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Step 1 UW NOTES
GLUT 1‐RBC,BRAIN, colon,kidney,placenta
GLUT 2‐ LIVER,PANCREAS B CELLS, small intestine,kidney
GLUT 3‐ BRAIN,KIDNEY,PLACENTA
GLUT 4‐ADIPOSE,MUSCLE‐insulin dependenant; exercise (AMP) dependent in skeletal muscles
GLUT5‐SPERM,SMALL INTESINE→transport fructose n glucose
SGLT1= SMALL INTESINE, PCT of KIDNEY→ Na cotransport system driven by Na/K atpase‐only one that works against
concentration gradient
GLUT is selective for D‐glucose, bidirectional, facilitative
Benzodiazepines: mc side effect –hangover‐daytime drowsiness
Long acting drugs like diazepam,flurazepam,clonazepam,clordiazepoxide‐more drowsiness‐less physical dependence‐less
withdrawal symptoms
Short acting drugs like alprazolam, triazolam, oxazepam‐less sedative se‐more phy depend‐more withdrawal symptoms like
anxiety and insomnia.
Rule: dependence [phy] is inversely related to duration; short duration more depenmore widrawal symp.
Intermediate acting drugs like lorazepam,temasepam,estazolam‐medium se
Buspiron: delayed onset of action for about 2 weeks of continuous usage.
Invasive aspergillosis‐immunocomromised pts‐neutropenia of leukemia,lymphoma
Aspergillus= V shaped branching septate hyphyea
Rhizpus‐broad non septate hyphyea‐branch at right angles‐diabetic pts
NBTE(marantic endocarditis): caused by hypercoagulable state‐ disseminated cancers‐mc‐mucinous adenocarcinoma of
pancreas, adenocarcinoma of lung‐release procoagulants like mucin
Trosseus’s syndrome:migratory thrombophebitis‐procoagulants from diss cancer.
NNRTI: dosent require intra celluar phosphorylation. Se‐hepatic failure n encephalopathy,sjs,toxic epi necrolysis.
Loss to follow up is a common problem in prospective studies which creates bias when it happens disproportinately btw
exposed n unexposed group.its known as attrition bias which is a type of a selection bias.
G protein coupled rec:b1b2d1‐Gs,a2m2d2‐Gi,m1m3a1‐Gq
Glucagon,TSH,PTH=Gs
Precise=reliable=consistent=reproductibility
Accuracy=validity
Holosystolic murmurs=vsd‐left sternal border 3 or 4 intercostal spaces,tri reg‐left lower sternum‐inspiration increase,MR‐apex
Pul reg‐early diastolic‐left 2 or 3 ic space
Frothy,foamy urine= proteinuria or bile salts in urine
Minimal change dz= can also be seen in adults
C1 esterase inhibitor→ inhibits kallicrein; kallicrein→convert kininogen to bradykinin n plasminogen to plasmin; in C1 INH
defi→↑kallicrein→↑bradykynin n activated c1‐c3a,c5a→ angioedema
In hereditory andioedema= AD, painless, non pitting, non pruritic edema,low c1 esterase inhibitor level ↑kallikrein n
↑bradykinin which causes angioedema
Verapamil‐costipation,gingival hyperplasia
Attributable risk= RR‐1,Attributable risk%=RR‐1/RR
Atypical depression= hypersomnolence,hyperphagia,mood reactivity‐ mood improves c something good[major differentiating
point from MDD],rejection sensitivity,leaden fatigue(extreme heaviness in arms n legs)=Rx maoi=phenelzine
Follicular lymphoma=t(14‐Ig heavy chain,18‐Bcl2)→ Bcl2 overexpression
Mantle cell lymphoma=t(11,14)→cyclind1
Burkits lymphoma=c‐myc=t(8,14),t(8,2),t(8,22)
TZD=glitazaones=PPAR g rec‐transactivation of gene coding adiponectin[adipocytokine] increase=dec insulin resistance
Opioid receptors=mu recp=G protein coupled rec=incre K condactance
Hepcidin=acute phase reactant polypeptide hormone secreted by liver in iron homeostasis; hepcidin binds to ferroportin n
degrades it→↓ iron absorp on in blood from basolateral enterocyte; high body iron,inflammation→↑hepcidine; low body
iron,hypoxia→↓hepcidin; ↑hepcidine→↓iron
Isoproterenol=b1 b2 agonist=low dose actions of adrenaline=b2>a1,b1 agonist
Noradrenaline=a1,b1 agonist(no adv of B2)=high dose actions of adrenaline=a1>b2,b1 agonist
Isoproterenol=isoprenaline=opposite to propranolol=only B agonist=no a action
Paco2=Basal metabolic rate/alveolar ventilation
Laplace’s law=p=2T/r
Cardiac output=o2 consumption/arteriovenous o2 difference
CO=[135*BSA]/[(13*Hb)*(sao2‐svo2)]
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Leads V1,V2=septum
V3V4=ant wall
V5V6,I,avl=lateral wall
Musculocutaneus nerve=BBC=bicepts brachi,brachialis,coracobrachialis
Kozac sequence=GCCGCCGCCAUG in mrna =initiation of translation in eukaryots; muatation in kozac sequence of b globin
gene→ thalassemia intermedia; shine dalgarno sequence= initiation of translation in prokaryots
TCA toxicity=like quinidine=inhibit fast Na channels=QT n QRS prolongation=cardiac arrythmia=Rx hypertonic sodium bicarb
Haptoglobin=Hb binding protein=dec in intravascular hemolysis
Ceruloplasmin=copper binding protein=dec in wilson’s dz
Morula=32 cell stage
Twins=dizygotic=fraternal=sex may differ vs monozygotic=identical=same sex
Dizygotic=DD=dichorion(2 placenta,may fuse seems like single placenta),diamnion=sex‐different/same
Monozygotic=DD=dichorion(2 placenta,may fuse seems like single placenta),diamnion=same sex[0‐4 days]
MD=monochorion(1 placenta),diamnion=same sex (most common)[4‐8 days]
MM=monochorion(1 placenta),monoamnion=same sex[8‐12 days]
MM with conjoint twins=same sex[>12 days]
If DD c different sex→ dizygo c twins; if DD c same sex→dizygo c or monozygotic
All twins=2 umbilical cords
Down synd= AML[M7]
Uniparentral disomy=eg. Comp H mole
Neurofibroma=schwan cell tumor=schwanoma=neurilemoma
Thyroid=endodermal origin
Outer & middle ear=endodermal origin
NF1=von recklingausen dz
5‐3 exonuclease=removing rna primers,dna damge = DNA polymerase 1
3‐5 exonuclease=proof reading= DNA poly 1 and 3
IL‐4=isotype switching to ige( also IL‐13)
IL‐5=isotype switching to iga( also TGF‐b),eosinophil inc
IL‐6=inc osteoclast activity
IL‐12=Th1 differntiation,cd8+,nk cells
IL‐2=aldesleukin
Parabasal cells=post partum n post menopausal
Cord factor=mycoside=inhibit neutrophils,mitochondria,inc release of TNF‐a
Sulfatides=inh phagolysozome formation
Adenosine/ach= phase 4 pacemaker potential decrease= dec heart rate
Glycine=aa=inhibitory neurotransmitter
HIV asso esophagitis=candida,CMV,HSV‐1
Crohns dz=abd paindiarrhea
Ulcerative colitis=bloody diarrheaabd discomfort
Methylation of histone protein=suppress transcription
Acetylation of histone protein=activates transcription
Drugs for motion sickness=meclizine,dimenhydrinate,scopolamine
Opiod n atropine dry out.
Secretions with miosis=op poisoning
Secrtions with mydriasis=opiod widrawal
Most common se of opiod=nausea/vomiting
Glitazones=hepatotoxicity,CHF
NPH=neutral prtamine hegdone=18 hours,regular insulin=8 hours
Detemir=fatty acid side chain to lysine residue‐albumin binding=24 hours
Glargine= 24 hrs having no peak
Fascial layers of neck=superficial cervical facia=sub fat,platysma
Deep cer fascia=investing layer,pretracheal,prevertibral,carotid sheath
Neurophysins=carrier proteins of ADH and oxytocin =synthesised in hypothalamus
Neurophysin II=carrier of ADH from hypothalamus to post pitu thru anterograde axonal transport n secreats into syst circulation
thru hypophysial vein
TRHTSH n prolactin
Delusional disorder=non bizarre one fixed delusion 1 month,preserved occupational n social ability
Paranoid schizophrenia=bizarre delusion,unpreserved social ability,p/h significant
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Paranoid personality disorder=suspicion in all thots
Lacunar infarct:
Pure motor=post limb of int capsule
Pure sensory=vpl n vpm thalamus
Ataxia,hemiplagia synd=base of pons
Dysarthria‐clumpsy hand synd=base of pons+genu of int capsule
Pulmonary vascular resistance is lowest at FRC.
Hypoxia,gravity n level of lung expansion affects pulmonary vascular blood flow =resistance
Legionella=L‐cystein enrichment,CYEA
Na channel binding strength/inh of phase 0 depolarisation= class 1c>1a>1b=use dependent blockage is max withclass 1c
Class 1a anti arrhythmic=quinidine,procainemide,disopyramide=na n k blocker= Qtc prolo= inc action potential duration
Class 1b=lidocaine,mexiletin,tocenide,phenytoin= Na channel blockage, K channel opener
Class 1c=flecainide,propaferone,moricizine=proarrythmogenic= na block, no effect on k channel
Class 2= B blockers;class 3= AIDS‐B; class 4= CCB; class 5= digoxin
Essential fructosuria=def of fructokinase= AR,asymptomatic
Heridiatry fructose intolerance=def of aldolase B=symptomatic at infancy, hypoglycemia occurs due to accu of fructose1p
c depletion of inorganic phosphates for glycogenolysis n gluconeogenesis; untreated→ liver n kidney failure
All obstructive jaundice=primary biliary cirrhosis=chronic cholestasishypercholesterolemiaxanthelesma,xanthomas
Hypothyroidism=common cause of hyperlipidemia
Copd=hypoxia=incre erythropoietin
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Craniopharyngioma=children(young adults too),calcified cystic mass containing cholesterol crystals‐visual impairment,headaches
Serotonin syndrome=myoclonus
NMS=rigidity
Female athlete triad=eating disorder,amenorrhea,osteoporosis
Borh effect=at base,Haldane effect=at high
Deoxyhb is stabilized by ionic bonding bw 2‐3 DPG to 2 b chains n salt bridges bw histine residue in all globin chains
Insulin resistance=serine/threonin residue phosphorylation of Insuline Rec Substrate‐1 by serine kinase activated by TNF‐
a,catecho,cortisol,glucagone, free FA,serum TG
Thalamic syndrome=total contralateral hemisensory loss,proprioception lossfalls,unsteady gait
Lacunar infarct=lipohylinosis n microatheroma=chronic uncontrolled HT,DM
Anti smith ab=anti snrnp=anti snurps ab→SLE
NK cells=cd 16,cd 56 +,present in athymic pts as no maturation in thymus,activated by ifng,IL12
Androgenic alopecia=polygenic c variable penetration
Reid index=mucous gland layer thickness/total thickness of bronchial wall btw epitheliun n cartilage=0.4 normal value=duration
n severity of chronic bronchitis
Acetazolamaide=carbonic anhydrase inhibitor=bicarb uresis=metabolic acidosis,hypokalemia
Matching=method to reduce confounding in case control study
Botulinus toxin type B=used for therapeutic purpose
Staph aureus=protein A=outer mem proteinbinds to Fc portion of igg to prevent phagocytosis,dec activation of complement,
↓ c3b→ ↓opsoniza on
C.dyphtheria=intracellular phosphate granules=stained by methylin blue
Caspofungin,micafungin=moa=inhibit glucan=polysachharide cell wall component synthesis=candida n aspergillus
Black gall stones=hemolysis
Brown gall stones=infection
Acute pancreatitis caused by mycoplasma,mumps,coxacki,drugs‐furosemide,valproate,sulfasalasin,azathioprin
Hypertriglyceridemia>1000mg/dldirect toxicity—acute pancreatitis
Polycythemia(erythrocytosis)=hct >52%in M,>48% in F
Secondary polycythemia=hypoxia[sao2<92%,Pao2<65mm hg] induced EPO,erytropoetin secreting tumor, anabolic[androgenic]
steroids
Symp UTI=rx 3 day course of FQ/TMP‐SMX
Hemophilia C=factor 11 defi=AR=sugical bleeding c no P/H/O bleeding
PSGN=on EM subepithelial humps,on IF=lumpy bumpy appearance,starry sky appearance
Setonin=raphe nucleus of brainstem(SR)=function=state of arousal n sleepwake cycle=lesiondepression n insomnia
Nucleus ceruleus(dorsal pons)=NE=fight or flight reponse
Nucleus basalis of meynert=cholinergic neurons=incre achesterase in Alz Dz
Dairy product diarrhea[lactose intolerance]—lactase(b‐galactosidase) def
Primary lactose intolerance= lactase def from birth=african american
Secondary lactose intolerance=viral gastroenteritis,celiac sprue etc.
Classical Galactosemia= symptomatic after starting breast feeding, Galactose 1 p urydyl
transeferase=GPUT=GALT
Essential fructosuria=asymptomatic c urine +for reducing suger
Hereditory fructose intolerance=aldolase b def=symptomatic after starting sugar,honey to baby
Milk has insuffecient vit D n K
All inhaled anesthetic= incre cerebral blood flow‐incr ICT,myocardial dep,resp dep,renal plasma flow dec,hepatic flow dec
Halothane n sevofluranebrochodilationuseful in asthma
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Niacin(vit b3)=antilipidemic=antihypertensive‐vasodilation due to PG release,imp side effect is flushing,warmness,itching‐PG
mediated→prevented by giving Aspirin 30 min before Niacin,insulin resistance‐diabetogenic,gouty, hepatotoxic at high doses;
moa= dec hepatic synthesis of VLDL [dec release of FFA from peripheral tissue], also dec coversion of VLDL LDL, inc HDL 25‐
30%
Asthma=inc in Th2 cells,smoke
G6PD def=bite cells on PS
Schistocytes=fragmented RBC=half moon RBC=helmet cells=microangiopathic hemolytic anemia(HUS‐TTP,DIC,malig HT,metast
cancer)n mechanical damage(prosthetic heart valves)
HUS=bloody diarrhea[EHEC]endothelial damage by toxin‐platelets activation‐microthrombi‐microangiopathic hemolytic
anemia‐ARF,fever
TTP=fever,thrombocytopenia,microangio hemolytic anemia,NEUROLOGICAL SYMPTOMS
Osteoporosis=primarily affects cancellous bones eg,vertebral body > neck femur; distal radius
Cancellous bone=trabecular bone=spongy bone=15% body bone by weight; high metabolic activity than cortical bones
Primary parathyroidism= affects cortical bone= subperiosteal thinning of bones
Kinesin=ATP powered microtubule asso motor protein=anterograde transport of neurosecretory vesicles
Dynin=retrograde transport,flagella
Serotonin rec blockage=appetite gain,weight gain=cyproheptadine
Histamine blockage= sedation, weight gain
Order of next of kin of a married pt=wife> Adult children>parents>sib>grandparents
Asthma is copd c incre in diffusion capacity due to increase pul blood flow
Neuroblastoma=opsoclonus‐myoclonus syndrome‐paraneoplastic synd,proptosis,periorbital ecchymosis,invasion to epidural
space‐spinal cord compression[dumbell tumor]
Supraspinatus tendon most commonly injured in rotator cuff injury=empty can test
C.neophormans=predilection for CSF due to absence of alternate pathway components in CSF imparing phagocytosis
Heme synthesis=ALA synthase‐rate limiting enz= ‐‐‐by heme,glucose[porphyria pts are given high glucose diet],+by
alcohol,phenobarbiton,hypoxia
Clonidine=central sympatholytic=dec catechol levels
Acute graft rejection=vasculitis in donor tissue,chronic graft rejection=fibrosis
Hyperacute rejection=white graft rejection= antibody[type 2]; acute=antibody or CMI; chronic= CMI
Golgi tendon organs =detects tension while contraction=causes relaxation
Muscle spindle=length detaction during streching=causes contraction
Pacinian corpuscle=pace=rapidly adapting,ruffinis ending=slowly adaptingmechanorec‐touch,vibration,proprioception
Heinz bodies=denaturaed Hb=in G6PD def
Normally pco2 drives respiration,in copd hypoxia Pao2↓ drives respiration
S.pneumonia aquires capsule via transformation; transformation= shin= Str pneumonia, Hib, N.meningitidis
V.cholera toxin/heat labile toxin of ETEC=moa=ADP rebosylation of Gs protein,inc adenyl cyclase,inc camp
Pertusis toxin=moa=ADP rebosylation of Gi protein,disinhibits adenyl cyclase,inc camp
CMV=owl like intanuclear inclusion+cytoplasmic inclusion
Class 3 antiarryth=AIDS‐B=amiodarone,ibutilde,dofetilide,sotalol,bretylium
Nosocomial blood stream sepsis=cons,s.aureus,enterococci,candida
Most common tumor in hiv is Kaposis sarcoma
In HIV, cns lymphoma=EBV
Phlegmasia alba dolen=painful white leg=milky leg=DVT of iliofemoral vein in peripartum period due to gravid utrus n
hypercoagulability
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis=lou gehrich dz
Wernig hoffman dz=spinal muscular atrophy‐1
Piptaz=gram +,gram‐,anerobes
Cefelosporins= 1‐gram + n gram ‐,2‐ gram +,gram – incre,some anerobes,3‐gram neg, no anerobes
Collagen: 4=basement mem=alport synd
o 1= solid structures→bone,tendon,ligaments, dermis,dentin,scar,cornea,bld vessels
o 2= cartilage,nuc pulposus, vitreus humor
o 3=lumens,soft struct→bld vessels,lymphatics,intestine,BM,granulation tissue,lungs,skin
Ccl4= ccl3=free radical injury=fatty liver,hepatic necrosis
Cox‐2 weight =72 kd
Sunscreen=PABA esters= UVB
IVH=bleeding from germinal matrix in premature baby <32 weeks, <1500 gm
Peptidoglycan= shape,strength,osmotic resistance
Leptin=protein hormone by fat cells=dec obesity by dec appetite[↓ neuropep de Y],inc sa ety[↑ a‐MSH]
Acute MR=acute pul edema,chronic MR= AF thromboembolism
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Reticulocytes= blue cytoplasm=residual rrna stains blue with wright geimsa stain
Most common cause of viral meningitis in children=enterovirus
Detection bias=eg.smoker—more xrays—more chances of detection of lung cancers
Refferal bias=admission rate bias=case n control differs due to refferal practices
Benign cystic teratoma=dermoid cyst=mc germ cell tumor
Citrate=ca chetlator=prescribed in renal stones
Struvite n calcium phosphate=alkaline ph stones,rest all acidic ph
Myocardial stunning= reversible loss of contraction receding to less severe ischemia<30 min
Hibernate=persistent/repetitive ischemia leading to rev loss of contraction,repeted stunning‐hibernate
Ischemic preconditioning=resistance to infarction after repeted non lethal ischemia
Aurer rods=AML= fused lysozomal granules
M4Eosinophilic variant= inversion 16
Mesothelioma=EM gold standard diagnosis=plenty,long slender microvilli vs adenocarcinoma lung=short plump microvilli
Heterochromatin=methylated DNA=methylation of cytosine residue
Euchromatin= acetylation of histon
Generalized anxiety disorder=6 months‐at least 3 issues,Rx=SSRI,buspirone,BZD
Major depression=2 weaks
Mania=1 weak
Schizophrenia=6 months
Adjustment disorder=within 3 month onset of stresser
Diphtheroids=erythrasma,septicemia,UTI,endocarditis in immunosuppressed
C.diphtheria=catalase +,cystein‐telurite agar
Group D streptococci= enterococci‐bile,6.5% nacl, non enterococci‐only bile
T lymphocyes appear in fetus circulation at 16 weeks, B lymphocyes appear at 20 weeks
Glucokinase=sensor of glucose in pancreatic B cells
Half life of digoxin=1.5 days in normal renal fuction,excreted unchanged in urine
Teichoic acid=linked to peptydoglycan of gm + bacteria=antigenic determinant
Down syndrome=brushfield spots on iris, AML m7>ALL
In protein C def,warfarin leads to skin necrosis
Lyme dz=early‐flu like,erythema chronicum migrans,disseminated‐av block,bells palsy,late‐unilateral knee
arthritis,encephalopathy. Rx‐penicilline/doxy
Tamoxifen=favourable lipid profile, use: breast cancer,osteoporosis. Se‐ endometrial cancer,thromboembolism
PSVT=re entral circuit in AV nodevagal manuers—carotid sinus masage,valsalva manuer.(principal=CSM‐teacher=carotid
sinus→children=vasomotor centre)
HIGHEST RISK OF CORONARY ARTERY DZ= non coronary atherosclerosis, Diabetis mellitus, chronic kidney dz
Major risk factors=HTN, hyperlipidemia,smoking,obesity,sedentary,age
DM type 2= mc cause of death is CAD=40%=inc mortality 2‐3 fold, mortality due to stroke 10%,mortality due to HOC or DKA is
very few.
Hyperosmolar coma has high mortality than DKA.
ESRD=mc cause of death CVD> infections
In breathing, to maintain adequate oxygenationmaintain minute ventilation=Vt* RRreduce fatigue n energy
consumptionreduce work of breathing=depends on airway resistance n elastic resistance.
Work done against airway resi is RR,work done against elastic resi is Vt.
In COPD=air way resistance is more=RR is more= inc work of breathing→to reduce work of breathing, slow n deep breath
are taken
In pul fibrosis=elastic resi more=Vt(depth is more)=inc work of breathing→to reduce work of breathing,rapid n shallow
breath are taken
Scotoma=lesion is partial in retina,disk,nerve=AMD,optic neuritis
Total blindness=optic nerve/retinal artery/vein occlusion
Bitemporal hemianopia= pituitary tumor,cranyopharyngioma, ant commu artery aneurysm
Peri chiasmal lesion=atherosclerotic calcification/aneurysm of int catotid artery
Optic tract lesion= ant choroidal artery occlusion
Lateral geniculate nucleus= contra homonimus hemianopia
Optic radiation lesion=br of MCA,post limb of int capsule
Pie in sky=opposite Meyer loop=temporal lobe
Pie on d floor= opposite dorasal optic radiation[ parietal lobe]
Macula is spared in PCA occlusion= visual cotex lesion due to collateral from MCA
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ACE inhi decre glomerullar pressure n decre GFR
Metformin itself is not nephrotoxic, but it accumulates n causes Lactic Acidosis in imparied kidney function n recent IV contrast
Cofactors of Pyruvate dehydrogenase= thiamine,FAD,NAD,coa,lipoic acid
Vwf def is AD c variable incomplete penetrance=mc heritable bleeding disorder=heavy mucocutaneus,menstrual
bleeding=lifelong
Factor 13[transglutaminase] def, rare, clot instabilty=delayed bleeding after trauma
Nisal substance is RER of neurone absent in axone
Lecithine=phosphotidylcholine—incre after 30 weeks of gestation,phosphotidylglycerol—inc after 36 weeks of gestation. Both
components of lung surfactant
Principal cells of collecting duct=Na/K ATP ase pump,ADH acts on V2 rec of P cells;Intercalted cells=H secretion
Non immune mediated mast cell degranulation→histamine release=drugs like opiod,vancomycin=pseudoallergy
Erythropoetin production in fetus=liver vs adults → inters al cells of kidney
Gq→IP3 second messanger sys= a1, oxytocin, V1 of ADH, AT‐II,GHRH,gnrh,TRH (but CRH→camp)
Loop diuretic= volume depetion=prerenal azotemia=decrease renal blood flow,GFR=ARF= inc s.creat
Sarcoidosis= 10% of cases=hypercalcemia by activated macrophages=↑calcitriol,dec PTH...also in Hodgkins Lymphoma
Croup=parainfluenza virus=barking cough,stidor
Brochiolitis=RSV=wheezing
Epiglotitis=H.influenza=dysphagia,drooling
6‐mercaptopurine=se=cholestasis,hepatitis
Alkylating agents= se=tarry(black) stool
Multiple Sclerosis=heat sensitivity=heat↓axonal transport=fatigue,increase sym after hot shower bath;
Polycythemia Vera=pruritus after hot shower=histamin release from basophils
Lung abcess=mixed anerobic+aerobic=Rx clindamycin
IFN‐g signaling pathway=JAK STAT pathway=defect→ disseminated mycobacterial inf
Leucocyte adhesion defect [LAD1]=AR defi of CD18 →necessary for formation of beta2 integrins LFA1 n Mac1→ dec expression
of integrins=delayed seperation of umbilical cord,recc skin inf without pus, gingivitis‐periodontitis, poor wound healing; LAD 3=
s/s of lad1 + bleeding due to ↓beta3 integrins of platelets; LAD2 mild
Brutan’s XLA= giardia infection
Primary biliary cirrhosis=plane xanthoma=linear xanthomas in skin folds
IL‐4,IL‐13=Ig E
IL‐5=Ig A,eosinophils
Hypertensive encephalopathy= global sym due to cerebral edema
Chronic Hypertensionhyaline arteriosclerosis of small penetrating vessels –charcoat bouchart pseudoaneurysm‐rupture‐
hemorrhage in basal ganglia,thalamus
If ΔG <1=negative=Keq >1 =substrateproduct[product energy <sub energy]= spontaneous and irreversible,energy is released
If ΔG >1=positive=Keq<1 =productsubstrate[sub energy< product energy]= nonspontaneus,energy is used
If ΔG=0= Keq= 1= no reaction, at equilibrium,reversible
Apple peel atresia=intestinal atresia distal to duodenum due to in utero vascular occlusion. Absent of intestinal segment n distal
ileum winds around ileocolic vesel giving rise to apple peel/christmas tree appearance.
Duedenal atresia=failure of recanalization, down synd
Adenosine n dipyridamole=coronary arteriolar vasodilation in non iscemic zones=coronary steal
S3 sound in olderly= almost always sign of LHF=heard at apex in lateral decubitus at end expiration cause fluid in fluid[ high
end systolic volume] or fluid in bucket[stiff ventricle] or overfluid in normal heart
S4 sound=atrial gallop=stiff ventricle with reduced compliance eg.AS/long history of HTN—heard at apex lateral decubitus for
left atria,left lower sternal border supine position for right atria
Apex of heart=MS,MR,S3,S4; S3 in young <30 yrs normal finding,S3 in elderly‐ sign of LVF; S4 in young always pathological, S4
in elderly= might be age related ↓compliance of LV or pathological stiffness[louder]
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Penicillin is structure analogue of D ala‐D ala of peptidoglycan inhibits tranpeptidase by binding covalently to its active site
CGD=infection by catalase + org=SSPAN=staph aureus,serattia,pseudomonas[burkhodelia] cepacia,aspergillus,nocardia ; in
contrast to CGD, MPO defi → defec ve killing of both catalyse + n ‐ org
Primary biliary cirhosis=GVHD =same histology=granulomatus bile duct dystruction‐mononuclear infiltrate in portal tract
Xeroderma pigmentosa= AR,DNA nucleotide excision repair defect=UV specific endonuclease defect,bloom synd,fanconi
anemia=same pathology=UV hypersensitivity
Serotonin=brain‐mood,platelets‐vasodilation,gut enterochromaffin cells[kulchiskey cells]‐peristalsis,nausea
Chemoprophylaxis for n.meningitidis=rifampin>ceftriaxone
IL‐6=inc osteoclast activity
Lowset osmolarity=distal convoluted tubule
Liver angiosarcoma=CD 31+=PECAM1+=endothelial cell marker
Pseudomonas=non lactose ferm,oxidase +,motile
Fast lactose ferm=e coli,klebsiella,enterobacter;slow ferm=citrobacter,serratia
Salmonella,proteus=H2S
Primary myelofibrosis= atypical megacaryocte expansion—activate fibroblast—collagen deposion,tear drop cells=dacrocytes
Chronic myeloproliferative disorders= JAK STAT pathway except CML
CLL= B lymphocytosis with smudge cells, bcl2 overexpression similar to follicular lymphoma
Isotretinoin=teratogenicity n hyper TG
Chronic liver dz→hypersplenism→thrombocytopenia, factor 7 has shortest half life so PT is first to be prolonged
ANP=natriuresis,diuresis,vasodilation,inc capillary permeabilty
N Acetyl Cysteine= break disulfide bonds bw mucus gp=mucolytic; acetaminophen overdose; renoprotective in IV contrast
nephropathy
B‐hemolysis=GAS,GBS,s.aureus;a‐hemolysis‐s.pneumonia,viridans
TNF‐a=cachectin
HPV strains 16,18,31,33‐integrate c host genome‐overexpress viral oncogenes E6,E7; E6‐degrade p53,E7 binds to Rb
Multiple sexual partner highest risk of cervical cancer
Iga nepropathy=berger dz=synpharingitis nephritis
CTZ=located in area prostrema[BBB less] in dorsal medulla near caudal end of 4th ventricle
ARR=RRR= incidence (control=NE)‐incidence (test=exposed) [ARR of disease in Test group]
ARR% =Rc‐Rt/Rc eg. 40% risk reduction= 10‐6; risk is reduced in test group = 40%of risk of control
Formula of ARR is opposite of AR
SCD=vasoocclusive crisis=Dactylitis=hand foot synd[painful swelling of hands n feet],acute chest synd,stroke,priapism,bone
pain,leg ulcers,autosplenectomy
SCD= infection by capsulated org due to functional asplenia
Hemolysis=inc LDH; intravascular= dec haptoglobin, extravascular=inc indirect billi
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐S1‐‐‐‐Ec‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐S2‐‐‐‐‐OS‐‐‐‐s3‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐s4‐‐‐‐‐S1‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐S2‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐mc‐‐‐‐ao‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ac‐‐‐‐‐mo‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐mc‐‐‐ao‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ac‐‐‐‐‐‐
Pseudomonas=ecthyma gangrenosum=cutaneus skin necrosis=sepsis in imunnosupressed,neutropenic,nosocomial
Klebsiella= necrotizing pneumonia in alcoholic,immunosupressed
Transmembrane protein=7 a helix containing nonpolar hydrophobic aa
Hbsag[envelope] of HBV must coat Hdag of HDV to help it to infect hepatocyte
Goose bumps=pilomotor smooth muscle contraction=a1 rec
Alpha 2 rec=decreases lipolysis,inc platelet aggregation,dec aquious production in ciliary body
PCP=phencyclidine=ketamin like action=inh NMDA rec for glutamate=aggression,nystagmus,ataxia,invol movements
LSD= serotonin rec agonist=mood elevetion,dilated pupils,paranoia,tremer,sweating,confusion
Cannabins= red eye,run amok,short term memory loss
Hypoxic encephalopathy after profound shock= bilateral wedge infarct in watershed area of aca,mca,pca few cent lat to
interhemespheric fissure, also most sus cells are=pyramidal cells in CA1 subfield of hippocampus[sommers sector] n purkinje
cells of cerebellum, pyramidal cell layers of cerebral cortex= layers 3 n 5
Ach,bradykinin,serotonin,sub P= vasodilation via NO
Tryptophanserotoninmelatonin
Glutamate,aspartatepyrimidine
Glutamate,aspartate,glycinepurine
Melanoma=ABCDE→asymmetry border color dia>=6mm evolving
B2 blockage=dec glucagone=hypoglycemia
Odds ratio=RR when dz is rare=rare disease assumption
Hbf last seven months[stasting at 10‐12 wks by fetal liver]
First Hb in fetus =Hb gower 1 [zeta2 epsilon ἐ2]=embryonic Hb by yolk sacHb portlandHb gower 2hbf
Hba2= a2d2; hba=a2b2; hbf=a2g2
8
Anerobic Rx rule= clindamycin above diaphragm,metro below diaphragm
African american female‐hilar adenopathy‐pul infiltrate‐dry cough‐non caseating granuloma=sarcoidosis
Gluteus max injury= diff in getting up from seated position n climbing stairs[ expension of hip n external rotation]
CO poisoning 2 effects= dec oxygen content of blood[ eg.co binds to ¾ sites on heme], dec oxy unloading from Hb
Elec conduction speed= purkinje fiber>atrial muscle>vent muscle>AV node
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis=honeycomb lung
Achalasia=scc of esophagus
Rx ↓LDL=statinezetimiberesins,↓TG=fibratesniacinfish oil[omega 3 FA],↑HDL=niacinfibrates
Fibrates= se‐ cholesterol gall stones, resins=se‐GI‐ constipation [avoid in diverticulosis], bloating; hyper TG, cholesterol gall
stones, malabsorption of vit K
Ezetimibe =moa= dec intestinal abs of cholesterol n bile acids
Ethacrynic acid highest ototoxic
Acetazolamide common se=somnolence,paresthesia,urine alkalization
Bird n bat droppings n h/o caving=histoplasma
Pigeon droppng=cryptococcus neoformans
Altruism=selflessness=mature defence
Anti dna topoisomerase 1[scl 70]=sys scleroderma;anti snrnp= MCTD
Gall stone ileus= pneumobilia[ air in billiary tree]
Ventral pancreatic budmain pan duct of wirsung,uncinate,infe head
Dorsal pan budtail,body,upper head,accesary duct of santorini
Postpartum blues[2 to 10 days]=reassure f/up in 2 weeks,postpartum depression[2wks‐1 yr],post partum psychosis[2‐4
wks]=suicidal or homisidal ideation
Ketogenesis and Ketolysis→ mitochondria
Polycystic kidney= dec calcitriol,inc phosphatesec hyperparathyroidism
Red neurone=acute severe irreversible damage= shrinkage,pyknosis,eosinophilc cytosol,loss of nissl sub
Axonal damge= swelling of neuronal body,eccentric nucleus,dispersion of nissl sub
Atrophy=loss of neuronegliosis
PCOS=stein leventhen synd
All 3 prokaryotic DNA polymerase has 3‐5 exonuclease activity,only dna poly 1 has 5‐3 exonuclease activity removes rna primers
n damged dna
Mannitol=common se=headache,NV,volume depletion [osmotic diuresis],hypernatremia. Serious se=pul edema,vol
expansion,dilutional hyponatremia,hyperkalemia[k move out of cell],meta acidosis
Thymocytes=T lymphocytes in thymus
Macrophages can stimulate effector n memory T cells only, not naive T cells;dendritic n Bcell can stimulate all
O2‐Hb diss curve=left shift‐lung,right‐tissue. Left shift‐tissue hypoxia‐reflex polycythemia
Heteroplasy=mitochodrial inheritance=variable severity
Variable expressiblity=Alz Dz
Cauda equina synd= low back pain radiating to both legs,saddle anesthesia[s2‐s4=pudendal nerve],loss of anocutaneus reflex,
bladder bowel func loss[s3‐s5],loss of ankle jerk[s1‐s2].
