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Ore petrology, hydrothermal alteration, fluid inclusions, and sulfur stable

isotopes of the Milin Kamak intermediate sulfidation epithermal Au-Ag
deposit in Western Srednogorie, Bu...

Article  in  Ore Geology Reviews · May 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2017.05.013

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 Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415

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Ore Geology Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oregeo

Ore petrology, hydrothermal alteration, fluid inclusions, and sulfur

stable isotopes of the Milin Kamak intermediate sulfidation epithermal
Au-Ag deposit in Western Srednogorie, Bulgaria
Ralica Sabeva a,⇑, Vassilka Mladenova a, Aberra Mogessie b
a
Sofia University, FGG, 1504 Sofia, Bulgaria
b
Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Graz, Univ. Pl. 2, A-8010 Graz, Austria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Milin Kamak gold-silver deposit is located in Western Srednogorie zone, 50 km west of Sofia,
Received 12 August 2016 Bulgaria. This zone belongs to the Late Cretaceous Apuseni-Banat-Timok-Srednogorie magmatic and met-
Received in revised form 10 May 2017 allogenic belt. The deposit is hosted by altered trachybasalt to andesitic trachybasalt volcanic and volcan-
Accepted 14 May 2017
oclastic rocks with Upper Cretaceous age, which are considered to be products of the Breznik
Available online 22 May 2017
paleovolcano. Milin Kamak is the first gold-silver intermediate sulfidation type epithermal deposit recog-
nized in Srednogorie zone in Bulgaria. It consists of eight ore zones with lengths ranging from 400 to
Keywords:
1000 m, widths from several cm to 3–4 m, rarely to 10–15 m, an average of 80–90 m depth (a maximum
Milin Kamak
Bulgaria
of 200 m) and dip steeply to the south. The average content of gold is 5.04 g/t and silver – 13.01 g/t. The
Gold styles of alteration are propylitic, sericite, argillic, and advanced argillic. Ore mineralization consists of
Hydrothermal alteration three stages. Quartz-pyrite stage I is dominated by quartz, euhedral to subhedral pyrite, trace pyrrhotite
Fluid inclusions and hematite in the upper levels of the deposit. Quartz-polymetallic stage II is represented by major
Sulfur stable isotopes anhedral pyrite, galena, Fe-poor sphalerite; minor chalcopyrite, tennantite, bournonite, tellurides and
electrum; and trace pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, marcasite. Gangue minerals are quartz and carbonates.
The carbonate-gold stage III is defined by deposition of carbonate minerals and barite with native gold
and stibnite.
Fluid inclusions in quartz are liquid H2O-rich with homogenization temperature (Th) ranging from 238
to 345 °C as the majority of the measurements are in the range 238–273 °C. Ice-melting temperatures
(Tm) range from 2.2 to 4.1 °C, salinity – from 3.7 to 6.6 wt.% NaCl equiv. These measurements imply
an epithermal environment and low- to moderate salinity of the ore-forming fluids.
d34S values of pyrite range from 0.49 to +2.44‰. The average calculated d34S values are 1.35‰. The
total range of d34S values for pyrite are close to zero suggesting a magmatic source for the sulfur.
Ó 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Since Lindgren (1933), over the past several decades there have
been numerous studies of different epithermal systems, especially
the two end members – low and high sulfidation type deposits
(Heald et al., 1987; Evans, 1993; Arribas, 1995; White and
Hedenquist, 1995; Cooke and Simmons, 2000; Einaudi et al.,
2003; Pirajno, 2009). After the works of Hedenquist et al. (2000),
Einaudi et al. (2003), Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003) the number
of publications showing worldwide examples of intermediate
sulfidation type deposits have increased.
Previous studies at the Milin Kamak area dealt with preliminary
data of the mineral composition, alteration and some genetic
aspects (Crummy et al., 2001; Stoykov et al., 2007). The aim of this
investigation is to document the ore minerals, their textures, alter-
ation assemblages, fluid inclusions in quartz, and sulfur isotope in
pyrite. These new data will help to constrain the ore-forming envi-
ronment and the significance of the ore potential of the prospect.
2. Geological settings
2.1. Regional geology

⇑ Corresponding author. The Milin Kamak deposit is situated in the Western Srednogorie
E-mail address: rsabeva@gea.uni-sofia.bg (R. Sabeva). zone in Bulgaria which in regional aspect belongs to the Late

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2017.05.013
0169-1368/Ó 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 R. Sabeva et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415 401

Cretaceous Apuseni-Banat-Timok-Srednogorie (ABTS) magmatic
and metallogenic belt (Popov et al., 2002), known also as the Bana-
titic magmatic and metallogenic belt (Berza et al., 1998). It is one of
the main structures of the Alpine-Balkan-Carpathian-Dinaride geo-
dynamic province (Ciobanu et al., 2002; Heinrich and Neubauer,
2002; Neubauer and Heinrich, 2003) (Fig. 1). The ABTS belt was
formed as a result of the subduction of the Tethys Ocean beneath
the European continental margin during the Late Cretaceous phase
of the Alpine-Himalayan orogeny. It can be traced from the
Apuseni Mountains and Banat region in Romania, through the
Timok area in Serbia to the Srednogorie zone in Bulgaria. It extends
for about 1000 km with a width of 30–120 km. Late Cretaceous
magmatic products are extrusive and intrusive rocks exposed as
large volcano-plutonic complexes. The compositional trends vary
from tholeiitic to high-K-alkaline, and shoshonitic, with dominant
calc-alkaline and high-K calc-alkaline types (Popov et al., 2002;
Ciobanu et al., 2002; Kamenov et al., 2003; von Quadt et al.,
2005; Popov et al., 2012).
The Srednogorie part of the ABTS belt in Bulgaria is developed
during the Mesozoic as an island arc system (Janković, 1977;
Heinrich and Neubauer, 2002; Dabovski et al., 2009; Popov et al.,
2012) (Fig. 1). It is an 80–100 km wide and east–west oriented
zone, located between the Balkan Zone in the north, and the Rho-
dopes and the Sakar-Strandzha zone in the south (Bonchev, 1988;
Ivanov, 1998). Western Srednogorie consists of volcanoclastic, vol-
canic and intrusive rocks and sediments with Upper Cretaceous
age. Magmatic rocks result from the activity of seven volcanic com-
plexes which formed during Coniacian-Campanian (Stanisheva-
Vassileva, 1980; Dabovski et al., 1991).
The ABTS belt is an economically important province which
hosts Cu- and Au-rich porphyry and high, intermediate and low
sulfidation type deposits (Berza et al., 1998; Ciobanu et al., 2002;
Heinrich and Neubauer, 2002; Popov et al., 2002; von Quadt
et al., 2005). A large number of ore deposits have formed in
the Srednogorie, but the world-class deposits are concentrated in
the Panagyurishte region in the central parts of the zone. The
porphyry-copper deposits are Elatsite, Medet, Assarel, Tsar Asen
and Vlaykov Vruh. The Cu-Au epithermal high sulfidation type
deposits are Elshitsa, Radka, Krassen and Chelopech (Bogdanov,
1987; Popov et al., 2000; Strashimirov et al., 2002; Moritz et al.,
2004; von Quadt et al., 2005; Bogdanov and Mišković, 2014).
The Western Srednogorie zone, which is not well prospected,
hosts mainly gold and copper occurrences – such as Zlatousha
(Ferdov and Kunov, 2002), Klisoura (Kunov et al., 2000) and the
Gurgulyatski Kamak area (Nakov et al., 2010; Nakov et al., 2016).
2.2. Local geology and characteristics of the Milin Kamak deposit
Milin Kamak deposit is located 50 km west of Sofia and 2 km
south of the town of Breznik between the Bor-Majdanpek gold-
copper ore district in Serbia to the north-west and the Panagyur-
ishte district to the east (Fig. 1). It is situated in Western

