CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION
Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steam Turbine Rotors
D.A. Rosario,* R. Viswanathan,** C.H. Wells, and G.J. Licina*
ABSTRACT
In the wake of the catastrophic failure of a low-pressure (LP)
turbine disk at the Hinkley Point Nuclear Station in 1969,
considerable research and development has been devoted to
the problem of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in steam tur-
bine rotors. Principle factors affecting the susceptibility of
rotors to SCC have been identified as disk yield strength,
applied stress level, and surface film/crevice chemistry.
Microstructure and cleanliness of the steel have been found
to have relatively little effect. Advances in steel making and
forging over the last 20 years have provided manufacturers
with additional design and material options to mitigate the
problem. Increases in forging size capabilities of steel compa-
nies and the welded construction of rotors now permit
designing with integral and partial integral rotors that use
materials with lower yield strength (more SCC resistant) as
well as eliminating the SCC problem in bores and keyways.
However, a recent survey of U.S. utilities has shown that
SCC in the blade attachment legion of LP rotors is an increas-
ing concern. This problem has led to development of repair
and refurbishment methods for rim attachments, especially
weld buildup of rims with corrosion-resistant alloys. Life
prediction of rotors under SCC conditions currently involves
estimating crack growth time from assumed defects to critical
size. Factors that govern the location and time of crack initia-
tion are not understood adequately.
KEY WORDS: environmentally assisted corrosion, industrial
applications, nuclear applications, power generation, rotors,
steam turbine, steel, stress corrosion cracking
Submitted for publication December 1996; in revised form, June
1997.
* Structural Integrity Associates, 3315 Almaden Expressway, Suite
24, San Jose, CA 95118.
** Electric Power Research Institute, 3412 Hillview Ave., Palo Alto,
CA 94303.
0010-9312/98/000117/$5.00+$0.50/0
CORROSION–Vol. 54, No. 7 © 1998, NACE International
INTRODUCTION
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is an ubiquitous
problem in power station equipment subject to flow-
ing or condensing wet surface films. The problem is
particularly insidious at the highly stressed mating
surfaces of steam turbine rotors, where crevice corro-
sion conditions, crack initiation, and early growth of
cracks may go undetected for many years. Conse-
quences of undetected cracking have been
demonstrated repeatedly over almost three decades,
commencing with the Hinkley Point disk burst in
1969 and the discovery of bore cracks in disk tur-
bines. Financial and safety risks of bore cracking,
especially in nuclear plants, prompted a massive
response from the power industry worldwide to cope
with the complex issues of rotor design, material
properties, steam chemistry, and nondestructive
inspection that govern the economics of turbine
maintenance.
Research Project RP1398 of the Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI) addressed the root cause of
SCC and produced a survey of the extent of disk
cracking experienced by nuclear and fossil utilities
up until 1981. Key findings were the dependence of
crack growth rate on disk yield strength, tempera-
ture, applied stress level, and steam chemistry, with
secondary influences of steel composition and the
concentration of cracking at the farthest upstream
stage of the turbine at which water droplets formed,
commonly referred to as the Wilson line. Combined
with inspection procedures, this information allows
estimates of the time for crack growth to critical size.
Recently, Lyle reviewed this early research and com-
531
CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION
TABLE 1
Time to Initiate Stress Corrosion Cracks in Creviced Regions at 130°C (266°F) as Reported by Lyle(A)
Yield High-Purity
Strength Water
Steel(B) MPa (ksi) Environment(C)
AH 934 (135) 8,585
AL 780 (113) > 17,520
JH 941 (136) 8,625
JL 741 (108) > 17,520
JP 738 (107) > 17,520
(A)
Representative of typical short-term upset conditions with 40 ppb oxygen and 20 ppb sodium chloride (NaCl).
(B)