Conus medularis synd= L2 lesion= flaccid palsy of BB,impotence,saddle anesthesia
Malesessia furfur=spagheti[hyphyea] n meatball[spore] in KOH
Muffled heart sounds,hypotension,JV distension,pulsus paradoxus=cardiac tamponade
Absent breath sounds,hyperresonant percussion,hypotension,jv distension,tachypnea,tachycardia,cyanosis=tension
pneumothorax
Absent breath sounds,dull percussion,blunt or penetrating chest injury= hemothorax
First trimester=corpus leuteum sourse of E+P, after that placenta=Progesterone n fetal adrenal=estrogen, both inhibits
lactogenesis
Lactose intolerance=osmotic diarrhea,inc stool osmotic gap,breath H2,dec stool ph
Tricuspid area=4th left IC border of sternum,mitral area=apex= 5th IC medial to mid clavicular line
Atropine=dhatura=belladona=jimson weed=gardener’s mydryasis
C.difficile= antibiotics,hospitalization,adv age,PPI=risk facors.exotoxin a =watery diarrhea, cytotoxin b=pseudomem colitis‐
toxic megacolon.Δ=PCR of toxin genes in stool. Rx=metro>vanco PO>fidaxomicin
ACE‐= moa= dec ATII n Aldosterone= dec ATII mediated vasoconstriction of efferent arteriole—dec glomeruler pressure—dec
acutely GFR—inc s.creat up to 30% at starting of therapy. Hyperkalemia by simulating spironolactone.
In renal artery stenosis,glomerular presure n thereby GFR depends solely on efferent vasoconstriction. So ACE‐ contraindicated
causing ARF=dec in GFR
MVP n HCM=dec LV vol=dec preload n dec afterlaodinc murmur
Nephrotic synd=always suspect hypercoaulable state
9
CPZ=corneal‐deposits,thioridazine=retinal‐deposits,haloperidol=EPS,ziprasidone=qtprolon,
clozapine=agranulocytosis,seizures,olanzapine=weight gain,atropinic
Steroid use> 3weeks=HPA axis suppression,>6 months=osteoporosis
Lancet shaped diplococci=pneumococci,kidney shaped diplococci=neiserria
N.meningocci=gram negative diplococci=outer membrane Lipooligosacherride[LOS]=dz n mortality,capsule just resist
phagocytosis n for vaccine preparation
Waterhouse friderichon synd= acute adrenal insufficiency due to bilateral adrenal cortical hemorrhage in N.menigitidis septic
shock=profound hypotension,tachycardia,hyponatremia,hyperkalemia,met acidosis
Mast cell activation marker= tryptase, enz specific for mast cells
Serotonin= 5‐HT=degradation product=5‐HIAA, catecho=VMA, dopamine=HVA
K permeance is max during repolarization phase of action potential
HUS=EHEC 0157:H7=undercooked beef,unpast milk=children <10 yrs.
Staphylococcus food poisoning=heat stable enterotoxin= custard,mayonnize containing food‐potato, macroni salad, processed
salted meat
Fried rice=b.cereus
Raw oyster=v.parahemolyticus,v.vulnificus
Raw eggs,paultry,chicken= s.enteritidis
Home canned food=c.botulism
Cox‐2 enz activity inc in colon carcinoma=Rx aspirin dec adenomatous polyp formation
Clara cells=non ciliated cells of terminal resp epith= CCSP=inhibits neutrophils activation,apoprotein ass with surfactant,
detoxification of inhaled toxins by P450 cytochromes
Elastase=macrophages,azurophilic granules of neutrophils
Stop codons=UAA,UAG,UGA
Pulmonary anthrax=goat hair, on LM= medusa head colony,capsule=polypeptide capsule[D‐glutamte], toxin
C5‐c9 defect=neisseria inf;c1,c3 n c4 def= lupus like synd
Rec cutaneus absess= think of CGD; rec respi inf=think B cell defect
Afterdepolarization=abnormal depolarization, early= phase 2 or 3,delayed= phase 4=digoxin toxicity
Young female c/o dyspnea n exercise intolerance==suspect PPH
Long thoracic nerve of BELL [c567]injury= axillary dissection during mastactomy
Thyroidectomy= injury to rec laryngeal nerve—inf thyroid artery ligation, ext br of sup laryngeal nerve—sup thyroid artery
ligation
Cranial nerves= sensory=128,mixed=57910,motor=346‐11‐12
MAP=DBP+ 1/3PP=2/3 DBP+1/3 SBP
Toxicity of vit A= hepatotoxicity, teratogenicity‐microtia/anotia/microcephely/cardiac,
Blurring of vision [pseudotumor cerebre], hyperlipidemia, alopecia,dry skin
Toxicity of vit E=hemorrhagic stoke in adult (esp with warfarin),necrotizing enterocolitis in infants
Tox of vit C=diarrhea,bloating,oxalate stones
GCA=temporal arteritia=>50 c/o headache,sudden vision loss,facial pain,jaw claudicationimproves c steroids
AA c 3 titrable protons= basic aa, acidic aa, tyrosine, cysteine
Insulin‐insulin receptor‐tyrosine kinase‐autophosphorylation‐phosphorylation of IRS‐1‐activate protein phosphatase
‐‐dephosphorylate glycogen synthase n f16bisphosphatase
Sepsis—resp symtoms=ARDS
HT c OP,renal stones= Rx THIAZIDE
Edward synd=ch 18, clenched hands c overlaping fingers,low set ear,meckel’s diverticulum,malrotation of gut,prominent occiput
Patau synd=ch13,polydectyly,clept lip n palate,omphalocele,dextrocardia, arrhinencephaly [failure of development of olfactory
nerves n related brain]
Lead poisoning[plumbism]= basophilic stipling= rebosomal aggregation
Perchlorate,pertechnetate, thiocynate= comp inhibition of I uptake thru NAI symporter
5a reductase 2= ext genitalia, 5a reductase1= post pubertal skin
Skin/mucosal bleed= platelet,coagulopathy,scurvy
Seborric dermatitis=vit B6 def
Infective bloody diarrhea without pus= EHEC[moa= verotoxin=shiga like tocin=cytolyic toxin,non invasive =no pus ]
Stool pus no blood= s.eneritidis [invasive]
Stool blood+pus (desentry)= shigella, EIEC
High stepping gait=stamping gait=foot drop= common peroneal nerve inj
Familial hypo a lipoprotenemia= low HDL
10
Aspiration in upright= basal‐rt lower lobe, in supine= rt upper lobe‐post/ rt lower lobe‐sup
Mc presentation of MEN1[MENIN gene mutation on chr 11] is hyperparathyroidism n hyper calcemia
Hashimoto thyroiditis=hurthle cells
Papillary ca thyroid= psammoma bodies, orphan ani eyes nuclei
Embryologically 3 vein grps= umbilical[degenerate], vitelline vein[portal circulatin], cardinal vein[systemic vein]
SVC is derivative of common cardinal vein drains into sinus venosus primitive rt atrium
Acyclovir,val‐acyclovir,famciclovir,gancyclovir= nucleoside analogues= require both viral n host kinase for phosphorylation
Cidofovir,tenofovir= nucleotide analogue= only host cell kinase for phosphorylation
Foscarnet=pyrophosphate analogue= dosent require viral kinase activation/intracellular activation→ inh directly DNA polymerase,
RNA polymerase, HIV rev transcriptase= use as IV in advanced AIDS c acyclovir resistant HSV or gancyclovir resistant CMV
Nrtis= require phosphorylation , nnrtis= dont require phosphorylation
Blood flow= r4, resistance=1/r4
POMC[proopiomelanocortin] enz cleavage = b endorphin[ endo opiod], ACTH,a MSH [inc satiety]
Sometomedin c= Insulin like growth factor(IGF)= released from liver in response to GH
Prolactin= GH =similar structure
Isosorbide mononitrate= nearly 100% oral bioavailabilty
Elderly pt prone to secondary bact pneumonia after viral URTI(influenza)‐ s.pneumonia>s.aureus>H.influenza
5‐15 yr Pt c Kyphoscoliosis, pes cavus, hammertoes c/o ataxia [cerebellar ataxia‐ deg of asc n desc spinocerebellar tracts], loss
of postion n vibration [dorsal column, dorsal nerve root],DM c f/h/o HCM==suspect FREIDREICH ATAXIA [loss of frataxin
protein imp for mitochondrial respiratory function n iron homeostasis] due to AR trinucleotide GAA repeat mutation of gene
on chr 9.
Burkittt’s lymphoma= high mitotic index=starry sky appearance
Eye is deviated down n out[action of so] c ptosis= CN III lesion, if eye is up n in[ SR action]= CN IV lesion[ so lesion]
DM mononeuropathy= CN III mc cranial nerve=nerve ischemia affecting motor fibres leaving parasym fibres unaffected.
Paget’s dz=osteosarcoma, high output cardiac failure due to AV shunting in haphazardly deposited fibrovascular tissue
AR pupil= damage in midbrain tectum
Nasal decongesants use >= 3 days tachyphylaxisrebound rhinorrhea[ rhinitis medicamentosa]
Ephedrin= ind acting adr agonist=tachyphylaxis as nasal decongesant
Some mrna after entering cytosol bind to P bodies[translation regulating or mrna degrading bodies] rather than binding to
ribosomes
Cyclophosphamideacroleinhemorrhagic cystitis= Rx mesna
Doxorubicin cardiomyopathy= dexrazoxane [iron chelating agent]
Cisplatin induced kidney toxicity= amifostine[free radical scavenger]
Somatostatin= secreted by hypothalamus [inh GH release]n pancreatic d cells[inh insulin> glucagon= hyperglycemia,
Hypochlorhydria, GB stones,stetorrhea
Vertical diplopia while going down stairs/reading newspaper= lesion of SO= CN IV
Brachiocephalic vein= innominate vein
Macula lesion= central scotoma
Mc cause of death in pt hospitalized for MI is LV failure=cardiogenic shock
Cori dz= debranching enz def= deposition of limit dextrins
Mismatch repair during dna replication=proof reading= is guided by adenine methylation in template strand n absence of
methylation in new strand.
Base excision repair= deaminated base[ cu, ax,ghx] are removed by specific glycosylases wtot disrupting phosphodiester
bonds[only base removed leaving sugar‐p intact=apurination/apyrimidation]endonuclease cleaves 5’ AP sitelyase removes
AP siteDna polymeraseligase
UV radiation= thymine dimers= nicked by UV specific endonucleases.
Uric acid precipitates in distal tubules/collecting ducts=acidic ph
Down syndrome= mc risk factor= advanced maternal age=parents normal genetically n phenotypically=mc genetic cause of MR
Fragile X synd= second mc genetic cause n mc inherited cause of MR
B globin gene=chr no 11; a globin gene= chr 16
Hiv genes= structural genes=env [gp120,gp 41], gag[ core ag= p24,p17,p7],pol[RT, integrase,protease]
Hiv Regulatory genes=tat[transactivation of other genes= main virulent gene],rev[viral replication],nef[ downregulate CD4 n
MHC I expression]
1 generation antihistaminic=antimuscarinic,anti a adrenergic[postural dizziness],antiserotonergic[ appetite gain,weight gain]
Opiod kappa rec=miosis,dysphoria, delta rec=antidepression,nociception/orphanin rec= anxiolytic,appetite stimulant
Allopurinoloxipurinol= both non competitive inh of XO
11
Kawasaki dz= mucocutaneus lympnode syndrome
Rate limiting step of TCA cycle is isocytrate dehydrogenase
Seminiferous tubules are very heat sensitive as compared to leydig cells of testisU/L cryptorchidism=testosteronenormal,
spermatogenesis↓; B/L cryptorchidism= both↓
Cell cycle: G1 phase= synthesis of RNA,protein,fat,carb; S= DNA replication;G2= ATP synthesis; M= mitosis
Active Rb protein[ hypophosphorylated] arrest cell in G1S checkpoint to repair dna damage.
Giardia is mc enteric parasite in US/canada
Pulsion diverticula(pressure from inside)= sigmoid colon=false; traction(pressure from outside)= midesophgeal= true=
inflammation n scarring of periesophageal tissue like midiastinal lymphadenitis
Rubeola=measels; rubella[ germen meaels]; roseola=HHV‐6=exanthem subitum=roseola infantum
Insulin rec, growth facors rec eg. EGF,PDGF,FGF= intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity[ cytosolic domian]= autophosphorylation
phosphorylation of Ras protein= signal pathway= RAS/MAP pathway
GH,prolactin, cytokines[IL‐2], colony stimulating factors rec, antigen specific rec on B and T cells= without intrinsic tyrosine
kinase activity[tyrosine kinase asso rec]= signaling pathway= JAK/STAT pathway
Annular pancreas= abn migration of vent pancreatic bud
Graft used in CABG= isolated LAD left int mammry artery [LAD‐LIM]; multiple vessel dz= saphenous vein
Saphenous vein= longest vein of body
Postive stool guaic test=trace bleeding from GI tract
Ras is a G protein
Intracellular signal trasduction pathway= RAS‐MAP kinase pathway, jak/stat,PI3K/Akt/mtor pathway,camp,IP3
Follicular lymphoma =t(14,18)= Bcl2 overexpression= mc indolent B cell NHL in adults c waxing n waning painless
lymphadenopathy
Burkitts lymphoma, diffuse large B cell NHL= very agrresive tumors
B/l loss of pain n temp in UL= b/l dissociative anesthesia= always think of syringomyelia= damge to vent white commisure; if
lesion also involve vent horns LMN palsy at the same level
Brunner’s compound tubular submucosal gland of duodenum secrets alkaline mucus
Vit B2 def= corneal vascularization
Beriberi= infantile= fulminant cardiac synd= cardiomegaly, tachycardia,cynosis,dyspnea,vomiting in 2‐3 month old infants
Acute mania=Rx mood stabilizer=lithium/valproate/carbamazepine + atypical antipsychotic= olanzepine
Bupropion= moa= DNRI= use = major depression, tobacco dependence, hypoactive sexual disorder, se=seizure, weight loss,
Contraindicated in seizure disorder, anorexia/bulimia; is used along/alternate to SSRI to address sexual dysfunction
SNRI= TCA, duloxetin,venlafexin
Isotype switching=genes coding for constant regions of heavy chain lie in this order: igmd,GEA
B cells who produce ige[genes of MDG r deleted by isotype switching enzymes from DNA] can never produce Ig M,D,G but can be
induced to produce iga.
Selective iga def= mc B cell related immune def
TGF‐b stimulate B cells to produce iga
Lymphnode medullary cords= macrophages,b cells,plasma cells; med sinus= macrophages, reticular fibres
Pul Arterial HT >25 mm Hg at rest[n<20]; Idiopathic pul HT[AD c vari pene]=2 hit hypothesis=BMPR2[bone morphogenic protein
rec 2]gene mutaion superimposed infection,drugs,dz,ion channel defect
B6 pyridoxine imp for first step of heme synthesis=defi sideroblastic anemia‐mchc anemia
Inulin n mannitol,sucrose=no abs,no sec; glucose,Na,urea= abs; PAH n Creatinine= secretion
Inulin clearance = GFR; PAH clearance = RPF
SAH= on plain CT hyperdensity in cisterns/sulci
SLE= acute coronary syndrome in young female= vasculitis [ angiographically normal coronary] or by APLA synd
AD Rx= donepezil[ choineesterase inh],mamentine[NMDA rec antagonist], Vit E[neuroprotection]
Legionaire’s dz= c/o high grade fever, cough, diarrhrea,headache,confusion; bradycardia, hyponatremia,often not seen on
gram stain,urine Ag test; h/o exposure to contaminated water, life threatening pneumonia, unlike other atypical pneumonia CXR
unilobar infiltrate progressing to consolidation, cause of hyponatremia= SIADH n tubulointerstitial dz‐impairs d ability to
reabsorb Na, smoker n COPD at high risk, sputum = neutrophils c no org
Water = legionella, M.kansasi,M. Scrofulaceum, pseudomonas
Mycoplasma = walking pneumonia, more in adults, trachiobronchitis more common than pneumonia
Painful diabetic neuropathy=Rx amitryptyline, duloxetin[ also in stress urinary incontinence], gabapentin,capsacin cream,
carbamazepine
Drugs causing myopathy= statins, fibrates, niacin, steroids, hchq, colchicine,penicillamine, IFN a
Nonselective b blocker c ACE‐ = risk of hyperkalemia
Small=oat=undiff cancer of lung=+ for neuroendocrine markers= chromogranin,synaptophysin,neurone specific enolase
Ketamine decreases opioid tolerance [by blocking glutamate mediated phosphorylation of opioid rec n inc NO release]
12
Glycine is co‐agonist of glutamate at NMDA rec
CN IV= only nerve decussating before supplying its target
16s RNA is d only rna of 30s ribosome= contains sequence complementary to shine delgarno sequence on all prokayotic mrna.
23s RNA of 50s ribosme has peptidyltransferase activity
Causes of lactic acidosis= dec o2 delivery= cardiac failure,lung failure,shock,tissue infarction; hepatic failure[dec catabolism];
cyanide; seizurse, exercise; def in glygogenolysis n gluconeogenesis pathway
RMSP=Ricketsia ricketsia‐ tick born; contact of Dog
Cat= cat scratch fever=bartonella hensle= bacillary angiomatosis in HIV mimiking KS
Lyme dz= Borrelia burgdoferi= Ixodes Tick= forest[woods exposure];same tick in babesiosis
Leptospirosis= cattle ranch(farm) exposure
BBB= tight junctions bw endothelial cells of CNS capillaries
Desmosomes=spot welds=anchoring; gap junctions= formed by connexing protein;intermediate junction= adhesion
Angiogenesis= VEGF or FGF‐2
Aurer rods=deformed azurophilic granules of myeloblast= stains + for myeloperoxidase; tdt + indicates immature B/T
lymphocyes= ALL
Hairy cell leukemia= B cell,TRAP+, CD 20+, spleenomegaly, pancytopenia
Midshaft humerus # =damge to radial nerve n deep brachial artery
Surgical neck # = axillary nerve, ant/post humeral cicumflex artery
Supracondylar # humerus= brachial artery injury
Umbilical vein=ligament teres; umb arteries= medial umbilical ligaments
Umbilical arteries in fetus originates from fetal int iliac arteries
Hyperacute reject/chronic rejection= antibody mediated; acute= CMI/humoral
Gout= monoarticular= LL joints= ankle/knee; 1st MTP[50%]=podagra
Negative birefringent on polarized microscopy= when alligned parellel to slow rayyellow; perpendicular to slow rayblue
Endothelial stain for CD 34, vwf
Dubin johnson synd= absent bilirubin transporter protein [ MRP2 ]
Wiscott aldrich synd= classical triad= TIE=recurrent Infections/Immunodeficiency= ↓igm [↑iga,ige], Eczema,
Thrombocytopenia= X linked recessive; Rx= HLA matched BM transplantation
Human placental lactogen (HPL)= str n biologically similar to GH/Prolactin= increase insulin resistance=
hyperglycemia,proteolysis glucose,aa shunted to fetus, lipolysis fa n ketones= energy to mother
Vit k deficiency= increase PTinc PTT
Dysfibrinogenemia= inc TT,PT,PTT
Urinary 17 –ketosteroid measures adrenal androgens DHEA,DHEA‐S, androstenedione
Bluish neoplasm under nailbed= glomus tumor/ subungual melanoma
Mother to fetus transmission of HBV is more common if mother’s infected in 3rd trimester
Necrotising fascitis= flesh eating dz= GAS,GBS,s.aures,Cl.welchi,Aeromonas hydrophilia
GAS= PYR +; wide zone of b hemolysis
GBS= narrow zone of b hemolysis tht extends when placed perpendicular to s.aureus= CAMP +
Ethambutol= optic neuritis=↓visual acuity, central scotoma,red green color blindness
Post op ileus n urinary retension= Bethanecol
Oxybutynin= antimuscarinic= urge incontinence= overactive detrusor
Acne causing drugs= anabolic steroids, lithium, EGF Rec‐
Di george synd= interupted aortic arch in 15%, TOF
Tuberous sclerosis= valvular obstruction due to cardiac rhabdomyoma
UF Heparin can inhibit both factor 10a n factor 2a; LMWH can inhibit only facor Xa
Wallerian degeneration= anterograde degeneration
Nephrotic proteinuria= >3.5 g/day in adults; > 40 mg/m2/hr in children
Hippocampus is the first area to be damaged in global cerebral ischemia
Holoprocencephaly eg of cong malformation[intrinsic dev defect]; cong hip dislocation,club feet= eg of deformation[ext
compression]; amniotic band formation= eg of disruption [sec destruction of previously normal tissue]; potter synd= eg of
sequence[ oligohydromnios]
Acanthosis nigricans= insulin resistance [DM,Obesity,Acromegaly]; GI/GU cancers
IM= EBV infects cd 21+ B cells= to destroy this virally infected Bcells CD8+ lymphocyes clonally expand= atypical [reactive]
lymphocyes= Downey cells= large cells abundant cytoplasm, eccentric nucleaus n cell borders touch adjacent cells
Young c/o fever,malaise, sore throat,cervical lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly= IM
CD 21 is rec for C3d complement component on B cells
CD 14 on monocyes/macrophages= rec for LPS
13
Metabolic alkalosis=↑ph, Hco3, pco2= either hco3 gain/h loss=check for Urine cl and volume status=mc causes vomiting/ng
suction[HCL loss]urine cl< 10 meq/l= saline responsive alkalosis;
Diuretic=contraction alkalosis= vol depletion, Nacl loss, Hco3 gain= urine cl more= saline responsive
Conn’s synd= gain of Na, HCO3; loss of K,CL,H= urine cl >20= saline resistant alkalosis
APC gene mutation= mc mutation in sporadic colon cancer n all FAP synd
APC kras p53 n DCC mutation =colon cancer; MLH1/MSH2 gene[dna mismatch repair] mutation= Lynch syndrome[HNPCC]
Glioblastoma multiforme= affecting cere hemesphere,cross midline=butterfly glioma;
LM= necrosis,hemorrhage,palisading cells
Oligodendroglioma= tumor cells show fried egg appearance
Hairy cell leukemia= fried egg cells
Mc sourse of Ecoli sepsis is UTI
Thrombocytopenia in hospitalized pt== always suspect HIT
Gp iib/iiia inhibitors= abciximab,eptifibatide,tirofibane
Dipyridamol, cilostazol= inh PDE—in camp—inh platelet aggregation
Berry’s aneurysm= ADPKD, EDS,Coarctation
Class III antiarrythmic= reverse use dependence= slower HR,more K blockage= more prolongation of Qtc interval
Class 1c antiarry= use dependence=more HR, more blockage of Na channels= QRS prolongation
Trna is d only RNA contains thymidine
Trna 3’ CCA‐OH‐= aminoacid binding region; 5’ end = P; T arm= Thymidine,ᵠ pseudouridine,cytocine; D arm= dihydrouracil
Nearly 1/2 of body’s Ig are produced by Splenic B cells;1/3 platelets stored in spleen
Eccrine=merocrine sweat gland; holocrine= sebaceus glands;paracrine glands= similar to endocrine glands except tht secretion
reaches target cell thru EC space to nearby organ [vs telecrine= thru blood];autocrine= hormone acting on same organ
Phenylalanine deletion [ΔF 508] mc genetic mutation in CF= causing improper folding n failure of glycosylation of CFTR protein—
complete degradation of CFTR before it reaches apical mem
Urine= musty/mousy odor= PKU; burnt sugar smell urine= MSUD; fruity odor= DKA; black urine on exposure to air=
Alkaptonuria;portwine urine= porphyria
PKU= imp is neurological s/s; hypopigmentation, musty body odor
Hypopigmentation= PKU, albinism; hyperpigmentation= Alkaptonuria
Albinism= tyrosine‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐[Tyrosinase]‐‐‐‐‐‐‐DOPA‐‐‐‐‐‐‐[TYROSINASE]‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐dopaquinone
Ciplox= achilies tendinitis n tendon rupture in children; gatiflox= hypoglycemia
Drug induced Lupus= SHIP+ minocycline, quinidine
Shiga toxin n shiga like toxin= inh rebosomal protein synthesis
Mannitol= moa in PCT n desc loop of Henle
Hyperkalemia= spironolactone,amiloride, ACE ‐, propranolol, digoxin; hypokalemia= loop n thiazide
Primary CNS lymphoma= EBV=diffuse large cell B cell lymphoma=CD 20+,CD79a+
Subdural hematoma=great imitator of vague symptoms like ataxia,sezuires,memory loss,altered mental status
Ant communicating artery= mc site of berry’s aneurysm> post comm artery
Lentiform nucleus[GP+PM]= affected in wilson’s dz=Hepatolenticular degeneration= wing beating tremer,psychosis
B HCG appears in maternal serum after 6 day of fertilization[ blastocyst implantation] to 11 days= avg= 8 days
Blanching n pallor,coldness of area surrounding anticubital vein having NE infusion= extravasation of NE= Rx 5‐10 mg
phentolamine in 10 cc saline in the vein
Indirect=unconjugated billirubin uptake in hepatocyte via passive transport protein OATP
Direct or conjugated billi is secreted in bile canaliculli via both active OATP= MRP2 n passive OATP
Normal RPF= 600 ml/min; normal GFR= 120 ml/min; so normal FF= GFR/RPF= 0.20= 20%
In hypovolemic shock= ↓↓ ,↓ ,↑
Microsome= smooth Endoplasmic reticulum; lipoproteins= lipids+ apoproteins
Abetalipoproteinemia= absent/impaired synthesis of apob containing lipoproteins= VLDL[apo B 100] n chylomicrones[ apo
B48], AR mutation of MTP(microsomal TG transfer protein) gene causing impaired folding of apob n tranfer of lipids to VLDL n
chylo presenting in 1st yr of life as fat malabsorbsion, acanthocytic RBC n neurological prob due to vit E defi[ progressive ataxia,
RP] n lipid accumulation in enterocytes
Liver has least chances of infarction due to thrombosis of hepatic artery due to dual blood supply from portal vein n accesary
arteries[ inf phrenic,adrenal,intercoastal]
Organ susceptibility to infarction=CNS[5min]> myocardium[30 min]>kidney[30 min]>spleen>liver
Normal bacteria of gi tract= 90% strict anerobes[ bifidobact, fuso,clostridia,pepto,peptostrpto,eubacteria];10% facultative
anerobes[ecoli,kleb,strpto,staphy,bacillus,lactobacillus]
Essential tremer=familial tremer= postural/kinetic tremer=idiopathic tremer= mc movement disorder;AD; Rx= propranolol;
alcohol↓ tremer
Fibromyalgia= chronic musculoskeletal pain syndrome= pain,stiffness of muscules;tender joints,tendons;paresthesia,
Sleep disturbance, emotional disturbances= pain worsenes after exercise n morning
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Ankylosing spondylitis= low back pain, stiffess improves c exercise
Polymyalgia rhematica= morning stiffness of neck,shoulder,pelvic muscles in older pt c fever,wt loss,inc ESR c giant cell arteritis
IFN g stimulates MHC 1 n 2 expression; IFN a,b only stimulates MHC 1 exprssion
IFN a,b= stimulates production of antiviral proteins[rnasel,PKR] which in d presence of dsrna [only found in virally infected
cell]degrade all mrna of cell[viral n host] inh protein synthesis
Sorbitol/fructose in lens= osmotic damage=cataract; sorbitol/fructose in schwan cells= peripheral neuropathy
Mc causes of acute otitis media,sinusitis, conjunctivitis= s.pneumonia> non typable h.influenza>morexella catarrhalis
Acute bronchitis almost always viral= influ A,B, corona, RSV, human metapneumo;
Bacterial causes=mycoplasma,pertusis
OC pills dec risk of non hereditary Ovarian, endometrial, colon cancer; inc risk of breast n cervical cancer
ALP= bone/liver/placenta/intestine; bone ALP is denatured by Heat[bone=boil]
Markers of osteoblastic activity= bone ALP; osteoclastic activity= urine deoxypyridinole, urine hydroxyproline, TRAP
T4 to T3 coversion is inh by= PTU,propranolol, steroids, amiodarone, iopanoic acid
S.hematobium= urinary schistosomiasis= terminal hematuria,dysuria,frequency, HN,PN, SCC of bladder
S.mansoni= intestinal schisto=diarrhea,abd pain, intestinal ulcers= Iron Def Anemia
S.japonicum=hepatic schisto= HS megaly,periportal fibrosis,portal HT
Schistosomiasis= Th2 mediated immune response to eggs= scarring n fibrosis
Dystonia=idiopathic= spasmodic torticollis, blepharospasm,writer’s cramp
Myoclonus=physiological= hiccups, hyspnic jerks; patho= epilepsy, CJD
Eosinophil= type I n II [ADCC]hypersensitivity
Medullary sponge kidney[MSK]= common,benign congenital cystic dilatation of medullary collec ducts;asymptomatic, Cx=
kidney stones,UTI,hematuria
Chronic dialysis= acquired cystic dz=risk of RCC
ARPKD= risk of congenital hepatic fibrosis; ADPKD= hepatic cysts
A‐methyltyrosine drug used in pheochromocytoma inh tyrosine hydroxylase; reserpine inh entry of dopamine in synaptic
vesicles= chemical sympathectomy;guanethidine inh exit of NE from synaptic vesicles
Hypothalamic nuclei/lesion=lateral=hunger/feeding‐anorexia,medial=satiety‐hyperphagia,ant=heat dissipation viaparasym‐
hyperthermia,post‐heat conservation via sym‐hypothermia,arcuate=dopamine,GHRH,gnrh;
Supraoptic=ADH, paraventricular=oxytocin,TRH,CRH; suprachiasmatic=circadian rhythm n pineal gland func
Freidrich’s ataxia= s/s similar to Vit E def
Adenomatus polyp malignant potential= dysplasia,villus>tubular,size>4 cm
Granulomatus dz[sarcoidosis,TB,HD,NHL]= hypercalcemia
Niacin def=pellagra= maize eating,alcoholic,chronic debilitating dz like HIV,carcinoid synd [↓trptophan as typ→serotonin],
hartnup dz[↓try],isoniazid[ ↓B6]
Meningioma= 2nd mc brain tumor in adults,benign,slow growing
CN III palsy= uncal herniation, post cerebral artery aneurysm, DM nerve ischemia
Hep C is genetically unstable due to absence of 3‐5 exonuclease activity[lack of proof reading] of its RNA polymerase n
hypervarible regions of envelope glycoprotein prone to frequent mutation
Dna primase= RNA polymerase
Neiman pick dz= death by 3 yrs
Bare lymphocyte synd= defect in MHCII expression on antigen presenting cells= immune defi
Ataxia‐telengectasia= AR mutation of ATM gene,defect in DNA break repair, hypersensitive to ionizing radiation[xrays]
resulting in multi chromosomal breakage unrepaired, presenting c/o cerebellar ataxia,oculo cutaneus telengectasia,recurr
sinopulmonary inf due to immune defi[mc iga↓,also ige↓],hematological malig
Ecoli virulent factors= P fimbria/s fimbria/pilli‐ UTI;HL/HS enterotoxin‐watery GE;verotoxin=inactivate 60s rebosome‐inh
protein synthesis‐cell death=bloody GE; LPS= sepsis; K1 capsule polysachharide= neonatal meningitis
Ecoli –green metalic sheen on EMB agar[ selective n diff agar for enteric pathogens]; b hemolysis on blood agar
Ecoli heat stable toxin= inc cgmp, labile toxin=inc camp
IL12 mediates conversion of naive Th0 cells to Th1 cells. IL12 rec def result in severe mycobacterial inf due to absent CMI=Rx ifng
IL4 mediates differentiation of Th0 to Th2
Seronin syndrome= serotonin can cause abd cramps n diarrhea, HT,tachycardia,myoclonus,agitation,confusion,
Hyperreflexia,hyperthermia; drugs= SSRI,MAOI,TCA,SNRI,tramadol, linezolid,ondansetron,triptans
Dna poly III has 3‐5exonuclease activity; dna poly I has 5‐3 n 3‐5 exonuclease activity
Parvovirus B19 mimics RA in adults but self resolving
Delirium= acute onset,global impairment of memory n consciousness, waxing‐waning,reversible
Dementia=gradual onset,short term memory loss[remote memory initially spared],conscious,progressive,irreversible
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IL6,IL1,tnfa= sys inflammatory response= inc acute phase reactants= eg.fibrinogen= inc ESR; albumin↓ESR;fibrinogen and
globulin↑ESR
Glutamate‐glutamine‐a ketoglutarate cycle in brain= in HE hyperammonemia inc glutamine,dec glutamate=dec excitation n a
ketoglutaratedec TCA cycle= dec energy, swelling n disfunction of astrocytes.