Fig. 1. Simplified geological and tectonic map showing the distribution of the principal ore deposits zones in the Balkan-Carpathian-Dinaride region. Three mineralized belts
are developed with calc-alkaline magmatism of Late-Cretaceous to Miocene age (after Heinrich and Neubauer (2002) modified by Chambefort (2005)). The Milin Kamak
deposit is situated in Cretaceous Apuseni-Banat-Timok-Srednogorie magmatic and metallogenic belt.
402 R. Sabeva et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415
Srednogorie zone in the Bardoto hill, formed by the stratocone of
the Breznik paleovolcano.
Products of the Breznik paleovolcano belong to the Upper
volcanogenic-sedimentary unit (Nachev et al., 1981; Bairaktarov,
1989; Dabovski et al., 2009) (Fig. 2A). The rocks are volcaniclastic
products and lava flows, dykes are rare. In the northern part sub-
volcanic bodies form a chain with subequatorial orientation and
elliptical outlines having a diameter of about 10 m with concentric
and radial joints. The subvolcanic bodies are a group of fracture
controlled magmatic vents. The rocks are mainly trachybasalts
and shoshonites referred to the high potassium calc-alkaline to
shoshonitic series (Dabovski et al., 2009; Velev et al., 2012).
The Milin Kamak deposit is hosted by altered trachybasalt to
andesitic trachybasalt volcanic and volcanoclastic rocks
(Bairaktarov, 1989; Dabovski et al., 2009; Velev et al., 2012). A part
of the sequence is overlain by Paleogene and Neogene sediments.
In the south-west, a Permian to Jurassic sequence of continental
to marine sediments, represented by sandstones, clay and lime-
stone, is observed (Belev, 1967) (Fig. 2B). Small diorite porphyry
stocks and porphyrytic basalt dykes with a geophysical IP anomaly
established in the Milin Kamak area, suggest a diorite intrusive at
depth covering about 10 km2 (Crummy et al., 2001).
Fig. 2. (A) Simplified geological map of Western Srednogorie zone in Bulgaria with the main paleovolcanic centres (after Dabovski et al. (2009) modified by Velev et al.
(2012)). (B) Simplified geological map of Milin Kamak area.
The deposit is situated south-west of the Krasava syncline. Pale-
ogene sediments build up the axial parts, the limbs of the syncline
are composed of Upper Cretaceous volcanic and volcanogenic-
sedimentary rocks. The later overly Lower Cretaceous and Triassic
to Jurassic terrigenous-carbonate sediments.
Major NW-striking faults parallel to paleo-subduction direction
of Western Srednogorie zone, and secondary NE-striking, crosscut-
ting normal faults and shear zones are mapped in the area. The sec-
ondary E-W-striking faults host the ore mineralization.
The Milin Kamak deposit comprises of eight ore zones, repre-
sented by epithermal veins (Fig. 3A). The ore zones have a varying
length from 400 to 1000 m, from several cm to 3–4 m wide, rarely
to 10–15 m, an average 80–90 m depth (a maximum of 200 m) and
dip steeply to the south (Fig. 3B). The main ore zone, marked as No.
1 zone reaches 200 m depth. It presently represents the economic
part of the deposit. The No. 4 and No. 8 zones are located in the
northern part of the deposit but are not well explored. The highest
Cu contents are established in No. 8 zone. Zone No. 2, 3, 5 and 6 are
in close spatial relationship with the main zone and have similar
morphological and textural characteristics.
The area was explored by Trace Resources Ltd. between 2004
and 2012 with 100 trenches and 121 drill holes. Eight ore zones
 R. Sabeva et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415 403

Fig. 3. (A) Location of the ore zones and drill holes in the Milin Kamak area. The profile line A-B is represented by cross section at Fig. 3B. The sampled drill holes are indicated
with numbers. (B) Cross section A-B transecting the main No. 1, No. 3 and 2 ore zones. The veins dip steeply to south.

