table, etc. rest.

rig up To prepare equipment for an operation.

riser Length(s) of pipe mounted between the wireline blowout preventer and the stuffing box
(or hydraulic packing head). Sometimes long enough to enclose the entire downhole
instrument. Usually between 2 and 3 feet long. Should be equipped with 2 in. outlet
through which the well can be killed or flowed if necessary. Under pressure, when
broken cable strands bunch up under glands in the stuffing box, the blowout preventer
 can be closed and wires removed. If the downhole tool assembly is too long to fit inside
a short (2-3 ft riser), the blowout preventer can be closed, the cable can be cut at a
specific distance measured from the blowout preventer and a long riser with stuffing box
installed. See illustration at lubricator. Also compare marine drilling riser.

riser pipe See riser. Also see marine drilling riser.

roentgen The basic unit of gamma ray exposure. One roentgen is the exposure resulting from the
generation of one electrostatic unit (esu) of charge per 0.001293 g (1 cm3 at STP) of dry
air. A fixed exposure rate exists at every point in space surrounding a source of fixed
intensity.

roller-cone bit A drilling bit made of three cones, or cutters, that are mounted on extremely rugged
bearings. They are also called rock bits. The surface of each cone is made up of rows of
steel teeth or rows of tungsten carbide inserts.

ROP Abbreviation of rate of penetration.

rope socket A metal component that clamps some of the cable armor strands at the tool end of the
cable. It seats inside of the cable connector or fishing neck to support the weight of the
tool. By the number of armor strands used, it can be made the weak point or pull-out
point of the cable-to-tool mechanical connection. Sometimes called cable clamp. See
weak point.

rose diagram A polar plot or diagram in which radial distance indicates the relative frequency of an
observation at a certain azimuth. Used in dipmeter interpretation. Compare azimuth
frequency diagram.

rotary bushing See master bushing, also kelly bushing.

rotary drill bushing RDB. See kelly bushing.

rotary drilling A drilling method in which a hole is drilled by a rotating bit to which a downward force
is applied. The bit is fastened to and rotated by the drill stem, which also provides a
passageway through which the drilling fluid is circulated. Additional joints of drill pipe
are added as drilling progresses.

rotary rig A derrick equipped with rotary drilling equipment; ie., drilling engines, draw works,
rotary table, mud pumps, and auxiliary equipment. A modern drilling unit capable of
drilling a borehole with a bit attached to a rotating column of steel pipe.

rotary table The rotating steel platform on the derrick floor with an opening in the center through
which the drill pipe and casing must pass. The table is rotated by power transmitted
from the drilling engines. In drilling, the kelly bushing fits into the master bushing of the
table. As the table rotates, the kelly is turned, rotating the drill column and the drill bit.

roughneck Roustabout, floorhand. Members of the drilling crew. The driller's assistants who work
on the derrick floor, in the derrick to rack pipe, tend the drilling engines and mud
pumps, and operate the pipe tongs.

roundtrip The action of pulling the drill pipe out of the hole and subsequently running the pipe
back into the hole to the same depth. Roundtrips are made each time the drill bit is
changed, for example.

rugosity The quality of roughness or irregularity of a solid surface such as the borehole wall. The
measurements of logging tools which must be held in close contact with the formation
face (e.g., density and microresistivity logs) can be affected by rugosity.

run pipe To lower a string of casing into the hole.

 S Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

salinity The concentration of ions in solution (sodium, potassium, chloride, sulfate, etc.) See
total dissolved solids and water analysis.

salt base mud (1) In well logging, an aqueous drilling mud which is more saline than the formation
water.

(2) Salts are quite often used in drilling fluids in order to reduce formation damage.
These salts usually are sodium chloride or potassium chloride. In which case, to prevent
formation damage, the salinity of the salt base mud may equal or may exceed formation
water salinity.

salt dome A dome that is formed by the intrusion of salt into overlying sediments. A piercement
salt dome is one that has pushed up so that it penetrates the overlying sediments, leaving
them truncated. Formations above the salt plug are usually arched so that they dip in all
directions away from the center of the dome. See also diapir.
salt water A water that contains a large quantity of salt. Brine.

saltwater disposal The method and system for the disposal of salt water produced with crude oil. A typical
system comprises the following:

• Collection centers (in which salt water from several wells is gathered).
• Central treating plant (in which salt water is conditioned to remove scale or
corrosion forming substances).
• Disposal wells (in which treated salt waste is injected into a suitable formation).

saltwater mud A drilling mud in which the water has appreciable amounts of salt (usually sodium
chloride) dissolved in it.

sample log A record of rock cuttings descriptions which is made as the samples are brought to the
surface by the drilling mud. This record shows the characteristics of the rock strata
which have been penetrated by the bit.

sample taker See sidewall coring tool. Not to be confused with fluid sampler or formation tester.

sand A detrital sediment composed of individual grains of sand (commonly quartz) whether
or not the sediment is consolidated.

sand control Any method by which large amounts of sand in a sandy formation are prevented from
entering the wellbore. Sand in the wellbore can cause plugging and rapid wear of well
equipment. See gravel pack.

sand count (1) The total effective thickness of a permeable section excluding shale streaks or other
impermeable zones. Often determined from electrical logs (SP curves and microlog).
 (2) The number of separate permeable sands separated by impermeable zones.

sand line (1) A wire line on a drilling rig often used to run or recover tools inside the drill pipe.

(2) A line that can be drafted through the maximum deflections on the SP curve for thick
clean sands in a section where the formation water has constant salinity.

sandstone A detrital, sedimentary rock composed of individual grains of sand (commonly quartz)
which have been bound together by natural cementing materials precipitating in the
interstices. Common cements are silica, carbonates, and iron oxides.

saturated (1) Containing as much as it can contain under given conditions of temperature and
pressure, as in:

a. solid dissolved in liquid.

b. gas dissolved in liquid.
c. liquid dissolved in gas

(2) Filled to capacity, as fluid (liquid or gas) in formation.

(3) Reached the limit of its measuring capacity, as in electrical instruments. The
capability of an instrument to detect variations is decreased as the measuring instrument
nears saturation.

saturation (1) The fraction or percentage of the pore volume occupied by a specific fluid (e.g., oil,
gas, water, etc.). The fluids in the pore spaces may be wetting or nonwetting. In most
reservoirs, water is the wetting phase, but a few reservoirs are known to be oil wet. The
wetting phase exists as an adhesive film on the solid surfaces. At irreducible saturation
of the wetting phase, the nonwetting phase is usually continuous and is producible under
a pressure gradient to the well bore.

(2) The occupation of fluids in a pore may take different forms:

a. Funicular saturation. A form of saturation in which the nonwetting phase exists

as a continuous web throughout the interstices. The nonwetting phase is mobile
under the influence of a hydrodynamic pressure gradient. The wetting phase
might or might not be at irreducible saturation. In the illustration, the oil in the
"A" figure is funicular
b. Pendular saturation. The wetting phase exists in a pendular form of saturation.
 An adhesive fluid film of the wetting phase coats solid surfaces, grain-to-grain
contacts, and bridges fine interstices or pore throats. The wetting phase might or
might not be at irreducible saturation. In the illustration, water in the "A" and
"B" figures is pendular.
c. Insular saturation. A form of saturation in which the nonwetting phase exists as
isolated insular globules within the continuous wetting phase. A drop in pressure
might or might not cause the insular globules to collect into a continuous phase.
In the illustration oil in the "B" and "C" figures is insular.

saturation exponent The exponent (n) of the saturation term in Archie's saturation equation (see Archie's
formulas). The saturation exponent is related to the influence of insulating fluids on the
shape and continuity of the electrically conductive solutions occupying pore volume.

sawtooth SP When a very permeable salt-water sand containing shaly streaks is invaded by fresh mud
filtrate, the filtrate and saline interstitial solutions tend to separate because of the
difference between their specific gravities. As a result, the filtrate tends to accumulate
just below the shaly streaks setting up an electrochemical cell which causes the SP to
develop a sawtooth appearance.
SBR (1) Side-bed resistivity or shoulder-bed resistivity.

(2) Often refers to the deconvolver setting on the surface panel of some induction
logging gear. Setting usually corresponds to the shoulder-bed resistivity.

scale (1) Depth scale. Depth scales vary with locale and requirements. Most single logs are
recorded on two different films at once, and the two films may optionally be on different
depth scales. One film may be for correlation and the other tor detailed interpretation, or
one may be for normal use and the other for quick-look interpretation by the overlay
technique.

In North America the depth scales for correlation use are: 1 or 2 in. of film per 100 ft. of
hole (i.e., on a scale of 1:1200 or 1:600 in terms of feet of film per feet of hole). The
usual scale for detail use is: 5 in. of film per 100 ft. of hole (i.e., 1:240). An expanded
scale of 25 in. per l00 ft. (l:48) is available for close scrutiny of short sections, and a
special 60 in. per 100 ft. scale (1:20) is used for dipmeter logs.

Most of the rest of the world uses decimal scaling (1:1000, 1:500, 1:200, 1:40, 1:20)
based either on the foot or the meter. Metric logs are easily identified by the fact that
depth numbers appear at each 50-m. level, while logs scaled in feet have depth numbers
at each 100-ft. level.

(2) Grid scale type. Usualy linear, logarithmic, or split. Observe illustration. The hybrid
scale, which is not shown, was used before the logarithmic scale for use with laterolog
 type surveys.

(3) Grid scale sensitivity. The scale on which the magnitude of the measured signal is
recorded. It corresponds to the value given to the full-scale deflection of the
galvanometer or pen, or the width of one track (100 small divisions) on linear scales;
center or midscale (one-half width of one track = 50 small divisions) on hybrid scales

(4) Chemical scale. A deposit that accumulates on solid surfaces (e.g., casing. tubing,
rock. etc.) or in perforations and other apertures. It reduces fluid production from the
formation.

scanning electron SEM. A type of electron microscope in which a fine beam of electrons systematically
microscope sweeps over the specimen to be examined. The intensity of the secondary electrons
generated at the point of impact of the beam on the specimen is measured, and the
resulting signal is fed into a cathode-ray-tube display which is scanned in synchronism
with the scanning of the specimen.
scattered gamma-ray log See density log.