High-strength and low-strength 3.5% Ni-Cr-Mo-V American steels are designated AH and AL, respectively, while Japanese
steels are designated JH and JL, respectively. The Japanese high-purity steel is designated JP.
(C)
Representative of secondary-side water in a PWR during normal operation with < 5 ppb oxygen.
(D)
Representative of a severe secondary water upset condition with 6ppm to 8 ppm oxygen and 20 ppb NaCl.
bined with it the results of international projects on
characterization of the susceptibility of rotor steels of
various composition and strength levels to environ-
mental factors, including his own results with
simulated crevices.1 This recent review, combined
with other observations, underscores some signifi-
cant gaps in understanding crack initiation and the
ability to predict the onset of cracking.
Refurbishment and repair methods have been
introduced to reduce or eliminate the risk of SCC, as
have improvements in steel making and processing
for more resistant forgings. At the same time, indus-
try efforts to reduce the risk of bore and keyway
cracking through integrally forged and welded rotor
construction have shifted concern somewhat to the
susceptibility of rim attachments. It has been par-
ticularly important to determine whether this
cracking mode should become more prevalent with
aging of the fleet and what mitigation steps should be
taken.
These issues led to a survey of U.S. utility expe-
rience and of the efficacy of repair methods, the
results of which are summarized in the present work.
Also addressed are the adequacy of life prediction
and nondestructive examination methods to provide
the basis of maintenance decisions. An overview of
key research results generated during recent years
also is presented.
SCC and Life Prediction Methods
SCC Initiation — Cheruvu and Seth investigated
factors that control initiation and found that oxygen
and caustic were the most aggressive.2 However,
rotor materials exposed at < 200°F (93.3°C) or that
had a yield strength (ys) < 110 ksi (758 MPa) exhib-
ited no significant cracking. Lyle recently published
results of a test that addressed the influence of water
chemistry and material composition and hardness
on relative rates of SCC over a 24-month duration.3
Results confirmed the dominant role of yield strength
532
Time to Initiate Cracks (h)
Intermediate Contaminated
Oxygen Water
Environment(C) Environment(D)
425 1,289
1,924 1,989
1,866 2,106
2,190 3,979
1,683 2,650
and applied stress in establishing susceptibility.
Temperature was a constant 130°C (266°F) in these
tests. Estimates were made of the time to crack ini-
tiation in typical disks on the basis of the results and
a generalized SCC crack growth rate correlation.
Specimens were tested at stress levels equal to 70%
and 90% of yield strength and at stresses in excess of
yield strength. Initiation times were on the order of
1 year to 2 years as shown in Table 1 for typical
American- and Japanese-made high- and low-
strength steel in various environments.3 The short
initiation times in the laboratory tests were not con-
sistent with field experience, which indicated the first
detection of SCC in certain disk rims generally is
observed after many years of operation. Lyle also
concluded that crevices and crevice chemistry played
a strong role in crack initiation, but that steel micro-
structure and chemistry effects were relatively weak.
Oxygen was reported to be the dominant impurity.
Only a few instances of cracks growing from pits
were observed on test specimens. Initiation from
corrosion trenches was favored strongly over initia-
tion from pits.
Rau, et al., proposed a quantitative model for
SCC initiation time, using a normalized initiation
time (tN) given by:4
σ 3
tN = td R (1)
σys
where td is the actual or calculated initiation time
from field experience, (␴/␴ys) is the ratio of surface
tensile stress to yield, and R is the SCC crack growth
rate (computed wing data from EPRI RP2408-1) to
account for the dependence of initiation time on disk
temperature, yield strength, manganese content, and
tempering temperature. The effect of surface stress
was accounted for using a third-power dependence
based on laboratory test data.5-6 The normalized ini-
CORROSION–JULY 1998
 CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION

tiation times then were fit statistically to yield an

initiation probability (P) given by:

tN – t0
P = 1.0 – exp – α (2)
β – t0

where ␣, ␤, and t0 are curve fit constants. Figure 1 is

an example of initiation probability data compiled by
Rau for disk keyway cracks.
Endo, et al., recently published results of a labo-
ratory study on environmentally assisted cracking
(SCC and corrosion fatigue) in 3.5% Ni-Cr-Mo-V
steels with yield strengths of 700 MPa to 1,050 MPa
(102 ksi to 152 ksi).7 Testing was performed at stress
FIGURE 1. SCC initiation probability vs tN to account for stress and
levels equal to the disk yield strength. The three SCC growth rate (Rau, et al.4).
damage mechanisms investigated were SCC, dynamic
SCC, and corrosion fatigue. The SCC process was
reported to consist of three stages: pit growth, crack
formation, and macroscopic crack propagation (Fig-
ure 2). Cracks were observed to initiate at corrosion
pits. Lyle has shown that pitting is not required as a
precursor to SCC.3 A correlation was seen by Endo
between the number of pits and the inclusion con-
tent or impurities. Higher material yield strength and
higher temperatures were found to reduce crack ini-
tiation time. Crack initiation from a microscopic pit
was predicted for a critical pit size 2Ccr, which occurs
when the applied stress intensity factor exceeds a
critical value (KISCC)P for static stress or (∆Kth)P where
corrosion fatigue is operative. Increasing the number
of start-stop cycles and longer hold times were found FIGURE 2. Stress corrosion crack initiation and growth model per
to reduce crack initiation time, a phenomenon re- Endo, et al.7
ferred to as dynamic SCC. The dependence of stress
corrosion crack growth rate on yield strength and
temperature per Clark, et al.,8 was verified by Endo.
A summary of Siemens† experience and research
and development studies on low-pressure (LP) rotor
SCC was provided by David, et al.9 Only one of 430
disks in Siemens/KWU nuclear turbines had SCC.
None occurred in the rim attachment region. Exten-
sive SCC initiation testing was performed on
low-alloy LP turbine rotor and disk materials for vari-
ous applied stress-to-yield strength (RSCCI) ratios and
environments (high-purity water up to 212°F, con-
densing steam at 203°F and 30% sodium hydroxide
[NaOH] solution at 212°F to 392°F). Results are sum-
marized in Figure 3. As shown, an improvement in
the operating environment permitted high stress FIGURE 3. Stress corrosion crack initiation results by Siemens.9
levels up to and above the yield strength level of the
material. Even in a severely corrosive environment,
SCC initiation did not occur for stress levels below of the high-purity water condition in those plants,
half the material yield strength (0.5 RSCCI). Siemens which permits operating levels up to 10% above yield
concluded that the absence of SCC in 1970-vintage strength (1.1 RSCCI) without initiating cracking. In
rotors in nuclear power plants probably was a result contradiction with Endo, et al.,7 but consistent with
Lyle3 and Holdsworth, et al.,10 the Siemens data indi-
†
Trade name. cated that SCC initiation in high-purity water is not