of almost identical mineral composition were established. On the ver 26.78 g/t, the probable reserves and resources are
basis of these results, at a cut-off grade of 2 g/t and a total vol- 13.132 tonnes of gold and 59.537 tonnes of silver (Trace
ume 2.4 Mt with an average content of gold 5.91 g/t and of sil- Resources Ltd.).
404 R. Sabeva et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415
3. Sampling and analytical techniques
The samples from hydrothermal altered rocks and epithermal
veins are collected from 12 drill holes intersecting 5 mineralized
zones (Fig. 3A).
Polished sections and polished thin sections were prepared to
determine the paragenetic relationships of the ore minerals and
to characterize the hydrothermal alteration assemblages. Ore sam-
ples were observed by optical microscope Opton Universal Pol-U.
X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) analyses were performed on a
TUR M62 diffractometer using filtered Co-Ka radiation in the 2h
range 4–80°, step size 1.5° at Sofia University ‘‘St. Kliment Ohrid-
ski”, Sofia, Bulgaria.
Electron microprobe analyses (EMPA) and back-scattered elec-
tron imaging were done on carbon-coated polished sections with
a SEM JEOL JSM 6310 equipped with an Oxford Link ISIS EDX sys-
tem and a Microspec WDX system at the Institute of Earth
Sciences, University of Graz, Austria. Analytical conditions were:
20 kV accelerating voltage, 6 nA probe current, and 100 s counting
time for EDX spectra. Standards used were CuFeS2 (S, Fe, Cu),
metallic Mn, ZnS (Zn), Pd3As (As), CuSe (Se), metallic Ag, metallic
Cd, NiSb (Sb), PbTe (Te, Pb), and Bi2Te3 (Bi). The detection limits
for the EDX are 0.1 wt.% for Ag, Au, Cu, Co, Fe, Zn; 0.2 wt.% for Sb,
Te, Cd; 0.5 wt.% for As; 0.9 wt.% for Bi; 1.5 wt.% for Pb. The gangue
minerals and some ore minerals were also examined with micro-
probe analyses with JEOL Superprobe 733 equipped with an ORTEC
EDX system and a Tracor Northern TN-2000 system, Geological
Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria. Analytical
conditions were: 15 and 25 kV accelerating voltage, 0.5 nA probe
current.. Standards used were CuFeS2 (S, Fe, Cu), FeS2 (Fe, S), CdS
(Cd), ZnS (Zn), metallic Ag (Ag), SnO2 (Sn), FeAsS (As), Sb2S3 (Sb),
metallic Te (Te), metallic Co (Co), GeS2 (Ge), and Bi2S3 (Bi).
Microthermometric measurements on doubly polished thin
sections (<1 mm thick) were carried out using the Chaixmeca heat-
ing and freezing stage at the University of Mining and Geology ‘‘St.
Ivan Rilski”, Sofia, Bulgaria. It has a temperature range from
180 °C to +600 °C.
Sulfur was extracted from 10 pure pyrite separates. Sulfur iso-
tope analysis was undertaken by Elemental Analysis – Isotope
Ratio Mass Spectrometry (EA-IRMS) at the Iso-Analytical Limited,
Crewe, Cheshire, United Kingdom. Prior to analysis the samples
were crushed and ground to a powder using a pestle and mortar.
Small amounts (0.25 mg) of samples were weighed into tin cap-
sules (8  5 mm) along with 4 mg of vanadium pentoxide catalyst
to aid combustion. Tin capsules containing reference or sample
material plus vanadium pentoxide catalyst were loaded into an
automatic sampler. After that they were dropped into a furnace
held at 1080 °C and combusted in the presence of oxygen. Tin cap-
sules flash combust, raising the temperature in the region of the
sample to 1700 °C. The combusted gases are then swept in a
helium stream over combustion catalysts (tungstic oxide/zirco-
nium oxide) and through a reduction stage of high purity copper
wires to produce SO2, N2, CO2, and water. Water is removed using
a NafionTM membrane. Sulfur dioxide is resolved from N2 and CO2
on a packed GC column at a temperature of 32 °C. The resultant
SO2 peak enters the ion source of the IRMS where upon it is ionized
and accelerated. Gas species of different mass are separated in a
magnetic field then simultaneously measured on a Faraday cup
universal collector array. Analysis was based on monitoring of m/
z 48, 49 and 50 of SO+ produced from SO2 in the ion source. Both
references and samples are converted to SO2 and analyzed using
this method. The analysis proceeds in a batch process by which a
reference is analyzed followed by a number of samples and then
another reference. The reference material used for sulfur isotope
analysis was IA-R061 (barium sulfate, d34SV-CDT = +20.33‰). IA-
R061, IA-R025 (barium sulfate, d34SV-CDT = +8.53‰) and IA-R026
(silver sulfide, d34SV-CDT = +3.96‰) were used for calibration and
correction of the 18O contribution to the SO+ ion beam. IA-R061,
IA-R025 and IA-R026 standards are traceable to NBS-127 (barium
sulfate, d34SCDT = +20.3‰) and IAEA-S-1 (silver sulfide, d34SV-
CDT = 0.3‰). NBS-127 and IAEA-S-1 are inter-laboratory compar-
ison standards distributed by the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) with internationally accepted d34S values.
4. Hydrothermal alteration
The styles of alteration are propylitic, sericite, argillic, and
advanced argillic. Alteration mineralogy is based on investigations
using optical microscopy and XRD.
Propylitic alteration dominantly occurs in the outer parts of the
Milin Kamak deposit.
The chlorite-carbonate-epidote alteration assemblage (Fig. 4A, B)
is common while the chlorite-carbonate-epidote-actinolite is rare.
Relicts of primary pyroxene and plagioclase phenocrysts can be
often observed in the carbonate groundmass. Plagioclase phe-
nocrysts are almost completely altered to carbonate (Fig. 4B).
Pyroxene is replaced by chlorite (Fig. 4B). Later quartz-sericite-
pyrite nests and carbonate veins are recognized. Pyrite is common
and forms disseminations and fine veinlets.
Sericite or quartz-sericite-pyrite (QSP) alteration is structurally
controlled and vein-related. The groundmass consists of fine-
grained quartz, sericite, illite, phengite and rare calcite and dolo-
mite with disseminated anhedral pre-ore pyrite (Fig. 4C, D). The
original rock texture is poorly preserved and formed by plagioclase
phenocrysts which are completely altered to sericite (Fig. 4D).
Argillic alteration zone is rare, fracture controlled and dominated
mainly by clay minerals (Fig. 4E). XRD results indicate the presence
of kaolinite, illite, sericite, quartz, pyrite, and rarely anatase,
nacrite, calcite and dolomite. Smectite group minerals are not
found.
Advanced argillic alteration zone is developed in the northern
part of the deposit at the No. 8 ore zone. This alteration style hosts
the copper mineralization. Quartz-kaolinite and quartz-kaolinite-
alunite assemblages are well developed while vuggy quartz zone
is scarce (Fig. 4F, G, H). Aluminium phosphate-sulfate (APS) miner-
als such as svanbergite, woodhouseite and rare florencite are doc-
umented by XRD.
5. Mineralogy
The most common textural types of ores are: 1) symmetrically
and asymmetrically banded ore, formed from quartz-sulfide and
carbonate-sulfide veinlets (Fig. 5A); occasionally stockworks are
observed; 2) disseminated and nest-like texture, formed from the
main sulfide minerals (Fig. 4F); 3) massive pyrite, sphalerite,
galena ore (Fig. 5B); 4) carbonate-sulfide cemented breccia with
altered host rock fragments (Fig. 5C); 5) crustiform banded ore;
and 6) comb texture, composed from quartz or calcite (Fig. 5D).
On the basis of mineral assemblages, depositional sequence,
crosscutting relationships, and textures, the vein mineralization
can be referred to three ore stages: quartz-pyrite, quartz-
polymetallic, and carbonate-gold. Fig. 6 shows the generalized
depositional sequence of vein minerals.
Quartz-pyrite stage has simple mineral composition – quartz,
euhedral to subhedral pyrite, trace pyrrhotite and hematite in
the upper levels of the deposit.
Quartz-polymetallic stage is represented by major anhedral pyr-
ite, galena, sphalerite; minor chalcopyrite, tennantite, bournonite,
tellurides and electrum; and trace pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, marca-
site. The gangue minerals are quartz and carbonates.
 R. Sabeva et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415 405