Schmidt diagram A polar plot where the azimuth indicates dip or drift direction and the distance from the
origin indicates the dip or drift magnitude. In the modified Schmidt diagram, used for
plotting low dips, zero dip is on the outside and dips become larger toward the center of
the diagram .

scintillation A flash of light produced in a phosphor by an ionization event. See photoelectric

absorption.

scintillation counter Used in the detection of gamma or neutron radiation. Consists of both a detector of
incident radiation and a photomultiplier to produce countable pulses. The type of
phosphor used as the detector is dependent on the type of radiation (i.e., gamma ray or
neutron) to be detected. Gamma radiation produces scintillations in the phosphor as a
result of photoelectric absorption, Compton scattering, or pair production, depending on
the energy of the incident gamma. The intensity of the scintillation and the amplitude of
the resulting pulse are proportional to the energy of the incident neutron or gamma ray.
Scintillation detectors are efficient and can be made in small sizes. This results in high
 vertical resolution. Scintillation detectors are used in radioactivity logging, neutron
logging, and pulsed neutron logging. See also photomultiplier.

screen (1) A view screen on the camera or recorder. Part of the light trace beamed from each
galvanometer is reflected onto the screen on a simulated grid. The curve responses of
each log can be observed on the screen during the survey operations.

(2) Filter screen.

screen analysis A means of quantifying the size and amount of particles by passing the particles through
screens whose openings gradually decrease in size and measuring the amount remaining
on each screen.

sealed reservoir A reservoir of limited size. One from which the formation fluids cannot escape because
of a permeability barrier.

search interval Search angle. In dipmeter interpretation, a depth interval along the borehole
corresponding to anticipated maximum dips; e.g., if dips are expected to be 45° or less,
in an 8-in.-diameter hole (radius equal to 4 inches) the search interval could be specified
as 4 in.

sea water The dissolved mineral matter in sea water is in the order of magnitude of 35,000 ppm
(3.5%). Has a specific gravlty of about 1.025 g/cm3.

secondary porosity Post depositional porosity. Such porosity results from fractures, vugs, solution channels,
diagenesis, dolomitization, etc. Three common types of secondary porosity are: fracture
porosity, shrinkage porosity, and dissolution porosity. Compare primary porosity.

secondary porosity index SPI. An estimate of the secondary porosity, calculated from sonic log values in
conjunction with either density or neutron log values, or porosity resulting from a
crossplot of density and neutron porosities. If φD is the porosity calculated from a density
(or neutron) log and φS is the porosity calculated from a sonic log, SPI is sometimes
 defined as (φD – φS) or (φcrossplot – φS)

secondary recovery Recovery of petroleum oil from underground reservoirs by using secondary sources of
energy, such as injected natural gas or water to increase producing rates and to improve
ultimate oil recovery. Water injection, commonly known as water flooding, usually
affords higher recovery than gas injection. Gas injection is generally limited to those
reservoirs which have a gas cap and in which gas cap expansion is expected to be an
efficient natural drive mechanism.

Although the terms "primary" and "secondary" imply a sequence of use, both
mechanisms might work concurrently once secondary recovery is implemented. See also
primary recovery and tertiary recovery.

second curve A name given to the shallow investigation resistivity curve appearing on electrical
surveys in the 1930s and 1940s. See discussion of this curve under electrical survey.

section gauge A caliper logging tool now obsolete.

sediment (1) Solid matter which has been transported from its source by wind or water and then
deposited.

(2) Solid matter which has been precipitated from solutions or formed from skeletal
remains or secretions of organisms.

sedimentary Descriptive term for rock formed of sediment, especially:

a. clastic rocks such as conglomerate, sandstone, and shales formed of fragments of

other rock transported from their sources and deposited in water;
b. rocks formed by precipitation from solution, such as rock salt and gypsum, or
from secretions of organisms, such as most limestone.

sedimentary basin A geologically depressed area with thick sediments in the interior and thinner sediments
at the outer boundaries.
seismic Pertaining to an earthquake or earth vibration, including those which are artificially
induced.

seismic attenuation That portion of the decrease in seismic signal strength with distance not dependent on
geometrical spreading. The decrease depends on the physical characteristics of the
transmitting media, involving reflection, scattering, and absorption.

seismic discontinuity Physical discontinuity within the earth separating materials in which seismic waves
travel at significantly different velocities

seismograph A device which records vibrations in the earth, detected by geophones, used in
prospecting for probable oilbearing structures. Vibrations are created by discharging
explosives in shallow boreholes or by striking the ground surface with a heavy blow.
The type and velocity of the vibrations (as recorded by the seismograph) indicate the
general characteristics of the section of earth through which the vibrations pass.

selective SP A technique, now obsolete, for determining the presence of a thin permeable bed
enclosed in a thick highly resistive formation. The technique also permits the recording
of an approximation to the static SP. The method involves the measurement of two
curves by a sonde with a special electrode arrangement. An SP measuring electrode is
placed between two potential-monitoring electrodes and two current electrodes in
symmetrical array. One curve is recorded with the SP electrode while the potential-
monitoring electrodes are maintained (by current electrodes) at the static SP of shales,
and the other curve is recorded while the potentialmonitoring electrodes are maintained
at the static SP of permeable beds. A comparison of the curves will reveal SP anomalies
at the permeable beds, and means to derive static SP. See SP and SSP.

self absorption See mass absorption.

self potential Spontaneous potential. See SP.

SEM See scanning electron microscope.

SEM photomicrograph A photograph of the image produced on the cathode-ray tube of a scanning electron
microscope. See scanning electron microscope.

sensitivity The magnitude of the deflection of a curve in response to a standard signal. The
amplitude of the deflection is proportional to the sensitivity.

separation (1) The difference observed between two different well-logging measurements of the
same or related parameters recorded or plotted on the same log (e.g., porosities,
formation factor curves, etc.)

(2) The differences observed between two similar well logging measurements, made at
different depths of investigation, recorded or plotted on the same log (e.g., resistivities,
movable oil plot, etc.).

set casing To run and cement casing at a specific depth in a well bore.

set pipe See set casing.

shadow zone See blind zone.

shale A fine grained, thinly laminated or fissile, detrital sedimentary rock formed by the
compaction and consolidation of clay, silt, or mud. The composition is characterized by
an appreciable content of clay minerals, or derivatives from clay minerals, and a high
content of detrital quartz.

shale base line (1) A line drawn through the deflections characteristic of shale on an SP curve, which is
used as the reference in making measurements to determine the characteristics of
 permeable rocks and their formation waters.

(2) The characteristic of thick shale on the gamma-ray log or other well logs.

shale-membrane
Shale potential. See electrochemical potential.
potential

shale oil See oil shale and kerogen.

shale potential Shale-membrane potential. See electrochemical potential.

shale shaker A vibrating screen for sifting out rock cuttings from drilling mud. Drilling mud
returning from downhole, carrying rock chips in suspension. Flows over and through the
mesh of the shale shaker leaving small fragments of rocks which can be collected and
examined for information about the formations being drilled.

shaly Pertaining to, composed of, containing, or having the properties of shale, particularly the
property to readily split along close-spaced bedding planes.

shaped charge A high explosive with a lined cavity often used in gun perforating operations. The jet
produced by the detonation has a very high velocity of about 30,000 feet/second. The jet
can be shaped by the controlled collapse designed into the shape of the cavity and liner.
The high energy of the jet is due to its high velocity and the mass of the liner which
becomes vaporized.

shape factor See porosity exponent.

shear modulus See elastic properties of rocks.

shear wave S-wave. In acoustics, a transverse wave. Direction of propagation is perpendicular to

direction of particle displacement. For transmission of a shear wave, particles in lateral
motion must drag neighboring particles in similar lateral motion. Substances which tend
to oppose shear can support propagation of a shear wave (i.e., rigid substances, solids).
Compare compression wave. See also acoustic wave.

shielded electrode See guarded electrode.

short (1) Short in dimension.

(2) Electrical short, short circuit.

short normal curve A resistivity curve made with a normal electrode configuration in which the spacing
between the A and M electrodes is short. Usually the AM spacing is 16 inches. See
normal device.

shoulder-bed effect Adjacent bed effect. Effect of adjacent beds on a well logging measurement. The
amount of the effect is related to the vertical resolution of the measuring tool.

shut in To close the valves at the top of a well bore. To stop flow out of, or injection into, a well
bore.

shut-in Being in a static fluid flow state at the surface. All valves at the wellhead having been
closed.

shut-in bottom-hole The downhole pressure opposite a formation of interest when the valves at the surface
pressure (or downhole) are completely closed. The pressure is transmitted by fluids which exist
in a formation and are in communication with the well bore.

shut-in pressure Pressure as recorded at the wellhead when the valve is closed and the well is shut in.

shut-in-time The length of time elapsed since the fluid in the well bore was in dynamic condition (as
in production or injection).

side bed Shoulder bed. Adjacent bed.

side-door overshot Similar to cable-guided overshot. Also cable guided, but has a side door through which
cable passes. Cable runs alongside fishing tools and drill pipe.
sidetrack To drill around broken drill pipe or casing, which has become lodged permanently in the
hole, by the use of a whipstock or turbodrill. See also directional drilling.

sidewall acoustic log A well log of the acoustic properties of rock made by a contact pad device which presses
the acoustic transducers against the formation wall. The span of the acoustic receivers is
6.0 inches, producing a transit time curve with much sharper interface resolution which
aids recognition of thin, interbedded strata and finding of lowangle fractures. The
Sidewall Acoustic Log (SWA) is a Dresser Atlas trademark.

sidewall core A formation sample obtained with a wireline tool from which a hollow cylindrical bullet
is fired into the formation and retrieved by cables attached to the bullet. See sidewall
coring tool.

sidewall coring tool A percussion-type device (i.e., gun) which can be attached to the well-logging cable,
provided with a means of accurately depth-positioning the tool (SP or gamma-ray
curve), which is used to obtain formation samples. Hollow. cylindrical core barrels (i.e.,
bullets) can be shot in sequence, from the gun into the formation. After each core barrel
has been fired into the formation wall, it is pulled free and retrieved by wires connecting
the barrel to the gun. Core barrels are available for penetrating formations of different
hardness. The type of barrel and size of charge are varied to optimize recovery in
different formations.
sidewall epithermal
See sidewall neutron log.
neutron log

sidewall neutron An epithermal neutron log made with the neutron source and detector mounted in a skid
(porosity) log which is pressed against the borehole wall and may cut into the mud cake to minimize
borehole effects.

sidewall pad A wall contact pad. A measuring device mounted on the end of an arm which proiects
from the sonde body during the survey. Usually contains electrical measuring or
detection equipment. Eliminates much of the effects of the borehole by placing
 measuring equipment in direct contact with the drilled face of the formation. Compare
skid.

sidewall sample A sidewall core.

siliceous Of or pertaining to silica, containing silica, or partaking of its nature. Containing,

abundant quartz.

sigma log See Thermal Multigate Decay Log.

sigma unit s.u., capture unit. See capture cross section.

signal (1) A meaningful response to a well-logging instrument which can be detected or

measured.