Glutamate+NH3‐gluatamine[ glutamine synthase]
Glutamineglutamate+ammonia[glutaminase]
A ketoglutarateglutamate[glutamate dehydrogenase];glutamineakg[transaminase]
Glutamate‐‐‐‐‐‐‐[glutamate decarboxylase/B6]‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐GABA‐‐‐‐‐‐‐[transaminase/B6]‐‐‐‐‐‐metabolism/degradation
Tryptophanoxindole[metabolite by liver] inc in HE= sedation,coma,muscle weakness
LFT recommended before starting statins; Re LFT if s/s of liver dysfunction like fever,malaise,anorexia.
BH4 is cofactor to synthesize tyrosine,Dopa,serotonin,NO
Anthracyclin asso cardiotoxicity= swelling of sarcoplasmic reticulum is earliest sign of cardiotoxicity=cumulative dose related
DCM=biventricular CHF
SVC synd= lung cancer[small cell]> NHL
Sup sulcus tumor= shoulder pain[comp of brachial plexus] n horner synd
Wenickes ence= mamillary body necrosis> fornix,ant nucleus of thalamus
Diabetes insipedis= hypertonic volume loss
Exessive sweating= hypertonic vol loss
Adrenal insufficiency=salt wasting> water loss= hypotonic vol loss
SIADH= hypotonic vol gain
Psychogenic polydypsia= hypotonic vol gain
Hypertonic saline=hypertonic vol gain
Diarrhea,vomiting= isotonic vol loss
GI hemorrhage=isotonic vol loss
Normal saline= isotonic vol gain
CMV,toxo, HHV‐6= mononucleosis like synd=neg monospot test
Cystinuria= def in transport protein=AR= life long renal stones
Lysine,arginine,ornthine,cystine [COLA]= dibasic aa=common transporter in intestine n PCT
Old pt c/o painless gross hematuria= RCC/ urothelial tumor
RBC cast n acanthocyte= glomerular source of bleeding
Long term effects of Hydrocephalous= streching of periventricular pyramidal fibres= UMN lesion= hypertonia,hyperreflexia,
visual distubances, learning disability
Pancreatic secretion isotonic to plasma except high bicarb n low cl‐
Mc location of pancreatic pseudocyst =lesser sac
Warfarin 100% oral bioavailability
Mc complication following SAH is secondary vasospasm on 4‐12 days> rebleeding, hydrocephalus
Insulin resistance secondary dyslipidemia [lipid profile c blood glucose]
EBV tumors= burkitts, nasopharyngeal ca, primary cns lymphoma in HIV, post transplant lymphoma
Turner synd=lack of paternal x chr, cardiovascular anomalies= coarctation,bicuspid av; aortic dissection in adulthood
Vaginal adenosis precursor of vaginal clear cell ca
Perinaud synd= penial germinoma=dorsal midbrain synd=malignant tumor=young boy c/o precosius puberty[b hcg], upward
gaze palsy n convergence defect[ tectum compression],hydrocephalus[aqueductal stenosis];histologically similar to testicular
seminoma
Occlusion of PICA= Wallenberg synd [lat medullary synd]= contra loss of pain,temp; ipsi palsy of cn 5,8 9,10,11, horner synd
Occlusion of AICA= lat pontine synd= contra loss of pain,temp; ipst loss of cn 5,8 ; horner synd; cerebellar sym
Medial medullary synd= contra spastic palsy, ipsi LMN palsy of 12 cn
In brain tumors—inc uptake of bromodeoxyuridine= thymidine analogue= high grade tumor=poor prognosis
Urea cycle= N acetylglutamate is an allosteric activator of enz CPS1. NAG is formed by NAG synthase from acetyl coa n
glutamate
MAC infection in HIV+ CD4<50; prophylaxis= weekly azithro; bactrim for P.jiroveci prophylaxis when cd4<200 n for toxo when
cd<100
Rifampin= prophylaxis for meningococcus n h.influenza
Low doses aspirin inh predominantly cox1,at high doses both cox1 n 2
Samters triad= asthma,nasal polyp n aspirin hypersensitivity[ broncospasm,flushing,nasal symptoms]= due to overpro of
leukotriences
Low dose aspirin [up to 2g/d]=gouty arthritis,high dose aspirin=uricosuric
Maternal insulin cant cross placenta,also heparin can’t.
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IGF‐2 imp for fetal development,undetectable in adults, tumor of IGF‐2 in adults hypoglycemia
Gestational DM= hyperglycemia—glucose cross placenta—islet cell hyperplasia—hyperinsulinemia—macrosomia—
hypoglycemia following birth
Rx of CONS= empirical c vancomycin+‐ rifampicin or gentamicin due to wide spread resistence
Inner ear= high frequency at base[rigid]; low at apex[flexible]=helicotrema; presbyacusis/noise induced trauma= high frequency
sound loss
Hemolytic anemia,jaundice,spleenomegaly c PS spherocytosis +osmotic fragility testing= h.spherocytosis
Schizophrenia=6 month; schizopheniform= >1 month <6 month; schizoaffective=mood dis c psychotic symtoms for at least 2
weeks in d absence of mood symptoms;brief psychotic disorder= <1 month
Mc ectopic tissue in meckels diverticulum =gastric>pancreatic;gastric epithelium—hcl—damage to sorrounding mucosa—
bleeding
Although amiodarone inc Qtc interval,it doesnt predispose to torsade depointes
MHC‐I= HLA A,B,C; MHC‐II= HLA DP,DQ,DR
Lithium= nephrogenic DI= ADH anatagonist; like demeclocycline
Major limitation of cross sectional study= temporal relation bw expo n outcome
Genomic imprinting= epigenetic process, dna methylation by methyltransferase from SAM to cytosine residue of DNA
Sciatic nerve root value= L4 –s3
Varenicilline= partial agonist of nicotinic ach rec in cns= smoking cessation
O2 content of blood depends on Hb conce, Hb % saturation, dissolved o2 in plasma
Co poisoning= hb% saturation dec
Cyanide poisoning=o2 unloading from Hb is inh—o2 saturation of venous blood inc
Aldosterone favours alkalosis by inc abs of nahco3; addisons dz= hypoaldosteronism= salt wasting =type 4 RTA=non anion gap
met acidosis= loss of nahco3
Fibrinolytic most effective within 6 hrs of STEMI
Reperfusion arrythmia= accelerated idioventricular rhythm‐ mc, benign
Dna mismatch repair system= MSH2 n MLH1 genes
Mismatch repair def= HNPCC=lynch synd= MSH2 n MLH1 gene mutation
Nucleotide excision repair defect= thymidne dimers by UV= XP—skin ca
Dna hyper sensitivity to cross linking agents= fanconi’s anemia
Gen chr instability=bloom synd—inc cancer
Base excision repair def=deamination of C to U by chemicals‐nitrates/heat/spontaneusly= glycosylase enz system
Dna/chr breakge repair def= ionizing radiation induced break= Ataxia teleng
Drugs damaging kidney= heroin,pamidronate—immune damage to glomerulus= FSGS; Acute tubular necrosis= aminogly,ampho
B,cisplatin,foscarnet, radiocontrast dye; tubular precipitation= sulfo,triamterine,methotraxate, IV acyclovir; AIN=
methicilin,Penicillin,cephalo,sulfo, NSAID,diuretic,acetazolamide,allopurinol;CIN=lithium,cyclosporin
Rectus abdominis most imp muscle achiving raised intraabd pressure n intrathoracic presure during valsalva
Cong rubella synd= SNHL, cataract, PDA
Hib= polysachharide capsule= PRP capsule[polyribosyl‐ribitol‐phosphate]=it contains ribose=pentose not hexose,more virulent
than other serotypes
Endotoxin induced sepsis= N.meningitidis,ecoli,salmonella
ACTH has only effect on inc cortisol n androgens but not aldosterone
Aldosterone is inc in response to RAAS n hyperkalemia
Conn’s synd= hypertension,hypokalemia, m.alk without hypernatremia[ due to aldostrone escape= inc volinc ANP n inc
GFRnatriuresis] n without edema
VF is mc cause of death due to AMI in prehospital phase; ventricular failure is mc cause of death due to AMI in hospital phase
Spherocytes= h.spherocytosis,AIHA, burns,old blood sample
Target cells [codocytes= bulls eye cells]=thalasemia,IDA, aplenia, cholestasis
Acanthocyes=spur cells= abetalipoproteinemia→vit E defi,cirrhosis
Schistoctes,helmet cells n burr cells=DIC,TTP,HUS,prosthetic valves
Bite cells= G6PD def
Tear drop cells (dacrocyte)= myelofibrosis
Burr cells [echinocytes]=uremia, pyruvate kinase defi
Sturge weber synd=encephalotrigeminal angiomatosis=”tram track calcification” due to skull radioopacity
Osler weber rendau=hereditary hemorrhagic telengectasia
MHC‐II present exogenous ag,involves lysosomes; MHC‐I present endogenous ag[self ag,tumor ag,virally encoded
Protein ag]
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Health insurance plans= 4 payment methods to physicians=salary‐no incentives,usually no financial risk; free for service[FFS]=
incentives for all services n procedures; discounted FFS= free to order any service but given incentive for limiting costlier tests;
capitation= fixed budget per enrolle—encourages preventive n councelling methods n containing procedures‐highest financial
risk to physician eg. Railways employees at BAGH
Phosphorylation by phosphorylase kinase‐ addition of P= activation;dephosphorylation by phosphoprotein phosphatse=
inactivation
Myophosphorylase= activated normally by NE via camp pathway n by allosterically AMP, ca2+ released from SR during
contraction; inh allosterically by ATP,G6P
Glycogen phosphorylase of liver=+ normally by glucagon by camp pathway n allosterically via NE via IP3‐Ca2+pathway ; inh
allosterically via ATP,G6P,glucose
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Reflexes :light/accomodation=2‐‐‐‐3; corneal/blink= 5‐1‐‐‐7; jaw jerk= 53—53;cough= 10[IL nerve]—10; gag= 9—10;carotid
sinus=9—10;vestibuloocular=8‐‐‐3,4,6
MRSA=Rx vancomycin> daptomycin/linezolid
Linezolid= moa= inh protein synthesis by binding to 23s rna of 50s Ribosome n inh initiation complex= se=
thrombocytopenia,optic neuritis, serotonin synd
Daptomycin= moa= depolarization of cell mem by creating pores,leaking ions,inh dna,rna,protein synthesis=se= myopathy‐in
CPK; inactivated by pul surfactant not useful in pneumonia
Etanercept= soluble rec of tnfa decoy[trapping] protein
Polycythemia vera= inc rbc mass,plasma vol,dec EPO, inc platelets,inc wbc,splennomegaly, Peptic Ulcer Dz n pruritus[histamine
from mast cell],gouty arthritis[inc cell turnover],facial plethora; 95% mutation in JAK2 gene V617PA postion inc sensitivity of
hemopoeitic cells to growth factors; Rx= serial phlebotomy
CN 3 compressed in aneurysms of PCA n sup cerebellar artery; occulomotor nerve centrally motor fibres‐ischemia;peripherally
parasympathetic fibres‐compression
AICA aneurysm damage cn 7 n 8
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ARDS= restrictive lung dz
UF heparin‐AT3 complex inh activated factor 12,11,9,10 & 2= inc aptt,TT
LMWH‐AT3 complex inh activated fac 10= inc aptt
Warfarin inh fac 2,7,9,10= inc PT> aptt,TT
Direct thrombin[fac2] inh= lepirudin,agratroban,debigatran= inc TT
Direct factor Xa inh=fondaparinux,idraparinux,apixaban,rivaroxaban=inc aptt,PT
Candida albicans= germ tube test=diagnostic= 3 hr at 37 degree
CO poisoning= dec hb o2 saturation,left shift= cherry red discolour
Metthemoglobinemia= dec Hb o2 saturation,left shift= blue discoloration
Cyanide poisoning=defect in peri tissue mitochondrial elet transport chain; Hb, o2 saturation,o2 content of blood all normal=
red discoloration due to inc o2 content of venus blood
Secondary str of protein =a helix n b sheat have H2 bonds
Gestational DM=rx= diet n exerciseinsulin/ glyburide
Differ cyanosis=PDA c reversal of shunt
PCWP measures LAEDP which is= LVEDP normally; but in case of Mitral stenosis
Peroxisome= b oxidation of very long chain FA [>20c] n a oxidation of branched chain[at odd no] FA=phytanic acid; Zellweger
synd= def b oxidation of VLCFA= def myelin synthesis= cns symptoms; Rafsum dz= def a oxidation of phytanic acid=cns
symptoms=rx avoid chrorofyll
Hyaline arteriosclerosis in renal artery= benign HT/DM
Mc cause of ARF in children is HUS
Hyperprolactinemiainh TRHin TSHhypothyroidism
Mc se of amlodipine= peripheral edema[ankle edema n flushing]
Centrilobular emphysema by both neutrophil n macrophage elastases = smoking=upper lobes due to low perfusion n less A1AT
;panacinar by neutrophil elastases=a1 antitrypsin def=lower lobes due to high perfusion n high neutrophil infiltrate ; paraseptal
=apical lung blebs=primary spontaneous pneumothorax
GBS= acute autoimmune demylinating peripheral neuropathy after infection,immunization or allergy
Mc cn involved in GBS= facial
Duchene muscular dystrophy= framshift mutation of dystrophin gene vs Becker = in frame mutation at same gene
Actinic keratosis=sandpaper feel on palpation diagnostic
Acanthosis= inc thickness of epidermis,str spinosum thick ;parakeratosis=retained nuclei,dyskeratosis=abn
keratinisation,hyperkeratosis= inc thickness of str corneum;spongiosis=edema of epidermis
In MS, opening snap coinsides c MV opening on p‐v curve
Apob48= chylomicron secretion by enterocyes
Apob100=LDL uptake
Apoc2=LPL activation
Apoe3,E4=VLDL ,chylo remnants uptake
Apoa1=LCAT activation
Foscarnet=pyrophosphate analogue=calcium chelator= hypocalcemia[dec PTH],hypo Mg,hypo K,hypo phosphotemia,seizures;
gancyclovir=sev neutropenia,anemia n thrombocytopenia c kidney dysf[not to be used c zidovudine]; acyclovir= crystal
nephropathy n neuropathy,delirium,tremers;
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Anti rhd antibody is igg
NMJ blockage can be tested by train of four response[4 muscle twich response]::equal reduction in all 4= Sch phase 1 block
worsened by neostigmine; fade response= competitive blocker/sch phase 2 block‐ reversed by neostigmine
Phase 2 sch block is seen in atypical pseudocholinesterase/slow acetylators/ sch overdose
Nodular sclerosis HD= MC, lacunar cells, ebv‐
Mixed cellularity HD= frq RS cells, ebv+70%,HIV
Lymphocyte rich HD= frq RS cells,ebv+ 40%
Lymphocyte depleted=reticular variant,most EBV+,HIV
Lym predominance HD= popcorn cell[L&H],cd 20+,cd15‐,cd30‐,ebv‐
Paget’s dz= mosaic of lamellar bone,cement lines
Osteoporosis= thinning of trabeculle
Hyperparathyroidism=subperiosteal resorbtion c cystic degeneration
Osteopetrosis= persistent primary unmineralized spongiosa in medullary canal
Bupropion =DNRI= negligible effect on seronin=agitation,insomnia,seizures
Non selective b blockers= exaggerate hypoglcemia n mask adrenergic symptoms of it
Rule of thumb= calcium is high,phosphorus is low n vice versa
Bicuspid aortic valve mc cong malformation of heart in turner synd
Abnormal neural crest cell migration failing spiral septum of heart= TOF,per truncus arteriosus,transposition of great vessels
CCB does not affect contraction in skeletal muscles as they don’t depend on extracellular ca2+
Common causes of dilated heart=systolic heart failure= IHD,DCM
Common causes of small heart cavity= diastolic HF= HT HF,HCM
In RA, tissue inflammation causes enz conversion of argininecitruline in protein vimentin[citrullinated peptide], to which
exagg immune response develops.
Degree of overlap bw healthy n diseased population curve incFP n FN incsensitivity[TP/FN] n specificity[TN/FP] dec n vice
versa
Only naked ss+RNA infectious[act as mrna n use host cell machianry to form viral proteins], naked ss‐RNA or dsrna
Not infectious
Urine dipstick detects only macroalbuminuria >300mg/day
Tubular adenoma=small n pedunculated, villus adenoma= large n sessile,cauliflower mass‐‐‐‐secretory diarrhea‐
mucus,hypovolemia n ele imb
NF1 tumor suppressor gene on chr 17= neurofibromin protein‐signal transduction; NF2 tumor suppressor gene on chr 22=merlin
protein‐cytoskeleton related protein
Ulnar nerve injury sites= funny bone;guyon’s canal= hook of hamate n pisiform
Asbestos bodies=ferruginus bodies
B naphthylamine used in aniline dyes n rubber industry=bladder ca
NNRTI=nevirapine,efavirense=SJS,TEN
Subacute throiditis=granulomatus thy=de quarvan thy=viral thy
PTH indirectly inc activity of osteoclast. PTH rec on osteoblast, stimulated by PTH inc RANK Ligand n M‐CSFinc osteoclast
precursormature osteoclast; PTH dec osteoprotegrin release,allowing more interacrion bw rank ligand n its rec—inc
osteoclastic activity;calcitonin rec + over osteoclast
Thrombocytopenia in alcoholic liver dz is by direct toxic damage to BM n hypersplenism n splenic sequestration
Anal ca=HPV in HIV
Pharyngitis c GN= streptococcus;phary c myocarditis=cornebacteria; phary c tenovaginitis= gonococcus
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Fabry n hunter= XR
Hurler syndrome= a L iduronidase= dermaton sulphate,heparan sulphate=c/f—gargoylism[course facial feature],corneal
clouding,HS megaly,dev delay
Hunter synd= iduronidate sulfatase=dermatan n heparan sulphate=c/f—same but no corneal clouding
Neiman pick n tay sach= cherry red macula, death by 2‐3 yrs; diff is tay sach is only CNS sym,no HS megaly
Gaucher dz= gaucher cells=crumpled tissue paper like macrophages,HS,bone,pancytopenia
Krabbes dz=cns, optic atrophy, globoid cells
Fabry dz= heart,kidney,peri nerves, angiokeratoma
Metachromatic leukodystrophy= dementia,ataxia,mus wasting
How to diff primary polydypsia n DI= both have low urine osmolarity at startings na >142=DI, sna<137=PP; Water depr
testnormaly urine osmo inc >800;if urine osm >500= PP,<300=di; now if give ADHif urine osmo inc >50%= complete CDI, if
inc > 10% but <50% partial CDI,if inc <10% NDI, PP
Polyuria,polydypsia= DM,DI,PP,hyper Ca [as Ca acts as ADH antagonist= Nephrogenic DI]
SIADH=rx demeclocyclin
CDI=rx desmopressin[ also used for nocturnal enuresis ]
NDI=rx thiazide> indomethacine[dec PGinc ADH]
Lithium induced NDI=rx amiloride
Most common site of aortic rupture in RTA is aortic isthmus=arch bw asc n des aorta distal to origin of left subclavian artery
Carbamazepine= BM suppression, hepatotoxic, SIADH
Insulin=se= edema,postural hypotension
LAP is low in CML;LAP is n/inc in leukemoid reaction
Porcelain gall bladder= 11‐33% GB ca
Cystinuria= defect in PCT absorption transporter of dibasic aminoacid. Young pt c/o recc kidney stones—urine hexagonal cystin
crystals. Sodium cyanide‐nitroprusside test detects –SH groups of cystine. Rx= hydration,alkalinisation
Thyroid is developed by evagination of pharyngeal epithelium. At lower end of evagiantion thyroid develops,rest becomes
thyroglossal duct. Then this thyroid follicles fuse with parafollicular C cells derived from ultimobrachial body
Proto oncogenes= ras, N‐myc=neuroblastoma,small Lung, erb B1=scc of lung,erb B2=breast ovary, TGF a=astrocytoma,HCC; sis=
codes for PDGF=astrocytoma,osteosarcoma; abl= CML,ALL
Cheyne stoke respi= CHF, stroke
Copd= slow deep breaths shud be taken
Pul fibrosis,pul edema,infant= rapid shallow
Glucocorticoids= causing hyperglycemia by catabolism at periphery n anabolism at liver[gluconeogenesis n glycogenesis]
Methotraxate =se= painful mouth ulcers[Rx= folinic acid], liver tox, BM dep, B cell lymphoma, opportunistic inf,pul fibrosis,
renal crystallization
Coccidiosis=in desert
Cat scratch dz= bartonella hensle= fever,lymphadenopathy,self limiting
Infective endocarditis is mc cause of new onset heart murmur in young pts.
Some pt of IE may complicate c Acute renal insufficiency due to circulating immune complex deposion in glomeruli,mesangium
causing acute,diffuse,proliferative GN=nephritic synd
Kartagener synd=immotile cilia synd= AR=defective dyenin arm
Kaposis sarcoma of colon= red/purple flat/elevated maculopapule or nodule, spindle shaped tumor cell c small vessel
proliferation,extravasated rbcs.
CMV colitis= ulcers,erosions; cytomegalic cells c owl eye inclusions
Entameba= flask shaped ulcers;trophozoits c RBC
Cryptosporadiosis= biopsy basophilic clusters on intestinal epi cells
Hiv pt c bloody diarrhear= cmv colitis, KS
Most of enveloped virus acquire their lipid env by budding thru host plasma membrane except Herpes[ nuclear mem]
Atopic dermatitis[eczema] is caused by mutation of protein filaggrin, dec skin barrier function exposing pt more to env allergens
and immune hyperresponsiveness to them; by both route ingestion or inhalation
Ca atpase pump sequesters ca in SR after contraction; Na/ca antiporter on sarcolemma removes 1 ca out,3 na in
Panic attack‐hyperventilate‐co2 washout‐hypocapnic vasoconstriction in brain‐dec CBF‐ dizziness,confusion
Pts c cerebral edema=inc ICP= rx hyperventilation—hypocapnic vasoconstriction
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Central pontine myelinolysis=overrapid correction of hyponatremia= osmotic demyelination of corticospinal n corticobulbal
tracts of 9,10,11 cn= spastic quadriplegia c pseudobulbar palsy
Energy is derived fast from table sugar[fructose] than glucose,mannose,galactose in glycolytic pathway
SLE= autoimmune hemolysis= type 2 hypersensitivity, also type 3 hs=immune complex deposition in kidney= lupus nephritis
Hemochromatosis= AR misssense mutation[cystein 282 tyrosine] of HFE gene on 6p chr encoding a HLA class I like mole,
responsible for iron abs in GIT
Childhood exanthems= scarlet fever= sandpapery rash,fever,pharyngitisRheumatic fever,PSGN; chickenpox=itchy vesicular
rash,measles= 3C cough,coryza,conjunctivitis,koplic spots f/b rash; rubella= post auricular n occipital lymphadenopathy;
erythema infectiosum=slapped cheek; roseolla infantum= high grade fever for 3‐5 days subsides f/b rash disapp in 2 days
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Dimercaprol [BAL] itself is toxic= kidney tox, HTN
Most frequently mentioned se of spironolactone/eplerenone= gynecomystia
Microalbuminuria= 30‐300 mg/d or 30‐300 mcg/mg creat in spot sample of urine
Polymyocitis= anti Jo1 abntibodies
Mild vwf def= no spont bleeding but bleeding in minor sur procedures. Give iv desmopressin which inc release of vwf from
endothelial cells; in complete def of vwf bleeding dosent stop
A1 antitripsin only degrades neutrophil elastase not macrophage
Krukenberg tumor primary sites= stomach,pancreas,breast,Gb ; no lung,colon,liver
Dec in FEV1 >20% after methacholine chalange test = B.asthma
Max o2 extraction from blood [80‐90%] occur in coronary arteries
Cox1 + in GI mucosa n platelets; cox2 + in vascular endothelial cells –PGI2
Metyrapone = used to check HPA axis; inhibiting 11 b hydroxylase dec synthesis of cortisolACTH surgeinc 17OHS in blood n
in urine n 11 DOC
ADH inc secretion of ACTH
Zona glomerulosa does not have 17a hydroxyase enz so it cannot produce cortisol
Direct inguinal hernia= weakness of transversalis fascia
Marfan synd= chr 15, fibrillin 1 defect in skeletan[ long legs,fingers,kypho scoliosis],lens [up and out] ,cardiovascular sys;Mc 2
cardiac abnormalities of marfan= MVP, cystic medial necrosis of aorta—aortic dissection,AR
Aortic dissection is mc cause of death in marfan synd. Death occur avg at 30‐40 yrs of age
FAD is cofactor in succinate dehydrogenase which converts succinate to fumerate
Candida albicans infection::if Th cell defi[HIV]‐‐localized/superficial candida inf. Eg.oral thrush, cutaneus or vulvovaginal
candidiasis,esophageal candidiasis; if neutrophil defi[neutropenia]or phagocytic def‐disseminated candida inf. Eg.
Candidemia, right endocarditis,liver/kidney absecces; if HIV c neutropenia= both local n disseminated inf
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Central chemoreceptors[in medulla resp centre] normally respond to inc in hypercapnia[Pco2=indirect stimulus]H+ in CSF [not
in blood]dec ph =direct stimulus n peripheral chemorec [carotid body n aortic body] respond to hypoxia[Po2];normally resp
drive is hypercapnia[detected by cen chemorec]
In copd pts due to chronic hypercapnia pco2 no more remains drive to respiration n respiratory drive is hypoxia [detected by
peri chemorec]; so high supplemental o2 removes hypoxia n respiratory drive too
Lung n kidney involvement= suspect goodpastuer synd/wegner’s granulomatosis
Wegner’s dz= necrotizing granulomatus vasculitis= lung‐cough/hemoptysis, URT=ent/sinus,kidney‐RPGN type 3‐pauciimmune
Pro carcinogens are metabolized to carcinogens by hepatic microsomal cytochrome P450 monooxygenases
Rofecoxib=thrombosis
Hypospadiasis= incomplete fusion of urethral folds;epispadiasis= faulty position of genital tubercle in 5th week
Genital tubercle= glans penis,clitoris; labioscrotal swelling=l.majora,scrotum, urogenital[urethral] folds=l.minora,fuse in male
Phencyclidine=PCP=angel dust=belligerent behaviour n clonic jerking of extremity[psychomotor agitation]
Hallucinogens=LSD,PCP,mescaline; LSD=aggressive behaviour, affective lability,delusion,visual hallucination
Gonococcus=antigenic variabilityrepeated inf
Osteoblast secrets RANK ligand[binds to rank rec on immature osteoclast precursor] n M‐CSF { both inc maturation of
osteoclast—inc bone turn over} and also osteoprotegrin[ decoy protein for rank rec on osteoclast= dec bone turn over]; ratio of
RANK ligand‐OPG determines bone turnover
Dec in Estrogen ,inc VEGF in bone thus inc blood flow to bone
Cherry hemangioma=senile hemangioma[as it inc in no c age]= mc benign vascular tumor in adults
Nephrotic synd=hypercoagulable state due to urine loss of AT3
IUFD= fetus remain inutero>6 weeks=placenta releases tissue factor[thromboplastin]‐activate coagulation cascade
HNPCC asso colon adenocarcinoa= youge age<50, predominantly right side,multiple cancers‐
Synchronus/metachronus, originates from grossly normal areas of dysplastic mucosa[vs adenomatus polyps of sporadic
cancer],AD mutation of genes[MSH2,MSH6,MLH1,PMS2‐proteins coded by these genes function at G2 checkpoint] for dna
missmatch repair;Lynch II‐extraintestinal ca=endometrial,ovary,stomach,pancreas,GU
Microsatellite[dinucleotide] repeat instability is characteristic of tumor cells in HNPCC
Cat= cat scratch fever, pasturella multocida,toxoplasma
HIV pts= b/l ring enhancing lesion= toxoplasma >primary cns lymphoma
N2O= blood solubility low/dec blood‐gas partition coefficient—fast saturation of blood‐‐fast rise in partial pressure in blood –
fast saturation of brain—fast onset
Syphilitic thoracic aortic aneurysm=vasa vasorum endarteritis
Aldosterone= vent remodelling n fibrosis=rx low dose spironolactone in CHF
Ubiquitin‐proteosome defect= accu of misfolded proteins= early onset AR Parkinson dz, AD
Achondroplasia= activating mutation in FGF rec3 gene;sporadic mutation 85%, inherited AD mutation15%;fully penetrant
ADH decreases renal clearance of urea; as urea follows water
Colon ca= normal epithelium‐‐‐APC mutation‐‐‐‐small ademomatus polyp‐‐‐‐‐K‐RAS mutation‐‐‐large adenomatus polyp‐‐‐‐‐
p53,DCC‐‐‐‐colon ca
Vit B12 def= dorsal column‐position n vibration loss,sensory ataxia; lat corticospinal tract, axonal degeneration of peri nerves‐
numbness,tingling
Tabes dorsalis=dorsal column n dorsal nerve root ;no lat corticospinal tract
Karatngener synd=immotile cilia synd=rec sinopul inf[sinusitis,bronchiectasis], situs invertus,infertility[due to ciliary imotility]
CF= rec sinopul inf,infertility[due to azoospermia‐b/l absence of vas deference] but no situs invertus
CF= sweat chloride >60 mm/L= diagnostic
Post herpetic neuralgia= pain lasting for > 1month after zoster eruption. Mc neurological cx of VZV inf
CF= mc mutation is ΔF508= 3 bp deletion[codon] from 508 position of CFTR gene= deletion of phenylalaninedefective
posttranslation folding n glycosylation of CFTR protein degradation of CFTR protein during its transport to cell
membrane[abn trafficing] complete absence of CFTR protein at cell surface
CFTR protein once transported n set to cell surface,activated by camp mediated phosphoraylation n ATP binding—then n
then cl can go out
Eugonadotropic amenorrhea= normal gnrh,E,P—normal sec sexual characteristics‐‐‐imperforate hymen, vaginal canal agenesis,
mullerian duct anomalies
Acute acalculus cholecystitis= risk factors=hospitalized n severly ill pts= major trauma,sepsis,infection, childbirth,non billiary
surgery,TPN,DM, opiod,immunosupression,burns, CAD, cholesterol emboli, multi transfusion—GB stasis,ischemia,inflammation;
pt c/o fever, rt UQ pain,jaundice, mass, WBC inc, LFT inc; cx= gangrene,perforation,emphysematous cholycystitis; rx= iv broad
sp antibiotics,cholecystectomy c drainage of pus
Rx of digitalis toxicity= act charcoal, for hyperkalemia—insulin,k binders,hemodialysis, avoid ca gluconate; digibind
Acute digoxin toxicity=hyperkalemia; hypokalemia inc digoxin toxicity
EHEC= no sorbitol fermentation, no glucuronidase production; shiga like toxin is phage encoded n its prod is enhanced by IDA
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Toxins activate adenyl cyclise= cholera toxin, LT of ETEC,pertussis toxin (Gi), c.jejuni enterotoxin, b.cereus Labile enterotoxin,
b.anthracis‐edema factor
Toxins activates guanyl cyclise= ST of ETEC, yersinia enterocolitica enterotoxin
Toxins inactivating EF2—inh protein synthesis= diphthteria n pseudomonas exotoxina
Toxin disrupting cytoskeleton by depolymerising actin= cl.difficile cytotoxin[typeb]
Toxin recruiting neutrophils which release cytokines causing inflammatory diarrhea[watery]
Toxin inactivates 60s ribosomes—inh protein synthesis= shiga toxin, shiga like toxin=verotoxin of EHEC
Bacillus anthracic=lethal factor=zinc dependent protease,inh MAPK signalling pathway causing apoptosis,multi system
dysfunction
MDS= myelodysplastic synd= ineffective hematopoesis c disordered=abnormal differentiation of myeloid cell lines; ring
sideroblasts n megaloblastoid cells
Myelopthisis= space occupying lesion in BM like metastatic ca‐pancytopenia
AR murmur= heard at left sternal border, leaning forward at d end of expitation
Sup rectal veininf mesenteric vein‐splenic veinportal vein
Middle rectal veinint iliac veinIVC; inf rectal veinint pudendal veinint iliac veinIVC
Normal aging of heart= dec chamber size in apex to base dimention[connective tissue/amyloid deposition],sigmoid
septum,brown lipofuschin pigment
Huntingtons dz= NMDA asso toxicity= nmda rec binds to glutamateneuronal loss
Pantothenic acid=B5 coenzyme A= deficiency burning feet synd
Most gas anesthetics are not metabolized in liver except halothane‐ reactive intermediates=hepatotoxicity
Myoclonic epilepsy= fits in d morning aggravated by stress/sleep deprivation,loss of tone,no loss of consciousness=rx
valproate
Tourett synd= motor n phonic tics= differ from myoclonic jerks by temporary suppressible n urge to make stereotypical
movement before tics=rx antipsychotic
Generalized seizures mean invoving both hemisphere c loss of consciousness; partial= focal brain involvement; simple= no loss
of consciousness;complex= loss of consciousness c postictal confusion [almost always temporal lobe]
Opioid constricts smooth muscles in sphincter of oddi—biliary colic
Thrombocytosis is mc in MPD
Mc form od EDS[type I n II]= mutation in collagen type 5
Vit c defi= perifollicular haemorrhages, coiled hair
Epigastric burning pain c food,relieved by antacids= PUD‐stomach ulcer
Abd pain 4 hrs after meal,relieved by food= PUD‐duodenal ulcer
Epigastric pain 30‐60 min aft meal not relived by antacids in scenario of generalized atherosclerosis= chronic mesenteric
ischemia= intestinal angina
Sudden severe pain in d setting of intramural thrombus= acute mesenteric ischemia due to embolus
Very low body fathypothalamic hypogonadismamenorrhea
Anorexia nerosasick euthyroid synd=low T3 synd; T4,TSH normal;later on both T3 n T4 dec
T3 is last to drop in most of cases of hypothyroidism
TRHinc sec of both TSH n Prolactine ; so in hypothyroidism= both TSH n Prolacine inc
Same way in prolactinemia prolactineinh both gnrh n TRH= amenorrhea, galactorrhea,hypothyroidism
Multiple myeloma= BM >30% plasma cells
Bone lytic lesions of MM is due to inc activity of osteoclasts by inc production of IL1[osteoclast activator] n IL6
Extrahepatic menifastation of HCV= membranus GN n mixed cryoglobulinemia
Pituitary apoplexy=hemorrhage in pre‐existing adenoma= sudden cardiovascular collapse due to defi of ACTHadrenocortical
insufficiency; apoplexy differs from SAH[severe headache ,meningeal irritation] by bitemporal hemianopia
Thiopental redistribution—in skeletal muscles n fat
RBC lacks mitochondria so cannot use ketones;liver lacks thiophorase enz so cannot use ketones
Cold air n exercise can induce asthma in nonimmune manner
Insulin resistance—visceral fat/subcu fat ratio= waist to hip ratio
Gingival hyperplasia—in phenytoin theray is due to inc expression of PDGF
Main toxicity of phenytoin in on cerebellum n vestibular apparatus= ataxia n nystagmus
Primary active transport= energy is generated by hydrolysis of ATP
Secondary active transport= energy is generated by co transport of separate subs down its conc gradient; eg. Na/glucose
cotransport= glucose is transported secondary to Na transport
Lung cancer: adeno cawomen n non‐smokers‐‐peripheral—clubbing,hypertropic osteoarthropathy;SCC—smoking‐
central,cavity,necrosis‐hypercalcemia;small cell ca—smoking—central [arises from basal cells of bronchial epithelium]—cushing
synd,SIADH,lambort eaton synd;large cell ca [undifferentiated]—peripheral—gynacomastia,galactorrhea
ASD/VSD=paradoxical embolism in systemic circulation from DVT
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Psoriasis histology= acanthosis,hyperparakeratosis, inc mitosis above epi basal cell layer,elongation of rete ridges,
absent/reduced stratum granulosum,munro microabcesses[neutrophils]
Mycoplasma pneumonia= walking pneumonia= mild symptoms,tell tale sign= CXR worse than symptoms; require cholesterol to
grow on artificial media
Legionella pneumonia= serious life threatening pneumonia; Charcoal yeast extract agar to grow,L‐cystein
Alcoholic pt c pneumonia c red current jelly sputum= K.pneumopillia
Coccidiosis imitis= san Joaquin valley fever= southwestern USA[Arizona desert] n north mexico
Histoplasma= missicipi n ohio river valley
Salmonella=motile; shigella=non motile,never normal gut flora, shigella sonnei, pediatric dz, mucosal invasion via M cells of
peyer’s patches n shiga toxin, mucosal invasion is more imp than exotoxin for causing dz, bacteremia n sepsis is rare
Yersinia enterocolitica=pseudoappendicitis due to mesenteric lymphadenitis
Sup inguinal lymph node drains cutaneus lymph from umbilicus to feet including genitals,anal canal excluding calf[popliteal
nodes]
Upper bladder—ext iliac nodes, lower bladder—int iliac nodes; sigmoid colon—Inf Mesenteric nodes
PFK2 is bifunctional enz= PFK2[kinase] n f26bis[phosphotase];insulin dephosphorylates this enz—activates kinase n inactivates
phosphotase;glucagone phosphorylase this enz—activate phosphotase n inactivate kinase
Mifepristone also releases endogenous PG
Spleen is mesodermal in origin from dorsal mesentry but receives blood supply from splenic artery br of celiac trunk[artery of
foregut]
Pancreas is endoderm derived organ from foregut n midgut=arterial supply is sup n inf pancreaticoduodenal artery
Imp gene upregulated by PPAR‐g= adiponectin, GLUT4, fatty acid transporter[inc fat mass], insulin rec substrate
Phenelzine is irreversible inhibitor of MAO A n B
Muromonab=anti CD3 antibody=reduce acute rejection in kidney,liver,heart transplant
Cetuximab=EGFR antibody;bevacizumab=VEGFR antibody; Daclizimab= anti IL‐2 antibody;Baciliximab=anti IL‐2;Rituximab=
anti CD20
Avascular necrosis of femoral head can occur in SLE due to vasculitis
Nephrogenic strains of GAS=1,4,12
Benign familial hematuria= AD thinning of GBM c normal renal function
Pulsus paradoxus= cardiac tamponade, chronic const pericarditis, RCM, cor p ( asthma,copd)
Asthma n copd =severe obst pul dz= hyperinflation of lungs—dec space to expand right heart in pericardium in response to
increased venus return during inspiration—buldging of IVS into left vent—dec diastolic feeling n SV of left ventricle—absent
pulses in inspiration—pulsus paradoxus
Kusmaul’s sign=chr cons pericarditis, restrictive cardiomyopathy, rt heart failure, TS, rarely tamponade
Concentration of PAH,creatinine,inulin,urea, cl,k,na increase in PCT as going down, conc of glucose,aa, bicarb dec as going
down in PCT, osmolarity remain same in tubular fluid/plasma in PCT
Alcohol intake reduced NAD/NADH ratio—dec gluconeogenesis [OAA→Malate] n fatty acid oxidation due to shortage of
NAD—fatty acid accumulate—TG synth inc= steatosis;also impaired lipoprotein assembly n secretion n inc peri fat catabolism
Amphotericin B[polyen] = fungal cell membrane ergosterol poring;azoles=inh synt of ergosterol by inh Lanosterole 14
demythylase=cell membrane; caspofungin[echinocandin]= fungal cell wall polysaccharide synthesis inh;flucytosine= inh
synthesis of RNA n DNA;terbinafine= squaline 2,3 epoxidase—inh syn of ergosterol of fungal cell membrane
Extra pul manifestation of Mycoplasma pneumonia= autoimmine haemolytic anemia, SJS, joint pain; mycoplasma=extra celluar
org
Purine analogues= 6‐MP,6‐GP, cladribine=HCL, fludrabine= CLL;
Pyrimidine analogues= 5‐FU, cytyrabine,capecitabine,gemcitabine
Cisplatin= hydrated to form cytotoxic metabolite in low Cl‐ environment
Methotraxate= don’t undergo enz conversion to act
6‐MP and allopurinol= conv to active metabolite by HGPRT n inactivated by XO
Hbs= glutamate‐B6‐valine[non polar]; hbc=glutamate‐B6‐lysine[basic];hbh= frameshift mutation of a chain;so a chain is
nonfuctional=B4—more negative,more close to anode on Hbelecrophoresis
Speed of Hb on electrophoresis hbh>hba>hbs>hbc
Uses of diazepam= sedative‐hypnotic, anxiolyic,anticonvulsion in status epilepticus/delirium tremans, muscle relaxant; mc
st
se=sedation; avided c barbiturates,alcohol,neuroleptics,1 gen antihistaminic
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Diastolic failure =↓compliance, maintained contractility so EDV decwith dec vol ,overall stroke vol decdec CO
To maintain normal CO, EDV needs to be increased to normalwith that EDP also inc. In sum,EDP increase to maintain normal
EDV n ejection fraction
Systolic failure= contractility↓ with normal EDV, stroke voume decdec CO. To maintain normal CO n EF,volume needs to
increase more than normal EDV which will aid to inc EDP to generate near normal contractility. In sum, EDV inc so EDP inc.