CORROSION–Vol. 54, No. 7 533

CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION
affected by the cleanliness of steel (i.e., nonmetallic
inclusions do not serve as initiation sites for corro-
sion pits).
Part of the problem in predicting the initiation
life of a disk rim is the uncertain history of attach-
ment crevice chemistry and existence of a liquid film.
A program is under way that includes monitoring of
droplet nucleation and growth in the steam path,
simulating the enthalpy drop in a bypass loop, and
measuring the chemistry of a crevice placed in the
flow loop.11 Condensation can take place on the up-
stream rim face if the surface temperature is
sufficiently low and the total pressure is sufficiently
high. In addition, water may condense on adjacent
surfaces, such as the web of a disk or ID stator
shroud and flow past the rim if no seal is present. No
mapping of surface temperature or liquid films has
been reported.
Early studies concluded that cracking occurred
at the blade stage just downstream of the point of
thermodynamic equilibrium moisture formation, or
Wilson line, since that stage would experience the
highest film temperature.12 In fact, it appeared that
upstream blade rows were primarily susceptible to
cracking in the 1980 survey. It followed that down-
stream rows, assuming the presence of moisture,
also eventually should crack with increasing expo-
sure time. The picture is complicated by the
possibility of excessively wet operation at one point
in a unit’s history, as was attributed in some units to
moisture/separator malfunction.
Once the solute concentration in a crevice has
increased because of off-design operation or other
factors, the vapor pressure is lowered, and moisture
may remain stable at temperatures above the Wilson
line.11
Another factor complicating the prediction of
SCC initiation is the uncertainty in local surface
tensile stress, which requires knowledge of residual
machining stress and the machining tolerances and
variation of the blade-to-disk fit-up. Finite element
models exist for most of the blade attachments sus-
ceptible to SCC,13 although few are in the public
domain. A quantitative data base should incorporate
the nominal attachment stress, with statistical vari-
ability in fit-up.
SCC Crack Growth Rate — The most widely ac-
cepted model for crack growth rate was given by
Clark, et al., in 1981, as expressed by:8
ln R = –4.968– (7,302/T) + 0.0278σys
where R is the crack growth rate in in./h, T is the
temperature in °Rankine (i.e., °F + 460), and ␴ys is
the room-temperature disk yield strength in ksi.
(1)
ASTM A 471-77, “Standard Specification for Vacuum-Treated
Alloy Steel Forgings for Turbine Rotor Disks and Wheels (West
Conshohocken, PA: ASTM, 1982).
534
This equation has been accepted by the U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission for remaining life
predictions of turbine disks with cracks.14 Since that
time, additional crack growth rate data has been
generated under EPRI RP2408-1.15 Recalibration of
the two-variable Clark model yielded the equation:
ln R = –8.8 – (4,040/T) + 0.0231σys (5)
The standard deviation of residuals was 120 for the
above equation, which was based on 228 data points,
vs 0.587 for the Clark model, which was based on 70
data points. The study also identified two more sig-
nificant variables. Manganese content and tempering
temperature for disks that were tempered specifically
below the ASTM A 471 standards(1) (1,050°F) to ob-
tain high strength. The three-variable model with the
effect of manganese is given as:
ln R = –4.74 – (9,270/T) + 0.0337σys + 4.53Mn (6)
where Mn is the weight percent of manganese. The
standard deviation for this model is 1.17. For disks
tempered above 1,050°F, the effect of tempering tem-
perature was included as:
lnR = – 7.04 – (9,270/T) + 0.0337σys
(7)
+ 4.53Mn – 0.0127TT
where TT is the tempering temperature in degrees
Kelvin. The standard deviation for this model is 1.20.
Data on foul disk crack growth rate was pre-
sented by U.S. and foreign researchers at the EPRI
Fossil Steam Turbine Disk Cracking Workshop in
October 1990.16 In summary, the roles of tempera-
ture, stress, environment, material condition, etc., on
crack growth rate have been investigated extensively.
However, the wide scatter in the data suggests that
further studies and modeling would be required to
better characterize the data.
Life Prediction Codes — Two crack propagation-
based life prediction codes have been developed and
publicized for LP blade attachments, Lifetime Analy-
sis of Steeples (LAST) by the Southwest Research
Institute (SWRI)17 and the Disk Crack Evaluator
(DICE) developed under EPRI RP1929-14 as part of
the EPRI guidelines for predicting the life of steam
turbine disks exhibiting SCC.18
The LAST code was developed for two
(4) Westinghouse† design L-5 and L-0 steeples and one
General Electric† (GE) L-1 steeple. The code assumes
an existing crack, and propagation is simulated by
SCC and corrosion fatigue. Remaining life is the time
required to grow the existing crack to critical size.
Typically, very little life remains once the crack
reaches the fatigue threshold depth. Proprietary cor-
rosion fatigue threshold and crack growth data are
CORROSION–JULY 1998
 CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION

used by the code. Two crack geometries, an edge

crack and a semielliptic surface crack, can be evalu-
ated. The SCC growth rate is simulated using the
Westinghouse equation (Equation [4]). Sample re-
maining life results are shown in Figure 4 as a func-
tion of initial crack depth and alternating stress level.
The DICE code performs calculations of stress
intensity vs crack size and critical crack size for an
edge crack and a semielliptic surface crack. The user
specifies a stress distribution and fracture toughness
value. These calculations are part of the overall 1989
EPRI guidelines for predicting the life of steam tur-
bine disks with SCC.18 These guidelines offer two
levels of analyses, depending upon the amount of
information available. SCC growth rates are simu-
lated using Equations (5) through (7).15
In summary, there does not appear to be a single
commercially available code that combines the expe-
rience-based crack initiation probability and
incorporates distributions of stress, temperature,
presence of wet surface films (flowing/stagnant,
refluxing, condensing, etc.) and material properties, FIGURE 4. Sample remaining life results of the SWRI LAST computer
code.17
with a probabilistic crack growth rate analysis.