(2) A measurement by a well-logging instrument which conveys the desired information

as opposed to unwanted noise.

signature log A display of the acoustic wave train in the amplitude-time mode wherein the amplitudes
of the different acoustic wave forms are shown as a function of time. See full wave train.
Compare intensity modulated-time.

single-point resistance log A resistance log (units = ohms) made from a monoelectrode or a single downhole
electrode. One electrode serves as both the A and M electrodes. Since the electrode is
short, thin beds and laminations can be sharply delineated; but investigation depth is
very shallow. Usual application is in minerals exploration.

single-receiver ∆t curve Single-receiver travel-time curve. A continuous record of the travel time for acoustic
energy to pass from a transmitter to a single receiver separated by a specific distance
 (i.e., spacing).

sinker bar A specialized heavy weight, or series of weights, which can be attached to some
downhole logging-tool assemblies in order to add the extra weight necessary for the
tool(s) to descend properly through heavy borehole fluids (muds).

skid (1) Usually, the projecting portion of the body of a sonde, containing detection and
measuring devices, which is pressed firmly against the face of the formation with
enough force to cut into mud cake. This minimizes the effects of the borehole when
using shallow investigative svstems (i.e., density, sidewall neutron techniques, etc.)

(2) Sometimes referred to as pad.

skid unit A self-contained instrument laboratory designed for well-loging services. primarily on
offshore rigs or barges.

skin A zone of reduced permeability around the well bore, resulting from damage due to the
drilling. completion, and/or production practices. See also skin effect part (2).

skin depth As originally defined for the case of a metallic wire carrying an alternating current, the
skin depth is the distance into the wire at which the current density is reduced to 1/e
(or 37%) of its value at the surface of the wire.

The term is retained in induction logging as a qualitative indicator of how deeply the
magnetic field penetrates into the formation. However, because of the different
geometry, the magnetic field penetrates much deeper into the formation in terms of skin
depths than for the wire geometry. For the frequency used by some induction logging
sondes, one skin depth in a formation of 1 ohm-m resistivity is 140 inches. Skin depth
varies in direct proportion to the square root of the resistivity. See skin effect part (1).

skin effect (1) In well logging. Sometimes called propagation effect. As applied to induction
logging, a reduction in the conductivity reading (increase in the resistivity reading)
observed in very conductive media. A thick-bed correction for the effect is usually
provided in the instrument. Residual corrections. when needed in thin beds, may be
 made by means of charts.

Simply stated, skin effect results from the interactions between adjacent ground loops
when, because of their high conductivity. they carry induced currents of appreciable
magnitudes. The magnetic fields of the ground-loop currents induce additional eddy
currents in adjacent ground loops which are superimposed on those induced by the
transmitter coil field. The net result is to nullify somewhat the magnetic field of the
transmitter coil, and the resultant field may be shifted in phase. The conductivity signal
seen at the receiver coils and the depth of investigation are thereby decreased.

The term "skin effect" originated from the tendency in metallic conductors for high-
frequency alternating-current flow to be concentrated near the surface or "in the skin" of
the conductor.

(2) In pressure transient testing and analysis. Skin effect is the additional resistance to
fluid flow which causes an additional pressure drop at the well bore and/or in the
formation near the well bore. The additional pressure drop is the result of some form of
damage occurring during the drilling, completion. and/or production operations. Some
factors which can cause this alteration are: invasion by mud filtrate or whole mud;
cement; partially plugged perforations; movable fines; introduced contaminants such as
rust, pipe dope, etc. The zone where permeability has been reduced by these factors
creates an additional pressure drop during production or injection and is referred to as
skin. The resulting effect is skin effect. The skin factor reflects the effects of the
additional pressure drop. A positive value of the skin factor denotes formation damage.
or damage at the well bore. A negative value of skin effect can result from man-made
fractures or any form of stimulation which increases the ease with which fluid can flow
in the region immediately surrounding the well bore.

skin factor The dimensionless van Everdingen Hurst skin factor which accounts for the additional
pressure drop assumed to occur at the wellbore face as a result of wellbore damage,
formation damage, or stimulation. The skin factor can be positive when the pressure
drop has been increased by damage; or negative, when improvement in fluid flow results
from stimulation. See also skin effect part (2).

skip See cycle skip.

Slant-hole Express A tradename for a method and system developed for obtaining a number of well logs in
highly deviated and bad boreholes. Drill pipe is lowered to a predetermined well depth.
The survey cable is then threaded into a side-entry sub and attached to the cable head.
which in turn is attached to the subsurface instruments that are to be lowered into the
 well through the drill pipe. The side-entry sub is attached to the drill pipe.

Once all connections are made, the logging instruments, drill pipe, and sub can be
lowered to a predetermined depth by ad ding nmore drill pipe above the sub. After the
drill pipe has been lowered to the desired depth, the logging instruments are lowered or
pumped out of the drill pipe to perfornm logging operations.

The survey cable is now outside the drill pipe and extending from the side-entry sub to
the derrick floor. Mud circulation through the drill pipe can be accomplished at any time
during operations.

Once the openhole logging is completed. the subsurface in struments reenter the drill
pipe and retrieval can be started. Presently, the Induction Electrolog, compensated
neutron log, Compensated Densilog/caliper, BHC Acoustilog, gamma-ray log, and
Neutron Lifetime Log can be run on this system. Slant-hole Express is a tradename of
Dresser Atlas. See illustration at high-angle borehole logging system.

slim-hole drilling A means of reducing the cost of a well by drilling a smaller-diameter hole than is
customary for the depth and the types of formations to be drilled. A slim hole permits
the scaling down of all phases of the drilling and completion operations; i.e., smaller
bits, less powerful and smaller rigs (engines pumps, draw works), smaller pipe, and less
drilling mud.

slippage velocity In a producing well, slippage velocity is the difference between the upward velocities of
the light and heavy fluid phases in two phase flow.

slug (1) A quantity of radioactive material injected into the borehole during radioactive tracer
surveys.

(2) A solid mass of metal debris which results from the collapse of the metallic liner
during detonation of a shaped charge. The slug follows the jet at about one-tenth the
velocity of the jet. Sometimes sufficient debris exists to partially plug perforations.

slug flow A fluid-flow condition in producing wells in which large bubbles of the lighter fluid
move upward faster than small ones and aggregate to form larger bubbles or slugs which
reach pipe diameter.
small slam A log combination and computation procedure for calculating the resistivity of the
invaded zone, the true resistivity, the diameter of invasion, and the water saturation
based on a dual induction-laterolog and a porosity log.

snorkel A hollow cylinder at the center of a wireline formation tester pad, serving as the fluid
sample intake device. It penetrates unconsolidated formation during operation to avoid
undermining of the pad seal by the flowing sand (which is filtered out of the sample
intake by a filter in the snorkel).

Society of Petroleum
SPE. Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME. See AIME.
Engineers

Society of Professional SPWLA. A society of 3800 persons (as of 1984) in over 60 countries which was
Well Log Analysts organized to advance the science of formation evaluation through well-logging
techniques. It was organized on January 29, 1959 at Tulsa, Oklahoma; incorporated
December 14, 1959 in the State of Oklahoma; and has its business office in Houston,
Texas. The SPWLA conducts annual symposia and publishes "The Log Analyst."

soft formation A friable, unconsolidated, or poorly consolidated sedimentary rock.

soft rock See soft formation.

soft rock discipline Used to distinguish between mining (hard rock) discipline and petroleum (soft rock)
discipline.

software The programs and routines used to extend the capabilities of computers.

solution A uniform mixture of two or more substances. The dissolved substance is the solute.
The substance in which the solute is dissolved is the solvent.
solution gas Lighter hydrocarbons that exist as a liquid under reservoir conditions, but become a gas
when pressure is reduced as the reservoir is produced. See solution-gas drive.

solution-gas drive A source of natural reservoir energy, in which the solution gas coming out of the oil
expands to force the oil into the wellbore.

solution gas-oil ratio See gas-oil ratio.

sonar A technique involving the measurement of the time interval between the emission of a
focused acoustic signal and detection of the signal reflected from a distant surface. The
time interval is related to the distance to the reflecting surface. Used in liquids.

sonar caliper A logging tool used in solution caverns to determine cavern size. Using the sonar
principle, one or more rotating sound emitting and receiving devices are used to record a
360° profile of the cavern walls.

sonde A detachable probe or downhole tool. A downhole instrument connected to a well-

logging cable. Used in making measurements of parameters related to the borehole or its
environment. A general term used for any subsurface logging tool that carries
electrodes, detectors, etc. into the borehole. The cartridge, which consists of the
electronics, might or might not be an integral part of the sonde. The term "sonde" has
been modernized through use by some users to include the entire downhole, detachable
tool.

sonde error An unwanted portion of the total conductivity signal sent to the surface by the downhole
induction-logging instrument. The sonde error is generated by imperfections in the coils
in the sonde. It is isolated and measured during the calibration operation when the sonde
is placed in a zero signal medium (air). Once evaluated, it is cancelled during the survey
operation. See also diode error.
sonic log An acoustic log. A well-logging record of the travel time (interval transit time) of the
compression wave over a unit distance: and hence, a record of the reciprocal of the
compressional wave velocity. The time for acoustic energy to travel a distance through
the formation equal to the distance spanned by two receivers is the desired
measurement. The units of such measurement are usually expressed in microseconds per
foot. The interval transit time can be integrated to give the total travel time over the
logged interval. For the borehole compensated sonic log, two transmitters (one above
the receivers and one below) are pulsed alternately to produce an improved log;
averaging the measurements tends to cancel errors due to sonde tilt or changes in hole
size.

The sonic log is used in combination with other logs (e.g., density and neutron) for
porosity, shaliness, and lithology interpretation. Integrated transit time is helpful in
interpreting seismic records. See acoustic log.
sonic t stretch, sonic ∆t See interval transit-time stretch.
stretch
sour Containing hydrogen sulfide. or caused by hydrogen sulfide or other sulfur compounds.
Compare sweet.

source In well logging, the source of radiation used in the operation of radioactivity logging or
nuclear logging tools. A distinction should be made between the encapsulated radiation
sources of gamma rays or neutrons and the neutron generator, also a producer of
radiation. Compare test pill.

SP Spontaneous potential, self potential. The difference of potential (DC voltage) between a
movable electrode in the borehole and a distant reference electrode usually at the
surface. The SP results from the IR drop measurable in the borehole produced by the
flow of SP currents in the hole. These currents are generated by the electrochemical and
electrokinetic potentials.