Nipple n skin retraction in invasive ca of breast is due to invasion of suspensory lig of cooper
IL2=used in met melanoma,RCC
21 hydroxylase def may + in young adults age
Schizoid personality disorder= detachment from society n restricted emotional expression [ramta jogi],isolated loner,don’t care
being accepted or not
Avoidant personality dis= low self esteem, fear of rejection n strongly desire acceptance
Latent EBV + in 90% normal
BK virus[dna virus]= post transplant nephropathy n hemorrhagic cystitis
Hemorrhagic cystitis= adenovirus, BK virus, cyclophosphamide
Odd chain FA/cholesterol/Valine/isoleucine/threonine/methioninePropionyl coa‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐[carboxylase/biotin]‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
methylmalonyl coa‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐[mutase/B12]‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐succinyl coa
Ear sensory supply= EAC most including outer surface of TM= 53,small post part of EAC=10,inner tm=9
S.aureus meningitis=penetrating injury of skull,neurosx
Adult meningitis= mc strp.pneumonia>n.meningitidis[outbreaks]
Digoxin= class 5 antiarrythmic
2nd part of duodenum overlies L1‐L3
Young female c/o sudden onset decreased vision,painful eye movements=optic neuritis‐‐‐suspect MS= charcoat neurological
triad=DIN= Dysarthria, Intention tremer/internuclear opthalmoplegia, Nystagmus
Nystatin is given ‘swish n swallow’ liquid PO for oropharyngeal candidiasis,not absorbed by GIT
B.anthracic virulent factors= poly g D glutamate capsule,trimeric exotoxin‐protective factor[traslocate other 2 factors inside
cell cytoplasm],edema[calmodulin dependent adenyl cyclise n antiphagocyic] n lethal factor= zinc dependent protease,inh
MAPK signalling pathway causing apoptosis,multi system dysfunction
B.pertusis toxins= pertusis toxin n adenylate cyclase toxin[calmodulin dep adenylate cyclase]
Pyrogenic toxin of strep is phage mediated
Paget’s dz= osteoblast activity inc in bone, skull—cn palsy due to compression;childhood inf of osteoclast by paramyxovirus inc
chances of paget’s dz. Osteoclast normally contains 2‐5 nuclei n in PD upto 100 nuclei, TRAP, n rec for RANK‐L n M‐CSF
TGF‐b inc formation of maturate osteoblast,inc apoptosis of osteoclast
IGF‐I level high postnatally anabolic to bone
Measure of reliability is coefficient of variation= sd/mean %
Coagulative necrosis= architecture preserved, anucleated cells, eosnophilic cytoplasm
Brain liquifactive necrosis is f/b csf filled cavities
In normal person,heparin induces release of LPL from endothelium—remove TG from blood
Trosseu’s synd= migratory superficial thrombophlebitis= due to release of thromboplastin like sub by ca of pancreas,lung,colon=
paraneoplastic synd
Celiac sprue= hemorrhagic diathesis due to vit k defi
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Digeorge synd=chr 22q11.2 deletion= cardiac anomalies= TOF n aortic arch anomalies; facial dysmorfism, cleft palate
GFR can be calculated by inulin,creatinine or starling’s equation
18‐45 yrs hair loss causes= male pattern> tinea capitis>telogen effluvium
Somatotrophs are mc cells in ant pituitary;n thyrtrophs are least
Special features of HSV‐1 encephalitis damage to temporal lobes= aphasia,personality due to amygdela,olfactory hallucination
Never never never use aspirin in children for febril illness=reye’s synd
Reye’s synd= vomiting, hepatomegaly c rare jaundice. Inc ALT,AST,PT,PTT,ammonia,billi. No necrosis/inflammation.
Microvesicular steatosis. Dec no of mitochondria c swelling, depleted glycogen n features of encephalopathy
Normally most drugs are metabolized n biotransformed in liver n excreted via kidney,some drugs are totally cleared via liver
only n drained in bile,feces. For that drug shud be highly lipid soluble to cross cell mem of hepatocytes n also having high vol of
distribution due to d same,hign cns penetration
Drugs c low Vd,high plasma protein binding,low cns penetration,low rate of redistribution[low lipid solubility] cleared by kidney
Effect modification= not a bias,natural phenomenan. Eg. Asbestose causes lung ca,this effect is enhanced by smoking. Means
effect of exposure on outcome is modified by another variable...
Confounder= related to both exposure n outcome gives false correlation bw exp n outcome..eg..alcohol causes bladder ca in d +
of smoking
How to diffentiate=1) confounder is related to both exp n outcome 2) after stratification look at d p value if
significanteffect modification, if not confounding
Genetic factors most imp for bone mineral density in healthy subj
Her2/neu= epidermal growth factor transmem rec with inc tyrosine kinase activity= breast,ovary,endo,gastric ca
Ischemic myocardium is depolarized tissue,lidocaine is used to treat vent arrythmia of AMI. Now amiodarone
Somatostatin inh secretion of GH,TSH n others
HCV has >=6 genotypes n many sub genotypes due to frequent mutation of genes coding envelope gp. Antigenic variarion of
env gp n lack of proof reading [3‐5 exonuclease] in virion RNA polymerase has lead to so many strains of HCV in a pt infected by
HCV. Also lack of vaccine due to d same
Fetal adrenal outer zone produces cortisol in response to ACTH of pitutary n CRH from placenta in late gestation
Li fraumani synd=AD ; 2 hit hypothesis; breast,brain,adrenal, sarcoma n leukemia are common tumors
Vipoma=pancreatic cholera=WDHA synd [watery diarrhea,hypokalemia,achlorhydria]
Glucagonoma= necrolytic migratory erythema of skin
First br of int carotid artery is ophthalmic artery
Hippocampus shows highest degree of atrophy in AD
Ant duodenal ulcers[cx= perforation] > post duodenal ulcer[cx=hemorrhage]
Lead has strong affinity to‐SH groups of enzymes of heme pathway
Histidine degradationFIGLU—formimino group[donated to THF] +glutamate n NH4+‐‐ glutamate—a ketoglutarate[tca cycle]
Transketolase=transfer 2 C; transaldolase=transfer 3 C
Oxidative phase of HMP shunt occurs in liver,adrenal cortex,gonads,RBC,adepose tissue; but non oxidative phase of HMP shunt
occurs in all cells to form ribose‐5‐p to form nucleotides
Pentamidine used for leishmaniasis, african ss, pneumocysis jiroveci pneumonia
Nifurtimox= rx of chagas dz
Ivermectin=rx of onchocerciasis[river blindness]
TSS suspect c tampons n nasal packings; also look at erythroderma,skin desquamation[usually aft 1‐2 wk] n hypotension
Opiod= hypothermia
Factor 5 leiden mutation[resistance to act factor C] n mutation of prothrombin gene are mc causes of inherited hypercoagulable
states
Narcolepsy= irresistible daytime sleep c cataplexy,sleep paralysis,hallucinations[hypnogogic/pompic]; cause=low level of orexin
A/B[hypocretin1/2] secreted by lateral hypothalamus‐ maintains wakefulness n dec REM sleep phenomenan;
rx=modafinil=moa=inc dopaminergic pathway or amphetamine
Melatonin is used for jet lag n age related insomnia
D‐xylose is monosaccharide tests function of intestinal malabsorbtion
Melanoma= genetic mutation of BRAF gene[valine 600 glutamate], protein kinase=rx vemurafenib is mutant BRAF inh
Dermatomyositis= gottron papules n heliotrope rash,+ ANA, +anti JO1 ab; if it appears after 50 yrs,inc chance of underlying
malignancy
Keratin=alanine,glycine n cystein
Vimentin= intermediate filament of mesenchymal tissue=sarcoma
MSleft atrial dilatationcompresses left rec laryngeal nerve [neurapraxia]horness= ‘’ortner synd’’
Sulfonamide/TMP‐SMX= serum sickness[type3 HS]=usually 5‐10days aft exposure
Toxic megacolon= plain xray abdomen >5.5cm dilation of transverse colon diagnostic
Wegener’s dz=rx cyclophosphamide c prednisolone; goodpastures synd= rx plasmapheresis c immunosupression
Albumin mw 70,000 daltons n size is 3.6nm
Lmw proteins normally filtered at glomerulus n reabsorbed from PCT are= b2microglobulin,Ig light chain,aa, retinol binding
protein
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Eg of overflow proteinuria= multiple myeloma
Niacin=pretreatment c aspirin to avoid PG mediated flushing,warmth,itching
Vancomycin= red man synd is histamine mediated
Capsaicin dec pain by reducing sub P in PNS
Number needed to harm[NNH]= 1/AR ; means= no need to be treated/exposed to have one harm
Number needed to treat[NNT]=1/ARR; means no need to be treated to have 1 pt saved
Mc sites of dystrophic calcification are aged/damaged cardiac valves n atheromatous plagues
Dystrophic calcification is hallmark of preceding cell injury/necrosis
After 5 half life drug is virtually eliminated from body.
Plasma half life t1/2= Vd*0.7/Cl
Puffer fish[ Japanese dish]= tetrodotoxin= neurotoxin‐inh voltage gated na channel‐ na passive transport blocker
Lomotil= diphenoxylate+atropine
Imperforate anus is asso c GU malformations in 50% pts. They are renal agenesis,hypo/epispadiasis,bladder extrophy. Also
fistulas like urovaginal,urovesical,urorectal. Less commonly VACTERL: vertebral, anal atresia,cardiac,tef, esophageal atresia,
renal anomalies, limb defects
Myasthenia gravis= pts on Rx having worsened weakness due to either of 2 reasons: myesthenic crisis [underrx] or cholinergic
crisis[overrx]
PAM corrects both muscarinic n nicotinic overstimulation due to OP poisoning
Depth of invasion[Breslow thickness] most imp for prognosis of melanoma
Opioid widrawal=flu like= cholinomimetic sym except pupil dilatation,goose bumps, fever
Marijuana does not have significant wd symptoms
PCP wd is actually reintoxication due to absorbtion from GIT..symptoms are psychomotor agitation,homicidability,psychosis,
hori n ver nystagmus, tachycardia, ataxia
Alcohol wd fits peak at 48 hrs
Starch is similar to glycogen made up of only glucose= amylose [unbranched]+amylopectin [branched]
Cellulose=plant fibre=linear polysaccharide glucose= non digestible
Aromatase converts testosterone estradiole n androstenedioneestrone; estrogen epiphyseal fusion
Aromatase defi= in girls—ambigus genitalia c normal BP at birth , mother shows virilisation during pregnancy due to
tranplacental transfer of androgens in mother,later on primary amenorrhea n tall stature; boys= tall stature n OP.
Excess aromatase= in boys gynecomastia n precocious puberty in girls n in both short stature
Steroids causes neutrophilia by ‘demargination’
Muscle attachments of clavicle= superomed=scm,suplat=trapezius,infmed=pec major,inflat=subclavius,deltoid
Colchicines= moa=inh microtubule polymerization‐dec chemotaxis n phagocytosis n synt of leub4
Fibroadenoma may inc in size during luteal phase of menstrual cycle n during lactation
Infectious Dose= E.histolytica=1,g.lamlia=1,shigella=10‐100, c.jejuni/cl.welchi=500, vibrio=10^6,salmonella= 10^7, ETEC=10^8‐
10 minimum bact cause dz
Mc cause of AS in pts>70 yrs is senile dystrophic calcification of aortic valve
Severe aortic stenosis + c syncope,angina,dyspnea[sad]
IE usually + c regurgitant lesions
RHD of aortic valve usually + c combined AS+AR
Classical PKU= in Scandinavian descent
Functions of SER= steroid[adrenals,gonads,liver] n phospholipid synthesis, detoxification of sub like drugs in
hepatocyes[microsomes] n sarcoplasmic reticulum in myocyes
Terbinafine= topically /PO for dermatophytosis
Flucytocine converted to 5‐FU in fungal cell wall n inh fungal protein synthesis by replacing uracil of mrna by 5‐FU
Desmopressine uses= CDI, nocturnal enuresis, release of vwf n promote coagulation
Sup orbital fissure= cn 3,4,5‐1,6, sup ophthalmic vein,sym fibres; int acoustic meatus= cn7,8
Jugular foramen synd= vernet synd
Digoxin n K have competition to bind to Na/k atp ase pump. Therefore hypokalemia—aggravates digoxin toxicity by less
competition. N hyperkalemia occurs in digoxin toxicity= rx never give calcium gluconate for hyperkalemia of digoxin toxicity
Killed vaccines produce humoral immune response while live produces CMI n humoral
Gardos channel blockers[ ca dependent k channels]= block k and water efflux –prevent dehydration of RBC—prevent
polymerization of hbs in SCD
Teres minor=axillary nerve;teres major=subscapular nerve
Hemochromatosis= RCM or DCM
Dilated heart= eccentric hypertrophy= vol overload, IHD,DCM; concentric hypertrophy= pressure overload
CD45= leucocyte common antigen
Small cell lung ca= + for neurone specific enolase, synaptophysin,chromogranin, neurofilaments
NF1= skin, eye,bone=scoliosis,sphenoid dysplasia, cong pseudoarthrosis; tumors
Quellung reaction= capsular swelling c anti cap ab= s.pneumonia
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Idiopathic membranus glomerulopathy= igg4 against phospholipasea2 rec of podocytes
Recurrent lobar haemorrhages‐‐ cerebral amyloid angiopathy—age related n not asso c systemic amyloidosis, also less severe;
hypertensive haemorrhages are large,severe n in basal ganglia
H.pylori resides in mucus layer of gastric antrum n fundus. It’s asso c both gastric n duodenal ulcer. Moa is diff. In gastric ulcer it
damges overlying mucus layer so even normal amount of acid creates ulcer, for duodenum it increases acid secretion by
damaging somatostatin secreting cells of gastric antrum‐thus inc gastrin n acid release
+ of jejunal ulcers= suspect gastrinoma; gastrin also inc motility so diarrhea
Salmomella is mc cause of osteomyelitis in SCD f/b E.coli[K capsule]> s.aureus
Aspiration pneumonia in hospitalized or alcoholic pt= K.pneumophilia
Mc cause of nyctalopia= hereditary RP
Always think of vit ADEK defi in cholestasis
Acute salicyclate intoxication= early resp alkalosis [ due to resp center stimulation] after few hrs due to accu of organic acids
like lactate[shut down of TCA],pyruvate, ketones[lipolysis] anion gap metabolic acidosis starts = mixed resp alkalosis‐met
acidosis[ ↔, ↓, ↓]
Ph normal= 7.35‐7.45[7.4],pco2=33‐45[40],hco3=22‐28[24], comp pco2= hco3+‐15
Pri Met Ac, no comp = ↓ ↔↓
Pri Met Ak,no comp = ↑ ↔ ↑
Met Ac c comp Resp Ak= ↓ ↓ ↓ [lactic acidosis,diarrhrea, DKA]
Winter’s formula= exp paco2 in met acidosis= HCO3* 1.5 +8 +‐2; if Pco2> exp= superimposed res acidosis; if pco2 <exp
=superimposed res alkalosis
Met Ak c comp Resp Ac= ↑ ↑ ↑ [vomiting, diuretics=contraction alkalosis,Conn’s synd]
In primary resp acid‐base disturbance= compensation by kidney take 3‐5 days; so acute resp dist [<8 hrs] are non‐compensated n
chronic [>24 hrs] are compensated
Acute Resp Ac = ↓ ↑ ↔( HCO3 <30 )[eg.Hypoventilation= Heroin poisoning]
Chronic Resp Ac =↓ ↑ ↑ (HCO3 >30) [eg. COPD]
Acute Resp Ak = ↑ ↓ ↔ (HCO3 >18) [hyperventilation=anxiety, panic attack, Pulmonary embolism, high
altitude]
Chronic Resp Ak = ↑ ↓ ↓(HCO3 <18)
Mixed Met Ac+Resp Ac = ↓ ↑ ↓
Mixed Met Ak+ Resp Ak = ↑ ↓ ↑
Mixed Resp Ak + Met Ac= ↔ ↓↓ [ aspirin poisoning]
Mixed Resp Ac + Met Ak=↔ ↑ ↑
Mixed Met Ac+ Resp Ak=↔ ↓ ↓
Mixed Met Ak+ Resp Ac= ↔ ↑ ↑
Allergic contact dermatitis=poison ivy= urushiol[allergen]; CD8+ cells are main effecter cells of allergic contact dermatitis, itchy
rash,linear erythematous papules,vesicles,bulla
Isolated systolic HTN=rx CCB[amlodipine] or thiazide; in DM= ACEI/ARB
Short gastric arteries are most prone to ischemia following splenic artery obstruction due to poor collaterals
Thoraco‐upper lumbar spinal cord[ T1‐L2] has lateral horn=sympathetic preganglionic neuronal nuclei=intermediolateral nuclei
Rule of thumb= every time GFR halfs creatinine doubles.GFR – creat=60‐ 1,30‐2,15‐4
In eukaryonic gene transcription, promoter= allows binding to RNA polymerase II n transcription factor eg. TATA box/hogness
box‐ 25 bp upstream; CAAT box 70‐80 bp upstream; enhancer/represser= enhances/represses rate of gene transcription by
protein binding or transcription factor binding to promoter region‐‐‐ + either upstream,downstream or in introns
Levodopa+carbidopa[periphearal dopa decarboxylase inh] =still only 5‐10% levodopa enters brain due to COMT
Levodopa+entecapone[ peri COMT=catechol o methyl transferase= methylation inh ]
Levodopa+ tolcapone[ peri n central COMT inh ]= hepatotoxic
Amantadine= endo dopamine enhancer
LITHIUM side effects= Leucocytosis, Insipedus, Tremer n Teratogenesis, Hypothyroidism, Urine inc+ NVD, Misc‐acne, ECG
changes; monitor TSH/RFT
Lamotrigine se= rash,SJS
Trazodone= priapism,sedation,ortho hypotension
Risperidone= hyperprolactinemia
Transmural infarction= first ekg sign= peaking of T wave[ localized hyperpolarization]ST ele Q waves
Only way to differentiate spasmodic angina from STEMI is responding of earlier to nitrates
Symptoms of stable angina is only apparent after >75% blockage of coronary artery
Ruptured plaque c superimposed fully obstructive thrombus= STEMI
Plaque ulcers c partial thrombus= unstable angina, subendocardial inf, sudden cardiac death
Stable atheromatus plaque[>75% obs] c no thrombus= stable angina
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Scarlet fever= incubation of 1‐5 days‐‐‐fever, sore throat, exudative pharyngitis,red strawberry tongue‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐after 1‐2 days‐‐‐‐‐‐
rash starts as scarlet spots/bloch at neck/armpit/groin n then becomes generalized‐‐‐‐sandpapery rash[goose pimples], cheek
st
flushed c circumoral pallor‐‐‐‐at end of 1 week desquamation
Rb gene is at check point G1S, inactive Rb gene[phosphoryalted] allow transition from g1 to s
P27 =cell cycle inh at G1 by inhing to CDK
AML median age 65 yrs
Nucleosomes contains 8 core proteins= 2 each of h2a,h2b,H3,H4; H1 is outsider protein
Ketoconazole= anti androgenic by inh synthesis of testosterone from leydig cells;also inh synthesis of adrenal steroids
Spironolactone= inh synthesis of testosterone as well as antagonist at their receptors
Flutamide,cyproterone acetate= androgen rec antagonist
Follow multistep command= checking comprehension
Write a sensible sentence= language
Draw a clock face=visual special
Recalling unrelated 3 words after 5 min= short term memory
TᵠC n D arm of trna also determines tertiary structure of trna
Causes of dilated cardiomyopathy[DCM]= viral[coxacki B], alcohol,peripartum,doxorubicin, wet beriberi, chr supraventricular
tachycardias; excludes dilated chambers due to cong, valvular or CAD; diagnosis of exclusion; all 4 chamber dilatation;
biventricular heart failure
A1AT defi= neonatal hepatitis c cholestasis, cirrhosis, HCC, HS megaly, cholestasis, inc liver enz; premature< 50 yrs COPD, non
smoker COPD—suspect; autosomal codominant dz= ZZ homozygous allele, dec secretion of misfolded polymerised A1AT
granules—accumulation in peripotal hepatocyes‐stain + PAS diastase resi =liver involvent in 10‐15% in first 2 decades‐ lung invol
takes long time, cirrhosis 2nd mc cause of death; diagnosis by serum level of A1AT f/b genetic testing
Carotid sinus nerve= hering’s nerve= br of CN 9
Carotid sinus syncope= very sensitive carotid snus= tight neck collar
Murmur of PDA best heard at left infraclavicular region c max intensity at S2
Coarctation of aorta= continuous murmur due to large collaterals
ASD c MS= lutembacher synd= continuous murmur
Elastin= protein similar to collagen composed of glycine‐alanine‐valine. Few lysine n proline are also +. It’s d crosslinking bw
lysine residues[desmosine crosslinks]by lysyl hydroxylase gives it resilience property= recoil of lung,elasticity of skin, vessels
RET proto oncogene codes for mem bound tyrosine kinase protein rec involved in cell cycle regulation‐in medullary thyroid ca
RAS gene mutation= follicular thyroid ca n some follicular adenoma
P53 gene mutation=anaplastic thyroid ca
HSV‐1 above waist, HSV‐2 below waist
JC virus=slow virus=oligodendrocyte= PML
Cluster headache= m>f,onset in sleep,periorbital pain, 15‐90 min, sweating,facial flushing,ipsi nasal congestion, lacrimation,
papillary changes, ptosis.
Migraine headache=F>m, family history+, aura, NV,photo/phono phobia, 4‐72 hrs, throbbing
Triptans= moa= 5‐HT 1b1d rec agonist—inh release of vasoactive peptides= sub P, calcitonin gene related peptide[CGRP]
Anaplastic thyroid ca= large pleomorphic cells c multinucleated osteoclast like cells
Opioid dec BP by releasing histamine
Ethanol inc iron absorption n redistribution of body iron stores
DKA= low total body K n ICF K; normal/high ECF K; loss of K is via osmotic diuresis
Glans penis lymph drains to deep ing nodes
Deep ing nodesext iliac nodes
Residual schizophrenia= “burnt out” schizophrenia
Blastomycosis= great lakes, missisipi n ohio river valley
Broad based buds= blasto; narrow based buds= crypto
Paneth cells secret lysozymes n defensins
Hep B infected hepatocyes show characteristic fine granular eosinophilic ‘ground glass’ appear due to spheres n tubules [hbsag];
Hep C = lymphoid aggregates in portal tracts n focal macrovesicular steatosis
HCV→lichen planus; HBV→PAN
Ras= MAP kinase pathway,overexpression—many ca
Erbb2=epidermal growth factor rec=codes for protein c tyrosine kinase pathway;overexpression of this proto oncogene—breast
ovarian ca
N‐myc amplification= neuroblastoma
Crohn’s dz= gall stones n oxalate kidney stones
Fragile X synd=X linked Dominant trinucleotide repeat expansion of CGG >200 times[full mutation] on FMR1 gene [normal
function= neural development] on chr Xp leads to hypermethylation of cytosine residues of gene gene inactivation; if CGG
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repeat no <200=premutation—phenotypically normal; normal no of CGG 5‐55; X chr appears fragile =thin n constricted on
karyotype. Although chromosomal breaks are seen, clinical s/s r due to methylation of gene.
Chromosomal instability synd includes XP,AT, FA, BS
Benign lymph node enlargement= polyclonal expansion of lymphoid cells in response to antigenic stimulus= reactive
hyperplasia; malignant transformation= monoclonal expansion.