Fig. 4. Macroscopic textures and photomicrographs of alteration assemblages at the Milin Kamak: (A) Propylitic alteration (drill hole 10109, 34.1 m). The chlorite (Chl)-
carbonate (Carb)-epidote (Ep) alteration assemblage is most common. (B) Photomicrograph of propylitic alteration. Relicts of primary pyroxene (Px) and plagioclase (Pl)
phenocrysts can be often observed in the carbonate (Carb) groundmass. Plagioclase phenocrysts relicts are almost completely altered to carbonate. Pyroxene is replaced by
chlorite. (C) Sericite alteration (drill hole 768, 122.2 m). The groundmass is represented by fine-grained quartz (Qtz) and sericite (Ser) with disseminated pyrite (Py) and pyrite
veins. (D) Photomicrograph of the sericite alteration assemblages under crossed nicols. Plagioclase (Pl) phenocrysts are completely altered to sericite (Ser). The pyrite (Py) is
anhedral. (E) Macroscopic view of the argillic alteration zone observed in the Bardoto Hill. The mineral assemblage is dominated mainly by clay minerals. (F) Advanced argillic
alteration (drill hole 10105, 58 m). Vuggy quartz (Qtz) zone is rare. Main minerals in the alteration assemblage are kaolinite (Kaol) and quartz (Qtz). Pyrite (Py) is
disseminated or infills cracks. (G) Photomicrograph of the quartz (Qtz)-kaolinite (Kaol) assemblage under crossed nicols. Kaolinite is observed as nests with pyrite (Py) grain
rims in fine-grained quartz groundmass. (H) Photomicrograph of the quartz (Qtz)-kaolinite (Kaol)-alunite (Alun) assemblages under crossed nicols. The interstices between
alunite crystals with rhombic forms are filled with kaolinite and quartz.
406 R. Sabeva et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415
Fig. 5. Photographs of vein textures: (A) symmetrically banded ore, formed from carbonate-sulfide (mostly rhodochrosite and galena) veinlets (drill hole 768); (B) massive
pyrite ore (drill hole 768); (C) carbonate-sulfide (rarely quartz) cemented breccia with altered host rock fragments (drill hole 10109); (D) comb calcite vein in altered host
rock (drill hole 10109).
The last ore stage is carbonate-gold, defined by deposition of
carbonate minerals and barite with native gold and stibnite.
The supergene alteration consists of sulfate and oxide-hydroxide
minerals.
The copper paragenesis is observed only in samples from drill
hole 10105 from No. 8 ore zone, NE part of the deposit. The mineral
paragenesis of this ore zone is not included in the generalized par-
agenetic scheme because the obtained mineralogical data are not
sufficient to relate the copper paragenesis with the others mineral
stages. Nevertheless the paragenesis is important for the genetic
interpretation of the deposit. The minerals are pyrite, chalcopyrite,
chalcocite, covellite, and bornite. Alteration accompanying the
copper mineralization is advanced argillic.
5.1. Ore mineralogy and mineral chemistry
5.1.1. Pyrite
Pyrite is the most common mineral and the only sulfide depos-
ited in two ore stages. Pyrite I from the quartz-pyrite stage is euhe-
dral to subhedral with cubic and octahedral forms. It occurs as
single grains and fine- to medium-grained aggregates in quartz.
Occasionally pyrite hosts pyrrhotite grains. Pyrite II usually forms
subhedral to anhedral, rarely euhedral crystals and nests with size
up to 2–3 cm. Very often pyrite is porous and marcasite occurs at
the rims of the grains (Fig. 7A). Porous morphology, marcasite rims
and the weak to distinct optical anisotropy of pyrite, suggest a sec-
ondary origin of the pyrite and its formation by inversion from
marcasite (Murowchick, 1992). Pyrite II is enclosed in galena and
sphalerite from the quartz-polymetallic stage or in the interstices
of pyrite grains or in cavities of corroded pyrite (Fig. 7B).
5.1.2. Galena
Galena is the second-most abundant sulfide mineral in the
quartz-polymetallic stage. It forms nests, fills fractures and pores
mainly in quartz and occurs mainly as grains, inclusions and vein-
lets in pyrite and rarely in the other sulfides, also fills interstices of
pyrite aggregates (Fig. 7B). Numerous blebs of coprecipitated elec-
trum and tellurides (hessite, petzite and altaite) are observed in
galena (Fig. 7E). Electrum infills microfractures and cleavage gaps
(Fig. 7E). Electron microprobe analyses reveal the presence of Ag,
As, Fe, Cd, and rarely Zn and Cu as trace elements (Table 1). These
elements are inherent for the galena and probably are due to inclu-
sions of sulfide minerals (Blackburn and Schwendeman, 1977).
5.1.3. Sphalerite
Sphalerite is deposited in the quartz-polymetallic stage. It occurs
as nests, sometimes as veinlets among or together with the other sul-
fide minerals. In some samples sphalerite encloses pyrite or forms
thin veinlets, crosscutting the pyrite aggregates, indicating that it
formed later than pyrite. Commonly, tennantite and bournonite
enclose and crosscut the sphalerite (Fig. 7C, D). Irregularly dis-
tributed small chalcopyrite inclusions with spherical or drop-like
forms, known as ‘‘chalcopyrite disease” are observed in sphalerite
(Fig. 7B, C). This phenomenon can be interpreted as a result of
replacement due to interaction of sphalerite with solutions, copre-
cipitation of sphalerite and chalcopyrite, crystal growth by solid-
 R. Sabeva et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415
Fig. 6. Generalized depositional sequence of ore and gangue minerals at the Milin Kamak gold-silver deposit. Thick lines show major minerals, thin lines – minor minerals.
Stages of mineralization are described in the text.
state diffusion and exsolution of CuS in Fe-bearing sphalerite. The
main factors controlling these processes are the iron content of spha-
lerite, the volume relationships, temperature and the variations in
sulfur fugacity (Wiggins and Craig, 1980; Bortnikov et al., 1991;
Bonev and Radulova, 1994). Sphalerite from the Milin Kamak deposit
is Fe-poor (0.16–0.91 wt.% or 0.22–1.27 mol%, only one analysis
shows 8.16 wt.% or 11.42 mol%), so Fe contents are not determinant
for the formation of chalcopyrite disease (Table 1).
The mole percent FeS in sphalerite coexisting with pyrite or
pyrrhotite is continuously variable as a function of sulfidation state
(Scott and Barnes, 1971; Czamanske, 1974). According to Einaudi
et al. (2003) the mole percent FeS in sphalerite at intermediate sul-
fidation should range from 20 to 1%. The FeS contents in sphalerite
from Milin Kamak deposit are similar to others intermediate sulfi-
dation type epithermal deposits such as the Gandy and Abolhas-
sani, Northern Iran (0.8–1.6 mol%) (Shamanian et al., 2003) and
Sahinli and Tespih Dere, Western Turkey (0.6–1.4 mol%) (Yilmaz
et al., 2010).
Sphalerite is an important carrier of a wide range of minor and
trace elements. Cadmium is one of the most important trace ele-
ment in sphalerite. Its contents normally vary in the range from
0.2 to 1.0 wt.% (Cook et al., 2009). Higher concentration are rare
and are typical for some Mississippi Valley type deposits, such as
Red Dog, Alaska (Kelley et al., 2004). Sphalerite is the main ore of
Cd but abandoned mines and tailings dumps can represent a major
environmental hazard (Schwartz, 2000; Murciego et al., 2010). At
the Milin Kamak deposit Cd contents are low – within the 0.2–
0.42 wt.% range (Table 1) and cadmium should not represent envi-
ronmental risk. Gold contents vary from 0.66 to 0.70 wt.% (Table 1).
Copper contents are low and probably this is due to ‘‘chalcopyrite
disease”.
407
5.1.4. Chalcopyrite
Chalcopyrite occurs as irregular grains, forms fine nests and
veinlets among large pyrite aggregates and gangue minerals. Com-
monly chalcopyrite inclusions are typical in sphalerite as ‘‘chal-
copyrite disease”. In most samples tennantite encloses
chalcopyrite but rarely the opposite relations are observed, indicat-
ing that tennantite predates or coprecipitate with chalcopyrite in
close physicochemical conditions (Fig. 7C).
5.1.5. Tennantite
Tennantite occurs with the other sulfide minerals from the
quartz-polymetallic stage. It is observed as inclusions in sphalerite
and enclose pyrite and galena together with chalcopyrite. In some
samples it associates with bournonite (Fig. 7D). Based on electron
microprobe analyses and according to the ‘‘50-% rule” (Nickel,
1992) the members of the tennantite-tetrahedrite series are deter-
mined mostly as zincian tennantite. Gold (0.60 and 0.63 wt.%) and
silver (1.25 and 0.8 wt.%) contents are documented in tennantite
(Table 1).
5.1.6. Bournonite
Bournonite is rare and occurs as anhedral crystals and aggre-
gates on the boundary between galena and sphalerite with chal-
copyrite (Fig. 7D). It fills fractures in sphalerite indicating its
later deposition in the quartz-polymetallic stage. EMPA indicate
variations in its chemical composition. The Sb content ranges
between 17.39 wt.% and 26.22 wt.%. In two of the samples, As con-
tents were detected (3.83 and 6.51 wt.%) (Table 1). Higher As con-
tent tend to correlate negatively with lower Sb content, indicating
a substitution between the two elements. According to Wu and
Birnie (1977) As substitutes for Sb in bournonite to at least an
408 R. Sabeva et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415