In impermeable shales, the SP tends to follow a fairly constant shale base line. In
permeable formations, the deflection depends on the contrast between the ion content of
the formation water and that of the following: drilling mud filtrate, the clay content, the
bed thickness and resistivity, hole size, invasion, and bed boundary effects, etc. In thick,
permeable, clean, nonshale formations, the SP value approaches the fairly constant static
SP value which will change if the formation water salinity changes. In dirty reservoir
rocks, the SP will not reach the same value, and a pseudo-static SP value will be
recorded.

The SP is most useful when the mud is fresher than the formation water, a good contrast
exists between mud filtrate and formation water resistivities, and formation resistivity is
low to moderate. In these cases, it indicates permeable beds by large negative
deflections, permits easy sand-shale discrimination, is useful for correlations, and under
favorable conditions, can be used for the estimation of formation water resistivity.

The curve still remains useful in some saline muds. If the formation water is less saline
than the mud filtrate, the SP deflection will be positive. However, when the mud column
becomes so conductive it will not support a demonstrable IR drop, the SP curve
becomes featureless. See electrochemical potential, electrokinetic potential, SSP,
activity, and differential SP.
spacing The distance between certain electrodes or sensors on logging tools. In nuclear devices,
usually the distance from the source to the detector. In acoustic devices, the spacing is
the distance between the transmitter and the nearest receiver in use. See also span.

span The distance separating certain sensors on logging sondes. On the acoustic sonde, the
span is the distance between two receivers of a pair, whereas spacing is the distance
from transmitter to the nearest receiver of interest.

SPE Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME. See AIME.

specific acoustic time See interval transit time.

specific activity The total radioactivity of a gram of a given isotope, expressed in curies per gram.

specific gravity (1) Of solids or liquids, it is the ratio of the density of the material at standard conditions
of temperature and pressure to the density of pure water under standard conditions.

(2) Of a gas, it is the ratio of the density of the specific gas at standard conditions of
temperature and pressure to the density of dry air standard conditions.

specific heat The amount of heat required to cause a unit increase in temperature in a unit mass of a
substance, expressed as numerically equal to the number of calories needed to raise the
temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 degree C.

spectral gamma-ray log Natural gamma-ray spectral log. Unstable isotopes emit particulate (alpha, beta) and
electromagnetic (gamma) radiation. Penetrating gamma rays are suitable for borehole
detection. Isotopes of specific elements radiate gamma rays exhibiting specific energy
levels within the energy spectrum. Identification of the specific energy level(s) and the
amount of gamma radiation (at the specific level) provides a means of identifying the
isotope and the quantity of the element. Compare induced spectral gamma-ray log.

spherically focused log SFL. A log of formation resistivity measured by a tool developed for the limited
investigation of the invaded zone.

Focusing is used to enforce an approximately spherical shape on the equipotential

surfaces within the formation in spite of the presence of the borehole. Borehole effect is
virtually eliminated for hole diameters up to 10 in., yet investigation of the tool is kept
shallow enough that its response is, in the majority of cases, mostly from the invaded
zone. SFL is a mark of Schlumberger.
spike Noise: A spurious, unwanted event recorded on a curve of a well log.

spine-and-ribs plot A plot used in the computation of the compensation to be added to the measured value
of bulk density from the dual-spacing formation density log; i.e., compensated formation
density log. The spine-and-ribs plot is a crossplot of the long-spacing detector counting
rate versus the short-spacing detector counting rate. For small thicknesses of mud cake
and other borehole irregularities of small dimension, the slope of the line, passing
through the value for correct bulk density and the measured values of density (from each
detector), is virtually the same for the usual densities and thicknesses of intervening
materials separating the detectors and the formation wall. The importance of this finding
with dual-spacing density measuring systems is that it provides a means for estimating
the amount of correction to be added to or subtracted from the measured response from
the long-spacing detector. Both the compensated density measurement and the amount
of compensation, ∆ρ, are then recorded on the log. See compensated formation density
log.
spinner A flowmeter. The downhole instrument consists of an impeller, inside a protective cage,
which is caused to rotate by the motion of borehole fluid past the blades. An alternating
current, or the frequency of pulses, constitutes the signal sent to the surface and is
related to the rate of fluid flow pass the impeller. A survey is made by moving the tool
against the flow of fluid, with the flow, or maintained stationary in the hole. Its primary
use is in monophasic flow streams.
spinner survey A well log of the fluid flow rate over parts of the well bore as determined from
responses of a spinner-type device placed in the fluid flow stream (i.e., in casing or
tubing, etc.)

spontaneous potential See SP.

SP reduction factor The ratio of PSP to SSP. Sometimes called alpha. See PSP and SSP.

spud (1) With a well-logging tool, to raise the tool a short distance and drop it repeatedly
against minor obstructions in the hole in order to reach greater depths in the borehole.
An operation which should be carried out only with care.

(2) With well-drilling equipment, to move the drill stem up and down in the hole over a
short distance without rotation in order to clear ohstructions in the hole.

spud in To start actual drilling of the borehole.

spurt loss That quantity of mud filtrate which invades porous and permeable rock, immediately
following bit penetration of the rock, while the effective permeability to the infiltrating
phase controls the fluid loss. Once an appreciable mud cake has formed, the
permeability of the mud cake is the fluid-loss controlling factor.

SPWLA See Society of Professional Well Log Analysts.

squeeze cementing The forcing of cement slurry by pressure to specified points in a well to cause seals at
the points of squeeze. It is a secondary-cementing method, used to isolate a producing
formation, seal off water, repair casing leaks, etc.

SSP Static spontaneous potential. The maximum SP that would be recorded when the SP
electrode passes from a position well inside a very thick, porous, permeable clean sand
(or other reservoir rock) to a point well within a thick shale. The static spontaneous
potential given by the sum of the components of the electrochemical potential is:

SSP = –K log10(aw / amf) ,

 where

and aw and amf are the activities of the formation water and mud filtrate, respectively.
Because of the inverse relationship between activity and equivalent resistivity in dilute
solutions, this equation is approximated by

SSP = –K log10 (Rmfe / Rwe)

where Rmfe and Rwe are the equivalent resistivities of mud filtrate and formation water,
respectively. For NaCI solutions which are not too saline, Rmfe = Rmf and Rwe = Rw; for
more concentrated solutions, an activity correction should be made. Since the static SP
in a sandstone is equal to the potential causing current (I) to flow in a mud column of
resistance (Rm), shale of resistance (Rsh), and a sandstone of resistance (Rss), then

SSP = IRm + IRsh + IRss

where the measured SP is IRm.

standard conditions STP. Standard conditions of temperature and pressure. According to American Gas
Association, 60°F and 1 atmosphere pressure (14.7 psia).

standard conditions of See standard conditions.

temperature and
pressure

standard cubic foot of gas One cubic foot of gas at 60°F and l 4.7 psia.

standard deviation In statistics. The positive square root of the expected value of the square of the
difference between a random variable and its mean. With a normal distribution of data,
68.3% of the data fall within one standard deviation from the mean.

standoff (1) The distance separating a sonde from the wall of the borehole.
 (2) A device for producing the separation in (1). Compare centralizer.

(3) In perforating, the distance a jet or bullet must travel in the wellbore before
encountering the wall of the formation.

stand of pipe A section of drill pipe or tubing (one, two, or three – sometimes four joints) unscrewed
from the string as a unit and racked in the derrick. The height of the derrick determines
the number of joints that can be unscrewed in one "stand of pipe."

static (1) at rest, immobile.

(2) Noise sometimes appearing on well log curves.

static fluid level A misnomer; it means the level to which liquid rises in a well when the well is shut in.

static mud column Hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of the mud column.
pressure

static spontaneous
Static SP. See SSP.
potential

static well conditions The environmental conditions at any given level in the hole when the well is shut-in and
crossflow does not exist.

statistical check A recording of the measured variable at a given depth in the hole to determine the effect
of statistical variations on the measurement with time.

statistical fluctuations See statistical variations.

statistical variations Nuclear emissions are random in nature. Variations in the number of specific nuclear
emissions observed over a period of time are referred to as statistical variations. Because
of the statistical nature of these emissions, radioactivity measurements must be averaged
over a length of time in order to determine the representative level of radioactivity for
the formation.

step Step distance in dipmeter computation process. Usually expressed as a percentage of the
correlation length. When the computer has finished correlating the microresistivity data
for a given position of the "window," then the window is moved uphole a specified
distance and the entire process is repeated. A customary step value is 50 percent. Thus, a
4-foot window would be moved 2 feet, providing a 2-foot overlap.

step-out well A well drilled adjacent to a proven well, but located in an unproven area, in order to
determine the extent and boundaries of a producing formation.

step profile An idealized invasion profile which assumes an abrupt transition from the flushed zone
to the uninvaded zone. Used as a convenience in some interpretation processes where
the diameter of invasion is calculated in order to provide weighting factors for responses
from the flushed zone and uninvaded zone. Compare transition profile.
stick plot A presentation of dipmeter results where the well bore is represented by a line according
to the projection of the well onto a vertical plane, and the components of dip in this
plane are indicated by shore line segments.
stimulation Any process undertaken to improve production from a subsurface formation.
Stimulation may involve acid stimulation, hydraulic fracturing, perforating, or simply
cleaning out the well and controlling sand production.

stock tank barrel STB. A 42-gallon barrel of crude oil at standard conditions of temperature and pressure.

Stoneley wave A boundary acoustic wave as a liquid-solid interface (i.e., formation wall at the
borehole) resulting from the interaction of the compressional wave in the liquid and the
shear wave in the solid. By definition, the Stoneley wave must have a wavelength
smaller than the borehole diameter. Particle motion in the solid wall will be elliptical
 and retrograde similar to a Rayleigh wave. The velocity of the Stoneley wave will be
less than that of the compressional wave in fluid or the shear wave in the solid. See also
tube wave.

STP See standard conditions.

strata Plural of stratum. See stratum.

Stratalogs Computer-processed interpretations produced at the well site. Stratalogs is a Birdwell

trademark. See computed log analysis.

stratification Refers to the vertical succession of unlike strata (layering of the beds) penetrated by the
well bore. The layers of strata can be differentiated from one another by the difference in
their well log-derived properties caused by differences in composition, porosity,
resistivity, etc.

stratigraphic trap A type of reservoir capable of trapping oil or gas due to changes in porosity and
permeability or to the termination of the reservoir bed.

stratigraphy A branch of geology concerned with the study of the origin, composition, distribution,
and succession of rock strata.

stratum A section of a formation that consists throughout of approximately the same kind of
rock material. A single sedimentary bed or layer regardless of thickness.

streaming potential See electrokinetic potential.

stretch (1) See interval transit-time stretch.