Parafollicular C cells derived from neural crests ‐4th pharyngeal pouch= ultimobrachial body
Adrenal cortex=mesodermal= mesothelial origin
VHL dz= VHL gene on chr3 controls transcriptions of Hypoxia Inducible Factor 1[HIF 1], HIF1 inc formation of VEGF n
erythropoietin. VHL gene mutation overexpression of HIF1inc VEGF mitogen for capillary endothelium causing multi
capillary hemangioblastoma
A1AT defi at birth= biopsy= PAS + intra cytoplasmic inclusions
Pentazocin= partial agonist n weak antagonist at mu rec= little/no abuse liability
Asthma= inc activity of Th2 cells
TGF‐b= involved in tissue regeneration n repair
Gastric acid secretion= cephalic phase‐by vagal stimu; gastric phase‐ by gastrin induced histamine release from ECL cells;
intestinal phase‐minore role
Peptide YY [from ileum n colon] binds to rec on Enterochromaffine Like Cells [ECL] containing histamine n inh d release of
histamine induced by gastrin ; somatostatin, PG also inh acid secretion of stomach
SMA synd= when aortomesenteric angle <20 degree due to dec mesenteric fat, pronounced lordosis, surgical correction of
scoliosis transverse portion of duodenum and left renal vein obstructed= partial intestinal obstruction
Bone mineral density inc c inc in BMI; due to more fat, more estrogen
Smoking= anti estrogenic‐ inc OP; dec fibrocystic dz of breast, dec uterine ca,dec UC,dec parkinsonism
Glucocorticoids dec BMD by dec int absorption of calcium,inc urinary loss of calcium, dec collagen syn by osteoblast, dec gnrh‐
dec Estrogen
ARDS differs from cardiogenic edema by absence of JVD n cardiomegaly
Nursemaid elbow=pulled elbow= radial head subluxation= deep[motor] br of radial nerve damage= wrist drop
Duchene muscular dystrophy= waddling gait, gower’s sign+, pseudohypertrophy, kyphoscoliosis
CMV in immunocompetant= subclinical> mononucleosis like synd;cmv pneumonia=transplant; disseminated cmv in
immunosup= diarrhea n hepatitis
B thalassemia=mediteranean descent; a thalessemia= south east asia
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B thalasemmia= abnormal splicing of pre mrna or premature termination of translation
Dopamine‐‐‐‐‐‐[dopamine b hydroxylase/vit c]‐‐‐‐‐NE‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐[PNMT=phenylethanolamine N methyl transferase/SAM]‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
adrenaline; cortisol inc expression of PNMT, thus absence of cortisol‐‐‐absence of adrenaline; normally adrenal medulla
secrets 80% adr+20% noradr
COMT = adr—metanephrine;NE—normetanephrin; MAO= adr n NE—dihydroxymandelic acid
Pyrogenic exotoxin B is one of d antigens in pathogenesis of PSGN
Pyrazinamide‐‐‐‐‐[pyrazinamidase=bacterial]‐‐‐‐pyrazinoic acid [lower ph]
Amantidine=dopamine enhancing+ anticholinergic
Cave= histoplasma/ rabies
Inhibin B from sertoli cells inh FSH B subunit but not gnrh, testosterone inh LH B subunit + gnrh
Atherosclerotic affliction: abd aorta > coronary > popliteal > int carotid >cicle of willis
Carotis sinus is most prone to atheroma in carotid sys
Botulinus toxin s/s= descending palsy,diplopia,ptosis,dysphagia,dysarthria,dry mouth,death
Hemicholinium= inh choline uptake by neurones;bromoacetylcholine inh choline acetyltransferase enz‐inh ach synthesis;
vesamicol= inh vesicular ach trasporter[vat]‐dec entry of ach into synaptic vesicles
Monkeberg sclerosis [medial calcific sclerosis]—cause isolated systolic HTN > 50 yrs
High dose folate antagonize phenytoin,precipitating seizures
Janus kinase[cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase]
Rule of 10: 10%pheochromocytoma hereditary [MEN 2a,2b,VHL], 10% bilateral, 10% malignant, 10% extraadrenal
Laron dwarfism= defect in GH receptor; inc GH ,dec IGF‐1=dec in linear growth
Intense exercise inactivates HPO axis[eg. Piti usha]= hypogonadotrophic amenorrhea
Risk of dz= incidence of dz= probability of getting dz over certain period of time
Normally when sweat is produced by eccrine glands,it’s isotonic to plasma, on the way to surface of d body thru duct, Cl is
absorbed f/b Na via CFTR proteinhypotonic sweat. In CF, defect of CFTR dec abs of nacl
In normal individual, excessive sweating hypotonic sweat loss= free water loss hypertonic vol loss
Oxygen= antidote to CO poisoning
Nitroprusside is initially metabolized to NO n cyanide. Cyanide is detoxified to thiocynate by liver rhodanase by donating sulfar
to cyanide, thiocynate is excreted in urine. In nitopruside overdosing c altered mentation, sodium thiosulfate is given which
donates its sulphur to rhodanase to form more thiocynate
For liver/kidney dz= loading dose unchanged, maintenance dose is reduced
Primary syphilis= chancre; 2nd syphilis= due to bacteremia, diffuce maculopapular rash esp on palms,soles, condyloma lata; 3rd
syphilis= gumma‐ skin, subcu, bone, viscera= granulomatus rubbery nodules, may ulcerate, neurosyphilis= tabes dorsalis, gen
paresis, subacute meningoencephalitis,Argill Robertson pupil; cardiovascular‐ asc aneurysm[leutic aneurysm]; +VDRL in CSF=
neurosyphillis
Telomerase is reverse transcriptase enz[TERT] c in built RNA template [TERC] which adds TTAGGG repeats to 3’ of DNA of stem
cells n cancer cells
Platelets bind to subendothelial collagen by gp Ia/iia, this binding is strengthen by platelet binding to subendothelial vwf by
gpib/ixbplatelet activation c release of ADP n TXA2‐activate other plts n expression of thousands of gpiib/iiia on its surface—
fibrinogen binds to gpiib/iiia of multi platelets to form plug
JG apparatus= JG cells[ rennin secreting cells ]=modified smooth muscle cells around afferent n efferent arterioles
[baroreceptors] + macula densa of distal tubule[ detects Na delivery=osmolarity ]
Window period of hep B infection is bw hbsag disappaearance n appear of anti hbsag= igm anti hbc
Igm is more potent complement fixer than igg
Igg n C3b =opsonins
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Neisseria,some Str. Pneumonia produces iga protease[cleaves secretory iga at its hinge region] for mucosal penetration
Protein A is produced by staphyloccus‐ prevents complement mediated lysis:: protein A binds to Fc region of igg n causes
conformational change not allowing C1 to bind to Fc [ normally igg binds bacterial surface antigen by Fab , which allows C1
to bind to Fc n activate complement cascade to lyse bacteria ]
Lipid A= component of LPS of gram neg bacteria‐ activates macrophages‐ septic shock
Sertoli cells= inhibin B, MIF, androgen binding protein
Ether n other organic solvents dissolves envelope lipids of viruses making them noninfective
Tumor lysis synd= uric acid level inc [obs uropathy‐ARF]+ hyperkalemia[ arrhythmia ] + hyperphosphotemia + hypocalcemia
Uric acid‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐[rasburicase= urate oxidase]‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐allantoin[ 5‐10 times more soluble in urine ]
Denosumab= humanised monoclonal ab binding to RANKL[trap it] n prevent activation of osteoclast [having RANK rec]= used
in metastatic osteoclastic bone ca
Marcus gunn pupil= relative afferent pathway defect = from retina to optic tract[ although more commonly optic nerve ]; In
MS=optic neuritis‐ same eye afferent pathway defect; when optic tract is invoved[eg left]‐opposite[right] eye pupil is affected
as oppo nasal retina has more input for light reflex to pretectal nucleus of midbrain
Light reflex is not impaired if lesion affects lat geniculate body ,optic radiation n beyond[ involved only up to optic tract ]
At FRC, airway pressure is zero, intapleural pressure is ‐5 cm of H2O; at inspiration intrapleural pressure= ‐8 cm of H2O
Acute dystonia= 4hr to 4 days of antipsychotic drugs= spasmodic torticollis, muscle spasms, toungue twisting,protruding,
oculogyric crisis, opisthotonus
CPZ n clozapine = strong sedation due to strongest H1 antagonism
Center of fear= amygdela
High potency anti psychotic= haloperidol, fluphenasine, pimozide‐‐‐‐ EPS
Low potency antipsychotic= CPZ, thioridazine‐‐‐‐‐anticholinergic n antihistaminic se,antiadrenergic
Stains for lipid= oil red o, sudan black, osmium tetroxide
Fat embolism synd= resp distress[ due to emboli obst of microvessels in lungs, direct toxic injury to endothelium‐ ARDS], diffuse
cns impairment, pateches on chest‐neck due to thrombocytopenia[ due to platelets aggregation around fat droplets], anemia[
due to rbc aggregation, distruction, pul hemorrhage], systemic activation of LPL c release of toxic levels of oleic acid
If carcinoid tumor is localized to intestine‐its vasoactive secretions are metabolized by liver= no carcinoid synd; but if primary
tumor is outside intestine like lungs or intestinal tumor is metastatized to liver = carcinoid synd occurs= flushing, dizziness, abd
cramps, secretory diarrhea,dyspnea c wheezing, TR or PS
Marijuana= mild euphoria c laughter, short term memory loss, tachycardia n conjuctival injection—immediate features,
smoking is route, it is stored in lipid stores so can be detected in urine even after 30 days
Hypersalivation = ketamine
Tumor metastasis= dec expression of E‐cadherin, attachment to basal mem, invasion of basal mem by MMP, cathepsin D
protease
Imatinib competitively binds ATP binding site of ABR portion of fusion protein
Anti GBM ab targets a3 chain of collagen 4
Haemolytic anemia, pancytopenia, thrombosis[ budd chiary synd ]= suspect PNH
PNH= mutation in PIG‐A gene coding GPI anchor protein, GPI anchor is necessary to bind cell surface marker CD 59 n CD 55;CD
59,55 inactivates complement.; defect/absent GPI absent CD59,55 complement remains activated= hemolysis through out
day but as urine collects n concentrate more at night, it appears dark red in d morning= so neither paroxysmal nor
nocturnal,stem cell disorder
AML= aurer rods, myeloperoxidase +; ALL= tdt+, PAS+; pre B cell ALL= cd 19,10+, pre T cell ALL= 1,2, 5+
Most of pts c pre B ALL= panctopenia due to BM failure
CLL/SLL= cd 19+, cd 5+
Patechea=platelet disorder; hemarthrosis= haemophilia; vwf= no spontaneous hemarthrosis
Factor 8 is produced in liver n stored in endothelium
Symptomatic cardiac tamponade >10 mm Hg pressure in pericardium
Pulsus alternans= LV dysfunction; pulsus parvus et tardus= low magnitude, delayed peak= AS; dicrotic pulse= double peak [2nd
in diastole], carotid artery, sev systolic dys, sepsis; hyperkinetic pulse=large SV= fever, exercise, high output states;pulsus
bisferience=anacrotic pulse→ 2 peaks in systole→ AR, HCM
Abd pain radiating to back= suspect pancreatitis/ cholecystitis; chest pain radiating to back= aortic dissection; chest pain dec
on siting or leaning forward= pericarditis pain
Always keep in mind that chronic alcoholics have macrocytic anemia [MCV>100] due to poor nutrition, defi of folate/b12 or
direct toxic effect of alcohol on marrow
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Hypercalcemia is a cause of acute pancreatitis; hypocalcemia is marker of severity as in sev pancreatitis c fatty necrosis‐ ca+ free
FA= forms soap; hyperglycemia due to dec insulin from b cells damage; hypernatremia from vol loss[ 3rd space loss]
In CHF ventri remodelling is prevented by ACEI[ ATII mediated] n spironolactone[ aldosterone mediated] n b blockers dec
mortality
With CHF n DM= ACEI; without CHF n DM,initial rx of essential HTN= thiazide
In smooth muscles= intracellular ca‐calmodulin complex activates MLC kinase phosphorylates Myosin myocin actin
binding n contraction
Risk factors of cholesterol Gall stones= fibrates[↓ cholesterol 7a hydroxylase, dec conversion of choles to bile acid] ,bile acid
resins, ceftriaxone, estrogen[ inc HMG coa reductase], OCP, fat fertile female of forty, Caucasian, crohn’s dz, iliac resection[ bile
acid loss], hypomotility of GB‐DM, pregnancy, octreotide, fasting, hyper TG, TPN
Mouldy grain=aspergillus flavus n parasiticus= aflatoxins=HCC; aflatoxin B1—p53mutation GT;CA at codon 249
Method to determine whether gene is expressed in cell is to check out mrna
OSA is d mc cause of excessive daytime sleepiness > narcolepsy
Arginine‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐[enos]‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐citruline+ NO; arginine‐‐‐‐‐‐[arginase]‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ornithine+ urea
Oogenesis=It all starts from germs cell precursors migrating from yolk sac to the developing gonadal ridge...then>>>
1. When they reach the gonadal ridge, they undergo several rounds of mitosis and finally differentiate into Oogonia (46,2n)...this
means 23 pairs of chromosomes ,each chr having 1 chromatid so in each pair 2chromatids=2n [n=no of chromatids in each pair
of chromosomes]
2. The Oogonia now start entering the Meiosis. When they enter meiosis, they are termed Primary oocytes.
3. In the Interphase of meiosis 1, the primary oocytes double the amount of DNA and now have 46 chromosomes (46,4n)= 23
pairs , in each pair 4 chromatids
4. These oocytes are then arrested in prophase 1 (diplotene) and remain in this phase up to the puberty...remain as 46,4n !!
5. At puberty, under the influence of FSH, an oocyte completes the meiosis 1 and is now termed a secondary oocyte (now 23,2n)
(this occurs monthly) + a polar body is also formed which degenerates...
6. The secondary oocyte immediately enters meiosis 2 but progresses only to halt in the metaphase 2 (metaphase of meiosis 2)
7. It is at this stage (metaphase 2) that an egg is OVULATED...
8. When a sperm fertilizes a secondary oocyte, it completes meiosis 2 and becomes a mature oocyte (ovum) (now 23,n) + a polar
body that degenerates...
9. The genetic meterial of a sperm combines with an egg (23,n) and zygote is formed...
Summary:
OOGONIA are derived from germ cells from yolk sac...they are called OOCYTES when they start meiosis 1...they remain in
meiosis 1 until puberty when under the influence of FSH they complete meiosis 1 and start meiosis 2. They get arrested in
metaphase of meiosis 2 and are ovulated as such...they complete meiosis when fertilized by a sperm... The overall result of
meiosis is 1 mature oocyte and 3 polar bodies that degenerate...
4th week gestation—yolk sac—pri germ cells—gonadal ridge—mitosis—oogonia[46,2n]—meiosis‐1‐‐‐interfase—pri
ocyte[46,4n]—prophase 1 arrest‐‐‐5th month gestation all pri ocytes ready‐‐‐until pubery‐‐‐FSH—miosis1 complete—sec
ocyte+polar body[ 23,2n]—miosis2‐‐‐metafase 2 arrest‐‐‐ovulation‐‐‐fertilization—miosis2 complete—mature ovum+ polar
body[ 23,n]‐‐‐combines c sperm[23,n]—zygote[46,2n]
Homozygous deletion of CCR5 rec gene =resistance to HIV;heterozygous mutation=delayed infection
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To prevent GVHD= HLA compatible donor, irradiated BT,washing donor cells c anti thymocyte immune globulin to remove T cells
Exercise= inc HR,CO,RR, normal pao2,paco2, inc pvco2,dec pvo2; PE= dec CO, inc HR, inc RR, dec pao2, dec paco2;panic attack=
inc HR, inc RR, dec paco2; high altitude= inc HR,CO,RR, dec pao2,dec paco2
th th
Short 4 metacarpal, horseshoe kidney= turner; short 5 finger= down
Turner synd= loss of X chr in mitosis
Trinucleotide repeat expansion= HD[CAG], FXS[ CGG], myotonic dystrophy[ CTG], freidrich’s ataxia [GAA]
Familial hypercholesterolemia= frameshift mutation
Sch se= malignant hyperthermia[also c halothane], hyperkalemia[c myopathies], vagomimetic bradycardia or ganglionic
tachycardia
Nicotinic ach rec is nonselective cation channel= sodium goes in, k goes out
Atracurium‐release histamine;its metabolite laudanosine‐seizures
Uremia dec peri conversion of T4T3= functional hypothyroidism
Slow acetylators= Sulfonamide, dapsone, INH, Hydralazine, Procanamide;6‐ mercaptopurine n azathioprine undergo
methylation
Alcohols as disinfectant= disruption of cell mem, denaturation of proteins; chlorhexidine= disruption of cell mem, coagulation of
cytoplasm; H2O2= ROS medated damge‐sporicidal ; iodine= halogenations of proteins n nucleic acids‐sporicidal; chlorhexidine=
neurotoxic; formaldehyde‐ gluteraldehyde= alkylating n cross linking of DNA n proteins
Strongiloids stercoralis= rx ivermectin
Clozapine block D4 rec rather than D2
HBV can be detected in all body fluids except stool; HAV= endemic in mexico n eating oysters
L‐asparaginase is antineoplastic drug breaking asparagines to aspartate + NH3. Thus dec level of circulating asparagines for
rapidly dividing leukemic cells
Histidine is essential aa in children
Metabolism of lysine is unique as its not transaminated as initial step
Hbas is protected from p.falci
Inc in MCHC= means intacellular dehydration‐ hbs
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Classical triad of RCC= pain, mass, hematuria is seen in <10%
Hep B n C are common in sub Saharan Africa
Strawberry=capillary=infantile hemangioma‐ first few days/weeks appear‐progress upto 1‐2 yrs‐disappear at 5‐8 yrs
Assoc conditions c PBC= Sjojrens synd, raynauds synd, sys sclerosis,autoimmune thyroid dz, hypothyroidism, celiac dz
Sudden c/o abd pain, tender hepatomegaly c ascitis= suspect budd chiary synd
With normal body iron 1/3=33% of circulating transferin is saturated; transferring saturation[TS]%= s.fe/TIBC[ where TIBC
indicating circulating transferring]
CF=pancreatic insuffi= stetorrhea= vit ADEK defi
Vit E= antioxidant= prevent oxidation of mem lipids= defi inc oxidative damage to high lipid containing cells—neurones n RBC=
dorsal column, spinocerbellar tract demylination‐degeneration c haemolytic anemia, skeletal myopathy, pigmented retinopathy
RCC arise from PCT, on cut section golden yellow due to high lipid n glycogen; risk factor= smoking n obesity
Dihydrobiopterin reductase is essential in sequential 2 steps:= PAtyrosineDOPA [ BH4 is a cofactor in both steps]
BH4 is a cofactor in d synthetic pathway of tyrosine, DOPA, serotonin, NO. DHBR defi dec all of these
Methionine in d form of SAM [methyl donor] is required in a step:= NEadrenaline
Atypical/malignant PKU= defi of DHBR
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UGA=stop codon in nuclear DNA but tryptophan in mtdna;mtdna is involved in synthesis of proteins for oxidative metabolic
pathway
Early post MI pericarditis=2‐4 days after transmural MI in 10‐20%; late post MI pericarditis [dressler synd]= week to months
after MI=autoimmune polyserositis in <4%
Hypertensive crisis/urgency= DBP> 120‐130; hypertensive emergency= c end oragn damage; accelerated malignant HTN= c
retinal hemorrhage,exudates, papilloedema
DHT= external genitalia including prostate; testosterone= int genitalia
Precipitants of G6PD hemolytic anemia= antimalarial, sufonamides, TMP‐SMX, dapsone, infection, DKA, fava beans
Glucagone + insulin secretion but insulin‐ glucagone secretion
Amiodarone is 40% iodine by weight= hypothyroidism in iodine sufficient areas, thyrotoxicosis in iodine defi areas
Delusional disorder= non‐bizzare delusion at least for 1 month
Generalised anxiety disorder=at least 3 ‘non‐worry’ symptoms for 6 months
Agranulocytosis= ANC<500/ml
Imp se of antithyroid drugs= agranulocytosis
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Pts c hyperthyroidism having fever= as antipyretic never give aspirin/brufen as they displace thyroid hormones from binding
proteins,rather give acetaminophen
Appro dead space vol of lung=2* weight or weight in lb
Physiological dead space Vd= Vt*[paco2‐ peco2/paco2]
Hyperoxaluria= oxalate stones=rx vitb6= dec endogenus oxalate production
Foreign implants are coated immediately c host proteins fibrinogen,fibronectin which serves attachment to CONS
Biofilm producing bacteria= cons‐prosthetic implants, iv catheters; strep. Mutans/sanguis‐dental plaques; pseudomonas—cystic
fibrosis, contact lens; viridans strep‐ endocarditis; non typable H.influenza‐ otitis media
Obligate intracellular bact= Chlamydia, ricketssia
Facultative intracellular bact= listeria, legionella, mycobacteria, salmonella, neiserria
Drugs causing fat redistribution= glucocorticoids, HIV‐1 protease inhibitors
Dipyridamol n cilostazol= moa= PDE‐ in platelets—inc camp level‐ dec platelet aggregation; cilostazol is also direct arterial
vasodilator= used in PVD[ intermittent claudication ]
Warfarin is competitive inh of vit k epoxide reductase,thus dec activated vit k levels
In dna replication, first ori is identified n bound by several monomers of dnaa protein‐localy dissociates dsdna to ssdna, which
stabilized by ssdna binding protein, then comes Helicase [dnaassdna binding proteinhelicase]
Rat poison= brodifacorum= coumarin derivative= warfarin
Cryoprecipitate= factor 1,8,13,vwf
Hereditary pancreatitis= mutation of trypsinogen or SPINK1[serine peptidase inh kazal type1= trypsin inhibitor] gene—
production of abnormal trypsin‐insensitive to cleavage inactivation by trypsin [trypsin activates n also cleaves other trypsins]
Medulloblastoma=undifferentiated n aggressive tumor of pnets group[primitive neuroectodermal tumors= small round blue
cells] arises from cerebellar vermis
Mc brain neoplasm in children= pilocytic astrocytoma> medulloblastoma (mc malignant tumor) > ependymoma;adults= Mets>
GBM> Meningioma> Schwanoma
Bullous pemphigoid= antibodies against hemidesmozomes; subepidermal blisters, vaculation in basal layer coalesce to form
fluid filled blister‐hallmark
B thalasemmia= chipmunk face due to maxillary overgrowth n frontal bossing [ extramedullary erythropoesis ]
DM nephropathy= hyperglcemia—ANP n other factors—inc glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure—glomerular HTN—inc
GFR—work hypertrophy of mesangial matrix,GBM thickens—early microalbuminuria—later on c nodular GS[ kimelstein Wilson
nodules] n hyaline arteriosclerosis‐‐nephrotic synd, HTN, overt protenuria, renal failure
Drug induced lupus rarely involve kidney n CNS
HIV, heroin abuse,obesity= FSGS
ADPKD= although cysts are + since birth; pts are asymptomatic until 4‐5 decades
Cavernous hemangioma= mc benign tumor of liver‐biopsy Contraindicated; OCP, anabolic steroids= hepatic adenoma—may
rupture intraabd hemorrhage
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Postural muscles= paraspinal, soleus= red fibres=slow fibres[ type 1]= aerobic metabolism= high myoglobin n mitochondria,less
atpase [more atpase,more FAST]= slow n sustained action; fast fibres,white fibres=[type 2b]= anerobic glycolysis=fast n short
action; [type 2a] fast fibres= intermediate bw slow n 2b= aerobic glycolysis
In fasting= up to 12‐18 hrs glycogenolysisgluconeogenesis
Vertebral body =mc location of hemetogenus osteomyletis in adults
Follicular lymphoma= B cell NHL, predominantly centrocytes[small cleaved cells] n few centroblast[ large non cleaved cells]
Pica= abnormal compulsive consumption of non food/non staple food during any stage of pregnancy, ass c IDA. Eg. Ice
In anorexia nervosa= weight loss is >25% or 15% below ideal for age n height
Normal pregnancy craving= overeating of normal food weight gain beyond normal
Olfactory craving= craving for special smells in pregnancy like gasoline, automobile exhaust, glue, liquid bleach; may be asso c
pica of it
Assess pregnant lady for pica= if unexplained weight loss during pregnancy
Histamine H2 rec= camp pathway
Systemic mastocytosis= inc in histamine flusing, urticaria, hypotension, syncope, tachycardia, itchy rash, NVD, abd cramps,
inc gastric acid secretion,PUD, bronchospasm, dermatographysm
Primary function of nucleolus = synthesis of rrna n ribosomes—then ribosomes go to cytoplasm; nucleolus does not have any
membrane; mrna synthesis occurs in nucleoplasm not in nucleolus
In collagen synthesis‐ after excytosis procollagen peptidases remove disulfide rich terminal extensions making tropocollagen
which is insoluble, spont assemble n covalenly cross react with others by lysyl oxidase to form collagen fibrils; defi of
peptidase‐ impaired cleavage of procollagen—collagen remians soluble—cant effectively make covalent cross links c others
Lesser omentum= hepatogastric + hepatoduodenal lig
Falciform lig of liver= connects liver to ant abd wall, derivative of vent mesentry, contains round ligament n remnant of fetal
umbilical vein
Acetylcholinesterase in amniotic fluid= specific for NTD
Duodenal atresia= eg of abnormal apoptosis
PE= acute resp alkalosis c hypoxemia
Sulfate conjugation in liver= chloramphenicol, phenol
Chlorothiazide= excreted unchanged in urine
Liver hydroxylation= eg phenobarbital, pentobarbitol
Liver hydrolysis=esterases n amidases= eg aspirin, lidocaine, procaine
Eg of plasma hydolysis= plasma choinesterase= sch, tetracaine, remifentanil= short half life
Young female c/o acute onset abd pain, cns symptoms after alcohol n urine turns dark on standing= Acute intermittent
porphyria; alcohol binge, phenobarbital, phenytoin, griseofulvin n other inducers induce liver P450 which forms 15% of heme,
rest 85% of heme‐by erythroid precusors of BM; rx= narcotic analgesics, glucose inh delta ALA synthase,iv heme
HMB synthase= UP 1 synthase= PBG deaminase
Primary hyperpth= s/s bones, stones,groans,psychic mones; xray= subperiosteal resorption in 2nd n 3rd phalanges medially of
hands, salt pepery skull
Osteopetrosis= marble bone dz= Albers Shoneberg dz; osteogenesis imperfecta= brittle bone dz; paget’s dz= osteitis deformans
Vwf is synthesised by endothelium, stored in it n platelets
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Ristocetin induces GP 1b/IX rec on platelets to bind them c vwf, vwf defi fails to aggregate platelets in response to ristocetin;
ADP induces gp iib/iiia rec – in glanzman’s thrombasthenia, platelets fail to aggregate in response to ADP
Vwf is carrier of Fact 8c, vwf‐8c complex has half life of 12 hrs but only 8c has 2 hrs. So vwf defi functional fact 8 defi inc PTT
In cardiac pacemaker cells—phase 4‐ funny current slow inward Na current, later part also by transient influx of Ca current
Cardiac slow response tissue= SA n AV nodes; cardiac fast response tissue= cardiac myocytes
Bioavilability of oral dose= AUC for PO/AUC for IV [provided both doses are same]; bioavilability of PO drug= AUC for PO* IV
dose/ AUC for IV* PO dose [for diff doses]
Second most common site of metastasis after lymph nodes is Liver
Hepatoblastoma= mc liver tumor of children,asso c FAP n backwith widdman synd
Hepatic angiosarcoma= PVC, arsenic, thorotrost; aggressive
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Cholesterol synthesis:
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fibrates inh this chole 7a hydroxylase enz inc chole gall stone
synthesis
Listeria meningitis = CMI defect= infants up to 3 months n immunocompro
Prolactin level inc by antipsychotics, TRH, oxytocin, ADH, VIP
Eczematous dermatitis‐spongiosis= 5 category= allergic contact dermatitis, primary irritant dermatitis, atopic dermatitis, drug
related ED, photo‐ED
Dyskeratosis= SCC; hyperparakeratosis= actinic keratosis; hypergranulosis= lichen planus; acanthosis= psoriasis
EBV = CD21[ CR2 ]; rabies =nichotinic ach rec; HIV= CD4, CXCR4/CCR5; CMV= cellular integrins; rhinovirus= ICAM1[cd 54]
Mc cause of septic arthritis in adults [TC > 20,000]= gonococcal arthritis; in gout n pseudogout [TC< 20,000]
Pulmonary edema= xray= cardiomegaly, CP angle obliteration=pleural effusion; pul fibrosis= b/l diffuse sharp reticulonodular
opacity
Rheumatoid lung dz= pul fibrosis
Acute rheumatic carditis= aschoff bodies= interstitial granuloma; aschoff giant cells= multinucleated macrophages; anitshow
cells[caterpillar cells]= elongated cell c ribbon like chromatin
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Latin America= chagus dz= myocarditis
Biochemical abn of AD= dec level of ach [defi choline acetyltransferase enz] in nucleus basalis of meynert n hippo
NMDA rec are destroyed in striatum of pts c HD
Locaus cerulius= NE= panic disorder
Diphtheria produces K antigen‐ prevents phagocytosis by iga allowing to colonize pharynx
85% mem nephropathy= idiopathic; 15% are secondary to DM, SLE/HBV,HCV/malaria, syphilis/ gold, penicillamine,
NSAIDS/lung n colon ca‐ subepithelial dense deposits, spike n dome appear on methanamine silver stain
Monte/zafir leukast LTD4 rec antagonist
Pygmalion effect= researcher’s belief of efficacy of treatment affects study outcome
Berkesonian bias= selection bias due to selecting hospitalzed pt’s as control group
Hawthorn effect= study group’s knowledge of being studied affects outcome
URT= from nasal passage to larynx= 50% of airway resistance ; LRT= from trachea onwards—in LRT max resistance is provided
by medium brochi from 2nd to 5th generation bronchi
Ant displacement of tibia= ant cruciate lig injury, post displacement of tibia= post cruciate lig injury
Rhinovirus is acid labile; other picorna viruses‐ enteroviruses are relatively acid stable
First sign of puberty in boys= testes enlargement; in girls= thalarche>pubarche>menarche
Delayed pubery in girls >12 yrs, in boys >14 yrs
Kallman synd= mutation of KAL‐1 or FGF rec‐1 gene, failure of migration of gnrh secreting neurones from olfactory placode[
outside cns ] to hypothalamus‐ central hypogonadism, anosmia, delayed puberty
DNR= no intubation, mechanical venti, defibrillation or iv drugs to treat terminal rhythm, chest compression
LPS is not actively secreted but released during division or bacterial lysis
Axial skeleton= spine; appendicular skeleton= limbs
Factors responsible for linear growth at epiphysial plate= GH, IGF‐1, insulin, thyroid, sex steroids, FGF
Seborrhic keratosis= brown warty or coin like benign epithelial tumor on trunk, limbs, head or neck in middle aged. Classically
‘stuck on’ appear
Mc brain tumors in adults: mets > GBM [glioblastoma multiforme]= butterfly glioma ‐ aggressive, necrosis, hemorrhagic >
meningioma‐ benign, well circumscribed > acoustic neuroma
Raas inc both afterload n preload
Obstructed hernia‐is one in which the lumen of the herniated part of intestine is obstructed but the blood supply to the hernial
sac is intact.
Incarcerated hernia‐is one in which adhesions develop between the wall of hernial sac and the wall of intestine.
Strangulated hernia‐ is one in which the blood supply of the sac is cut off, thus, leading to ischemia. The lumen of the intestine
may be patent[disambiguation needed] or not.
2 main causes of RPGN [histologically cresentic HN]= immune[ type1,2] n pauci‐immune[type3]; type 1= eg. Goodpasture synd=
type 2 HS rection= anti GBM antibody‐linear GBM deposits; type 2= eg. PSGN, SLE, HSP, iga nephropathy= type 3 HS
reaction=immune complex mediated‐ lumpy bumpy‐ granular igg, C3 deposits; type 3= eg. Wegener’s dz= c‐ANCA +/idiopathic
Selective iga defi= due to failure of isotype switching, mc primary immunodefi, asymptomatic or rec sinopulmonary inf by
encapsulated bact n GI infection due to absence of secretory iga; fatal anyphylaxis after BT due to anti iga antibody in serum
reacting c iga of BT
Trigeminal neuralgia= tic doulorex= stabbing/electric shock like pain in V2/V3 distribution= rx carbamazepine >
valproate/baclofen
Epidural hematoma= blood collection bw two layers of dura‐ outer layer forming inner periosteum[adherent to bone] n inner
proper dura, restrained at suture lines
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Lactose ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐[b galactosidase]‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐galactose; defi of this lysosomal enz—accu of keratin salfate in lysosomes—short stature,
normal intelligence, valvulat heart dz, atlanto axial instability
Misolimbic‐misocortical [frontal cortex] pathway= responsible for behaviour= involved in schizophrenia
Striatum= caudate nucleus + putamen; lenticular nucleus= GB+ putamen
Nigrostriatal pathway= co ordination of vol movements= normally inh ach secretion by dopamine release
Tubuloinfundibular pathway= dopamine inh prolactin =involved in hyperprolactinemia
Mc cause of acute viral hemorrhagic cystitis in children n men is adenovirus‐11 n 21 serotypes of subgroup B
Viral gastroenteritis= Norwalk virus
Blood group A—anti B ab [igm], blood group B—anti A ab [igm], blood group O—anti A n B ab [igg]
With maternal blood group A n B haemolytic dz of new born don’t develop as natural antibodies are of igm type; but O mother
can develop due to igg ab.
Risperidone is atypical antipsychotic c max EPS; clozapine having least. But as clozapine causes agranulocytosis it’s used as a last
resort
Maraviroc= CCR5 inhibitor; enfuvirtide= gp41 fusion inh; RT inh; raltegravir= integrase inh; protease inh
Power [1‐b] is typically set at 80% n depends on sample size n difference bw outcomes
NSAIDS= GI bleeding, fluid retension, aggr of HTN, agg of CHF, avoid in renal, liver dys n elderly pts
Tryptophan forms niacin, serotonin, melatonin
Hartnup dz= impairment of intestinal n renal absorption of neutral aa [alanine, val,leu,isoleu, PA,tryptophan, histidine,
serine, threonine] but [proline, hydoxyproline n arginine remains unimpaired‐ diff from generalized aminoaciduria of
Fancony’s synd]; s/s aminoaciduria, pellagra‐dermatitis, diarrhea,ataxia, photosensitivity
Vit B6= decarboxylation ,transaminase ,deamination,condensation
Mc lung benign tumor = hamartoma [pul chondroma]= coin lesion c popcorn calcification; lung is d mc location of hamartoma
Stimulus for aldosteron secretion= ATII n hyperkalemia
Neonatal opioid widrawal synd= rx tincture of opium/ paregoric
Homocystinuria= rx folate, B12, B6, cysteine, avoid methionine
Renal papillary necrosis= SCD, DM, analgesic nephropathy, APN n Urinary tract obst‐‐‐ ischemia—s/s gross hematuria, acute
colicky flank pain, passage of tissue fragments in urine
Muddy brown, granular casts=ischemic tubular necrosis
Cafe au lait spots= inc melanosome aggregation in melanocyte cytoplasm
21 hydroxylase defi=girls= female pseudohermaphroditism, salt wasting; boys= salt wasting
11b hydroxylase defi=girls= female pseudohermaphroditism, hypertension; boys= HTN
17a hydroxylase defi=boys= male pseudohermaphroditism, hypertension; girls= HTN; both= at puberty= absence ofsec sexual
characteristics due to absent testo n estro
5a reductase defi= boys= male pseudoherma; normal sec sexual characteristics at puberty
Mc cause of carpal tunnel synd= chronic repeatitive stress, fluid retension= renal failure, hypothyroidism, pregnanacy; DM,
acromegaly, RA, dialysis asso amyloidosis [b2 microglobulin]
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Polymyositis= endomysial inflammation; dermatomyocitis= perifascicular inflammation
Elderly pt c/o back/rib pain, constipation [hyper Ca], azotemia [ARF], fatigue[ anemia ]== suspect MM
Causes of ARF in MM= hyper Ca, hyper uricemia, infiltaration by myeloma cells, AL amyloidosis, infection
Myeloma kidney [myeloma cast nephropathy]= overflow proteinuria due to benz zones proteins‐ obs tubular lumen, toxic
to tubular cell, eosinophilic cast in tubules
Northen blot—mrna—ss DNA/RNA probe; southern blot – DNA—ssdna/RNA probe; western blot—protein—antibody probe;
southwestern—DNA binding protein=transcription factors,nucleases, histones—dsdna probe
C‐Jun n c‐fos are nuclear transcription factors that bind to DNA via leucin zipper motif
S‐100 is ca binding protein similar to calmodulin; func‐ intracellular protein phosphorylation, cell growth n differentiation;
marker of neural crest derivative[ melanocytes, schwan cells ],langerhans cell n other dendritic cells
S100+= melanoma, schwanoma, neurofibroma,langerhans cells,dendritic cells
M protein= major virulent factor of GAS, antiphagocytic, anticomplementary, cytotoxic to neutrophils n mediator of bact
attachment, target for type specific humoral immunity
Isolated atrial amyloidosis= ANP derived protein=senile cardiac amylo—inc risk of AF
Amylin=islet amyloid protein= pancreatic amylo= >90% pts of NIDDM
Most of carotid bifurcations were found at the level of C3, between C3 and C4, and C4 vertebra; at the level of the superior
border of thyroid cartilage
Table 112‐1 Amyloid Fibril Proteins and Their Clinical Syndromes
Term Precursor Clinical Syndrome Clinical Involvement
Systemic Amyloidoses
AL Immunoglobulin light chain Primary or myeloma associateda Any
AH Immunoglobulin heavy chain Primary or myeloma associated Any
(rare)
AA Serum amyloid A protein Secondary; reactiveb Renal, any
Ab2M B2‐Microglobulin Hemodialysis‐associated Synovial membrane, bone
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ATTR Transthyretin Familial (mutant) Cardiac, peripheral and autonomic
Senile systemic (wild type) nerves
Aapoai Apolipoprotein AI Familial Hepatic, renal
Aapoaii Apolipoprotein AII Familial Renal
Agel Gelsolin Familial Corneas, cranial nerves, renal
Afib Fibrinogen Aa Familial Renal
Alys Lysozyme Familial Renal
ALECT2 Leukocyte chemotactic factor 2 ? Renal
Localized Amyloidoses
Ab Amyloid b protein Alzheimer’s disease; Down syndrome CNS
Acys Cystatin C Cerebral amyloid angiopathy CNS, vascular
Aprp Prion protein Spongiform encephalopathies CNS
AIAPP Islet amyloid polypeptide Diabetes‐associated Pancreas
(amylin)
Acal Calcitonin Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid Thyroid
AANF Atrial natriuretic factor Age‐related Cardiac atria
Apro Prolactin Endocrinopathy Pituitary
A
localized deposits can occur in skin, conjunctiva, urinary bladder, and tracheobronchial tree.