Fig. 7. Ore mineralogy (A, B, C – reflected plane-polarized light images; D, E, F – back-scattered electron images). (A) Euhedral pyrite (Py) with marcasite (Mz) rims (drill hole
768, 122.2 m). (B) Galena (Gal) infills the pyrite (Py) interstices and as inclusions in anhedral pyrite grains. Sphalerite (Sph) with ‘‘chalcopyrite (Chp) disease” encloses pyrite
and galena (drill hole 10118, 89.6 m). (C) Chalcopyrite (Chp) on the crystal boundary between sphalerite (Sph) and tennantite (Tn) (drill hole 10114, 143 m). (D) Tennantite
(Tn) and bournonite (Bour) deposited on the boundary between sphalerite (Sph) and galena (Gal) (drill hole 10109, 92.5 m). (E) Bleb of hessite (Hs), petzite (Pz) and altaite
(Alt) in galena (Gal). Electrum (Au) from the quartz-polymetallic stage infills the cleavage gaps and cracks in galena in close spatial relation with telluride minerals (drill hole
10116, 115.9 m). (F) The upper part of a cavity with zonal deposition of rhodochrosite (Rh), dolomite (Do) and calcite (Cal). Barite (Ba) crystals are in rhodochrosite
groundmass and are with multi-layered rim of rhodochrosite (drill hole 768).

As/(As + Sb) value (atomic) = 0.54. The authors assume a complete
solid solution between bournonite and seligmannite. In bournonite
from the Milin Kamak deposit the values As/(As + Sb) = 0.21 at.%
(for 3.83 wt.% As) and As/(As + Sb) = 0.38 at.% (6.51 wt.% As) imply
an As-bearing member of the bournonite-seligmannite series.
5.1.7. Telluride minerals
Hessite, petzite, and altaite are found for the first time at the
Milin Kamak deposit. They occur as blebs up to 75 mm only in
galena at depths of 115.9 m in drill hole 10116. The blebs are dom-
inated by hessite and electrum (Fig. 8A). In rare cases altaite occurs
instead of electrum (Fig. 7E). Hessite is the most common and
always associates with petzite. Petzite is rare and enclose electrum
or altaite in the blebs.
Electron microprobe analyses of telluride minerals show chem-
ical composition close to stoichiometry. Au content in hessite
reaches 0.92 wt.% and in altaite – 4.74 wt.% Ag (Table 1).
5.1.8. Gold
In the quartz-polymetallic stage electrum is deposited and in
carbonate-gold stage – native gold.
Electrum occurs at depths of 115.9 m and together with hessite
and petzite composite blebs in galena (Fig. 7E; 8A). It is deposited
also in the fractures and in the cleavage gaps in galena but always
in close spatial relation with telluride minerals (Fig. 7E). Therefore
hessite and petzite are indicators for the presence of electrum in
the deposit. The morphology of electrum grains varies according
to the shape of the fracture or cavity they infill. Most often it occurs
 R. Sabeva et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415 409

Table 1
Representative compositions of minerals from the Milin Kamak gold-silver deposit.

Minerals wt.% S Fe Cu Zn As Ag Cd Sb Te Au Pb Total Representative formulae

Pyrite Average 53.54 46.14 0.02 0.03 0.11 bdl bdl bdl bdl 0.42 bdl 100.25 Fe1.00S2.01
(n = 96)
St. dev. 0.90 0.44 0.08 0.11 0.31 bdl bdl 0.03 bdl 0.35 bdl (Fe1.00As0.01)1.01S2.00
(Fe0.92As0.09Au0.01)1.02S1.99
Galena (n = 9) Average 14.84 1.69 0.02 bdl 1.28 0.05 0.98 bdl bdl bdl 81.82 100.69 (Pb0.83Fe0.11As0.06Cd0.02)1.02S0.99
St. dev. 0.73 1.80 0.07 bdl 0.75 0.16 0.15 bdl bdl bdl 3.11 (Pb0.91Cd0.02)0.93S1.03
Sphalerite Average 33.29 1.65 0.06 64.49 bdl bdl 0.26 bdl bdl 0.29 bdl 100.04 Zn0.97S1.02
(n = 7)
St. dev. 1.19 2.88 0.16 3.45 bdl bdl 0.18 bdl bdl 0.36 bdl (Zn0.99Fe0.02Cu0.01)1.02S0.99
(Zn1.00Fe0.01)1.01S0.99
Chalcopyrite 34.49 30.67 34.6 bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl 0.57 bdl 100.33 (Cu1.00Au0.01)1.01Fe1.01S1.98
(n = 1)
Tennantite Average 28.06 2.42 39.97 6.72 10.13 1.03 bdl 11.73 bdl 0.62 bdl 100.66 (Cu9.91Zn1.56Fe0.35Ag0.18Au0.05)12.05
(n = 2) (As2.24Sb1.53)3.77S13.2
St. dev. 0.95 1.63 1.11 0.19 1.05 0.32 bdl 0.47 bdl 0.02 bdl (Cu9.34Zn1.59Fe0.97Ag0.11Au0.05)12.06
(As1.90Sb1.42)3.32S13.58
Bournonite Average 21.75 bdl 14.55 0.49 3.45 0.12 0.50 22.23 bdl bdl 38.06 101.15 (Pb0.76Zn0.04Cd0.02)0.82Cu1.11
(n = 3) (Sb0.83As0.23)1.06S3.01
St. dev. 0.39 bdl 1.26 0.45 3.27 0.20 0.10 4.48 bdl bdl 1.83 (Pb0.86Cd0.02)0.88Cu0.97Sb0.97S3.11
(Pb0.85Ag0.01Zn0.06Cd0.02)0.94Cu1.00
(Sb0.64As0.39)1.03S3.00
Hessite Average 0.20 bdl bdl bdl bdl 61.71 bdl bdl 33.96 0.46 bdl 96.32 (Ag2.00Au0.02)2.02(Te0.92S0.04)0.96
(n = 2)
St. dev. 0.28 bdl bdl bdl bdl 1.40 bdl bdl 1.41 0.65 bdl Ag1.99Te0.94
Petzite (n = 2) Average bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl 40.73 bdl bdl 30.19 22.21 4.09 97.20 Ag3.09Au0.93Pb0.14Te1.92
St. dev. bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl 1.12 bdl bdl 1.04 0.35 0.98 Ag3.14Au0.93Pb0.14Te1.98
Altaite (n = 1) bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl 4.74 0.52 bdl 35.91 bdl 57.60 98.77 (Pb0.91Ag0.14)1.05Cd0.02 Te0.93
Electrum Average. bdl bdl 0.12 bdl bdl 20.87 bdl bdl bdl 73.25 6.66 100.89 (Au0.69Ag0.36Pb0.05)1.1
(n = 2)
St. dev. bdl bdl 0.16 bdl bdl 0.23 bdl bdl bdl 0.91 0.22 (Au0.68Ag0.35Pb0.06Cu0.01)1.1
Native gold Average bdl 0.33 0.76 bdl bdl 7.02 0.37 bdl bdl 79.20 5.94 93.60 (Au0.83Ag0.13Pb0.06Cu0.05Fe0.02Cd0.01)1.1
(n = 2)
St. dev bdl 0.11 0.76 bdl bdl 1.08 0.52 bdl bdl 7.36 0.42 (Au0.96Ag0.16Pb0.07Cu0.01Fe0.01)1.21
Stibnite Average 28.17 0.04 0.11 bdl 0.37 bdl bdl 70.03 bdl 0.61 bdl 99.32 (Sb1.97Cu0.02Au0.01)2.00S2.97
(n = 3)
St. dev. 0.35 0.07 0.18 bdl 0.64 bdl bdl 0.27 bdl 0.10 bdl (Sb1.95Au0.01)1.96S2.99
(Sb1.95As0.05Au0.01)2.01S3.00