(2) Survey cable stretch.

strike The direction or bearing of a horizontal line drawn on the plane of a structural surface;
e.g., inclined stratum, fault plane, etc. The strike is perpendicular to the direction of dip.
The bearing can be referred to south or north; e.g., N 30° E or S 30° W.

strip log A record (often in colors and symbols) of the lithology penetrated by a borehole, also
indicating shows and tests of oil, gas, etc.

strip over See cut-and-thread fishing technique.

stripper A line wiper for the removal of excess mud or oil from the survey cable.

stripper well A well nearing depletion, producing a very small amount of oil.

structural (1) In the microscopic sense, it pertains to the framework of rock. It refers to that rock
material (called matrix by some log analysts) which creates the load-bearing structure.
 The interstices and other voids in the structure constitute porosity.

(2) In the megascopic sense, it pertains to large visible features of rock.

structural trap A trap in reservoir rock which has been tormed by the deformation (folding or faulting)
of the rock layer. Anticlines, salt domes, and faults of different kinds result in barriers
which form traps. See fault and fold.

stuck pipe Drill pipe, drill collars, casing, or tubing that has inadvertently become lodged
immovably in the hole. It may occur when drilling is in progress, when casing is being
run in the hole, or when the drill pipe is being hoisted.

stuck point The depth in the hole at which the drill stem, tubing, or casing is stuck.

stuffing box A pressure-control fitting which attaches to the top of riser equipment. Contains rubber
glands which can be closed down around survey cable to form a fit capable of
withstanding low pressures at the wellhead. Cable can be moved when glands are closed
down on the cable. When glands cut out under pressure, the blowout preventer can be
closed on the line and the glands replaced. Compare hydraulic packing head.

sub An adapter. A short device, usually threaded, which is used to connect two pieces of
equipment when their respective threads (or other connectors) do not match.

substructure The sturdy structure upon which the derrick or mast is erected. Substructures commonly
are l0 to 30 feet high and provide space beneath the derrick floor for blowout preventing
equipment and handling of circulated drilling fluid.

suction line The line that carries a product out of a tank to the suction side of the pumps.
suction pit The mud pit from which mud is picked up by the suction of the mud pumps. Also called
a sump pit.

super-saturated A solution which contains more of the solute than is normally present when equilibrium
is established between the saturated solution and undissolved solute.

surface casing The first string of casing set in a well after the conductor pipe, varying in length from a
few hundred to several thousand feet. Some states require a minimum length to protect
aquifiers containing fresh water.

surface conductance Electrical conductance occurring at the surfaces of some solid crystalline materials when
they are exposed to aqueous solutions.

Ion exchange provides a mechanism of electrical conduction in wet clay-like materials

whereby the (usually positively charged) ions move under the influence of an impressed
electrical field between "exchange sites" on the surfaces of the particles. See ion
exchange.

surface pipe See surface casing.

surface pressure The pressure in the well bore measured at the wellhead.

survey (1) To take and record borehole geophysical measurements; i.e., the act or performance
of a well-logging operation. To a well log

(2) The result of a well-logging operation, a well log.

survey cable Logging cable, hoist cable. Contains one or more insulated electrical conductors (often
seven) enclosed in a tightly wrapped sheath of steel wires (armor).
swab (1) A hollow, rubber-faced cylinder mounted on a hollow mandrel with a pin joint on
the upper end to connect to the swab line. A check valve that opens upward on the lower
end provides a way to remove the fluid from the well when pressure is insufficient to
support flow.

(2) To operate a swab on a wireline to bring well fluids to the surface when the well
does not flow naturally. Swabbing is a temporary means to produce a well in order to
determine whether or not the well can be made to flow. If the well does not flow after
being swabbed, a pump is installed as a permanent lifting device to bring the oil to the
surface.

S-wave See shear wave.

sweet Containing little or no hydrogen sulfide or sulfur compounds.

symbols Short forms or abbreviations used for identifying well-logging parameters.

syncline A downwarped, trough-shaped configuration of folded, stratified rocks. The reverse of

an anticline. See illustration in fold.

Synergetic Synergistic. Coined from the word synergism. Webster's definition of synergism:
cooperative action of discrete agencies such that the total effect is greater than the sum
of two or more effects taken independently. A Synergetic log analysis is a computed log
analysis performed at a computer center. Synergetic is a mark of Schlumberger.

synthetic seismogram A one-dimensional seismic trace constructed from contrasts in velocity or acoustic
impedance derived from acoustic transit time logs and/or density logs from a well. The
reflection coefficients calculated (at equal intervals of reflection times) from these
values are convolved with a typical seismic wavelet to produce the synthetic seismic
trace, which may include time-varying filtering, amplitude, and multiple content. It is an
excellent medium to correlate well logs to the seismic field record. Errors in integrated
transit time must be corrected by using data from a check shot survey or by correlation
to the field seismic record section.
 T Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

tadpole plot An arrow plot. A plot of dipmeter or drift results where the dip angle is plotted versus
depth as the displacement of a dot. A line segment points from the dot in the direction of
dip using the usual map convention of north being at the top. Sometimes called a vector
plot.

tail (1) Log tail. A short form appended to the well log, containing vital information to
identify the well and curve scales.
(2) Calibration tail. An appendage to the well log which contains all recorded calibration
information for the survey.
(3) Any other appended information or record (e.g., repeat section).

tar A naturally occurring black, viscous, residual crude oil containing a large quantity of
polar compounds and asphaltines.

tar sand Native asphalt, solid and semi-solid bitumen, including tar-impregnated rock or sands
from which oil is recoverable by special treatment.

tattle-tale See minute-mark.

TC See time constant.

TD Total depth.

TDS Total dissolved solids. Reported in either ppm or mg/liter. See parts per million.

tectonic Of, pertaining to, or designating the rock structure and external forms resulting from the
deformation of the earth's crust.

televiewer See borehole televiewer.

telluric currents Earth currents. The term usually refers to natural earth currents originating as a result of
variations in the earth's magnetic field. Sometimes the term is applied also to earth
currents resulting from artificial electric or magnetic fields.

As applied to well logging, a component of telluric current along the borehole may
produce an undesired variable voltage between measure and ground electrodes which is
superimposed on the SP. Such interference is easily detected by holding the sonde
stationary in the hole and observing whether the SP voltage continues to vary. The
greatest interference is likely to occur in regions of high magnetic activity and for large
formation-resistivity to mud-resistivity ratios. In some instances, moving the ground
electrode improves the situation. When interference is severe, it may be necessary to
forego recording the usual SP curve and record, instead, a differential SP between two
electrodes on the downhole configuration.

Telluric currents may create problems on resistivity measurements with large spacings
and at very low frequencies (e.g., the ultra-long-spaced electrical log).

temperature A manifestation of the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules of a

substance caused by ther mal agitation. See absolute temperature scale, centigrade scale,
and Fahrenheit scale.
temperature gradient Thermal gradient. Compare geothermal gradient.

temperature log A well log of temperatures recorded within the borehole, utilizing a temperature-
sensitive element exposed to wellbore fluid. The temperature survey is often used to
locate permeable gas producing zones in empty holes, and to locate producing or
injection intervals, acid treatment in tervals, and casing leaks, crossflows, etc. in cased
holes. The differential temperature survey, recorded with either one or two temperature
sensors, records the rate of change in temperature with respect to depth. It is very
sensitive to small changes in temperature resulting from small thermal events.

terrain correction A correction to borehole gravity data required because the surroundings are not all at the
same elevation as the wellhead. Relief in the immediate vicinity of the well may require
special surveying. Corrections for relief more remote from the well often are made from
a topographic map.

tertiary recovery Recovery methods which increase ultimate oil production beyond that achievable with
primary and secondary methods. These methods are usually employed in the latter
stages of conventional secondary flooding applications, but may be implemented early
in the secondary application or in combination with the secondary method. These oil
recovery methods enhance the production of oil by increasing the proportion of the
reservoir affected, reducing the amount of residual oil in the swept zones and reducing
the viscosity of thick oils.

The tertiary methods usually are divided into three broad groups: thermal, miscible and
chemical. See also primary and secondary recovery.

test film A short film documenting the calibration procedure. See calibration tail.

test loop Calibration loop. A device used to calibrate induction logging tools. A test loop is an
artificial ground loop which consists of a continuous loop (i.e., ring) of electrically
conductive material containing a series connected precision resistor. The purpose of the
loop is to provide a precise, calibrated, repeatable signal in the induction receiver coils
when it is placed over the measure point of the activated tool in a zero signal medium
(i.e., air). See induction log.
test pill Calibration source. An encapsulated radioactive material which serves as a portable
source of gamma radiation for the calibration of some radioactivity logging tools.

test set A volt-ohmmeter used by all logging crews for troubleshooting and checking insulation
and continuity of the conductors in the survey cable and for making simple electrical
checks on other equipment.

thermal conductivity A measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat. The time-rate-of-transfer of heat
by conduction, through unit thickness, across unit area for unit difference in
temperature.

thermal decay time The time for the neutron population to fall to 1/e (37%) of its original value. When the
macroscopic capture cross section, Σ, is in capture units (1 c.u. = 10–3 cm–1) and τ is in
microseconds, Σ and τ are related by Σ = 4,550/τ.

Thermal (Neutron) TDT. The Thermal Decay Time Log is a record of the rate of capture of thermal
Decay Time Log neutrons in a portion of formation after it is bombarded with a burst of 14-MeV
neutrons. An electronic neutron generator in the tool produces pulses of neutrons which
spread into the borehole and formation.

The neutrons are quickly slowed down to thermal energies by successive collisions with
atomic nuclei of elements in the surrounding media. The thermalized neutrons are
gradually captured by elements within the neutron cloud, and, with each capture, gamma
rays are emitted. The rate at which these neutrons are captured depends on the nuclear
capture cross sections which are characteristic of the elements making up the formation
and occupying its pore volume. The gamma rays of capture which are emitted are
counted at one or more detectors in the sonde during different time gates following the
burst, and from these counts the rate of neutron decay is automatically computed. One of
the results displayed is the thermal decay time, τ, which is related to the macroscopic
capture cross section of the formation, Σ, which is also displayed.

Because chlorine is by far the strongest neutron absorber of the common earth elements,
the response of the tool is determined primarily by the chlorine present (as sodium
chloride) in the formation water. Like the resistivity log, therefore, the measured
response is sensitive to the salinity and amount of formation water present in the pore
volume. The response is relatively unaffected by the usual borehole and casing sizes
encountered over pay zones. Consequently, when formation water salinity permits,
Thermal Decay Time logging provides a means to recognize the presence of
hydrocarbons in formations which have been cased, and to detect changes in water
 saturation during the production life of the well. The TDT log is useful for the
evaluation of oil wells, for diagnosing production problems, and for monitoring
reservoir performance.