U.S. Industry Experience

Typical locations and orientations of cracks
documented in the original industry survey through
July 1980 are illustrated in Figure 5.12 This survey
included one decommissioned plant and 33 of 72
operating U.S. nuclear plants at that time: 29 pres-
surized-water reactors (PWR) with steam generators
made by Westinghouse, Combustion Engineering†
(CE), and Babcock & Wilcox† (B&W); and 5 boiling-
water reactors (BWR) made by GE. Power ratings
ranged from 100 MW to 1,100 MW with operating
times from 6 month to 20 years. The 33 plants had a
total of 79 LP turbines, of which 76 had disks made
of quenched-and-tempered 3.5% Ni-Cr-Mo-V steels.
Two turbines had disks made of normalized-and-
tempered 2.5% Ni-Cr-Mo-V steels, and one had disks
made of 1% Cr-1/2% Mo steel. Cracking was found
only in Westinghouse rotors in 20 of 33 plants, of
which 19 were PWR and one was a BWR. Cracking
was found in 70 disks from 36 LP rotors, 35 disks
had keyway cracks, 5 disks had bore surface cracks,
7 disks had face cracks, and 30 disks had rim
attachment cracks (some had more than one type of FIGURE 5. Illustration of typical locations and orientations of cracks
crack). Crack depths ranged from 2.5 mm to 75 mm in U.S. LP rotor disks.12
(0.1 in. to 3.0 in.). Cracks were predominantly inter-
granular and branched and usually were filled with
iron oxides. It generally was agreed that the operative of 20 ppm to 30 ppm. Plants with oxygen levels nor-
mechanism was SCC. Survey data indicated a corre- mally < 5 ppb and never > 15 ppb did not develop
lation between disk cracking and the following cracking. The source of oxygen in most of the plants
variables: was air in leakage through the condenser, which
— All cracking occurred at or downstream of the typically occurs during plant start-ups; and
saturation line where wet steam is usually present; — The crack growth rate was higher for disks
— The most widespread and most severe crack- with higher yield strengths and also increased with
ing occurred in a plant with the highest oxygen level disk operating temperature.

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CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION
FIGURE 6. Rim attachment cracking in nuclear units by reactor type
and manufacturer.
The 1980 survey included only 34 U.S. fossil-
fueled plants with 45 LP turbines, of which 18 were
made by Westinghouse, 19 by GE, and 8 by Allis-
Chalmers†. Disk cracking was reported in 49 disks in
31 turbines of 22 plants: 31 disks had web face
cracks (29 of these were Westinghouse) 16 disks had
rim attachment cracks (14 of these were GE), one
disk had a bore crack (Allis-Chalmers), and one disk
had a keyway crack (Allis-Chalmers). Cracking
occurred in 22 of 24 rotors used in plants with once-
through boilers and all-volatile water treatment
compared with cracking in only 9 of 21 rotors in
plants with drum boilers and phosphate water treat-
ment. Survey data for fossil-fueled plants were not
sufficient to establish relationships between disk
cracking and system variables. The only apparent
trend was for boiler type and water treatment.
Since the 1980 survey, inspection of GE turbines
used in nuclear plants in the United States and in
other countries has revealed disk keyway crack indi-
cations in ≈ 60 disks.1 In the United States, at least
four nuclear units with GE shrunk-on disk LP de-
signs have had their LP rotors replaced with the new
GE monoblock design to eliminate the risk associated
with catastrophic failure of disks with bore/keyway
cracks. With regard to fossil units, it was felt that LP
rotors in reheat machines of up to 500-MW output
were immune to SCC. This belief changed in 1987
with the discovery of SCC in turbine disks in fossil
reheat units and was highlighted in February 1989
with the burst of an IP/LP rotor disk from a 200-MW
reheat unit in the United Kingdom. Subsequent to
this incident and in response to utility concerns,
536
pertinent industry experience was gathered regarding
the problem of SCC in fossil turbine disks.16 GE
reported that 1,049 disks in 85 of the older fossil
turbines of GE design had been inspected. Of these,
36 disks were reported to have ultrasonic indications
in the keyways. Twelve of the indications were re-
moved and analyzed, and SCC was confirmed in six
of these disks. It was GE’s assessment that keyway
crack-like indications could be found in any of the LP
stages, though the first and last stages appeared to
be considerably less susceptible. Westinghouse also
provided a summary of its disk cracking experience.
Of a total of 220 fossil disks inspected, no cracking
of any type was reported. For nuclear units,
Westinghouse reported 1,475 disks inspected, of
which 119 (or 8.1%) were cracked: 105 of these disks
had keyway cracks and 27 disks had bore cracks. No
instance of cracking in rim attachments or on disk
faces was reported.
Over the last 5 years or so, industry concern has
shifted toward addressing cracking in rim attach-
ments of LP rotors, which has increased dramatically
over this period.
LP Disk Rim Blade Attachment Cracking
Cracking in rim attachments of LP steam turbine
rotor disks has increased dramatically since the
original 1980 survey.12 The 1980 survey documented
rim attachment cracking in only seven nuclear units
and a few fossil units. In response to recent industry
concerns with regard to the increasing number of
rotors that either have been repaired or retired be-
cause of this problem, an industry-wide survey was
conducted of rim attachment cracking in nuclear and
fossil units. The objectives of this survey (RP9005-
01)19 were to collect data on LP rotor rim cracking to
document the location, extent, and mechanism of
cracking; the repair methods used; and possible rela-
tionships between cracking experience and various
design and operating parameters. Disk cracking
experience in U.S. nuclear utilities and several fossil
utilities was determined from a review of literature
data and a questionnaire survey mailed to the utili-
ties. Information on rotor repair methods was
obtained from a separate survey of repair vendors
and original equipment manufacturers (OEM). Data
was gathered through December 1995.
U.S. Nuclear Units — The survey included all 109
currently operating nuclear units in the United
States. LP rotor rim attachment cracking was re-
ported in 41 (38%) of these units. The cracking
mechanism reported was predominantly SCC, with a
few instances of corrosion fatigue and one incident of
high-cycle fatigue in the L4 stage attributed to high
back-pressure operation. Based on the survey, data
cracking did not appear to be related to steam gen-
erator (Figure 6) or turbine manufacturer (Figure 7)
or power rating (Figure 8). Since BWR typically oper-
CORROSION–JULY 1998
 CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION

ate at higher oxygen levels than PWR, the 1995

survey finding that cracking in BWR (35%) was no
different from PWR (38%) contradicted results of the
1980 survey. Though no specific reason for the differ-
ence could be pinpointed, it is worth noting that the
1980 survey focused on plants with SCC problems
and that data on oxygen levels was available for
these plants, whereas the 1995 survey included all
operating nuclear plants but specific information on
oxygen levels or excursions was not available. The
survey database included primarily GE and
Westinghouse turbines. Data on Asea Brown Boveri†
(ABB) and GEC Alsthom† (GEC) turbines was too
limited to be included in the overall comparison. Rim
cracking was reported in nuclear units with operat-
ing times ranging from 33,000 h to 140,000 h (Figure
9). In GE turbines, cracking was most severe in the
L-2 and L-3 rows, which have circumferential entry,
straddle-mount blade attachments (Figure 10). Tem-
peratures at these rows are in the 220°F to 260°F
range. No cracking was reported in the L-0 and L-1
FIGURE 7. Rim attachment cracking in nuclear units by turbine
rows of GE turbines, which have a finger and pin
manufacturer.
attachment design. In Westinghouse turbines, crack-
ing was primarily in the L-0 through L-4 rows which
have axial-entry blade attachments (Figure 11). Tem-
peratures at these rows are in the 120°F to 260°F
range. Most of the reported cracking propagated
across the steeples, with a few cracks propagating
radially downward from the base of the steeple.
Higher incidences of cracking were reported in units
with longer last stage blades. Data was insufficient to
establish a relationship between the incidence of rim
cracking and operating time, number of startups,
type of water treatment, oxygen levels, condenser
cooling, and water and condenser leakage rate. Lim-
ited rim attachment crack growth data (Figure 12)
suggested the Westinghouse Equation (8) to estimate
crack growth rates is an adequate representation for
use in life prediction. Compared to results of the
1980 survey where rim attachment cracking was
reported only in certain rows of Westinghouse tur-
bines (Figure 13), the 1995 data showed a significant
shift in the number of cracks by row number to
downstream rows (Figure 11) and a significant rate
of cracking in GE rotors not reported prior to 1980
(Figure 10).
U.S. Fossil Units —␣ The survey included 757 fos-
sil units from 33 utilities. The incidence of cracking FIGURE 8. Rim attachment cracking in nuclear units by power rating
was 10 times higher in supercritical units with once- (MW).
through boilers than in subcritical units (Figure 14).
The cracking mechanism reported was predomi-
nantly SCC, with a few instances of corrosion fatigue ever, the number of units with rim attachment
and reportedly excessive attachment stress attrib- cracks by in-service year (Figure 17) indicated the
uted to an overhung blade design. Higher incidences largest fraction of units with rim cracks went into
of cracking were reported in units with Combustion service between 1977 and 1975 (i.e., approximately
Engineering and Foster Wheeler† boilers (Figure 15) 100,000 to 200,000 operating hours). Compared with
and in units with Westinghouse turbines (Figure 16). nuclear units, the apparently longer time required for
Data on unit operating time was insufficient; how- initiation of cracking in fossil units was related to