B
secondary to chronic inflammation or infection, or to a hereditary periodic fever syndrome, e.g., familial Mediterranean fever.
Familial meditarrenian fever= AA; familial amyloidal neuropathies= ATTR [mutant]; senile sys amyloidosis= ATTR[wild
type=normal type]
Reactive amylo[AA] mostly presents as nephritic synd
ANA = igm
Trinucleotide repeats expansion is more during spermatogenesis so paternal transmission of HD shows anticipation but not
mother as trinucleotide repeat no. Remains same in maternal transmission
Angleman synd= happy puppet synd
Irritation of phrenic nerve = dyspnea, hiccups
Parietal cells have abundant mitochondria, stain eosinophilic on H&E stain; PGE2 inhibits parietal cells; gastrin has trophic effect
on them—hyperplasia
TGF‐a= secreted by carcinoma, macrophages, epithelial cells; it’s potent stimulator of epithelial growth
Uncal herniation= ipsi CN 3 palsy, PCA occlusion‐ contralateral homo hemianopia c macular sparing, contra/ipsi cerebral
peduncle[corticospinal tract] compression—ipsi/contra hemiparesis, brainstem haemorrhages[ duret hemorrhage]‐
stretching/rupture of basilar artery‐ fatal
Subfalcine herniation= cingulated gyrus herniation—ACA compression
Tonsillar herniation= medullary compression
CN 3 palsy= Diagonal diplopia= horizontal n vertical diplopia; SO palsy= vertical n torsional diplopia; LR palsy= hori diplopia
CN 3= middle motor fibres; peripheral PS fibers= compression first involves PS fibres, DM involves Motor fibres
Malignant pustule= B.anthracis
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V2 rec of ADH= camp pathway
Blood Pressures in Cardiac Chambers:
Normal Pressures Minimum (mm Hg) Maximum (mm Hg)
Right atrium 0 8
Right ventricle 4 25
Pulmonary artery 9 25
Left atrium 2 12
Left ventricle 9 130
Aorta 70 130
Cx of measles= acute encephalitis, primary viral pneumonia, sec bacterial pneumonia n otitis media, SSPE= M protein defi strains
of virus persist in CNS n can not be eliminated by immune sys—inflammation, demylination, gliosis of CNS‐progressive
dementia‐oligoclonal bands of Ig in CSF‐ fatal
Candida does not usually cause lung dz; sputum candida indicates oral colonization‐does not indicate dz; disseminated candida
infection involve= esophagus, heart, liver, kidney
C/o fever, headache, vomiting, photophobia, painful extraoccular movement = suspect meningitis
Mc CN palsy in raised ICT= abducent CN6
NSAID induced nephropathy= papillary necrosis n chronic interstitial nephritis
Pro convulsant effect of antidepressant is mediated by their antihistaminic, antimuscarinic n anesthetic properties
Anticholinergics are usually avoided in elderly due to risk of BPH n angle closure glaucoma
RNA polymerase 1= rrna‐45s RNA→5.8s, 18s, 28s ;RNA poly2= mrna, snrna, microrna—gene silencing by stopping translation or
mrna degradation; RNA poly3= trna, 5s RNA
Intestinal carcinoids arise from enterochromaffin=kulchistkey cells [endocrine]= APUD cells of mucosa; carcinoid cells have
minimal variation in size n shape; mc site ileum > appendix, rectum
Drugs causing hyperkalemia= ACEI, ARB, K sparing diuretics, Mannitol, Non selective B blockers [blocking b2 mediated
intracellular uptake], NSAIDS [dec local PG synthesis in kidney dec rennin dec aldosterone], digoxin
Sorbitol= polyol pathway is active in seminal vesicle as sperms use fructose as energy
Diuretics causing inc Ca reabsorption= thiazide , amiloride; Acetazolamide‐ hypercalciuria by met acidosis induced bone loss
Spleen in relation to 9,10,11 ribs; liver= 8 9 10 11 ribs
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Lung= 6 8 10 ribs; pleura= 8 10 12 ribs
Drug for thyroid opthalmopathy=high dose glucocorticoids
T.whipple= gram + actinomycete infection= small intestine, joints, CNS, heart
Basement mem splitting= MPGN‐1 n alport synd; FSGS= igm n C3 deposits
Sleep breathing disorders: apnea >=10 sec; hypoanea >=4% dec in spo2
OSA=nocturnal hypoventilation due to transient Upper airway obst due to poor pharyngeal muscle tone; obesity, tonsillar
hypertrophy, hypothyroidism risk fact; snoring,excessive day time sleepiness, morning headaches, non refreshing
sleep,impotence, poor judgement, depression, sec erythrocytosis, pul HTN, RVHF
Obesity hypoventilation synd [OHS]= pickwickian synd= obesity prevents chest/abd expansion during breathing
hypoventilation all d day chronically elevated paco2 n dec pao2; often have concomitant OSA
Basic interviewing techniques= facilitation, support, empathy, reflection, confrontation, silence, direct n indirect questioning;
facilitation= eg.”What happened next?” Encouraging to tell more; support= concern without understanding‐eg. “Yes,he hurt u
alot,pt’s c sexual abuse often say same”; empathy= eg.”I can imagine how u felt”‐walk in pt’s shoes; reflection= “so u r telling
me bla bla bla”‐repeating what pt said; confrontation= pointing to discrepancies –eg. “Although u r telling u were traumatized, u
don’t seem to affected by so”
Anesthetic c high arteriovenus conc diff—means peripheral tissue extraction is more—more time is required to saturate blood
c anesthetic in order to replace that which is taken up by peri tissues before it reaches brain= delayed onset of action
Factors affecting gaseus anesthetic concentration= partial pressure of anesthetic in inspired air, pul ventilation rate n depth,
blood/gas partition coefficient, peri tissue solubility/extractability
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High glucose dec intracellular adenyl cyclase –↓camp conc,↓camp‐CAP interaction, lac operon is repressed
Lac operon is regulated by 2 things: positively by camp‐CAP; negatively by binding of represser protein to operator
Blsotomycosis= rx itraconazole
CD 40 L = CD154 on activated Tcells
Cholesterol bile acids [cholic acid, chenodeoxychoilc acid] first n rate limiting step= cholesterol 7a hydroxylase
Bile acids are conjugated by glycine/taurine bile salts; bile salts n lecithin[phospholipids] both keep cholesterol in soluble
form
Corticosteroids have permissive action on vasoconstrictors like NE
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Malignant hyperthermia= halothane, sch= AD trait; abnormal ryanodine rec release exess ca from SR into cytoplasm in response
to anesthetic, more ATP utilized to throw them back inside SR, release heat—causes damage to muscle= rhabdomyolysis
Mutation of splice sites= non functional large proteins, often react c same ab as do original protein
Frameshift mutation= deletion > addition of base pairs= short> large non functional protein
Non sense mutation= short non functional protein
Misssense mutation= same size, non functional protein
Sickling promoters= hypoxia, acidity, dehydration
Hbs promotes hydrophobic interaction among adjacent Hb allowing polymerization= sickling
Elevated prolactin can cause gynecomastia
Berylliosis= non caseating granuloma indistinguishable from sarcoidosis
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis=inhalation of organic dusts‐non caseating granuloma
NMS= altered mentation, hyperthermia, gen muscle rigidity, autonomic instability
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In restrictive lung dz= expiratory flow rate increases relatively due to inc elastic recoil pressure n inc radial traction on airways
from fibrotic interstitium
Phy dead space= anatomical dead space + alveolar dead space
Compliance= dv/dp
BCC mc skin ca
Ocular irregularities respond first to thiamine infusion
Constipation as a se= verapamil, atropine, opiod, iron
Raynold’s phenomenan= avoid b blockers, ergotamine
PCT n thick asc limb of LOH in outer medulla [ATP consuming]= most prone to ischemia
Fenoldopame= selective D1 agonist= inc renal, mesenteric, coronary blood flow; natriuresis n dec sys peri resistence‐ dec BP in
htnsive emerge + renal insufficiency
PR prolongation >=200 ms
Bepridil= CCB drug= anti anginal
Wilson dz= AR mutation of ATP7B gene on chr 7, copper‐ pro oxidant‐ free radical damage
Thrombin time is prolonged in pt’s c afibrinogenemia
Ammonia donor to urea= NH3 n aspartate
Foremost aa in blood= glutamine
Liver granulomatosis= hydralazine, methyl dopa, quinidine
ALS= mc cause of death‐ respiratory cx; mutation of gene coding cu‐zn SOD‐1; rx riluzole‐ moa‐ dec glutamate release; loss of
neurones in motor nuclei of CN 5, 9,10,12
Chronic ethanol downregulates GABA rec n upregulates NMDA rec, also inc synthesis of serotonin, dopamine, NE in brain=
tolerance n widrawal sym; Mc widrawal sym= “shakes”‐tremers
Platelets‐ PDGF n TGF‐b chemotactic for SMC in atheroma
Common intracellular org= Chlamydia, recketsia, neisseria, listeria, legionella, mycobacteria, nocardia, s.typhi, Cryptococcus,
histo, p.jirovaci, plasmodia, toxoplasma
Listeria= refrigerated food, tumbling motility at 22 degree c, multiplication as low as 4 degree c, very narrow zone of b hemolysis
on blood agar resembling GBS; escaping from phagosome into cytosol by listeriolysin O
Local vasodilators in exercising muscles= adenosine, lactate, ATP, co2, K+ ions
Renal blood flow normally is 25% of CO
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Hemophilus requires factor V [ NAD+] n X [hematin]; therefore H.influenza grows on sheep blood agar streaked c s.aureus
“satellite phenomenan” , s.aureus causes b hemolysis n release hematin n actively secrets NAD+
CAT= carnitine acylcarnitine translocase = + on inner mito mem
CPT 1/CAT 1= carnitine palmitoyl/acyl transferase 1= + on outerside of inner mito mem
Acyl co A synthetase =+ on outerside of inner mito mem
CPT 2/CAT 2= carnitine palmitoyl/acyl transferase 2= + on inner side of inner mito mem
62
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Prolonged diarrhea sev Mg defi hypoparathyroidism
Sec hyperparathyroidism due to malabsorption = ↓ vit D= ↓ca2+ ↓ phosphorus ↑PTH
Sec hyperparathyroidism due to CRF= ↑phosphorus ↓vit D ↓Ca2 ↑PTH
Pseudohypoparathyroidism= resistance to PTH= ↓Ca ↑phospho ↓vit D ↑PTH + skeletal defect= Albright’s heri
osteodystrophy
Pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism= phenotypically same as pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1a
Pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism can be best understood by comparing it to other conditions:
Condition Appearance PTH levels Calcitriol Calcium Phosphates
Imprinting
1B (GNAS1 and STX16)
Hormone resistance is not present in pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism.[5] Short stature may be present.[6] Obesity is less
common in pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism than in pseudohypoparathyroidism.[7] Osteoma cutis may be present.[8]
Difference bw PAO2= 104 mmhg to pao2= 100 mm Hg is due to admixture of deoxygenated blood from bronchial veins to pul
veins [oxygenated blood]
Theophylline poisoning= abd pain, vomiting, diarrhea,tachyarrythmias‐ do not cause QT prolongation, seizures; seizures are mc
cause of morbidity n mortality
PAN linked to Hep B in 10‐30%; fever, malaise, weight loss, abd pain, malena frq symptoms of PAN
Microscopic polyangitis= leucocytoclastic= hypersensitivity angitis= mc vasculitis from antibiotic use [penicillin], type 3
immune reaction
Fever=pyrexia >38.3 degree c; PGE2 inc thermoregulatory set point in ant hypothalamus in fever; hyperpyrexia > 40 c= sev
infection, heat stroke, NMS, malig hyperthermia; >42 c permanent neurological damage; purkinje cells of cerebellum most
sensitive to heat damage; >43 c incompatible c life
Temperature Classification
Core (rectal, esophageal, etc.)
Hypothermia <35.0 °C (95.0 °F)[3]
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Normal 36.5–37.5 °C (97.7–99.5 °F)[2]
Fever=Pyrexia >37.5–38.3 °C (99.5–100.9 °F)[1][4]
Hyperthermia >37.5–38.3 °C (99.5–100.9 °F)[1][4]
Hyperpyrexia >40.0–41.5 °C (104–106.7 °F)[5][6]
Note: The difference between fever and hyperthermia is
the mechanism.
Performance of the various types of fever
a) Fever continues
b) Fever continues to abrupt onset and remission
c) Fever remittent
d) Intermittent fever
e) Undulant fever
f) Relapsing fever
Wunderlich curve of typhoid fever
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Fever (also known as pyrexia[1]) is one of the most common medical signs and is characterized by an elevation of body
temperature above the normal range of 36.5–37.5 °C (97.7–99.5 °F) due to an increase in the temperature regulatory set‐
point.[2]
Types of fever
The pattern of temperature changes may occasionally hint at the diagnosis:
Continuous fever: Temperature remains above normal throughout the day and does not fluctuate more than 1 °C in 24
hours, e.g. Lobar pneumonia,typhoid, urinary tract infection, brucellosis, or typhus. Typhoid fever may show a specific
fever pattern (Wunderlich curve of typhoid fever), with a slow stepwise increase and a high plateau. (Drops due to fever‐
reducing drugs are excluded.)
Intermittent fever: The temperature elevation is present only for a certain period, later cycling back to
normal, e.g. Malaria, kala‐azar, pyaemia, or septicemia. Following are its types [10]
Quotidian fever (periodicity of 24 hours), typical of Plasmodium falciparum or Plasmodium knowlesi malaria
Tertian fever (48 hour periodicity), typical of Plasmodium vivax or Plasmodium ovale malaria
Quartan fever (72 hour periodicity), typical of Plasmodium malariae malaria.
Remittent fever: Temperature remains above normal throughout the day and fluctuates more than 1 °C in 24
hours, e.g., infective endocarditis.
Pel‐Ebstein fever: A specific kind of fever associated with Hodgkin's lymphoma, being high for one week and low for the
next week and so on. However, there is some debate as to whether this pattern truly exists.[11]
A neutropenic fever, also called febrile neutropenia, is a fever in the absence of normal immune system function. Because of the
lack of infection‐fighting neutrophils, a bacterial infection can spread rapidly; this fever is, therefore, usually considered to
require urgent medical attention. This kind of fever is more commonly seen in people receiving immune‐
suppressing chemotherapy than in apparently healthy people.
Febricula is an old term for a low‐grade fever, especially if the cause is unknown, no other symptoms are present, and the
[12]
patient recovers fully in less than a week.
Hyperpyrexia[edit]
[13]
Hyperpyrexia is a fever with an extreme elevation of body temperature greater than or equal to 41.5 °C (106.7 °F). Such a high
temperature is considered a medical emergency as it may indicate a serious underlying condition or lead to significant side
effects.[14] The most common cause is anintracranial hemorrhage.[13] Other possible causes include sepsis, Kawasaki
syndrome,[15] neuroleptic malignant syndrome, drug effects, serotonin syndrome, and thyroid storm.[14] Infections are the most
common cause of fevers, however as the temperature rises other causes become more common.[14] Infections commonly
associated with hyperpyrexia include: roseola, rubeola andenteroviral infections.[15] Immediate aggressive cooling to less
than 38.9 °C (102.0 °F) has been found to improve survival.[14] Hyperpyrexia differs from hyperthermia in that in hyperpyrexia
the body's temperature regulation mechanism sets the body temperature above the normal temperature, then generates
heat to achieve this temperature, while in hyperthermia the body temperature rises above its set point due to an outside
source.[13]
Hyperthermia[edit]
Hyperthermia is an example of a high temperature that is not a fever. It occurs from a number of causes
including heatstroke, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, malignant hyperthermia, stimulants such
as amphetamines and cocaine, idiosyncratic drug reactions, and serotonin syndrome.
Internal capsule= post limb – corticospinal, somatosensory, visual, auditory fibres; genu =corticobulbar fibres; ant limd=
thalamocortical fibres
66
Chronic lymphedema Cutaneus angiosarcoma= stewart treves synd
Dimorphic fungi= histo,cocco,blasto‐great lakes,ohio,missisipi; sporo, paracocco‐central n south America, mucocutaneus
ulcers lungs n lymph node, blastoconidia
Warfarin bleeding risk factors= advance age, DM, HTN, alcohol
Root values= femoral/obturator= L234; sciatic/tibial= L4‐S3; commom peroneal= L4‐ S2; sup gluteal= L4L5S1; inf gluteal= L5S1S2
Obturator injury= ant hip dislocation,pelvic sx; femoral= pelvis #, iliopsoas hematoma, abcess compression; tibial= trauma to
knee; sup/inf gluteal nerve= post hip dislocation/ injections
Particles < 2mcm =alveolar macrophages; 2.5 ‐10= mucociliary clearance; 10‐15= trapped in URT
Heart failure cells= hemosiderin laden macrophages= siderophages
Granuloma in lungs= TB, fungi, inhaled foreign body, berrylium, sarcoid, histiocytosis, wegener’s
Ornithine transcarbamoylase defi= XLR, is mc urea cycle disorder. Rx= sodium benzoate or phenylpyruvate to remove ammonia
from body
Skin hyperpigmentation occur in any condition c ↑ACTH as ACTH = a MSH in sequence c s mulates MSH receptors
Oculosympathetic pathway= 1st order neurone= postlat hypothalamus= paraventricular nucleus 2nd ON= intermediolateral
column of T12 [ciliospinal centre of budge] 3rd ON= sup cervical ganglion
Hydroxyurea inh ribonucleotide reductase [ UDP dudp]
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Orotic aciduria= 1]defi of orotate phosphoribosyltransferase=OMP decarboxylase= UMP synthase →megaloblastic anemia as
no further syn of pyrimidine;2] OTC defi in UREA cycle→↑carbamoyl phosphate→diverted to pyrimidine pathway, no
megaloblastic anemia but hyperammonemia
Ischemic stroke changes : 12‐24 hrs= red neurone[ eosinophilic cytoplasm, pyknotic nucleus, loss of nissl sub]; 24‐72 hrs=
neurophil, necrosis; 3‐5 days= macrophages; 1‐2 weeks= micro=reactive gliosis, vascularisation, macro= liqifactive necrosis [1
week‐ 1month]; >2 weeks= micro‐ glial scar, macro‐ cystic cavity surrded by gliosis [>1 month]
Inj in supermed hip = damage to sup gluteal nerve or glueus medius muscle; inferomed hip inj= sciatic nerve damage
Mismatched defect on V/Q scan= PE; matched defect= atelactasis, consolidation, LVF
Arnold chiary malformation= congenital malformation of post fossa cerebellar + medulla herniation in vertebral canal. Type 1
asymptomatic in childhood, adults have headaches n cerebellar ataxia. Type 2 =severe,compression of aqueduct leads to
hydrocephalus, medulla‐ diffi in swallowing, dysphonia, stridor, apnea, lumbar meningomyelosele—leg palsy
Cardiac asthma= exertional wheezing ‐non specific‐ bronchial asthma n copd +
Intraepithelial neoplasia of cervix, vulva, penis, anus –linked to HPV 16,18
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Jarvell n lange neilsen synd is d mc congenital QT prolongation synd= AR, asso c neurosensory deafness, syncopal episodes n
sudden cardiac death due to torsades de pointes
Mc congenital UL deformity= syndactily > constriction band synd‐ amputation of fingers/toes; non syndromic
Chronic rejection is mc cause of mortality in lung transplantation; chronic rejection is bronchiolitis obliteranse= inflammation n
fibrosis of small bronchial walls‐ c/o dyspnea, dry cough, wheeze [chronic rejection in renal transplant involves primary
vascular fibrosis]; acute rejection in lung= CMI= CD8+ mediated pul n bronchial vascular damage, perivascular n peribronchial
lymphocytic infiltrate, CXR= perihilar n lower lobe opacity
Appetite suppressants= fenfluramin, dexfenfluramine [ sertonergic], phentermine [amphetamine like] use > 3 months – sec
pul HTN, cardiac fibrosis
Median survival measured in= cohort/ clinical trials; exposure odds ratio= case control study; prevalence odds ratio= cross
sectional study
CSF levels =↓hypocre n 1= narcolepsy; ↓ 5‐HIAA= suicide, aggression, violent behaviour; ↑14‐3‐3 = CJD; ↓ HVA=
parkinsonism; altered HVA levels= psychosis, mood dis, sub abuse; ↓melatonin= progression of AD
In bronchial challenge testing, BHR (bronchial hyperreactivity) is quantified as amount of inhaled methacholine is required to
produce 20% decline in FEV1;negative methachoine challange rule out asthma
Ige is normal in intrinsic asthma [non immune asthma] = eg. Aspirin, viral, cold air, emotions, stress, exercise,inhaled irritant
Laminin= binds to type 4 collagen, fun as organization n function of basal mem
Fibronectin= act as adhesive protein binds to ECM n intergrins, helps in cellular differentiation, phagocytosis, platelet adhesion,
thrombus formation
Only s.aureus ferments mannitol
2,3 BPG binds to b subunits of hba in a pocket where positively charged histidine binds to negatively charged phosphates of 2,3
BPG by ionic bonds in deoxygenated state. In hbf serine replaces histidine so hbf can not bind 2,3 BPG
Enterobiasis is mc helminthic inf [protozoal= giardiasis] in USA, rx= albendazole/mebendazole, pyrental pamoate [in
pregnancy]
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DEC is DOC for wucheria bancrofti n loa loa; ivermectin= strongiloidiasis, onchocerciasis; nifurtimox= chagus dz; sleeping
sickness= hemolymphatic stage= suramine/pentamidine; neurological stage= melarsoprol/eflornithine
Cupula is at apex of cochlea,houses cells that sense rotation
Chronic gastritis= type A=autoimmune – affects body of stomach‐ megaloblastic anemia; type B= antrum‐ H.pylori –gastric
adenoca n maltoma
HSP= colicky sev intermittent abd pain, hemetemesis, bloody diarrhea, risk of intususseption; palpable purpura on buttocks,legs;
self limiting migratory arthralgia or arthritis of ankle/knee joints; hematuria‐ iga nephropathy‐ mesangial n crescent
formation=RPGN type2
Seizure causing drugs= bupropion, clozapine, imipemun, INH without B6, ciplox
Table 369‐9 Dosage and Adverse Effects of Commonly Used Antiepileptic Drugs
Adverse Effects
Generic Name Principal Uses Neurologic Systemic Drug Interactions
Phenytoin Tonic‐clonic Dizziness Gum hyperplasia Level increased by isoniazid,
(diphenyl‐ Focal‐onset Diplopia Lymphadenopathy sulfonamides, fluoxetine
hydantoin Ataxia Hirsutism Level decreased by enzyme‐
Incoordination Osteomalacia inducing drugsa
Confusion Facial coarsening Altered folate metabolism
Skin rash
Carbamazepine Tonic‐clonic Ataxia Aplastic anemia Level decreased by enzyme‐
Focal‐onset Dizziness Leukopenia inducing drugsa
Diplopia Gastrointestinal irritation Level increased by
Vertigo Hepatotoxicity erythromycin, propoxyphene,
Hyponatremia=SIADH isoniazid, cimetidine, fluoxetine
Valproic acid Tonic‐clonic Ataxia Hepatotoxicity Level decreased by enzyme‐
Absence Sedation Thrombocytopenia inducing drugsa
Atypical Tremor Gastrointestinal irritation
absence Weight gain
Myoclonic Transient alopecia
Focal‐onset Hyperammonemia
Atonic
Lamotrigine Focal‐onset Dizziness Skin rash Level decreased by enzyme‐
Tonic‐clonic Diplopia Stevens‐Johnson syndrome inducing drugsa and oral
Atypical Sedation contraceptives
absence Ataxia Level increased by valproic acid
Myoclonic Headache
Lennox‐
Gastaut
syndrome
Ethosuximide Absence Ataxia Gastrointestinal irritation Level decreased by enzyme‐
Lethargy Skin rash inducing drugsa
Headache Bone marrow suppression Level increased by valproic acid
Gabapentin Focal‐onset Sedation Gastrointestinal irritation No known significant
Dizziness Weight gain interactions
Ataxia Edema
Fatigue
Topiramate Focal‐onset Psychomotor Renal stones (avoid use with Level decreased by enzyme‐
Tonic‐clonic slowing other carbonic anhydrase inducing drugsa
Lennox‐ Sedation inhibitors)
Gastaut Speech or Glaucoma
syndrome language Weight loss
problems Hypohidrosis
Fatigue
Paresthesias
70
Tiagabine Focal‐onset Confusion Gastrointestinal irritation Level decreased by enzyme‐
a
Sedation inducing drugs
Depression
Dizziness
Speech or
language
problems
Paresthesias
Psychosis
Phenobarbital Tonic‐clonic Sedation Skin rash Level increased by valproic acid,
Focal‐onset Ataxia phenytoin
Confusion
Dizziness
Decreased libido
Depression
Primidone Tonic‐clonic Same as Level increased byvalproic acid,
Focal‐onset phenobarbital phenytoin
Clonazepam Absence Ataxia Anorexia Level decreased by enzyme‐
a
Atypical Sedation inducing drugs
absence Lethargy
Myoclonic
Felbamate Focal‐onset Insomnia Aplastic anemia Increases phenytoin, valproic
Lennox‐ Dizziness Hepatic failure acid, active carbamazepine
Gastaut Sedation Weight loss metabolite
syndrome Headache Gastrointestinal irritation
Tonic‐clonic
Levetiracetam Focal‐onset Sedation Anemia No known significant
Fatigue Leukopenia interactions
Incoordination
Mood changes
Zonisamide Focal‐onset Sedation Anorexia Level decreased by enzyme‐
Tonic‐clonic Dizziness Renal stones inducing drugsa
Confusion Hypohidrosis
Headache
Psychosis
Oxcarbazepine Focal‐onset Fatigue See carbamazepine Level decreased by enzyme‐
Tonic‐clonic Ataxia inducing drugsa
Dizziness May increase phenytoin
Diplopia
Vertigo
Headache
Lacosamide Focal‐onset Dizziness GI irritation Level decreased by enzyme‐
Ataxia Cardiac conduction (PR interval inducing drugsa
Diplopia prolongation)
Vertigo
Rufinamide Lennox‐ Sedation GI irritation Level decreased by enzyme‐
Gastaut Fatigue Leukopenia inducing drugsa
syndrome Dizziness Cardiac conduction (QT interval Level increased by valproic acid
Ataxia prolongation) May increase phenytoin
Headache
Diplopia
Cisplatin induced nephrotoxicity [ATN]= prevented by amifostine‐ ROS scavenger; chloride diuresis [iv NS]‐ cisplatin is non
reactive in high Cl state
Methanol= woods alcohol= rubbing alcohol; ethylene glycol= antifreeze
71
Housemaid’s knee= prepatellar bursitis
Myotonic dystrophy= myotonia means sustained contraction or abn slow relaxation like diffi in loosening hand grip or after
catching doorknob; second mc inherited muscle dystrophy after duchene; AD trinucleotide CTG expansion of gene on chr 19
coding for myotonia protein kinase, anticipation, cataract, frontal balding, testicular atrophy,heart dz,dementia; slow
fibre[type 1] atrophy is mc on biopsy
Facioscapulohumoral dystrophy= chr 4
Infantile hypotonia= chr 5
Autoimmune hepatitis= anti smooth muscle antibodies
Substantia nigra is located in midbrain
Damage to inf parietal lobule in left lobe/dominant lobe= gerstman synd= rt/left confusion, dysgraphia, dyslexia,
dyscalculia; damage to inf parietal lobule on rt lobe= apraxia, left hemineglect
Vitelline duct cyst= enterocyst
Minimal change dz= immune dysregulation n overproduction of IL‐13 directly damage podocytes
Thin GBM= thin basement mem dz‐microscopic hematuria, alport synd
Only MCD presents c selective proteinuria not all causes of nephrotic synd
72
73
74
Ant choroidal artery= last br of ICA before it trifurcates‐ supply post limb, genu of int capsule [ant limb by ACA], optic tract, lat
geniculate body, choroid plexus, uncus, hippocampus, amygdale
Artery of percheron branches off PCA n supply b/l thalami n dorsal midbrain [ rare variant ]
In DKA,acidosis in not due to loss of hco3 in urine rather ↑ketones in body so body will try to conserve Hco3 by ↑abs of it in
kidney n ↑excre on of H+ in urine
Some pts of sev DKA may develop pul edema, altered mentation n respi failure so they cant resp compensate met acidosis
Fever, malaise, joint pain, urticaria like rash= always suspect systemic hypersensitivity type3 = serum sickness
Hep B[serum hepatitis] infection prodrome + c serum sickness like symptoms
Steatosis= fatty change in liver—macrovesicular steatosis=alcoholic; microvesicular= reye’s synd; cholestasis= bile retension
Younger than 30 yr pt presents c unexplained chronic hepatitis= wilson’s dz
Renal plasma flow= RBF * (1‐Hct) ; RBF= RPF/1‐Hct
SCID=T+B= fq bacterial, viral, fungal inf from infancy, failure to thrive, persistent diarrhea, thymic hypoplasia, hypo Ig, sev
lymphopenia, absence of other system disorders
Di George synd= complete DGS is typical microdeletion at 22q11 is a type of Severe CID but its rare; most of pts have mild to
moderate immune defi, also hypoparathyroidism, facial, cardiac def. And although sec humoral defi isthere it’s not
mandatory=T>B; additional features= cong cardiac defects, eso atresia, bifid uvula, short philtrum,hypertelorism, low set ears,
antimongoloid slants, mandibilar hypoplasia
Common variable immunodefi= B> T=hypogamaglobulinemia sec to fail to differentiate B cells; CMI is not severe impaired
Wiskott Aldrich synd=T+B partial immunedefi, thrombocytopenia, eczema, only igm ↓, ↑ige
False aneurysm= extra vascular/heart hematoma contained in connective tissue sac [breach in all 3 vessel layers]
GCA= granulomatus infla in media n fragmentation of int elastic lamina
Myxomatus degeneration in 2 things= MVP n Marfan synd
In Marfan synd= cystic medial deg= myxomatus deg of aorta= fragmentation of elastic fibres n separation of elastic n
fibromuscular components of media by a clest like space filled of extracellular amorphous sub= myxoid sub aortic aneurism
or dissection; marfan has no asso c berry’s aneurysm
Sweat pea contains b‐aminopropionitrile angiolatyrism= myxomatus deg of large arteries similar to marfan due to inh of
lysyl oxidase enz
Recovery phase of ATN→ polyurea, ↓K, Mg, Ca,PO4; oliguric phase of ATN= ↑K, Mg; ↓ Na, ca, urine osmolarity low <350,
urine Na>30, fena>1 ;hypercalcemia never occur in ATN rather hypo ca occur due to deposition of calcium phosphate n ↓vit D
Normal amount of urine= 0.5 to 2 L/day; polyuria >3 L, oliguria <400 ml, anuria <100 ml
Number of pack‐years = (packs smoked per day) × (years as a smoker) or Number of pack‐years = (number of cigarettes smoked
per day × number of years smoked)/20 (1 pack has 20 cigarettes).For example: a patient who has smoked 15 cigarettes a day
for 40 years has a (15/20) x 40 = 30 pack‐year smoking history. A pack‐year is smoking 20 cigarettes a day for one year. If
someone has smoked 10 cigarettes a day for 6 years they would have a 3 pack‐year history. Someone who has smoked 40
cigarettes daily for 20 years has a 40 pack‐year history. While the risk of lung cancer is increased with even a 10 pack‐year
smoking history, those with 30 pack‐year histories or more are considered to have the greatest risk for the development of lung
cancer
Drugs causing Erectile Dysfunction= SSRI, b blockers, clonidine, methyldopa
Old house= lead toxicity
75
Porphyria= PCT= skin; EPP= skin; AIP= cns, abdo; VP/HCP= cns/skin/both
From glomeruli to DCT = metanephric blastema; from collecting ducts/tubules to ureter=collecting sys of kidney uretric bud
Likelyhood ratio +[LR +]= sensitivity/1‐ specificity= sensitivity/ False positives; if LR+ >10 =highly indicates likelyhood of
positivity of dz in subject;LR‐=1‐sensitivity/specificity
Heat shock proteins assist in spontaneous folding of proteins
76
Chemotaxis= LTB4, C5a n 5‐HETE; anaphylatoxins= c3a, c4a,c5a; opsonins= igg, c3b; 12‐LOX→LXA4 n LXB4→vasodila on,‐
neutrophil,+macrophage
Phenytoin= generalized lymphadenopathy= pseudolymphoma
Primary adrenal insufficiency affects all 3 layers of adrenal cortex= so MGA defi; sec/tertiary adrenal insufficiency don’t affect
M but only GA
Optic tract project to : mainly Lateral geniculate nucleus, pretectal nucleus [light reflex], suprachiasmatic nucleus[circadian
rhythm], superior colliculus [reflex gaze]
77
Primary visual cortex= striate cortex= cuneus / lingual gyrus
To prevent injury to neurovascular bundle, needle is inserted along upper border of rib
th
Lower border of pleura= Right= 7 rib midclavicular line, UB 10 rib‐midaxillary, 12 rib‐ paravertebral; left= 7, LB 10, 12; sites of
thoracocentesis= above 7 , 9 , 11 ribs= 6, 8, 10 ICS; 8th ICS below 8th rib n so on
Oxaloacetate[ a‐ketoacid] + glutamate[aa c amino group]‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐[transaminase/B6]‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐aspartate[aa] + a‐
ketoglutarate[ a‐ketoacid]
IFN a= hep B, C; kaposis sarcoma, condyloma accuminata, HCL
Loop n thiazide → volume deple on→ ↓ glomerular filtra on pressure →RAA ac va on →aldosterone → hypokalemia n
met alkalosis [contraction alkalosis]
Loop diuretic disrupts corticomedullary gradient →kidney loses its ability to concentrate urine maximally → substancial loss of
Na n free water loss ; in contrast thiazide dont affect corticomedullary gradient → kidney can abs free water in response to
ADH → only significant loss of Na but no free water loss → hyponatremia
Phenoxybenzamine=irreversible, competitive, non selective a rec antagonist → effect is similar to non competitive antagonist →
↓efficacy of NE induced vasoconstric on as even high doses of NE can not displace it from rec binding site= used in
pheochromocytoma; phentolamine= reversible, competitive, a blocker → pheochromo, maoi, cocaine induced HTN crisis
SSRI= inc latency to ejaculation →rx of premature ejaculation
NO is d neurotransmitter in brain‐ hippocampus, cortex, cerebellum, hypothalamus, olfactory sys =participate in formation of
new memories, unique in that it freely crosses cell mem n don’t need to interect at synapses
Leucocytoclastic vasculitis= microscopic polyangitis, microscopic polyarteritis, hypersensitivity vasculitis
U.Colitis asso colon cancer= younger age, multifocal, arises from flat, non polypoidal dysplasia, early p53 mutation late
APC mutation, proximal colon [crohn’s dz n concurrent PSC] > distal colon, mucinus or signet ring morphology, high grade
n anaplastic
PBC= autoimmune granulomatus destruction of interlobular bile ducts [“florid duct lesion”] n portal infiltrate
Schilling test phase 1= dietary or absorptive defect; phase 2= pernicious anemia[ intrinsic fac defect] or malabsorption synd [
ileal dz, bacterial overgrowth, pancreatic insufficiency]
CFTR cl ion pump is ATP gated
Conservative muatation is a specific type of missense mutation where a aa is replaced by biochemically similar aa preserve length n
may or may not change function, folding, sec structure, stability of protein.eg leucine→ isoleusine
SIADH= euvolemic hyponatremia= ADH→ water retension →dilu onal hyponatremia →transient, subclinical ECF vol expansion
→ ↓raas ↑ANP/BNP → natriuresis → so ECF vol maintained= ↓Na, ↓ plasma osmolarity ↑urine osmolarity
Osmolality is the number of osmoles of solute in a kilogram of solvent, while osmolarity is the number of osmoles of solute in a
litre of solution. An osmole is one mole of any non‐dissociable substance. It will contain 6.02 x 1023 particles.