The TDT-K system utilizes two detectors and two variable time gates (plus a
background gate) to sample the capture gamma radiation decay following the neutron
burst. The width and positions of the time gates. as well as the neutron burst width and
burst repetition rate, are varied in response to signals that are related to Σ (or more
precisely, related to the formation decay rate, τ, where τ = 4550/Σ).

The TDT-M system utilizes sixteen time gates and one of four possible neutron burst
widths and burst repetition rates. Counts from the sixteen gates are combined to form
two "sum" gates (plus a background gate) from which Σ is computed. As in the TDT-K
system, the combination of gates used to form the "sum" gates, as well as the burst width
and repetition rate, are selected according to Σ (or τ) of the formation.

The ratio of counts (R) in the near-spaced to far-spaced detector is recorded and used as
an estimate of formation porosity. TDT is a mark of Schlumberger.

thermal diffusivity Coefficient of thermal diffusion. A thermal property of matter, with the dimensions of
area per unit time.
thermal expansion The volumetric change in a unit volume of material when the temperature is increased.
Thermal expansion and thermal contraction have different bases and are not numerically
equal.

thermal gradient The rate of increase or decrease in temperature with distance in a given direction.
Compare geothermal gradient.

Thermal Multigate Decay TMD. A record of the macroscopic thermal neutron cross sections of the formation (ΣF)
Log and the borehole (ΣB).

An electronic neutron generator produces bursts of pulses of 14-MeV neutrons which

spread into the formation and borehole. Following each burst, the neutrons are quickly
slowed to thermal energies by successive collisions with nuclei in the surrounding
media. The thermalized neutrons are then captured by elements within the formation and
borehole, producing gamma radiation. Gamma radiation intensity is sampled in two
detectors at six time intervals (time gates) following each burst. These data are used to
compute ΣF and ΣB Also, the ratio (R) of counts in the near-spaced to far-spaced detector
is recorded and used to estimate formation porosity.

Of the common earth elements, chlorine is by far the strongest neutron absorber and is
found mainly in the formation water (as sodium chloride) rather than in the formation
matrix. ΣF primarily a function of the salinity and amounts of water present in the pore
volume. Therefore, ΣF is used with porosity from R to compute formation hydrocarbon
saturation if the formation water is saline. The ΣF curve is relatively unaffected by casing
and tubing. ΣB is used with ΣF to obtain a very accurate true (intrinsic) formation cross
section and an improved porosity estimate. In addition, ΣB can indicate a variety of well
bore conditions such as gas between the tubing and casing, and oil-water contacts.
Thermal Multigate Decay Log (TMD) is a Welex trademark.

thermal neutron A neutron which has the kinetic energy of about 0.025 eV. The thermal neutron is in
thermal equilibrium with the substance in which it exists and will neither gain nor lose
energy statistically until it is captured by a neutron absorber. See neutron and capture
cross section. Compare epithermal neutron.

thermal relaxation time In nuclear magnetism logging. The rate of polarization buildup as a function of
polarizing time.
thermistor A resistor (usually a composite semiconductor) with a large temperature coefficient of
resistance that is useful for measuring temperature.

thermocouple An electrical circuit consisting of dissimilar metals joined or welded at two junctions. A
potential difference is developed between the junctions if they are at different
temperatures.

thief zone Thief formation. A part of a formation which takes drilling mud after it has been
penetrated by the borehole. This loss of mud into the formation constitutes lost returns
and could result in lost circulation.

third curve A name given to the medium resistivity investigation curve appearing on electrical
surveys in the 1930s and 1940s. See further discussion of this curve under electrical
survey.

thixotropy The property exhibited by various gels which allows them to become fluid when
agitated, and of setting again to a gel when allowed to stand. Drilling muds are often
thixotropic.

thumper A hydraulically operated hammer used in obtaining a seismograph in oil exploration. It

is mounted on a vehicle and, when dropped, creates shock waves in subsurface
formations, which are recorded and interpreted to reveal geophysical information.

tic-mark A mark on a well log indicating equal cumulative values of hole volume, travel time,
etc.

tidal correction Tidal corrections to gravity observations are required because of variations resulting
from the attraction of the moon and sun and the distortion of the earth so produced.
Corrections are determined from tables or computer programs.
tight Having very low permeability.

tight hole (1) A well about which information is restricted and passed only to those authorized, for
security and competitive reasons.

(2) A small-diameter part of the borehole which causes downhole logging tools to hang
up.

time-average relationship An empirical expression used for calculating porosity from interval transit time
determined from acoustic logs:

where t = observed interval transit time, tf = transit time in the pore fluid, and
tma = transit time in the rock matrix. This relation works well in clean consolidated
formations with uniformly distributed pores. In vuggy formations, the sonic log may not
reflect the secondary porosity; and in unconsolidated formations, this relationship may
overestimate porosity. In such cases, the formula may be empirically modified to give
better values.

time constant (1) The time in seconds for a measuring instrument to register a 63% change from a
former level of response toward a new level of response.
(2) In nuclear logging, because of the random nature of nuclear emissions, the detector
output is averaged over a selected time interval in order to record the representative
radiation level of the environment. Instrument response will thus adjust gradually to
environmental changes depending on the length of the averaging time (i.e., time
constant). See also lag.

time-depth integration TDI. See transit-time integration.

time-since-circulation The length of time elapsed after circulation has ceased until the logging tool reaches
total depth in the well. Maximum temperature in the well is presumed to be registered
 on the maximum-reading thermometer at the deepest depth.

tool Downhole tool or downhole instrument package. A complete subsurface service device.
A number of tools can be run simultaneously as a combination service. The combination
of tools will also be a tool. When sonde and cartridge designations are used, the term
tool includes the combined sonde and cartridge.

tool error See sonde error.

toolpusher A contractor representative in the field. The toolpusher supervises the driller and the
drilling crew.

Toolpusher A specially designed system for use in highly deviated and bad holes which will
mechanically position a stack of conventional-type logging devices opposite the zones
or formations of interest. The Toolpusher uses drill pipe to push the logging devices to
the desired depths in the well.

Once the tools have been assembled, they are lowered into the well on drill pipe until the
top of the zone of interest is reached. At this point, a side entry sub is made up into the
drill string through which the wireline is inserted and lowered to the latch assembly at
the top of the tool stack. Its positive connection is ensured by applying tension to the
wireline. The side entry sub is sealed. the hook and rotary table locked, (to minimize
pipe rotation) and the drill string lowered until the tools are positioned at the bottom of
the zone of interest. The wireline can be pumped down if necessary. Once in logging
position. the compensated density tool is positioned with the rotary table such that an
extendable pad on the tool contacts the high or low side of the hole.

The zone of interest is logged as the pipe is pulled out of the hole in single or multiple
joints. Log data is multiplexed through a single conductor to the surface. When the zone
of interest has been logged, tension is removed from the wireline releasing it from the
latch. The wireline is recovered leaving the drilling crew a conventional trip out of the
hole.

The logging devices available for use with the Toolpusher are: dual induction laterolog,
compensated density, gamma ray, compensated neutron, and directional survey package.
The Toolpusher is a Gearhart Industries trademark.
torpedo A quick-connecting and quick-disconnecting device, mounted near the head end of the
survey cable. which provides strength and the means to manually connect electrical
survey conductors to the bridle and head.

tortuosity The crookedness of the pore pattern. The ratio of the distance between two points by
way of the connected pores to the straight-line distance.

total depth TD. (1) The total depth reached by drilling tools.

(2) The total depth in the well reached by a specific logging tool.

total dissolved solids TDS. The total dissolved mineral matter in water (e.g., formation water). Usually
measured in mg/liter and often reported in parts per million, sometimes in grains per
gallon. May vary from a few hundred ppm to 300,000 ppm in oil field brines. Has been
reported as high as 642,798 ppm (sp. gr. 1.458) in brine from the Salina dolomite
(Silurian) in Michigan. Sea water usually has about 35,000 ppm. See also water analysis.

total porosity The total pore volume occupied by fluid in a rock. Includes isolated nonconnecting
pores and volume occupied by adsorbed, immobile fluid. See porosity. Compare
effective porosity.

trace (1) A curve on a well log.

(2) To follow, locate, and monitor the behavior of a slug of radioactive material. See
radioactive-tracer log.

tracer A substance added to reservoir fluid and/or injected fluid to permit the movements of
the fluid to be followed or traced. Dyes and radioactive substances are used as tracers in
underground water flows, and sometimes helium is used in gas. When samples of the
water or gas taken some distance from the point of injection reveal signs of the tracer,
the route of the fluids can be mapped. Radioactive tracers are used in injection fluids to
follow the movement of the injected fluids in the well bore.
tracer log Tracer survey. A well log used for the purpose of following, locating, or monitoring the
behavior of a traceable material (e.g., radioactive isotope, boron, etc.). See also
radioactive-tracer log.

track (1) Well log track on the API log grid. Holding the well log vertically so that the top of
the well appears at the top of the log,

Track = Log track on the left side of the log. Left of the depth column.
1
Track = Log track to the immediate right of the depth column and in the middle of
2 the log.
Track = Log track on the far right side of the log.
3

See scale for illustration.