Fig. 8. Back-scattered electron images of gold. (A) Electrum from the quartz-polymetallic stage. Bleb of electrum (Au), hessite (Hs) and petzite (Pz) in galena (Gal) (drill hole
10116, 115.9 m). (B) Native gold from the carbonate-gold stage. Native gold (Au) grains and stibnite (Sb) in carbonate (Carb) and on the phase boundary with quartz (Qtz)
(drill hole 10109, 92.5 m).

as irregular, elongated, rarely as oval and drop-like grains. In the
blebs electrum is up to 40–50 mm but generally hard to be distin-
guished (3–5 mm). The colour is pale yellow. EMPA indicate that
composition corresponds to electrum with 20.70–21.03 wt.% Ag
and fineness 724–729 (Table 1). Cu is documented in one sample
(0.23 wt.%). Pb ranges from 6.50 to 6.81 wt.% and the high contents
are probably result from the host galena.
Native gold occurs at depths of 92.5 m in carbonates with stib-
nite and barite. It is observed mostly as free grains with equant and
oval forms up to 7 mm in carbonates, and very often on the phase
410 R. Sabeva et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415
boundary between carbonates and quartz (Fig. 8B). The grains are
gold yellow with high fineness (838–854). EMPA reveal Ag (6.25–
7.78 wt.%), Pb (5.64–6.23 wt.%), Fe (0.25–0.41 wt.%), and Cd
(0.73 wt.%) (Table 1).
Electron microprobe analyses also show traces of gold in pyrite
(0.47–1.13 wt.%), sphalerite (0.66–0.70 wt.%), tennantite (0.60 and
0.63 wt.%), hessite (0.92 wt.%), and stibnite (0.50–0.69 wt.%)
(Table 1).
5.1.9. Stibnite
Stibnite is deposited in the carbonate-gold stage. It mainly
occurs as unevenly distributed prismatic to needle-like crystals
and forms nest among the carbonates (Fig. 8B). It rarely forms vein-
lets up to 1 cm. Stibnite is deposited mostly on the boundary
between carbonates and quartz. EMPA reveal Au content from
0.50 to 0.69 wt.% (Table 1).
5.2. Gangue mineralogy and mineral chemistry
The most common gangue minerals are quartz, carbonates and
barite.
5.2.1. Quartz
Quartz I is deposited in the quartz-pyrite stage. Massive quartz
aggregates host and corrode pyrite I. Quartz II from the quartz-
polymetallic stage is fine- to coarse-grained and infills fractures
and cavities and rarely forms comb texture. Quartz II is commonly
colourless, transparent, but rarely clear. In some samples grey to
milky quartz can be observed. Trace chalcedony occurs sporadi-
cally in association with quartz.
5.2.2. Carbonate minerals
The carbonate minerals are deposited mainly in the carbonate-
gold stage, whereas in the quartz-polymetallic stage they are rare.
They are medium- to coarse-grained, rarely occur as euhedral crys-
tals with scalenohedral habit. Based on electron microprobe anal-
yses the members of the carbonate group from the carbonate-
gold stage were determined as calcite, dolomite and rhodochrosite.
Calcite is the most common carbonate mineral. It infills cavities
together with dolomite and rhodochrosite. A distinctive zonal
deposition of carbonates can be observed in cavities. The order of
deposition from periphery to the center of the cavities is: rhodo-
chrosite ? dolomite ? calcite (Fig. 7F).
5.2.3. Barite
Barite forms crystal laths up to 2 mm in length, rarely up to
0.5 cm in cavities with coarse-grained carbonates. Barite crystals
often have multi-layered envelopes of rhodochrosite (Fig. 7F). Sr
contents up to 3.42 wt.% define the barite as Sr-rich member of
the barite-celestine series (Hanor, 2000).
5.3. Supergene minerals
Supergene alteration has affected the sulfides. The main super-
gene minerals are copiapite, epsomite, jarosite, iron and man-
ganese oxide-hydroxides. The depth of weathering is related to
the structure and level of the ground-water table and is about 2–
5 m below surface.
5.4. Copper-bearing paragenesis
The copper paragenesis consists of pyrite, chalcopyrite, chal-
cocite, bornite, and covellite. Pyrite and chalcopyrite are primary,
whereas chalcocite, bornite and covellite are supergene. Pyrite is
deposited in two generations. Pyrite I occurs as porous and frac-
tured euhedral to subhedral crystals. Pyrite II is anhedral and infills
the interstices between pyrite I grains. It is also porous, fractured
and brecciated. Chalcopyrite is rare and replaced by the supergene
copper sulfides. Bornite occurs with chalcocite and together they
form net-mesh-like microtextures in pyrite. Chalcocite is the main
copper sulfide in the paragenesis. It encloses pyrite I and mainly
infills fractures in pyrite II. Covellite replaces chalcocite rarely
and occurs as free grains in the gangue groundmass. The gangue
minerals are quartz, kaolinite and alunite.
6. Fluid inclusion petrography and microthermometry
The quartz samples were collected from the main No. 1 ore
zone. Fluid inclusions are hosted by medium-grained quartz, which
is the main gangue mineral in the deposit and associated with pyr-
ite. It is commonly assumed that primary inclusions hosted by
transparent gangue minerals which show a purely spatial associa-
tion with ore minerals are representative of the ore-forming fluid
(Wilkinson, 2001). Many of the collected samples did not contain
inclusions of sufficient size and abundance to provide further study
but still data was obtained from doubly polished sections (<1 mm
thick) at depths of 64.8 m and 167 m (drill holes 1097 and 10109).
Primary and secondary inclusions with no daughter minerals were
identified. Only two-phase inclusions at room temperature were
recognized. All of them are liquid-rich, containing 20–30 vol.%
vapour (V) and 70–80 vol.% liquid (L) (Fig. 9).
Based on the occurrence in a single crystal without evidence of
direction of growth or growth zonation, primary intracrystalline
inclusions were defined. They occur as single inclusions which
are large relative to that of the enclosing crystal and the size ranges
from 5 to 20 lm. The shape of the inclusions is oval and equant.
The secondary inclusions are randomly distributed in planar
groups with irregular, elongated and rod shapes.
Using the criteria for primary origin of Roedder (1984) all
results are believed to have been obtained from primary fluid
inclusions. Microthermometric data are summarized in Table 2
and Fig. 10. The homogenization temperature (Th) of the primary
inclusions ranges from 238° to 345 °C (Fig. 10) and only three of
the measurements are above 273 °C. Ice-melting temperatures
(Tm) range from 2.2 to 4.1 °C and salinity – from 3.7 to 6.6 wt.
% NaCl equiv. (Table 2). Salinity is calculated from ice-melting tem-
peratures, using the revised equation of Bodnar (1993).
7. Sulfur isotope data
Sulfur isotope compositions were analyzed in 10 pure separates
of pyrite from drill holes 10105, 10109 and 10114. The results are
expressed using the delta per mil notation with respect to Canyon
Diablo Troilite (V-CDT). The d34S values range from 0.49 to
+2.44‰ (Fig. 11). The average calculated d34S values are 1.35‰
(Table 3). The total range of d34S values for pyrite are close to zero
per mil which suggest a magmatic source for sulfur (Ohmoto and
Rye, 1979; Seal, 2006).
8. Discussion
The Milin Kamak gold-silver deposit occurs within altered tra-
chybasalt to andesitic trachybasalt volcanic and volcanoclastic
rocks of Upper Cretaceous age. E-W-striking faults host the ore
mineralization.
The geophysical IP anomaly, established by Trace Resources Ltd.
suggests the presence of an intrusive body and probably a related
porphyry mineralization (Crummy et al., 2001). In earlier publica-
tions fluid inclusions studies of quartz show homogenization tem-
perature of about 400 °C which also imply for a porphyry body at
depth (Stoykov et al., 2007; Moritz et al., 2007). The shallower
 R. Sabeva et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415 411