Lactase defi → normal intes nal mucosa
Uremia asso bleeding is due to qualitative platelet defect → ↑ BT
Warfarin = ↑ PT,↑aptt (delayed)
Unaffected child of heterozygous recessive parents have 2/3 chance of being carrier
A2 globulins= haptoglobin, ceruloplasmin, a2 macroglobulin
Gene transfer method= transformation →eg. Str.pneumonia, h. Influenza, neisseria ; transduction= generalized transduction=
random bact gene transfer in lytic infection;specialized transduction= special bact gene transfer in lysogenic inf
xray staging of sarcoidosis
Loop diuretics in edema= moa= conventional moa + ↑local PG release → afferent vasodilata on → ↑RBF→↑ GFR→ inc drug
delivery to kidney= diuresis; NSAIDS dec PG synthesis → oppose ac on of loops→ aggrava ng edema
Malabsorption synd= pt c/o diarrhea, steatorrhea= foul smelling, frothy, bulky, floating n greest stool ; weight loss + s/s of
nutrient defi [ iron,folate,B12= anemia; vit A= nyctalopia, hyperkeratosis, vit D/ Ca2+= bone pain, muscle weakness, tetany, vit
K= easy brusing,patechea; protein= muscle loss, edema]; 3 main causes to rule out= pancreatic insuffi→ CF, chronic
pancreatitis; intestinal mucosal dz= ceiliac dz, whipple, tropical, crhon’s , ileac resection; bacterial overgrowth= blind loop
synd,small bowel synd, small bowel diverticulosis, Diabetic neuropathy→ gastroparesis;
Diagnosis= stool fat test= sudan III stain → > 7g/day→ confirmed
78
Main mechanism of glucose induced inhibition of lac operone = ↓activity of adenyl cyclase →↓ camp
Musculocutaneus nerve= roote value= C567= motor supply= BBC= biceps, brachialis, coracobracjialis; sensory= lat cutaneus
nerve of forearm [medial cut nerve of FA= br of ulner nerve]
To prevent vertical transmission of HIV= start ZDV from 14 week till delivery, IV ZDV at labour to mother n PO ZDV to baby till
6weeks postpartum
GABAA rec= brain= CI‐ channel; GABAB rec= brain= G protein= K efflux,↓ca influx, inh adenylate cyclase; gabac rec =retina=cl
channel → all 3 neuronal hyperpolariza on→ inhibi on
Pul HTN is a common cx of CREST synd,scleroderma
Muscarinic rec M1= brain= memory formation/cognition→ deple on of ach in AD →dec s mula on of M1→ confusion,
anterograde amnesia; M2= heart= ↓ HR, ↓atrial contrac on; M3= smooth muscles n glands
Inh of peri conversion of T4→T3= PTU, B blocker, cor costeroid, ipodate, amiodarone
Thyroid hormones mediated inc sensitivity of catecholemines= due to generalized upregulation of B rec→ sympathe c
symptoms
Anthracyclines like doxo/daunorubicin intercalates in DNA= interfere c base pairing n H2 bonding bw base pairs→ spli ng of
dsdna
Methylphenidate= ADHD, narcolepsy
Transferin= iron transporter in plasma; once inside cell iron binds to apoferritin= ferritin miscelles; hemosiderin= aggregates of
ferritin miscelles in cell form a golden yellow brown pigment
Fever, nausea, anorexia, malaise,myalgia, arthralgia =think of LIVER damge
Halothane liver damge= hypersensitivity reaction to drug—autoimmune attack against hepatocyes= eosinophilia
Acute liver damage= ↑ transaminase n ↑ PT; chronic liver damage= ↓albumin [half life 20 days]
Mc cause of death in CF= cardiorespiratory [ pneumonia, bronchiectasis, bronchitis obs pul dz, cor p]
PSGN= low C3 [ alternate pathway activation ], cryogobulins, ↑ASO, an dnase ab, anti cationic proteinase 3, C4 normal/slightly
low
Oligodendroglyoma= 40‐50 yr, frontal lobe, well circumscribed gray color, calcification +‐, no necrosis/hemorrhage
TSH= ↑ Iodine uptake [iodine trapping], thyroglobulin synthesis, secretion of thyroid hormones; thyroid peroxidase = iodide
oxidation, iodination of tyrosine residues, coupling
In intrinsic apoptosis pathway‐ apoptosis signals [phosphtidylserine/thrombospondin] binds to plasma mem
CASPASES= cysteine containing proteolytic enz cleaving aspartate residues;initiation caspase in intrinsic/mitochondrial
pathway= 9;in death rec pathway= 8 n 10; execution caspases= 3 n 6 in both
Blood alcohol content (BAC) is usually expressed as a percentage of alcohol (generally in the sense of ethanol) in the blood. For
instance, a BAC of 0.10 means that 0.10% (one tenth of one percent or one permille) of a person's blood, by volume, is alcohol.
Eg. If BAC 0.250%= 250 mg/dl= 0.25g/dl
Anterior nares is d mc site of colonization of MRSA n other staph aureus in asymptomatic carriers
Daily a/vala/fam cyclovir are best to prevent recurrences after genital herpes infection
B oxidation
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MCAD deficiency= hypoglycaemic hypoketonemia after prolong fasting or minor illness like gastroenteritis which stress
metabolism, accumulation of organic dicarboxylic acids,AR, northen European desent, secondary carnitine defi due to
accumulated acyl coa is transesterified to produce acyl carnitine‐ no fatty acid transport to mitochondria‐ inc tissue
dependence on glucose metabolism, rx= fq high carbohydrate diet, L‐carnitine
Skeletal muscle Carnitine defi= hypoketonemia,inc TG in muscle, exercise intolerance, myoglobinemia
B2 receptor=glucagone→ ↑glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis in liver=↑glucose; at pancreatic b cells‐‐↑insulin secretion,
↑lipolysis in adepose tissue [also by B3 rec] ; so B blocker like propranolol→ ↓ glucose=aggravates hypoglycaemia in
diabetics along with masking of hypoglycaemic adrenaergic symptoms; long term use of propranolol inc risk of diabetic
by ↓ insulin= diabetogenic=hyperglycemia
B2 + → insulin + ; B2 ‐ → insulin ‐ ; a2+ → insulin ‐; a2‐ → insulin +; smell/sight of food→parasympathe c
nichotinic/muscarinic activation →↑insulin ; nichotinic anticholinergics→ ↓insulin; CCK‐↑insulin
Dubin‐johnson synd= black liver due to deposition of adrenaline metabolites in liver lysosomes; confirmation test= ↑↑urine
coproporphyrin 1; no rx is required
N2O can deplete B12= megaloblastic anemia
Lhermitt sign=barber chair phenomenan= electric shock like sensation on flexing neck→ classical in MS;Uhthoff’s sign= heat
sensitivity= aggravation of MS symptoms after hot shower bath
To decide side of lesion in Internuclear ophthalmoplegia =remember= for right lateral horizontal conjugate movement → right
6 nerve nucleus, Left MLF, left frontal eye field n left 3 NN participate; means lesion to FEF→ opposite hori cong movement
defect; lesion to MLF= ipsilate adduction defect; but conversion[ accommodation] is preserved; pathway= FEF→contra/l
PPRF in pons→60% fibres→ Ipsi/l 6NN; 40% fibres→[contra/l MLF→3NN]
Superior oblique palsy→ contra 4 CN lesion [due to decussa on]
Hemiballismus= contra subthalamic nucleus lesion
Mc presentation of meckel’s diverticulum= painless malena [bleeding] > pain [diverticulitis=simulating acute appendicitis] >
obstruction
Ectopy=heterotopy
Amylin= islet amyloid polypeptide [IAPP] in NIDDM pancrease →b cells apoptosis→↓ insulin secre on
Twin studies= concordance rate of type2 80% > type 1 50%
HLA A B C= MHC/HLA‐ 1; HLA D[DP DQ DR]= HLA/MHC II
Bones of pharyngeal arches are derived from neural crest cells, muscles from mesoderm
Bones of 1st pharyngeal arch= maxilla, mandible, zygoma, vomer, palatine, maleus, incus
3 major causes of AS= senile calcific AS in tricuspid aortic valve[mc in US] > calcification in congenitally bicuspid valve > RHD [mc
in world]
Auscultation= apex= S3, S4, MS,MR ; aortic area= AS; pulmonic area= PS,PR, ASD, PDA; tricuspid area[ lower left sterna
border]= TS, TR, ASD,VSD, TOF – similar to AS; erb’s point[ left sternal border]= AR, acute pericarditis
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Cystic renal dysplasia= multiple renal cysts c absent pelvocalyceal sys; ass c uretral or uretropelvic atresia→ totally non
functional kidney from birth
Protons dissociate when solution ph > pka value n if solution ph < pka value protons are added.
Solution ph(acidic →add protons→posi ve charged)‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐pka(net charge=0)‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐solution ph (basic→minus
proton→nega ve charged); +++++++++positive charge____________pka__________________‐‐‐‐‐negative charge
In ph‐pk problems u need 3 things solution ph, pka of drug/molecule & nature of that mol‐acid/basic; pka indicates approx
acidic/basic nature of molecule, if acidic drug is put in basic ph[ph> pka]→ ionized >non ionized, but if acidic drug is put in acidic
ph[ph<pka]→ nonionized > ionized
Igm antihbc is d most specific marker for diagnosis of acute hepatitis B infection; hbsag > 6 months= chronic hep B; hbeag >3
months= inc likelyhood of chronic Hep B
Acute chest synd in SCD is precipitated by pul infections n localized to pul vasculature
Galactose‐‐‐‐‐‐‐[galactose oxidase]‐‐‐‐‐‐galactonic acid‐metabolized in HMP shunt; same way glucuronic acid from glucose
Digoxin characteristic se= change in color perception
Although OCP n metronidazole are metabolized by P450 enz,they are neither inducer nor inhibitor
P450 inducers= barbiturates(U), phenytoin(U), carbamazepine, rifampin(U), gresiofulvin, chronic alcoholism,
corticosteroids, Nevirapine,Efevirenz,st john’s wort;Pioglitazone;U=universal
P450 inhibitors= valproate, cimetidine,omeprazole, ketoconazole, ciplox, erythromycin, INH, acute alcohol, grape fruit
juice,verapamil,diltiazem,SSRI, protease inh,delaverdine and others
M stage specific drugs= vinca,taxanes; S phase specific drugs= antimetabolites, topoisomerase I n II inh, hydroxyurea; G2 phase
specific= Bleomycin
Mc cause of palpitations= anxiety; mc chronic arrhythmia= AF
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Heart failure cells→ chronic LVF=prior episodes of pul congestion,edema
Drugs for refractive partial seizures= lamotrigine, topiramate, gabapentine, vigabatrin, tiagabine‐inh GABA uptake
2/3 of gastrinomas are malignant; diarrhea seen in gastrinoma is due to inactivation of pancreatic and intestinal enz→ defec ve
digestion
Creeping fat sign= crohn’s dz→ mesenteric fat extends/slides along serosa of affected segment
Pemphigus vulgaris= antigen desmoglein 3 n 1; nicolsky’s sign→ new bulla; asboe Hansen sign= indirect nickolsky’s sign=
lateral spread of bulla by applying pressure on top of it
Androgens inc RBC production which accounts for higher Hct of men than women; so anabolic steroids=androgens ↑ RBC
mass→↑Hct
Curling ulcer= burns/sev trauma→prox duodenum; cushing ulcer= ↑ICT→↑vagal
stimulation→↑acid→esophagus,stomach,duodenum→ inc risk of perforation
Eastern europe→ iodine defi→ hypothyroidism
By law newborns are screened for cong hypothyroidism, PKU, galactosemia
Osmotic laxatives= polyethelene glycol, Mg compounds
Causes of rectal prolapsed= pregnancy, constipation, sev diarrhea, CF in children
GCA is d mc form of systemic vasculitis in adults
Buerger’s dz= hypersensitivity to intradermal injection of tobacco extracts
Central retinal artery occlusion= pale retina + cherry red macula (as macula has separate blood supply from choroid artery)
Amaurosis fugax= acute transient‐seconds monocular vision loss due to small embolus in ophthalmic artery
Topoisomerase I makes single stranded DNA nick n relieve negative supercoil, while topo II transiently breaks both strands of
DNA relives both positive n negative supercoils.
Etoposide n podophyllin inh topo II’s ability to reseal transient breaks thus causing chr breakage→ cell death
Use of etoposide= testicular ca, small cell ca of lung; podophyllin= topically in genital warts
Irinotecan n topotecan inh topo I [I can ; II sides]
Mere presence of gall stones on sonography does not indicate cholycystitis as many asymptomatic pt’s do have gall stones;
rather GB distension, GB wall thickening, pericholecystic fluid n positive sonographic murphy’s sign→ s/o acute cholycys s;
failure to visualise GB on HIDA scan → confirmatory sign of acute cholycystitic; non obs Gall stones in GB is only s/o it
NADPH uses:
1. Synthesis of fatty acids,
2. Synthesis of cholesterol [ at step=HMG coa reductase],
3. Fixation of ammonia by glutamate dehydrogenase,
4. Oxidative metabolism by cytochrome P450 enzymes:
o Generation of catecholamine mediators (dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine),
o Drug metabolism,
5. Generation of nitric oxide [NOS] and reactive oxygen species [NADPH oxidase] by phagocytes,
6. Scavenging of reactive oxygen species [glutathione peroxidise] that form as byproducts of oxygen transport and of the
respiratory chain.
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Ribulose 5 P= uses= metabolize in glycolytic pathway, nucleotide synthesis, aeromatic aa synthesis
MPO= blue‐green heme based pigmented enz in azurophilic granules of neutrophils→ gives green color to sputum n pus
Stratum malpigi= basal+ spinus layer; merkle cells, melanocyes→ basal layer; langerhans cells→ spinus layer; stratum lucidum→
only in palms n soles→thickness
Chlamydia trachomatis= A,B,C →trachoma; D‐K→ NGU n inclusion conjunc vi s; L123→ LGV
LGV= lympho→granuloma venerum= small painless genital ulcer is neglected by pt f/b weeks later painful, swollen
lymphadenopathy,”sign of grove‐lymph node enlargement groved by ing lig”→ ma ed, coerced lymph node‐ ulcerate, rupture,
discharging sinuses “bubos”;histologically‐ both granulomatus n neutrophilic inflammation c chlamydial intracytoplasmic
inclusion bodies
Donovanosis= granuloma‐inguinale= Klebsiella inguinale= calymattobacterium granulomatis= painless beefy red velvety
granulomatus lesion on genitals c no lymphadenopathy, pseudobubo in some cases, cx= pseudoelephantiasis; donovanan
bodies‐intracytoplasmic cysts
Soft chancroid= H.ducreyi= painful multiple/single soft ulcers on genitals c painful lymphadenopathy
Circulating 25 hydroxy vitd level accurately reflect status of dietary n skin production of vit d n it can be used to assess vit d
defi
Slow rate of atherosclerosis facilitates development of collateral vessels to supply blood distal to point of occlusion
High degree of inflammation in atheroma→more ac vated macrophages→release more MMP→degrade collagen from fibrous
cap→ destabilize plaque→ inc risk of thrombosis = statins [HMG coa reductase inh] dec this inflammation in acute coronary
synd n stabilize plaque
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T4→T3 (ac ve) or rt3 (inactive) in peripheral tissues by 5‐deiodinase; T3 is main regulator of TRH/TSH [either systemic T3 or
intracellularly converted T3 from T4]; T3 activity= 4× T4; half life of T4= 7days, T3= 1day, rt3<1 day; metabolized by liver
glucuronidation
Anchylostoma,schistosoma mansoni → IDA; diphyllobothrium lattum→ vitb12 defi
Petechea (<0.5cm) > purpura (0.5‐1 cm) > ecchymosis (>1cm) ;all of 3 dont blanch c pressure; blanching occur when rbcs are still
in vasculature [not in skin/subcu] like telengectasia
Difference bw gastric ulcer n erosions= penetration thru muscularis mucosa
Gastric glands are located in lamina propria of gastric mucosa
Anemia→↓Hb→↓O2 carrying capacity →↑lac c acids→right shi of O2 disso curve
Celiac dz= duodenum n prox jejunum
Hereditary hemochromatosis= HLA A3
Multiple sclerosis, GPS, narcolepsy,allergic rhinitis,hay fever= HLA DR2
Celiac dz, dermatitis herpetiformis, sjogren’s synd= HLA DR3
Ceiliac dz= HLA DQ2> DQ8
Hashimoto’s thyroiditis,pernicious anemia= DR5
Rheumatoid arthritis,PV= HLA DR4
Behcet synd= HLA B5
Cong adrenal hyperplasia= HLA B47
SLE= HLA DR2, DR3
Type 1 Dm= HLA DR3,DR4
Grave’s dz, myasthenia gravis, tuberculoid leprosy= HLA B8, DR3
VKH synd= HLA DW15,DR4
Psoriatic arthropathy, AS, IBD, Reactive arthritis,JRA= HLA B27
Steroid responsive NS= DR7
Clear cell ca of kidney= cells are filled c glycogen n lipids
Dark color urine= dark yellow color= jaundice
HAV [endemic in india] is d mc cause of acute hepatitis in young adults; councilman bodies=acidophilic‐ eosinophilic apoptotic
hepatocytes; mononuclear infiltrate; frank hepatocyte necrosis/coagulative necrosis
Foscarnet n NNRTI don’t require intracellular activation
Calcineurine is protein phosphatase→dephosphorylates NFAT [nuclear factor of activated T cells]→ activated NFAT goes to
nucleus→ binds IL2 gene promoter region→ ↑IL2 transcrip on→↑IL2
In pts of AF, when amiodarone is given along c warf reduce warf dose [means amiodarone is inhibitor of P450]
Metro n bactrim inh metabolism of warf
Homeobox genes →codes for DNA binding transcrip on fact→altera on of differ gene expression involved in morphogenesis
Normal A‐a gradient= 10‐15 mm of Hg
Medication induced muscle atrophy= chronic corticosteroids, chloroquine
1st generation OCP c high estrogen content→induce insulin resistance→ glucose intolerance
Hypertg is absolute contraindication for OCP; OCP are safe c LDL<160 mg/dl
Risk factors for pancreatic malignancy= smoking, long h/o DM , chronic pancreatitis, hereditary pancreatitis, MEN, HNPCC, FAP
Aura = perceptual disturbances in d form of straight line, confusing thoughts, unpleasant smell etc. Before migraine headaches,
before or after seizures
Occipital morning headaches→ non malignant HTN
Vit a defi can cause squamus metaplasia of pancreatic exocrine ducts
Dysplasia= reversible; low grade dysplasia= does not involve entire thickness of epithelium; high grade dysplasia= CIS
Mc cause of sepsis in SCD= str. Pneumonia > H.influenza
Mc cause of cervical ca= HPV ; others are= HIV, smoking, low SES, sexual promiscuity
Portal vein thrombosis→ ascites uncommon due to absence of sinusoidal HTN
In Heredity spherocytosis mc defect is spectrin; ↑MCHC indicates mem loss n RBC dehydration; osmotic fragility test→
confirmatory
Howell jolly bodies[DNA] n peppenheimer bodies[iron]= splenectomy n some haemolytic anemia
MCHC= Hb/MCV ; in spherocyosis as MCV ↓→MCHC↑;MCV= PCV/RBC count
Pt c/o hyperglycemia=DM + necrolytic migratory erythematus rash especially at groins,anemia,stomatitis, cheilosis = suspect
glucagonoma
VIP→ vasodila on→ hypotension
Popeye’s deformity= biceps brachi tendon rupture at either end → visible/palpable mass in mid arm
Ulnar collateral lig injury is more common in throwers [baseball pitchers] due to excessive valgus stress at elbow; rx= tommy
john reconstruction sx
Hyperadrenergic symptoms= d/d= pheo, thyroid storm, coccain, Serotonin syndrome, panic attacks[isolated Systolic HTN], b
blockers/clonidine widrawal; carcinoid synd= hypotension[not hyper] n diarrhea
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Mid diastolic rumble at apex c positional dyspnea= atrial myxoma; histologically scattered cells in mucopolysachharide stroma c
abn blood vessels, haemorrhages,friability due to inc angiogenesis due to ↑VEGF; fever n weight loss due to IL‐6; differ from
atrial thrombus by fever,wt loss, positional dyspnea, pedunculated mass on echo, regular HR [vs AF c atrial thrombus]
HBV DNA integrates into host cell DNA causing chronic liver injury n regenerative hyperplasia; also HBV encodes hbx protein
→p53 muta on n other growth promoting genes activation→ HCC
Silent GERD= nocturnal cough, dysphagia,sore throat in absence of heartburn n regurgitation
Pill induced esophagitis= bisphosphonates, tetracyclines, KCL
Infectius esophagitis in HIV= candida > HSV1/CMV
Ephelides= freckles
Button hole sign= neurofibroma
Cocaine/amphetamine widrawal= hypersomnia,↑appe te,intense psychomotor retarda on, severe depression=crash
Nicotine widrawal= ↑appe te/wt gain, dysphoria, irrita on,anxiety
Heroin wid= NVD,abd cramps, muscle aches,arthralgias, dilated pupils, piloerection, sweating,yawning,
lacrimation,hyperactive bowel sounds
Alcohol,BZD n barbiturates wid→ can produce seizures→poten ally life threatening
BZD wid= perceptual disturbances= depersonalization,dysphoria, psychosis
Conversion disorder= la bele indifference= lack of proper attention to serious neurological symptom
Hypochondriasis→ in people c anxiety disorders
Somatization dis= onset <30 yrs; 4 pain+ 2GI, 1 sexual, 1 pseudoneurological
PCP abuse→mod dose→dissocia on;higher dose→violent behaviour,loss of coordiana on,nystagmus n ataxia, acute brain
synd=disorientation,poor judgement, memory loss; trauma leads to most of deaths
Cocaine→ myocardial infarc on,stroke
Respiratory depression→ opioid, BZD, barbi,alcohol
Seizures and stroke→ s mulant drugs= cocaine, amphetamine; cocaine→ ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke both; “bath salts”=
cocaine n amphetamine
Stimulant drugs= cocaine,methamphetamine
Hallucinogen= PCP,LSD
Pyschoactive drugs= marijuana
Methamphetamine= psychosis, tooth decay,choriform movements, violent behaviour, intoxication lasts for 20 hrs
LSD= visual hallucination/illusion, alert n oriented,depersonalization
Marijuana= euphoria c short term memory loss,perception distortion, red eyes,dry mouth, ↑appe te, slowed
reflexes,dizziness n impaired coordination
23 valnet pneumococcal capsular polysachharide vaccine=PPV→ adults >65 yrs; 7 valent conjugated vaccine=PCV children <2yrs
Cipro/levo flox→ an pseudomonas ac vity
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Bactrim→ doc for p.jiroveci, toxoplasma, nocardia, stenotrophomonas maltophilia
Porto caval anastomosis= esophageal varices= left gastric↔esophageal vein; haemorrhoids= superior rectal↔ middle n inf
rectal; caput medusa= paraumbilical ↔ superficial n inferior epigastric vein
Venus blood has less Chloride n more bicarb; venus RBC has more cl‐
Hb carrys 15% co2 as carbamate other by Hco3
Low of mass conservation: Qin= volume in*density in/time= Qout= vol out*density out/time; total vol= flow velocity*cross
section area = constant
In renal transplant= donar renal artery ↔ reci ext iliac artery
In IDDM >90% destruction of b cells require for symptoms; autoimmune insulitis is mc cause of IDDM
Defective closure of KATP channels of b cells→ NIDDM
Page turning, jumping, standing on 1 foot at 2; toilet,dressing,running at 4; tricycle, stair climbing at 3
Ribavirin =nucleoside analogue , inh synthesis of guanyl nucleotides
Staph aureus, s. Bovis endocarditis= no pre existing valvular dz
SSRI started at low doses in gen anxiety disorder to avoid initial worsening of anxiety
Neuroblastoma= N‐myc on chr 2, s‐100, neuropil
Pilocytic astrocytoma= Rosenthal fibres; medulloblastoma= homre wright rosette, ependymoma= pseudorosettes c GFAP+
Aspergillus= predilection for blood vessels,spreads hematogenusly, tissue infarcts in skin, PNS, kidney, brain, endocardium
Invasive candida→ forms true hyphae
Mc cause of sudden cardiac death in < 30 yrs is VF due to HCM
Hampton hump westermark sign= PE
Non bacterial thrombotic endocarditis[NBTE]= in hypercoagulable state;marantic endocarditis in malignancy→ linked to pro
coagulant effect of circulating mucin from mucinus adenoca of pancreas n adenoca of lung
Trosseu’s sign of malignancy= migratory throbophlebitis in cancer
Trosseu’s sign of tetany= carpospasm after BP cuff pressure elevation
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Presence of fluid in lung interstitium in LVH→ ↓lung compliance
↓lung compliance= pul fibrosis, pul edema, dec surfactant
MDR1gene→P gp=ATP dependent transcellulat efflux protein for hydrophobic sub →+ in intes nal cells, renal tubules, CNS
endothelial cells in BBB n human cancer cells resistant to anticancer drugs like anthracyclines; inh influx too
S3→ in intrinsic ↓in compliance of heart eg. RCM; pericardial knock= in extrinsically↓compliance eg.constrictive pericarditis
Necrotizing pneumonia= staph aureus, ecoli, klebsilla, str pneumonia type3
Paraneoplastic autoimmune disorders seen in ca of lung, breast, ovary,uterus,lymphoma; cross reacting antibodies= anti Yo
[ovary, uterus];anti P/Q [lung], anti Hu[lung]; lung cancer c cerebellar degeneration
BNP→ useful in dia of CHF
Stratified squamus epithelium= oropharynx, laryngopharynx, ant epiglottis, post half of epiglottis, true vocal cords
Round lig of uterus contains artery of Sampson‐ rarely major source of bleeding
Ovarian blood vessels→ sus lig of ovary
Because virus require eukaryotic ribosomes for protein synthesis, they must convert their polycistronic genome to
monocystronic mrna. Some ss+RNA like picornaviride form single long polypeptide n then cleaves into viral proteins
Ss+ RNA virus genome acts as mrna directly so genome itself is infective; while others ss‐RNA →RNA dep mrna polymerase
Pharyngoconjuntival fever= adenovirus outbreak
Arenavirus→ LCMV→ acute asep c meningoencephali s virus or mild flue in pts exposed to infected hamsters/mice
Any haemolytic anemia may predispose to macrocytosis due to relative folate defi due to inc erythrocyte turn over;
reticulocytosis→ mild ↑MCV
↑MCV= folate defi, B12 defi, chronic alcoholism, hypothyroidism, myelodysplasia
Liver abcess: common causes:
Biliary tract infection (30%‐60%): secondary to biliary obstructive and inflammatory conditions
(eg,cholecystitis, choledocholithiasis, and cholangitis, especially in patients with biliary tract malignancies with biliary stents)
Infection from gastrointestinal or pelvic organs drained via the portal circulation (24%): examples include appendicitis,
diverticulitis, and perforated bowel
Unknown (20%)
Hematogenous spread secondary to bacteremia (15%): infective endocarditis, pyelonephritis, untreated oral infections, any
cause of immunocompromise in children (eg, leukemia)
Pathogens causing infection:
Most common bacterial causes: Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Proteus, Enterococcus,Staphylococcus aureus,
and Streptococcus faecalis. Streptococcus milleri and anaerobes such asbacteroides spp. Are increasingly common
Consider Entamoeba histolytica if the patient has recently traveled to the tropics or is from an endemic area or HIV‐positive
Candida albicans is the likely pathogen in patients with compromised immune systems
Amebic liver abscess is significantly more common in men than women
Cardiac dilatation= eccentric hypertrophy= in series addition of sarcomeres; concentric hypertrophy= in parallel addition of
sarcomeres
↓aor c elas city= s ffness↑a erload
Acute AR= ↑HR to maintain CO; in chronic AR= HR returns to normal, ↑EDV=preload and eccentric hypertrophy maintains CO
DNA binding proteins= transcription factors like MYC proteins, steroid, thyroid proteins, vit D n Vit A rec, dna transcription n
replication proteins
On‐off phenomenan in advanced PD is unpredictable n dose independent; wearing off phenomenan= predictable and dose
dependant
Lipid digestion= duodenum; abs= jejunum
Bile and B12 abs=ileum
Minors in non emergency rx require parental consent except pregnancy, STI, birth control, alcohol/drug addiction
Emancipated minors= military n married
HLA DR1/DR1/dqw5 in CD and HLA DR2 in UC; gene= NOD2 [nucleotide binding oligomerization domain]in both; NOD2 is + in
leucocytes n epithelial cells; nod2 protein is intracellular rec for microbes→triggers nfkb=transcription factor activates cytokine
production in immune response against microbe. In CD, NOD2 mutation→↑↑nfkb →↑ cytokine produc on→ inflammatory
microbes persists when immune response is blunted→ chronic inflamma on in GIT
All cranial nerves are PNS and surrounded by Schwann cells except optic nerve by oligodendrocytes
Schwannoma= biphasic pattern [antoni a n b areas= dense n loose areas] c s100+
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Vit b6 inc peri conversion of levodopa→dopamine as its a cofactor in peri dopa decarboxylase; so avoided c levodopa
J chain binds to igm and iga at their Fc binding site
Most common cause of ↑AFP is da ng error=underes ma on of gesta onal age→do Fetal USG to confirm→amniocentesis for
furthur workup
↓estriol→placental insufficiency
What is the triple or quad screening?