(2) Follow parallel or nearly parallel.

transducer Any device or element which converts an input signal into an output signal of a different
form. For example, an electrical device which receives and transforms electrical energy
into another form, such as magnetostrictive material and winding used in acoustic
transmitters and receivers.

transition profile A realistic profile in which the distribution of fluids in the invaded section beyond the
flushed zone varies with increasing distance from the borehole. Compare step profile.

transition zone A zone of transitional saturations between water and gas, water and oil, or gas and oil.
The transitional zone between oil and water in a water wet rock, for example, will be
that length of formation where water will be at its lowest saturation at the top and oil
will be at its lowest saturation at the bottom. In this example, virtually l00% oil wouldbe
produced at the top of the transition zone, and virtually l00% water would be produced
at the bottom.

transit time See interval transit time.

transit-time integration TTI. Sonic interval transit time, t, is integrated over depth to yield total travel time. Tic-
marks are placed on the acoustic log at depth intervals corresponding to total travel time
increments of 1000 µs, or 1 ms each. These tic-marks may be used to determine acoustic
travel time.

transmitter A transducer. A device which emits energy into the environment of the logging
instrument. Used in acoustic logs, induction logs, etc. Compare receiver.

transmutation The process which results in the change ot an isotope of one element into an isotope of a
different element by the emission of energy during spontaneous radioactive decay or the
absorption of energy during activation.

transverse wave Shear wave.

trap Any feature or characteristic of a formation which will allow the accumulation, but not
the escape, of oil or gas. See structural trap and stratigraphic trap.

traveling block The large, heavy-duty block hanging in the mast or derrick and to which the hook is
attached. The traveling block supports the drill column and "travels" up and down as it
hoists the pipe out of the hole and lowers it in. The traveling block may contain from
three to six sheaves depending upon the loads to be handled and the mechanical
advantage necessary. The cable from the hoisting drum on the drawworks runs to the
derrick's crown block and down to the traveling block's sheaves.
travel time Acoustic travel time over a specific distance. For example, travel time may refer to
interval transit time or to integrated transit time.

treat To subject a substance to a process or to a chemical reagent to improve its quality or

remove a contaminant.

trip See roundtrip.

true bed thickness See bed thickness, and illustration at true vertical depth.
true resistivity The resistivity of fluid-filled rock where the fluid distributions and saturations are
representative of those in the uninvaded, undisturbed part of the rock

true vertical depth TVD. The vertical distance between a specific location in a borehole and a horizontal
plane passing through the depth datum. It is determined from directional surveys.

true vertical depth log A log computed from well logs obtained in deviated holes, in which measured depths
have been converted to true vertical depths.

trumpet log A microlaterolog, in which the bucking electrodes are concentric about the current
electrode so that the current flow is concentrated in a tube shape which gradually flares
out.
tube wave A Stoneley-type acoustic wave which has a wavelength in excess of five times the
diameter of the borehole. The velocity of tube waves, or Stoneley waves, is less than
that of the compressional wave in fluid or the shear wave in the solid. See Stoneley
wave.

tubing A small-diameter pipe that is run into a well to serve as a conduit for the passage of oil
and gas to the surface.

tubing head A flanged fitting that supports the tubing string, seals off pressure between the casing
and the outside of the tubing, and provides a connection that supports the Christmas tree.

tubing pressure The pressure inside the tubing in a well measured at the wellhead.

tuff Unconsolidated pyroclastic rock. Rock formed of compacted volcanic fragments,

generally smaller than 4 mm in diameter.

turbidite A sediment deposited by a turbidity current. See turbidity current.

turbidity current A highly turbid, sediment-rich. dense current which moves rapidly along the bottom of
standing water until it loses its energy.

turbodrill A drilling tool that rotates a bit attached to it by the action of the drilling mud on the
turbine blades built into the tool. When a turbodrill is used, rotary motion is imparted
only at the bit; thus it is unnecessary to rotate the drill stem. Although straight holes can
be drilled with the tool, it is used most often in directional drilling.

turbulent flow The high-velocity flow of fluids in which the fluid elements are heterogeneously mixed
 and confused, and local velocities and pressures fluctuate irregularly. Compare laminar
flow.

turnkey contract A drilling contract which calls for the payment of a stipulated amount to the drilling
contractor on completion of the well. In a turnkey contract, the contractor furnishes all
material and labor and controls the entire drilling operation. independent of supervision
by the operator.

TVD See true vertical depth.

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ULSEL Ultra-long-spaced electric log.

ultra-long-spaced electric ULSEL. A well log recorded with the use of a modified long normal electrode
log configuration mounted on a 5,000-foot bridle. The AM spacing can be made 75, 150,
600, or 1,000 feet. Differences between the measured resistivities and anticipated
resistivities calculated from conventional resistivity logs indicate nearby resistivity
anomalies. Used to define the distance to a salt dome flank. May have important
application in locating salt overhangs or casing in nearby well bores.

unconformity A surface of erosion which separates older sediment from younger sediment. Compare
nonconformity.

unconsolidated Pertains to a rock framework which lacks rigidity. Cohesiveness is lacking because of
the absence of cement or other binding means. Compare consolidated.

underpressure : An expression which has been used commonly to refer to low pressure found in some
formations, subnormal pressure. Technically, it should be said that underpressure is that
amount of pressure by which normal pore pressure exceeds the pore pressure of an
 underpressured formation. Pore pressure lower than normal pore pressure can occur in a
bed of interest when the water solution filling the pores of the body are in
communication with an outcrop at an elevation lower than the water table at the well
site. More commonly, underpressure results from prior production from a zone.

unit The producing venture, covered by several leases owned by different companies, which
is operated by one company. See also unit operator.

unit operator The producing company which is in charge of development and production of an oil or
gas field in which several companies have joined together to produce.

up time See lag time.

U.S. Geological Survey USGS. The U.S. Geological Survey, an arm of the U.S. Department of the Interior, is
the principal federal agency concerned with preparing accurate maps of the physical
features of the country and providing scientific information essential to the development
of the nation's land, mineral, and water resources. It is recognized as one of the world's
foremost research organizations in the earth sciences.

1. It makes maps:
o Topographic maps, showing accurately the shape of the land surface and
the location of natural and man made features – hills, valleys, streams,
lakes, highways, trails, buildings, etc.
o Hydrologic maps, showing the availability and quality of water.
o Geologic maps, showing the types, ages, and configurations of rock
formations that lie at and beneath the earth's surface.
o A variety of outline maps, mineral-resource maps, geophysical maps,
state base maps, and many others.
2. It studies the earth's processes that may be hazardous to man and his works, such
as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and floods, in an attempt to understand how
these processes operate, and hence how their destructive effects may be reduced
or prevented.
3. It develops new prospecting techniques that can be used by industry in its
continuing search for mineral resources.
4. It studies the natural processes that form deposits of valuable minerals. because
knowing why certain kinds of mineral resources are formed in certain locations
or in certain kinds of rocks may provide clues that will help to find new mineral
resources now hidden beneath the earth's surface.
5. It takes a continuing inventory of the nation's water resources and studies areas
 that have special water problems.
6. It classifies federally owned lands for mineral and water power potential.
7. It does fundamental research in topography, geology, hydrology, geochemistry,
geophysics, and related sciences.
8. It publishes maps and reports to make the results of these investigations available
to the public.

USGS See U.S. Geological Survey.

V Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

vapor dominated A geothermal system in which pressures are controlled by vapor rather than by liquids.

vaporization The process by which a liquid is converted into vapor.

vapor pressure The pressure at which a liquid and its vapor are in equilibrium at a given temperature.

variable density
Variable intensity. Intensity modulated-time presentation of the acoustic wave train in
which the amplitude of the wave form produces a variable photographic density which is
displayed versus time. The variations in darkness or density represent relative amplitude.
See intensity modulated-time and acoustic log. Compare amplitude-time. See illustration
at wave train display.

variable density log An acoustic log in which the acoustic wave train is recorded in the variable
photographic density or intensity modulated-time mode. See illustration at wave train
display.

variable intensity Variable density. An intensity modulated-time mode of acoustic wave train display .
vector plot Arrowplot. See tadpole plot.

velocimeter A device which measures fluid flow; a flowmeter.

vertical (1) an imaginary line perpendicular (at an angle of 90°) to the plane of the horizon.

(2) Said of a borehole which is straight. Not deviated.

vertical resolution The capability to resolve thin beds. Often expressed as the minimum thickness of
formation that can be distinguished by a tool under operating conditions.

vertical seismic profile VSP. A collection of seismic traces made from one-, two-, or three-dimensional
geophones mounted in the same downhole tool which is anchored to the borehole wall.
These traces are taken at sequential depths in a well and record the energy over a period
of several seconds received from one or more sources located at the surface. The
resulting profile displays the direct, reflected, refracted, and diffracted waves in both
compressional and shear modes from all interfaces in the sedimentary column. It is the
most accurate correlation tool for relating the well logs and lithologic logs to the field
seismograms.

viscometer A device for measuring viscosity Also called viscosimeter.

viscosity Resistance of a fluid to flow. Internal friction caused by molecular cohesion in fluids.
The internal properties of a fluid that offers resistance to flow. Viscosity of drilling
muds may be reported in different ways:

(1) Marsh funnel seconds. The time it takes for 1000 cm3 of drilling mud to flow through
the funnel. The longer the time in seconds, the more viscous is the mud.

(2) Yield point and plastic viscosity in centipoises. Using the combination of plastic
viscosity and yield point, the plastic viscosity indicates the flow characteristics of the
mud when it is moving rapidly, and the yield point indicates the flow characteristics
 when it is moving very slowly or at rest. In both cases, higher values indicate a more
viscous mud.

volcanic Of, pertaining to, like, or characteristic of a volcano; characterized by or composed of

volcanoes; produced, influenced, or changed by a volcano or by volcanic agencies;
made of materials derived from volcanoes.

voltmeter An instrument used to measure, in volts, the potential difference in an electrical circuit.

vug Solution cavity. See vugular porosity.

vugular porosity A form of secondary porosity resulting from the dissolution of more soluble portions of
rock or solution enlargement of pores or fractures. Common in carbonates. See also
porosity.

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wall sticking See differential-pressure sticking.

washout Excessive borehole enlargement caused by solvent and erosional action by the drilling
fluid.

washover Pertaining to part of the fishing operation to free stuck drill pipe or tubing.

wash over To release pipe that is stuck in the hole by running washover pipe. The washover pipe
must have an outside diameter small enough to fit into the borehole but an inside
diameter large enough to fit over the outside diameter of the stuck pipe. A rotary shoe,
 which cuts away the formation, mud, or whatever is sticking the pipe, is made up on the
bottom joint of the washover pipe, and the assembly is lowered into the hole. Rotation of
the assembly frees the stuck pipe. Several washovers may have to be made if the stuck
portion is very long.

water analysis (1) A chemical analysis of water in which the quantity of ions in solution is determined
for the common cations and anions (e.g., Na+, K+, Ca++, Mg++, S04--, Cl-, CO3--, HCO3-).
The character of the solution can be described in terms of the ion concentrations in parts
per million, milligrams per liter, or its reaction value.

The unit of concentration, parts per million, is related to the weights of positive and
negative ions in solution, and the combined weight of the positive ions does not balance
the combined weight of the negative ions.

The reaction value relates the weight of each ion to its valence and atomic (or radical)
weight. For example,

The reaction values of positive and negative ions are exactly equal when all ions have
been considered.