Fig. 9. Photomicrographs showing primary two-phase liquid-rich (L) fluid inclusions with vapor bubble (V) in quartz. (A) Primary fluid inclusion in quartz from drill hole
10109 at a depth of 167 m. On the left corner of the small microphotograph the quartz crystal with the location of the fluid inclusion can be observed. (B) Primary fluid
inclusion in quartz in association with pyrite (Py) from drill hole 1097 at a depth of 64.8 m. On the left corner of the small microphotograph the quartz crystal with the
location of the inclusion can be observed.

Table 2
Homogenization (Th) and ice-melting (Tm) temperatures of primary fluid inclusions in quartz from the Milin Kamak gold-silver deposit.

Drill hole no./sample/depth Number of the studied Th °C (average) Number of studied Tm °C (average) wt.%
fluid inclusions fluid inclusions NaCl equiv.
(Bodnar, 1993)
10109/15/167 m 3 243.15 3 2.2 3.7
237.7 3.0 5.0
240 3.2 5.3
10109/15-2/167 m 8 270.55 2 3.5 5.7
316.05 4.1 6.6
344.95
341.05
241.8
273.1
268.25
260.5
1097/64.80 m 2 243.2 5 3.3 5.4
260.75 2.7 4.5
2.5 4.2
3.4 5.6
2.6 4.3

Fig. 10. Homogenization (Th) vs. ice-melting (Tm) temperatures for primary fluid inclusions (Th vs. Tm).

parts of the porphyry systems may host high and intermediate sul- High sulfidation epithermal Au, Ag, and/or Cu deposits are typ-
fidation epithermal base and precious metal mineralization ically located in the lithocap environment above the porphyry
(Corbett and Leach, 1998; Sillitoe, 1989; Hedenquist et al., 2000; body. They contain sulfide-rich assemblages of high sulfidation
Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003; Sillitoe, 2010). state, typically pyrite-enargite, pyrite-luzonite, pyrite-famatinite,
412 R. Sabeva et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415

and pyrite-covellite, hosted by leached silicic rock with a halo of

advanced argillic minerals (Hedenquist et al., 2000; Sillitoe and
Hedenquist, 2003; Einaudi et al., 2003).
Most intermediate sulfidation epithermal Au and Ag deposits
occur in calc-alkaline andesitic-dacitic arcs (Sillitoe and
Hedenquist, 2003). A few intermediate sulfidation deposits, typi-
cally small ones, adjoin advanced argillic lithocaps, with or without
associated high sulfidation deposits (Sillitoe, 1999). Some of them
show a spatial association with porphyry systems (Sillitoe, 1989).
This deposit type contains sulfide assemblage of intermediate sul-
phidation state, including FeS-poor sphalerite (from <1 to 10 mole
percent FeS, locally up to 20 mole percent FeS), galena, pyrite, chal-
copyrite, and tetrahedrite but lacking appreciable arsenopyrite and
pyrrhotite. Silver is present as Ag sulfosalts, and in some cases a
Fig. 11. Range of d34S values (‰) for pyrite samples from the Milin Kamak deposit.
large variety of these minerals occur in trace amount. The main
gangue minerals are Mn-bearing carbonates, rhodonite, and quartz
(Hedenquist et al., 2000; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003; Einaudi
Table 3 et al., 2003; Sillitoe, 2010).
Stable S isotope values of the Milin Kamak gold-silver deposit. The main characteristics of the high and intermediate sulfida-
Sample no. Drill hole no./Ore zone no. Sulfur content % d34SV-CDT. ‰ tion type epithermal precious metal deposits are shown on Table 4
1 10105/ 8 49.8 1.05
in order to define the style of mineralization of the Milin Kamak
2 64.8 0.49 deposit.
3 10109/ 6; 1 53.0 0.98 Advanced argillic alteration is observed only in the NE part of
4 48.2 1.42 the Milin Kamak deposit, drill hole 10105, No. 8 ore zone. This style
5 48.9 1.69
of alteration is an analogue of acid-sulfate alteration (Heald et al.,
6 60.0 2.44
7 10114/ 1 67.5 1.08 1987) and requires high oxidation and sulfidation state (Meyer
8 49.2 1.14 and Hemley, 1967; Hemley et al., 1969). This ore zone consists of
9 32.6 2.10 disseminated pyrite and copper sulfides – chalcocite, bornite, cov-
10 44.4 2.04 ellite with quartz, kaolinite, alunite and APS minerals. Alunite
Average 1.35
forms at temperatures of up to 500 °C and sulfate fluids with high

Table 4
Comparative characteristics of the main features of high and intermediate sulfidation type deposits (after Hayba et al., 1985; White and Hedenquist, 1995; Einaudi et al., 2003;
Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003) and Milin Kamak deposit.