The triple screening measures the amounts of three substances in a pregnant woman's blood: alpha‐fetoprotein (AFP), human
chorionic gonadotropin (hcg), and estriol (ue3). When a test for the hormone inhibin A is added, it's called a quad screening.
These tests are also called the maternal serum triple or quad test, the expanded AFP test, the AFP plus test, or the multiple
marker screening test.
The amounts of these substances help your doctor find out the chance that your baby has certain birth defects, such as Down
syndrome, spina bifida, oranencephaly. These tests can't show for sure that your baby has a birth defect. You would need a
diagnostic test called amniocentesis to find out for sure if there is a problem.
The triple or quad screening is usually done at 15 to 20 weeks of pregnancy.
Each substance tested in a triple or quad screening gives you different information about possible problems. Together, these
results give the best information. These screening tests look for the amount of:
Alpha‐fetoprotein (AFP), which is made by the baby's liver.
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hcg), a hormone made by the placentawhen a woman becomes pregnant.
Estriol (ue3), a form of estrogen that increases during pregnancy. It is produced in large amounts by the placenta.
Hormone inhibin A , a protein produced by the baby and the placenta.
During pregnancy, increased levels of AFP may be due to a problem with the developing baby, including:
Absence of part of the brain and skull (anencephaly)
Defect in the baby's intestines or other nearby organs (such as duodenal atresia )
Death of the baby inside the womb (usually results in a miscarriage)
Spina bifida (spinal defect)
Tetralogy of Fallot (heart defect)
Turner syndrome (genetic defect)
High AFP can also mean that you’re carrying more than one baby.
Low levels of AFP and estriol and high levels of hcg and inhibin A may be due to a problem such as:
Down syndrome (trisomy 21)
Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18)
If you have an abnormal result, you will have another ultrasound to check the age of the developing baby steps.
Further tests and counseling may be recommend if the ultrasound shows a problem. However, some people choose not to have
any more tests done, for personal or religious reasons. Possible next steps include:
Amniocentesis,which checks the AFP level in the amniotic fluid surrounding the baby
Tests to detect or rule out certain birth defects (such as Down syndrome)
Genetic counseling
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Ultrasound to check the baby’s brain, spinal cord, kidneys, and heart
The test is done to find out if your baby might be at risk for certain birth defects, such as Down syndrome and birth
defects of the spinal column and brain (called neural tube defects).
All pregnant women should be offered this test. The quadruple screen test is normally done some time between the
15th and 22nd week of pregnancy.
Certain women are at greater risk for having a baby with these defects. These women include those over 35 years old
during pregnancy, those taking insulin to treat diabetes, and those with a family history of birth defects.
This test is a screening test. This means it does not diagnose birth defects. Instead, it is used to determine whether your
baby has a higher risk of these defects.
B12 hepatic reserve lasts for several yrs; vit A stores in stellet=ito cells of liver‐ lasts 6m;vit D stores in fat‐for months;1/2 folate
stores in liver‐lasts for 3‐4m;vit K stores in liver‐lasts for 1‐3weeks
Reactive arthritis= CAU+ enthesitis, oral ulcers,balanitis circinata, keratoderma blenorrhagicum, sacroiliatis in 20%;mc cause of
assymetrical inflammatory arthritis of lower extremity in young men
Median nerve=c6‐t1
Glycerol kinase=liver specific enz
Back pain of vertebral osteomyelitis ↑ c mo on; back pain not relieved by rest or posi on change= neoplas c
50% calcium kidney stones is due to idiopathic hypercalciuria c normal serum calcium
Oxalate source= chocolate,nuts,spinach; low dietary calcium→ hyperoxalaluria
With d execption of pravastatin, atorva/simva/lova statin‐ metabolized by P450 3A4; if pt is on 3a4 inhibitor→ pravasta n is
doc
Initiation caspases= 8 10; execution caspases=3 6
Chromaffin cells of adrenal medula= post ganglionic symapthetic neurones
Description Relative Positive/negative
This is called a positive
In a normal ear, air conduction (AC) is better than bone conduction (BC) AC > BC
Rinne
In conductive hearing loss, bone conduction is better than air AC < BC Negative Rinne
In sensorineural hearing loss, bone conduction and air conduction are both equally
AC > BC Positive Rinne
depreciated, maintaining the relative difference of bone and air conductions
If BC>AC (negative rinne)= 2 possibilties= conductive hearing loss (negative rinne) or severe SNHL (false negative rinne); if
weber lat to same side→CHL, if to opposite side→sev SNHL
Inc activity of NK cells n T cells is responsible for anti tumor effect of IL2 in RCC n melanoma
Carnitine is an aminoacid synthesizd from lysine, methionine ;vit c is needed
Acute AF may be seen in up to 10% of sev aortic stenosis, exacerbate hypotension as pts depend on atrial contraction to
maintain preload which will be decreses in this case
Classical galactosemia= feed c soy based infant formula
Chronic non healing ulcer→ bacteroids growth→ Piptaz
Pharynx→lympha c→meninges= Hib meningi s
Protein kinase A→camp pathway
PKC→IP3 pathway
PKG→cgmp pathway
PKB=Akt→mtor pathway
Neutropenic pts→ pseudomonas, aspergillus, disseminated candidiasis
Perinuclear pale zone in plasma cell→ ac ve golgi body
Ticlopidine→ neutropenia
Linezolid= inh ribosomal protein synthesis, se= thrombocytopenia, syrotonin synd, avoid in PKU
↓NAD/NADH→ in alcoholics ↓ gluconeogenesis n fa y acid oxida on
6‐Mercaptopurine→converted to ac ve metabolite by hgptrase n inactivated by xanthine oxidase so allopurinol ↑its
concentration
Thiolase joins 2 acetyl coa to form acetoacetyl coa which can be coverted to HMG coa by HMG coa synthase
Thiophorase [enz defi in liver] converts acetoacetate to acetoacetyl coa by taking coa of succinyl coa in ketones
degradartion or utilization
Somatostatinoma→DM
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ligamentum teres hepatitis= round lig of liver= deri of fetal
umbilical vein
Shingel= herpes zoster= painful rash of grouped vesicles unilaterally
Acute stress disorder=ASD becomes PTSD when symptoms durations persists for more than 4 weeks= 1 month
Adjustment disorder= symptom onset within 3 months‐rarely lasts beyond 6m, stresser is emotional vs life threatening of
PTSD/ASD, no flashbacks,nightmares or re experiencing
In calculating Relative risk for cohort study look at rows↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔ and in case control study look at
columns↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓
Cauda Equina Versus Conus Medullaris Syndrome:
Features Cauda Equina Syndrome Conus Medullaris
Vertebral level L2‐sacrum L1‐L2
Spinal level Injury to the lumbosacral nerve roots Injury of the sacral cord segment (conus and epiconus) and
roots
Severity of Usually severe Usually not severe
symptoms and
signs
Symmetry of Usually asymmetric Usually symmetric
symptoms and
signs
Pain Prominent, asymmetric, and radicular Usually bilateral and in the perineal area
Motor Weakness to flaccid paralysis Normal motor function to mild or moderate weakness
Sensory Saddle anesthesia, may be asymmetric Symmetric saddle distribution, sensory loss of pin prick, and
temperature sensations (Tactile sensation is spared.)
Reflexes Areflexic lower extremities; Areflexic lower extremities
bulbocavernosus reflex is absent in low CE
(sacral) lesions
(If the epiconus is involved, patellar reflex may be absent,
whereas bulbocavernosus reflex may be spared.)
Sphincter and Usually late and of lesser magnitude; Early and severe bowel, bladder, and sexual dysfunction that
sexual function results in a reflexic bowel and bladder with impaired erection
in males
lower sacral roots involvement can cause
bladder, bowel, and sexual dysfunction
EMG Multiple root level involvement; sphincters Mostly normal lower extremity with external anal sphincter
may also be involved involvement
Outcome May be favorable compared with conus The outcome may be less favorable than in patients with CES
medullaris syndrome
Deep Brain stimulation sites= thalamus, subthalamic nucleus, GP
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SCID= bubbe boy dz= glanzman riniker synd= thymic alymphoplasia= alymphocytosis
Polydactily= Patau synd; syndactily= Apert synd [FGFR‐2 misssense mutation]
Osteogenesis imperfect= chr 7 or chr17
Achondroplasia= chr 4
Sherman paradox= anticipation eg. Fragile X synd= 2 step mutation= premutation→ full mutation
Insulin→ dephosphorylates Glycogen synthase and PFK2 to activate them
CH50 screening test detects classical pathway complements defect, absence or reduction
Thalamic pain synd= dejerine roussy synd
P‐ANCA= target ag→ MPO; microscopic polyangitis, churgg strass synd, UC [ASCA],PSC, RA
C‐NACA=taraget ag→proteinase3; wegners dz
Pertussis toxin→ lymphocytosis, ↑insulin→hypoglycemia, ↓neutrophil chemotaxis, cns cx
Estrogen→superficial cells; progesterone, pregnancy,late Menstrual cycle→ intermediate cells; parabasal cells→ absence of
E+P= lactation,post partum, menopause
Angiogenesis inhibitor= angiostatin, endostatin, thrombospondin; pro angiogenic= bfgf/FGF2, VEGF
Chr 16= tuberous sclerosis, Polycystic kidney dz, a thalassemia; chr 20= MODY1
Ataxia telengectasia→↑AFP
Olanzapine= atropinic s/e; olanzapine s/e= clozapine s/e
Thrombocyte= CD 61; plasmacyte= cd 38+, cd 138+,syndecan 1+,cd 19‐ plasmacytoid dendritic cell= cd 304, neuropilin 1
Nutcracker esophagus= hypertensive peristalsis
Penton valetine toxin= staph aureus [MRSA] bacteriophage derived toxin → forms pore in cell mem→hemorrhagic necrotic
pneumonia
B thalassemia minor= retic count↑, MCHC=n, RBC count=n/↓
CLL/SLL= CD5+, CD 23+; mantle cell lymphoma= CD5+, CD 23‐, CD79b+,FMC7+
Evan synd= autoimmune haemolytic anemia+ ITP
HHV‐8= Kaposis sarcoma, castleman dz[ lymphoid hamartoma= giant or angiofollicular lymphnode hyperplasia by IL‐6 secreted
by HHV‐8]
Avascular necrosis of bone= radiological sign→ crescent sign= subchondral collapse
Renal osteodystrophy encompasses osteomalasia, hyperparathyroid bone dz, mixed uremic osteodystrophy, aplastic bone
Globus hystericus= globus sensation= lump in d throat
Endometriosis sites= ovaries> cul de sac> post broad lig> uterosacral lig> uterus> f.tubes> sigmoid colon> appendix> round lig
of uterus
Dna laddering →apoptosis
Elderly pts= ↑Vd [↓total body water, lean body mass, ↑fat]
Kennedy dz= X linked bulbospinal muscular atrophy
Porphyria cutanea tarda= congenital or acquired [Hep C virus inf, estrogen supplementation, aeromatic hydrocarbons]
SCD= osmotic fragilty ↓, mechanical fragilty↑
Infectious arthritis= children<2 yrs→ Hib; older children,old adults→ staph aureus; late adolescent, adults→ gonococcus; SCD→
salmonella
Serum sodium drops 1.6 meq/L for every 100 mg/dl rise in glucose in DKA
Androgen insensitivity synd= testosterone↑, LH↑[ due to androgen rec resistance], inhibin B=n, FSH= n
Phentolamine= duration of action < 1 hr; phenoxybenzamine= duration of action 3‐4 days
Ondansetron s/e= headache and constipation
Gastrin acts on CCK2 rec of ECL cells to secret histamine→ parietal cells → acid secretion
Menke dz= kinke hair dz= EDS type 9= ATP 7A gene mutation, serum Cu defi, ↓ all cu containing enz including lysyl oxidase
which covalently cross links collagen fibrils, hypopigmented iris, skin
Bone marrow transplantation= HLA matched donor hemopoetic stem cells are infused Intra venously which migrates to BM due
to homing signals
Gubernaculum in females→ suspensory lig of ovary, ovarian lig, round lig of uterus= lig teres uteri
Platelets activating factor→ Gq‐ IP3/DAG pathway→ on platelets
Epidermioid cysts [sebaceous cysts]= keratin filled cystic papules with central punctum
Women= OA→ knees, hands; men= OA→ hips
Valley fever= coccidiosisi imitis in san joquelin valley of California
Pagophagia= craving for ice→ specific for IDA
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Puromycin= antibiotic analogus to aminoacyl‐trna→ premature release of unfinished polypeptide chains
Gaucher dz= mc lysosomal disorder, prevalent in askenazi jewz, AR mutation on chr 1q
Tay sach dz→ askenazi jews
Hand foot genital synd= hoxa13 gene mutation
Waardenburg synd= pax3 gene mutation→ heterochromia iridis, dystopia canthorum, deafness, poliosis [white forelock]
Deltopectoral LN= infraclavicular LN → arm drainage
Epitrochlear LN= ulnar aspect of forearm and hand drainage
Afterload ↓ contraction velocity vs preload ↑ contraction velocity upto certain load
In skeletal muscles, ↓ in ECF ca2+→ ↓ contractility by ↓ ICF Ca2+
Basophilic steepling [ribosomal pricipitants]→ lead poisoning, thalassemia, alcohol
Octreotide→ ↓ VIP and glucagone→splanchnic vasoconstriction [ not systemic vasoconstriction]→ used in variceal bleeding
Pentagastrin= uses carcinoid synd [serotonin stimulation]and medullary ca thyroid [calcitonin stimulation]
Liver = 5 6 8 ribs on right side; means any perforating injury below 4th ICS on right side damage liver
Cremasteric reflex= genitofemoral nerve [L12]
Genito‐femoral nerve L2‐1= cremasteric reflex + ant thigh [traverses completely inguinal canal]
Ilioinguinal nerve L1= conjoined tendon + med thigh, root of penis, ant scrotum [traverses only sup ing ring]
Iliohypogastric nerve L1= buttock skin + [T+ IO muscle] +mons
Scotal skin supply= ant= ilioinguinal +‐ genitofemoral; post= pudendal nerve
Floating ribs =11 12; false ribs= 8 9 10; true ribs = 1‐7
Porta hepatis= ant to post→ bile duct, hepatic artery, portal vein; renal hilum= vein artery ureter
Ptosis + pupil dilation→ cn 3 palsy; ptosis + miosis→ horner synd; ptosis= levator palpabre sup [cn 3] or muller’s muscle
[sympathetic]
Indifferent Male Female
Gonad Testis Ovary
Paramesonephric duct
Appendix testis Fallopian tubes
(Mullerian duct)
Mesonephric duct
Rete testis Rete ovarii
(Wolffian duct)
Mesonephric duct Vas deferens
Mesonephric duct Seminal vesicle
Epididymis→ epoophoron; paradidymis→ paroophoron; prosta c utricle→ uterus; prostate→ skene’s gland
System Tissue Epithelium Subtype
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System Tissue Epithelium Subtype
Circulatory Blood vessels Simple squamous Endothelium
Stratified squamous, non‐keratinized superior
to Hilton's white line
Digestive Anus ‐
Stratified squamous, keratinized inferior to Hilton's
white line
Digestive Attached gingiva Stratified squamous, keratinized ‐
Digestive Dorsum of tongue Stratified squamous, keratinized ‐
Ducts of submandibular
Digestive Stratified columnar ‐
glands
Digestive Gallbladder Simple columnar, non‐ciliated ‐
Digestive Hard palate Stratified squamous, keratinized ‐
Intestinal
Digestive Large intestine Simple columnar, non‐ciliated
epithelium
Gastric
Digestive Stomach Simple columnar, non‐ciliated
epithelium
Skin ‐ dead superficial
Integumentary Stratified squamous, keratinized ‐
layer
Integumentary Sweat gland ducts Stratified cuboidal ‐
Lymphatic Lymph vessel Simple squamous Endothelium
Reproductive ‐
Labia majora Stratified squamous, keratinized ‐
female
Germinal
Reproductive ‐
Ovaries Simple cuboidal epithelium
female
(female)
Reproductive ‐
Vagina Stratified squamous, non‐keratinized ‐
female
Reproductive ‐
Ductuli efferentes Pseudostratified columnar ‐
male
Reproductive ‐
Ejaculatory duct Simple columnar ‐
male
Reproductive ‐
Epididymis Pseudostratified columnar, with stereocilia ‐
male
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System Tissue Epithelium Subtype
male
Germinal
Reproductive ‐
Tubuli recti Simple cuboidal epithelium
male
(male)
Reproductive ‐
Vas deferens Pseudostratified columnar ‐
male
Reproductive ‐
Bulbourethral glands Simple columnar ‐
male (gland)
Reproductive ‐
Seminal vesicle Pseudostratified columnar ‐
male (gland)
Respiratory
Respiratory Larynx Pseudostratified columnar, ciliated
epithelium
Corneal
Sensory Cornea Stratified squamous, non‐keratinized
epithelium
Olfactory
Sensory Nose Pseudostratified columnar
epithelium
Urothelium
Urinary Urinary bladder Transitional
Kidney epithelium= bowman’s capsule‐ simple squamus, PCT‐simple cuboidal c microvilli, asc limb of loop thin‐ simple
squamus, DCT‐ simple cuboidal, collecting ducts‐ simple cuboidal;/minor n major calyses, Renal pelvis, ureter, bladder,
prostatic urethra= transitional.
Testes= simple cuboidal; efferent ductules,epididymis, vas def, seminal vesicle= pseudostratified columnar; ejeculatory duct=
simple columnar; mem urethra, penile urethra= pseudostratified columnar; ext urethral meatus= strat squamus
Embryology of Heart
Sinus venosus (R horn): smooth part of right atrium (sinus venarum) and the "valve" of the superior vena cava. The
sino‐atrial node.
Sinus venosus (L horn): coronary sinus, valve of coronary sinus
Valve of sinus venosus (R): border of smooth part of right atrium (crista terminalis)
Valve of sinus venosus (L): part of atrial septum
Common atrium: rough part of right and left atria and the auricles
Embryonic pulmonary vein: large part of the left atrial wall
Septum primum: left side of the atrial septum
Septum secundum: right side of the atrial septum
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Foramen secundum: dimple in the atrial septum seen from left side (fossa ovalis, ok)
Foramen ovale: fossa ovalis
Endocardial cushions: parts of the atrioventricular wall, mitral, and tricuspid valves
Endocardial cushions: membraneous part of ventricular septum, part of arterial trunk
Bulbus cordis: trabeculated part of R ventricle and aortic vestibule of L ventricle
Truncus arteriosus: ascending (ventral) aorta and pulmonary artery
Common ventricle: parts of the right and left ventricle
Arterial System
Aortic sac (R and L sides of sac): brachiocephalic artery (right) and part of the ascending aorta (left), large parts of
common carotid arteries
1st aortic arch (R and L): part of the maxillary artery and external carotid arteries
2nd aortic arch (R and L): part of the hyoid and stapedial arteries, part of external carotids
3rd aortic arch (R and L): part of common carotids and first part of the internal carotids
4th aortic arch (R): small proximal part of the right subclavian artery
4th aortic arch (L): small part of arch of the aorta just proximal to the left subclavian artery
6th aortic arch (R): proximal part of right pulmonary artery
6th aortic arch (L=ductus): proximal left pulmonary artery and and ligamentum arteriosum
Ductus arteriosus: ligamentum arteriosum
Dorsal aorta (R and L): part of right subclavian, descending aorta below left subclavian
Unpaired ventral (or vitelline) arteries: celiac, superior mesenteric, and inferior mesenteric arteries
Paired dorsal segmental arteries: intercostal arteries and vertebral arteries
Umbilical arteries: internal iliac, superior vescial arteries, medial umbilical ligaments
Venous System
Ductus venosus: ligamentum venosum
Umbilical vein (L): round ligament (ligamentum teres)
Vitelline vein (R): superior mesenteric vein and the inferior vena cava
Vitelline vein (L): most of the portal vein
Anterior cardinal veins (R and L): internal jugular veins (left brachiocephalic vein is an anastomosis)
Anterior cardinal vein (R): part of superior vena cava and right brachiocephalic vein
Common cardinal vein (R): proximal part of superior vena cava
Common cardinal vein (L): lateral part of coronary sinus and oblique vein of left atrium
Posterior cardinal vein (R): part of azygos vein and common iliac veins
Supracardinal veins: hemiazygos vein (L) and caudal part of azygos vein (R)
Subcardinal vein (R): renal segment of inferior vena cava
ECF→ inulin, mannitol,sucrose; plasma vol→ labelled albumin,evan’s blue dye; TBW→ tri um, deuterium, an pyrin
Palmer cutaneus branch of median nerve→sensa on to lat half of palm→ passes superficial to carpal tunel→ not
affected
Post op oliguria→ fluid deficit[urine Na<20] or ARF[ urine Na >40]
Serum lacks fact 1 2 5 8
Highest serotonin → in platelets
CCK → I cells of duo/jeju, GIP by K cells; GLP1 by L cells
Desmolase is stimulated by ACTH
Myelination ↑ space constant of axone thus ↑ conduc on velocity
Auditory pathway= SLIM
Sensory Sensory Function
&
Motor
Aa Ia Alpha motor neurones,primary afferents of
muscle spindles
Aa Ib GTO afferents, touch,pressure
Ab II Secondary afferents of muscle spindles, touch n
pressure
Ag ‐ Gamma motor neurons to intrafusal muscle
fibres
Ad III Fast pain n temp, touch n pressure
B ‐ Preganglionic autonomic ; visceral afferents
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C IV Post ganglionic autonomic; slow pain n temp
Gastrin= CCK; secretin= glucagon= VIP same group= same structure
Table 1. Intellectual disability categorization
IQ score* Propor Prevalence
Educational level/adaptive Intensity of supports
Category (SD below tion of in total
skills required
mean) MR/ID population
Mild 50‐55 to 85% Up to about 6th grade; Intermittent, especially 0.9‐2.7%
70(2‐3) vocational under stress
Moderate 35‐40 to 10% Up to about 2nd grade; Limited; 0.3‐0.4%
50‐55(3‐4) unskilled or semi‐skilled, usually supervised
supervised
Hexamethonium= ganglion blocking agent, baroreceptor reflex blocker; Predominant tone of
arterioles= sympathetic=↑MAP; that of heart is parasympathe c=↓HR; thereby hexamethonium
↓MAP=postural hypotension,↑HR= tachycardia [Vessels, arterioles, venules are predominantly
under sympathetic tone; all else is predominantly under PS tone]
Low dose epinephrine(B1,B2>A1)= slight ↑MAP not enough to cause barorec reflex; ↑HR by B1
Isoproterenol( B1,B2)= ↓ MAP( B2); ↑HR (B1 n barorec reflex)
Metaproterenol (B2 agonist)= ↓MAP; ↑HR (BR reflex)
NE,high dose adrenaline,phenylephrine= ↑MAP,↓HR (reflex)
Phentolamine,propranolol= ↓ MAP,↑ HR (reflex)
With advancing age, phase 1 metabolism of liver depending on P450 dec,but phase2 remains unchanged. So
lorazepam/oxazepam [only phase2 metabolized] are prefferd in elderly/liver failure
I‐= iodide→ Io= oxidized iodide→2 molecules of Io=I2= iodine
NIS= iodide trapping by TSH on TSH rec[Gs]; Iodide transport across apical mem by pendrin [passively]; Iodide
oxidation to iodine by TPO; Tg synthesis in RER n exocytosis to colloid lumen; organification/iodination of tyrosile
residues of Tg to form MIT n DIT is nonspecific; coupling to form T3 nt4 by TPO; endocytosis of Tg‐T3,T4,MIT,DIT by
TSH; proteolysis to dissociate T3,T4,MIT,DIT from Tg by lysosomal proteases; T3 n T4 secretion into circulation; MIT
ndit 5‐deiodinase to salvage iodine
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Atropine poisoning= mydriasis, hyperthermia c hot dry skin; opiod widrawal, methamphetamine = mydriasis,
hyperthermia c sweating
Miosis c sweating= OP poisoning; miosis c dry skin= opioid
Zero order elimination= linear graph= rate of elimination is constant
First order kinetics= on std graph→ exponential; on semi logarithmic graph→ linear
Css= k0/ CL ; ko= infusion rate for IV agent given continuously
Fibrinus pericarditis is most fq form of pericarditis asso c MI
Serus pericarditis= viral, immune, idiopathic, uremia, tumor
Hemorrhagic pericarditis= TB, malignancy
Brocha’s aphasia= ↓ speech, ↓repeata on; wernick’s aphasia= ↓ comprehension,↓repeat; conduc on = ↓ repeat;
global= all 3↓; transcor cal motor aphasia= lesion sup/ant to brochas area,may involve supplementary motor
area=↓ speech, repeata on intact; transcor cal sensory aphasia= lesion post/sup to wernick’s area=
comprehension↓, repeata on intact; mixed transcor cal aphasia= ↓speech,↓comprehension[only repeatation
intact]
Ketamine= Apneustic breathing, opioid/ morphine= biot’s breathing, cheyens stokes breathing
Meningitis= biot’s breathing
Hirano bodies= intraneuronal eosinophilic rod like inclusions in hippocampus→ AD, normal elderly brains
Fusion of podocyte foot processes→ reac on to proteinuria to seal holes off; ↑a2 globulins, ↑b globulins,
fibrinogens↑; Ig ↓, all binding proteins↓= ↓ Ca due to vit d binding protein loss
G6PD defi= Mediterranean descent‐ severe, African Americans‐ mild
Chest pain awakens in early morning= prinzmetal angina
PNH= urine hemosiderine is more reliable indicator than urine free Hb as Hb is only + during active episodes; abd
pain due to thrombosis due to inappropriate platelets activation; most fq cause of death is thrombosis n
thromboembolism; budd chiary synd‐ favourite; pancyotpenia
Follicular hyperplasia of LN= following tetanus toxoid; paracortical hyperplasia= phenytoin, viral inf, antiviral
vaccines; suppurative lymphadenitis= staph aureus; sinus histiocytosis= reactive histiocytosis= chronic infections,
neoplasia; necrotizing lymphadenitis= bubonic plaque, tularaemia, anthrax, typhoid, kikuchi lymphadenitis; stellate
abcess= cat scratch dz, LGV, tularaemia
Bartter synd= secondary hyperaldosteronism→ juxtaglomerular hyperplasia & failure to thrive
Leigh’s dz= subacute necrotizing encephalopathy‐AR, defective form of cytochrome C oxidase in mitochondria of
muscle n brain, s/s= intellectual deterioration, ataxia, weakness, seizures, death at young age; no rx exists
Even if child is homozygous for PKU, it would not have symptoms untill 4‐5 days after birth; if new born baby shows
features of PKU= small microcephalic, ↑ Phenylalanine→ maternal diet during pregnancy had high phenylalanine
Ethanol‐‐‐‐‐‐[alcohol dehydrogenase‐ peroxisomes/ smooth endoplasmic reticulum P450]‐‐‐‐acetaldehyde‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
[aldehyde dehydrogenase‐ mitochondria]‐‐‐‐‐‐acetic acid
LOD score >= 3→ linkage bw 2 loci= odds of linkage are 1000 to 1; LOD score <= ‐2→ no linkage= odds of linkage are
1 in 100 or less; LOD score bw ‐2 n 3→ more data is needed to establish linkage
In PCR amplification, primers must pair c 3’ sequences of the two strands, 5’ sequence primers are identical to
parent strand
LCAT defi= classical triad of corneal opacity due to diffuse lipid deposition, renal failure c proteinuria, anemia c
target cells; no inc risk of CAD
Germinal epithelium, spermatogonia A,B= diploid, n; primary spermatocyte= diploid,2n; sec spermatocyte=
haploid,2n; spermatid= haploid,n; sperms= haploid,n
95% confidence interval of sample mean= mean+‐ 2SE
D aminoacid peptides are less prone to proteolysis than L form thus inc half life of proteins
Conscious proprioception is communicated by the posterior column‐medial lemniscus pathway to the cerebrum.[20]
Unconscious proprioception is communicated primarily via the dorsal spinocerebellar tract[21] and ventral
spinocerebellar tract,[22] to the cerebellum.
Kleine‐Levin syndrome (KLS) is a rare sleep disorder characterized by persistent episodic hypersomnia and cognitive
or mood changes. Many patients also experience hyperphagia, hypersexuality and other symptoms
In humans, CD27 is a good marker for plasma cells, naive B cells are CD27‐, memory B‐cells are CD27+ and plasma
cells are CD27++.[7]
Immotile cilia synd= respiratory infection causing org→ Hib, pneumococcus, staph aureus, pseudomonas
oxidase‐positive org= psueudomonas, morexella, vibrio, campylobacter, h.pylori, L. Pneumophilia
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In the coronary circulation, norepinephrine elicits vasodilation, due to the predominance of beta‐adrenergic
receptors in the coronary circulation
ocular albinism= X‐linked inheritance
ABCD syndrome is the acronym for albinism, black lock, cell migration disorder of the neurocytes of the gut and
sensorineural deafness. It has been found to be caused by mutation in the endothelin B receptor gene (EDNRB).
Resistance Exercise builds myofibrils, and Endurance Exercise builds mitochondria
Normal prions have alpha helix conformation and pathalogic prions are beta pleated sheets.it is resistant to
proteinase digestion.
Initially (children) have B:T cell ratio ~ 2:1; after 4‐5 years of age, proportion of B cells decreases and T cells
increases, reaching adult levels during adolescence (1:4‐5)
cytoplasmic CD22 appears to be the most specific B cell marker
Dandy–Walker syndrome (DWS), or Dandy–Walker complex, is a congenital brain malformation involving
the cerebellum and the fluid filled spaces around it. A key feature of this syndrome is the partial or even complete
absence of (cerebellar vermis). There is a relative contraindication of taking Warfarin during pregnancy, as it is
associated with an increased risk of Dandy–Walker syndrome if taken during the first trimester
Bombesin is peptide[1] . It has two known homologs in mammals called neuromedin B and gastrin‐releasing peptide.
It stimulates gastrin release from G cells. Together with cholecystokinin, it is the second major source of negative
feedback signals that stop eating behaviour.Bombesin is also a tumor marker for small cell carcinoma of lung, gastric
cancer, and neuroblastoma
Olfatory CN I is the only CN without thalamic relay to cortex.
The most common site of metastases for colon or rectal cancer is the liver.
Brain stem vascular syndromes
1. Weber’s syndrome: CN 3 palsy (pupil sparing) + contralateral hemiparesis
2. Benedikt’s syndrome: Weber’s plus red nucleus ‐ CN 3 palsy + contralateral hemiparesis + contralateral
hyperkinesis, ataxia, intention tremor; Remember: Weber + red nucleus
3. Millard Gubler: CN 6 + CN 7 + contralateral hemiplegia
4. Wallenberg’s syndrome: (PICA + vertebral) spinal trigeminal tract of CN 5 + inferior cerebellar peduncle +
descending sympathetic tract + ventral spinocerebellar tract + CN 9 and 10 fibers + lateral and ventral
spinothalamic tract + solitary nucleus + cuneate and gracile nucleus + vestibular nuclei (NOTE: no weakness
in the contralateral arm or leg)
1. Hoarseness, dysphagia
2. Ipsilateral vocal cord paralysis
3. Loss of gag reflex (CN 9 is the afferent limb of the gag reflex and CN 10 is the efferent limb)
4. Vertigo
5. Oscillopsia (swaying side to side)
6. Facial analgesia
7. Horner’s
8. Ipsilateral loss of taste
9. Ipsilateral arm, trunk, leg numbness
10. Contralateral pain and temperature loss
11. Remember: Vocal PATHetic HOG with Vertigo (vocal cord, pain and temp, analgesia, taste, Horner’s,
hoarseness, oscillopsia (sensation of things moving back and forth in horizontal plane), gag, vertigo)
5. Avellis syndrome: (tegmentum of the medulla) paralysis of soft palate and vocal cord + contralateral
hemianesthesia
1. Note: posterior portion of brain stem has mostly sensory tracts + CN 9 and 10
2. NOTE: palatal myoclonus is due to a lesion in the dentatorubroolivary circuit
6. Jackson syndrome: Avellis + ipsilateral tongue paralysis
7. Medial medullary syndrome: (occlusion of basilar paramedian branches) ipsilateral hemiparalysis of tongue +
contralateral arm and leg hemiparesis
8. Claude syndrome: (brachium conjunctivum) cerebellar ataxia + crossed CN III palsy
1. Note: crossed CN III = innervation of superior rectus; levator palpebrae has both crossed and
uncrossed
2. Remember: Claude, Crossed, Conjunctivum, CN 3
9. Dysarthria‐clumsy hand syndrome – facial weakness and severe dysarthria and dysphagia that occur in
conjunction with a clumsy or paretic hand; usually due to a lacunar infarct of the basis pontis supplied by
the basilar artery
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10. Top o’ the basilar syndrome: abulia (absence of initiative) + Parinaud’s + CN III palsy
1. Remember: PA 3 (Parinaud’s, Abulia, CN 3)
11. Nothnagel syndrome: unilateral or bilateral CN III + cerebellar ataxia; Remember Benedikt ‐ hemiplegia
12. Parinaud’s syndrome: loss of upward gaze + mydriasis (dilated pupil) + loss of convergence + loss of pupillary
light reflex + lid retraction + nystagmus retractorius
1. Note: due to crossing of the fibers for upward gaze rostrally and posteriorly between the ri MLF
nuclei that are interrupted before descending to the CN III nuclei
2. Remember UPMC (Upward gaze, Pupillary reflex (plus dissociated light‐near response), Mydriasis,
Convergence)
13. Brain stem syndromes of non‐vascular type
1. Foster‐Kennedy – lesions at the base of the frontal lobe with symptoms of ipsilateral optic atrophy,
ipsilateral anosmia, and contralateral papilledema
2. Devic’s syndrome – optic neuritis and myelitis
3. Leber’s optic atrophy – caused by mitochondrial DNA mutation and usually causes a centrocecal
scotoma
99