(2) An electrical resistivity analysis of water. Resistivity values of water solutions of

interest, as determined by actual measurement of each sample in a conductivity or
resistivity cell, are important in the analysis of resistivity well logs.

water-base mud A drilling mud in which the continuous phase is water. Compare oil-base mud.

water block A reduction in the relative permeability to oil or gas due to the increase in water
saturation near the borehole caused by the invasion of water from a water-base mud.

water cone See cone and coning.

water cut The volume fraction of water in the total volume of liquid produced from a well.
watercutmeter An annular capacitor. Water holdup is determined indirectly by measuring a frequency
which depends on the dielectric constant of the fluid flowing through the annular gap of
the instrument.

water-drive The reservoir-drive mechanism in which oil is produced by the expansion of the volume
of the underlying water, which forces the oil into the wellbore. In general, there are two
types of water drive: bottom-water drive, in which the oil is totally underlain by water,
and edgewater drive, in which only the edge of the oil is in contact with the water.
Bottom-water drive is more efficient.

watered-out Of a well, having gone to water.

water encroachment The movement of water into a producing formation as the formation is depleted of oil
and gas by production.

water entry survey A survey technique used to determine points of water entry in a producing well. One
such survey involves three different types of operations. Under dynamic well conditions,
the three surveys are run as follows:

(1) Temperature log. A continuous temperature profile is recorded over the interval of
interest.

(2) Radioactive-tracer log: Ejected slugs of radioactive tracer material are monitored in
order to determine the flow rate and direction.

(3) A conditioning survey is performed. To run a conditioning survey, a tool with a

gamma-ray detector and an isotope ejector is run into the borehole. The isotope ejector
is turned on, and the tool is lowered through the production interval at constant speed. A
gamma-ray log is run during the "conditioning" run in order to provide a base log to
which subsequent gamma-ray logs can be compared. Several subsequent gamma-ray
logging runs are then made through the conditioned interval. Water from the formation
entering theborehole will produce dilution of the isotope-treated fluid in the borehole,
and an upward displacement of the treated water column will occur. The combination of
surveys is then interpreted.
water flooding A method of secondary recovery in which water is injected into a reservoir in order to
move additional quantities of oil toward producing wells.

water loss A mud property. The measure of filtrate loss in a water base (water external phase)
drilling mud.

water saturation The fraction or percentage of the pore volume of a rock occupied by water. The
occupation may take different forms; i.e., funicular, insular, or pendular saturation See
saturation.

water table The undistorted upper surface of the saturated zone. The pressure everywhere on this
surface is at atmospheric pressure.

water wet hydrophilic. A solid surface is water wet when the adhesive attraction of water
molecules for the solid substance is greater than the attraction between water molecules.
The angle of contact of a water droplet on a water-wet solid surface will be less than 90°
(measured inside the water phase). A mobile nonwetting oil phase would advance over
the adhesive layer of water.

wavelength The distance between two points having the same phase in two consecutive cycles of a
periodic wave, along a line in the direction of propagation.

wavelet See wave train.

wave train The response of an elastic system to an acoustic energy impulse describes a wavelet of
several cycles of sinusoidal character. At the onset, the wavelet will be rich in all
frequencies but the high frequency components are attenuated rapidly by transit through
earth materials because of inelastic absorption and conversion to heat.

Wavelets are generated for each energy mode and the composite particle motion
resulting from the compressional, shear, fluid, and boundary waves becomes the wave
train with characteristics of the transmitting source, coupling, and the transmission
 media. See acoustic wave and wave train display, also Stoneley wave and tube wave.

wave train display The acoustic wave train can be displayed in different modes on some acoustic well logs.
For example:

(1)The intensity modulated-time mode in which the wave train is shown in the variable
photographic density form. See Micro-Seismogram.

(2) The amplitude-time mode in which the wave train is shown as a full wave form.
wave train log An acoustic log in which the acoustic wave train is displayed in either the intensity
modulated-time mode or the amplitude-time mode.

weak point A machined connector or calibrated cable designed to break under specific tensile stress.
It is connected to the cable inside the neck of the fishing bell. The weak point will part
well below the breaking tension required for new or wellworn logging cables. When the
weak point is broken intentionally (or accidentally), it leaves the fishing bell pointed up
for fishing purposes, unobstructed by coils of broken cable and wire. See also fishing
bell and rope socket.

weight indicator A surface panel on which the total weight or tension on the cable is metered and can be
monitored during the survey.
well bore A borehole. The bore of a well, whether cased or uncased. Often modernized to one
word, wellbore, particularly when the term is used as an adjective.

wellbore storage effect Afterflow or afterinjection, continuing for a short time after the well bore is shut in at
the surface, in the form of wellbore loading or unloading due to the compressibility of
fluids inside the well bore. The well bore has storage capacity equal to the volume
within the well bore in direct communication with the porous and permeable formation.
When the well bore is shut in at the wellhead, fluid will continue to flow into or out of
the well bore until pressure is equalized between the well bore and formation. No
wellbore storage effect can occur if the well bore is shut in at the bottom of the well at
the face of the formation.

well completion The activities and methods necessary to prepare a well for the production of oil and gas;
the method by which a flow line for hydrocarbons is established between the reservoir
and the surface. The method of well completion used by the operator depends on the
individual characteristics of the producing formation of formations. These techniques
include open-hole completions. conventional perforated completions, sand-exclusion
conmpletions, tubingless comple tions, multiple completions, and miniaturized
completions.

wellhead Of or pertaining to the equipment at the top of the well bore which is used to maintain
surface control of the well. Includes casinghead, tubing head, Christmas tree, etc.

well log wireline log, borehole log. The product of a survey operation, also called a survey,
consisting of one or more curves. Provides a permanent record of one or more physical
measurements as a function of depth in a well bore.

Well logs are used to identify and correlate underground rocks, and to determine the
mineralogy and physical properties of potential reservoir rocks and the nature of the
fluids they contain.

(1) A well log is recorded during a survey operation in which a sonde is lowered into the
well bore by a survey cable. The measurement made by the downhole instrument will be
of a physical nature (i.e., electrical, acoustical, nuclear, thermal, dimensional, etc.)
pertaining to some part of the wellbore environment or the well bore itself.

(2) Other types of well logs are made of data collected at the surface; examples are core
logs, drilling-time logs, mud sample logs, hydrocarbon well logs, etc.
 (3) Still other logs show quantities calculated from other measurements; examples are
movable oil plots, computed logs. etc.

well logging cable See logging cable.

well seismic recording The well seismic recording is a checkshot service which provides a depth-vs.-time
calibration for the seismic reflection technique. Seismic velocities are measured at the
well by recording the time required for a wavelet generated by a surface energy source
to reach the geophones in a tool anchored in the well. The recorded travel times of the
direct arrival are used to calibrate the sonic log, which then becomes the basic seismic
reference and allows a surface seismic cross section to be scaled to depth.

well spacing The regulation of the number and location of wells over a reservoir as a conservation
measure.

wettability The ability of any solid surface to be wetted when in contact with a liquid; that is, the
surface tension of the liquid is reduced so that the liquid spreads over the surface. See
water wet and oil wet.

whipstock A long, steel casing that uses an inclined plane to cause the bit to deflect from the
original borehole at a slight angle. Whipstocks are commonly used in controlled
directional drilling, to straighten crooked boreholes, or to sidetrack to avoid unretrieved
fish.

wiggle trace Obsolete term, see full waveform recording.

wildcat A well drilled in an area where no oil or gas production exists.

wild well A well which has blown out of control and from which oil, water, or gas is escaping
 with great force. Also called a gusher.

winch A machine that pulls or hoists by winding a cable around a spool.

wireline log See well log.

work over To perform one or more of a variety of remedial operations on a producing oil well to
try to increase production. Examples of workover operations are deepening, plugging
back, pulling and resetting liner, squeeze cementing, etc.

X Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

x-ray A nonnuclear electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength, in the interval of 0.1-
100 angstroms: i.e., between that of gamma rays and ultraviolet radiation. A penetrating
electromagnetic radiation similar to gamma radiation. Originates from the extranuclear
part of an atom.

x-ray diffraction analysis Analysis of the crystal structure of materials by passing x-rays through them and
registering the diffraction (scattering) image of the x-rays.

X-Y plane A plane described by the X and Y axes. A convention used to describe an acoustic wave
train recording in which the amplitude of the signal voltage is shown on the Y axis, and
time in microseconds is shown on the X axis. See amplitude-time.

X-Z plane A plane described by the X and Z axes. A convention used to describe an acoustic wave
train display in which the amplitude of the signal voltage is used to modulate the
intensity of a photographic beam of light to produce varying photographic density on the
Z axis, and time in microseconds on the X axis. See intensity modulated-time and
Micro-Seismogram.
 Y Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

yield point The maximum stress that a solid can withstand without undergoing permanent
deformation either by plastic flow or by rupture.

Young's modulus See elastic properties of rocks.

Z Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from SPWLA

Z/A The ratio of atomic number (Z) to atomic weight (A). Nuclei of the same Z but different
A are different forms of the same element and are called isotopes.

Z/A effect In density logging. Common rock elements of usual interest in oil exploration, C, O, Si,
and Ca all have a Z/A = 1/2, to a very high degree of approximation. For these elements
and their molecules, the electron population is closely related to the unit mass or density
of the material. In rocks containing elements in which Z/A differs from the Z/A value
selected as a standard, the measured response will be different from the expected value.
The amount that the measured bulk density will differ from the true bulk density of the
rock material in question is related to the amount that Z/A differs from the standard.
This influence on the interpretation of the density logging response is referred to as the
Z/A effect. See also density log and compensated density log.

Z-axis (1) A third dimension added to a crossplot of two parameters in an X-Y plane. The z-
axis is perpendicular to both x- and y-axes.

(2) In well logging, variation of the intensity of the recording spot is called z-axis
variation, as in Micro-Seismogram.

zero (1) mechanical zero or electrical zero.

(2) To place the measure point on a downhole logging tool at the depth datum and adjust
the depth-meter to read zero depth.
zonal isolation Refers to the state or quality with which the fluids in one permeable zone can be kept
separate from those fluids of another. Zonal isolation is created and maintained in the
well bore by cementing the production string in place and by appropriate use of casing
plugs and packers. Beyond the well bore radius and inside the formations, zonal
isolation is a function of the existance of permeable barriers such as impermeable shale
members, dense sediments, or cap rock. The quality of zonal isolation is directly related
to the quality of the cement and bonding which is found between casing, cement sheath,
and formation; and to the degree of or lack of permeability of the members which can
serve as permeability barriers.

zone A rock stratum which is singled out for reference because of its different character or
fluid content from other strata.

zone of aeration (1) A subsurface zone containing water under pressure less than that of the atmosphere,
including water held by capillarity; and containing air or gases generally at atmospheric
pressure. Extends from the ground surface to the water table.

(2) Also refers to zones shallow enough that they are oxidizing, since they are
replenished by rain water.