High sulfidation Intermediate sulfidation Milin Kamak deposit

Ore zones 1, 2, 4, 6 Ore zone 8
Tectonic Related to intrusive centers, rare calderas (Hayba Calc-alkaline andesitic-dacitic arc (Sillitoe High-K calc-alkaline arc, intrusive body and
settings et al., 1985) and Hedenquist, 2003)^ probably a related porphyry mineralization
Host rocks Mainly rhyodacite (Hayba et al., 1985) Andesite to rhyodacite (locally rhyolite) Potassium trachybasalts and shoshonites,
Andesite to rhyodacite (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003) andesitic trachybasalt
2003)
Deposit style Structure-controlled Structure-controlled
and ore Disseminated, replacement ore little variation of Open-space veins Wide variety of textures: Open-space veins, Disseminated,
textures ore textures: massive, rare veints and breccias crustiform, banded, comb, breccia (Sillitoe stockwork, wide variety replacement ore,
(White and Hedenquist, 1995) and Hedenquist, 2003) of textures massive textures
Key alteration Quartz-alunite/APS; Quartz-pyrophyllite/dickite Sericite, without adularia (Sillitoe and Sericite without adularia Quartz-
minerals (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003) Hedenquist, 2003) kaolinitequartz-
Illite ± adularia (Einaudi et al., 2003) kaolinite-alunite
(APS)
Key sulfide Enargite, luzonite, famatinite, covellite (Sillitoe and Sphalerite, galena, tetrahedrite-tennantite, Galena, FeS-poor Chalcocite,
species Hedenquist, 2003) chalcopyrite (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003) sphalerite tetrahedrite- bornite, covellite,
FeS-poor sphalerite (Einaudi et al., 2003) tennantite, chalcopyrite chalcopyrite,
Au and Ag Native gold, rarely electrum (White and Native gold, electrum, native silver (Sillitoe Native gold, electrum, ‘‘Invisible” gold
Hedenquist, 1995) and Hedenquist, 2003) ‘‘invisible” gold Ag b Ag-
Au tellurides
Gangue minerals
Silica Massive silicification and vuggy quartz (Sillitoe and Vein-filling crustiform and comb quartz Vein-filling crustiform ‘‘Vuggy” quartz
Hedenquist, 2003) (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003) and comb quartz
Carbonate Absent (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003) Common with manganiferious varieties Calcite, dolomite, Absent
(Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003) rhodochrosite
Other Late barite (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003) Barite ± manganiferious silicates (Sillitoe Barite Absent
and Hedenquist, 2003)
Metal signature
Main metals Au-Ag, Cu, As-Sb (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003) Au-Ag, Ag-Au, Ag-pollymetallic, Au-Ag Cu, Au
Commonly Cu + Au-Ag (Hayba et al., 1985) pollymetalic-Ag-Au, Ag, Zn, Pb, Cu (Sillitoe
and Hedenquist, 2003)
Minor metals Zn, Pb, Bi, W, Mo, Sn, Hg (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, As, Sb, Mo (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003) Pb, Zn, Cu, As, Sb, Mn As?
2003)
Te and Se Tellurides common ± selenides (Sillitoe and Tellurides common, sellenides uncommon Tellurides-common Absent
Hedenquist, 2003) (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003)
 R. Sabeva et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415
Fig. 12. Schematic section of Breznik paleovolcano showing relationships between high- and intermediate sulfidation type epithermal mineralization with the probable
intrusive body (porphyry stock) and porphyry mineralization. On the norther slopes products of Breznik paleovolcano are situated (Velev et al., 2012). The probable migration
and evolution of fluids are shown (after Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003) with additions and modifications).
oxygen potential and low pH (0.8–5.3) (Hemley et al., 1969;
Kashkai and Babaev, 1976). According to Ripp et al. (1998) APS
minerals form in conditions of high activity of PO34 ions, high oxy-
gen potential and a pH interval from strong acid to neutral (3–8).
The co-existence of these minerals suggests formation of the
advanced argillic alteration zone in the Milin Kamak deposit in
pH interval of 3–5. The presence of kaolinite in association with
alunite and APS minerals indicates formation temperature of about
200 °C. These features point to the presence of high sulfidation
type of mineralization which is around the center of Breznik pale-
ovolcano and probably in a close genetic relationship with the
intrusive body and the probable porphyry system which corre-
spond with the model of Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003) (Fig. 12)
(Table 4).
On the southern slopes of Breznik paleovolcano relatively dis-
tant from the volcanic center No. 1, 2, 4 and 6 ore zones are situ-
ated (Fig. 12). A number of important features in these zones
indicate the occurrence of intermediate sulfidation type mineral-
ization. The epithermal veins associate with sericitic alteration
without adularia. Ore mineralization exhibits a variety of textures
– veins, veinlets, and stockworks; disseminated and nest-like tex-
ture; breccias; crustiform banded ore and comb texture. The ore
minerals are dominated by pyrite, galena, FeS-poor sphalerite
(0.22–1.27 mol% FeS), tennantite, chalcopyrite, electrum, and
native gold. Tellurides are common. Gangue minerals are mainly
quartz, calcite, dolomite, rhodochrosite, and barite (Table 4).
A similar transition between the high and intermediate sulfida-
tion type mineralization, and the spatial association with a por-
phyry system is noted at many deposits including the Acupan
and Antanamok intermediate sulfidation type deposits in Baguio
district, Philippines which share a spatial and temporal relation-
ship with the Kelly high sulfidation type deposit and the Ampucao
porphyry (Sillitoe, 1989; Aoki et al., 1993; Cooke and McPhail,
2001; Cooke et al., 2011) and several deposits (Valea Morii and
Rosia Poeni) in the South Apuseni Mountains of Romania
(Ivascanu et al., 2002).
413
The homogenization temperature of primary inclusions in
quartz ranges from 238° to 345 °C. The fluids are with low- to mod-
erate salinity (from 3.7 to 6.6 wt.% NaCl equiv.). The total range of
d34S for pyrite are close to zero per mil which point to a magmatic
source for the sulfur (Ohmoto and Rye, 1979; Seal, 2006). The
homogenization temperature, salinity and sulfur stable isotopes
results suggest the impact of dominant meteoric and subordinate
magmatic ore-forming fluids and confirm the epithermal environ-
ment (Einaudi et al., 2003; Pirajno, 2009).
9. Conclusions
The Milin Kamak gold-silver deposit is the first described
epithermal deposit in the Western Srednogorie zone, Bulgaria.
The deposit is located at the Breznik paleovolcano of Upper Creta-
ceous age between two big porphyry copper districts – Bor-
Majdanpek to the west and Panagyurishte district to the east.
According to the geological setting, alteration style of the host
rocks, main textures, mineral assemblages and composition of
some minerals, depositional temperatures, salinities and sulfur
stable isotopes Milin Kamak gold-silver deposit is an example for
intermediate sulfidation type epithermal deposit which is in spa-
tial and probably temporal association with high sulfidation min-
eralization and probable porphyry system.
Author’s declaration
We wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest
associated with this publication and there has been no significant
financial support for this work that could have influenced its
outcome.
We confirm that the manuscript has been read and approved by
all named authors and that there are no other persons who
satisfied the criteria for authorship but are not listed. We further
414 R. Sabeva et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 88 (2017) 400–415
confirm that the order of authors listed in the manuscript has been
approved by all of us.
We confirm that we have given due consideration to the protec-
tion of intellectual property associated with this work and that
there are no impediments to publication, including the timing of
publication, with respect to intellectual property. In so doing we
confirm that we have followed the regulations of our institutions
concerning intellectual property.
Acknowledgments
This study was financially supported by Trace Resources Ltd
and CEEPUS program for research stay at the University of Graz,
Austria. The authors gratefully acknowledge Jürgen Neubauer
(Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Graz) and Tsvetoslav Iliev
(Geological Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences) for their
technical help with electron microprobe analyses and the scan
images. We thank also Prof. Strashimir Strashimirov (University
of Mining and Geology ‘‘St. Ivan Rilski”) for the help during fluid
inclusions studies.
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