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CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION
FIGURE 9. Rim attachment cracking in nuclear units by total operating
time.
FIGURE 11. Rim attachment cracking in nuclear units with
Westinghouse turbines by row number.
steam conditions (wetness and temperature) during
operation, which typically are drier for fossil units.
For GE turbines, no rim cracking was reported in
subcritical units. In supercritical units, cracking was
reported to be most severe in the L-1 and L-2 rows
(Figure 18). Temperatures in these rows are approxi-
mately in the 160°F to 200°F range. Cracking in GE
designs also was reported at various locations (pin
holes, base radius, and ledges) in the multifinger
pinned type of attachment used in the L-0 and L-1
rows of four units (of 39 units in the survey) with
538
FIGURE 10. Rim attachment cracking in nuclear units with GE
turbines by row number.
33.5-in. (85.1-cm) last stage blades. For
Westinghouse turbines, rim cracking reported was
most severe in the L-0 and L-1 rows (Figure 19).
Temperatures in these rows are in the 100°F to
160°F range. Most of the reported cracking propa-
gated across the steeples, with no radial cracking
reported at the base of the steeples.
Inspection Methods —␣ A review of disk blade
attachment inspection methods in the United States
focused on the GE straddle-mount and Westinghouse
axial-entry attachment designs for which most of the
rim attachment cracking has been reported. For GE
straddle-mount designs, unless blades are removed
to expose the rim surfaces, inspection generally is
performed using ultrasonic methods. The ultrasound
is introduced from the side of the disk immediately
below the blade such that the sound is directed radi-
ally upward into the rim toward the blade hooks on
the opposite side of the rim attachment. The inspec-
tion is conducted in a pulse-echo mode using shear
waves (S-waves) at the appropriate refracted angles
(Figure 20). The beam is directed toward the base of
the different hooks by moving the transducer radially
along the face of the disk, by changing the refracted
angle of the transmitted beam, or a combination of
the two. Depending on the exact geometry of the
attachment, it is not always possible to direct a beam
toward all the hooks, particularly the outermost
hook. The presence of a crack or pit typically results
in disruptions to the uniformity of the hook reflec-
tions and is discriminated by comparing time and
frequency domain signals. This inspection can be
implemented either manually or automated.
For Westinghouse axial-entry designs, inspec-
tions at the exposed disk faces can be accomplished
using surface inspection methods including magnetic
particle and eddy current. Eddy current provides
CORROSION–JULY 1998
 CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION

FIGURE 12. Apparent crack growth rates versus disk yield strength
from 1995 survey compared with mean Westinghouse data and a
best fit to the 1980 survey data.
FIGURE 13. Rim attachment cracking in nuclear units with
Westinghouse turbines by row number, per the 1980 survey.
certain advantages in terms of its inherent capacity
for automation, which provides for comprehensive
scan coverage and digital acquisition and storage of
data. For interior flaws (i.e., those originating along a
hook away from the exposed end faces), ultrasonic
pulse-echo and pitch-catch inspections must be em-
ployed as shown systematically in Figure 21.20 For
portions of the attachment where the transducer can
be positioned directly in line radially (or near radially)
with the area of interest, pulse-echo inspection can be
performed. For the central portion of the attachment
above the disk web, where the transducers cannot be
positioned radially beneath the area of interest,
pitch-catch inspections must be performed with the
transmitter on one side of the disk and the receiver
on the opposite side of the disk. This, of course, re-
quires relatively precise coordination of the transducer
positions and beam directions from two opposite
sides of the disk. Regarding detectability, SWRI has
reported good reliability of detection down to 1-mm
(0.039-in.) crack depth in the absence of significant
pitting or machining scratches, using fixed focus lens
contact transducers at compound angles.21
EPRI is currently conducting a three-phase FIGURE 14. Number of fossil units surveyed by steam type
program to characterize and improve inspection (supercritical or subscritical) and fraction with rim attachment cracking.
capabilities for disk rim inspection. Phase 1 activities
comprised a study of inspection practices currently
being implemented, development of a variable depth for rim attachment cracking: flaw excavation, shot
focused phased array transducer assembly to assess peening, blade removal, use of steel/titanium notch
potential improvement and advantages of such a blocks, pressure plates, and long shank buckets.
system,22 and compilation of an inspection guide to Though weld repair of cracked rims has been imple-
document the Phase 1 project findings.23 Phase 2 is mented successfully for fossil rotors, it has not yet
nearing completion and compares the detection and been reported for U.S. nuclear rotors. However, weld
sizing capabilities of conventional broad-beam and repairs are being initiated for some foreign nuclear
focused-beam inspection approaches for the GE rotors. In addition to the mechanical repairs listed
straddle-mount design.24 Phase 3 activities will for nuclear rotors, U.S. fossil utility operation re-
address the more difficult axial-entry configuration. ported that the repair of choice was a 360° weld
Repairs —␣ U.S. nuclear utility operators reported repair of the rim, with 21 of 49 fossil units with rim
the use of the following types of mechanical repairs crack being weld repaired. No recurrence of rim

CORROSION–Vol. 54, No. 7 539

CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION
FIGURE 15. Rim attachment cracking in fossil supercritical units by
boiler manufacturer.
FIGURE 17. Rim attachment cracking in fossil units by in-service
year.
cracking in weld repaired rotors was reported with
20,000 to 40,000 successful operating hours.
Remedies
The remedy for bore-connected cracking is usu-
ally replacement of the disk or rotor with a design
that eliminates the keyway or the bore itself. Axial
keyways have been eliminated by substituting inter-
540
FIGURE 16. Rim attachment cracking in fossil units by turbine
manufacturer.
locking tabs to prevent slippage. Replacement rotor
designs that feature integrally forged or welded disks
afford the opportunity to reduce strength level in
order to provide more resistance to SCC in the rim
attachments.25 Welded construction allows the use of
smaller forgings than required for integral forgings
although excellent control of microstructure report-
edly has been achieved with both methods of
construction.25 Weldability of 3.5% Ni-Cr-Mo-V also
has been excellent. The stress corrosion resistance of
weldments of this material has been reported by
Holdsworth, et al., to be equivalent to parent material.10
Replacement of disks or rotors with forgings of
the same strength level and without redesign of the
attachments leaves the rim area susceptible to SCC
and cracking of integral or partial integral rotors
reportedly has occurred. In such cases, recourse
must be taken to weld repair.
Weld Repairs
Utilities and OEM have demonstrated that dam-
aged LP turbine rims may be repaired and refur-
bished. Over the past 10 years, weld repair of LP
turbine rotors has become a routine method for re-
turning a rotor to a condition as good as new or,
possible, even better. This trend is illustrated in Fig-
ure 22.26 Weld repairs offer a distinct advantage since
the composition and mechanical properties of the
weld-deposited replacement material can be optimized
so that the repair has greater resistance to SCC. The
development of rotor weld repair technology has re-
quired extensive qualification of processes, weld filler
metals, and testing to demonstrate that the as-
CORROSION–JULY 1998
 CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION

FIGURE 18. Rim attachment cracking in fossil units with GE turbines FIGURE 19. Rim attachment cracking in fossil units with Westinghouse
by row number. turbines by tow number.

deposited weld metal and the heat-affected zone have

adequate properties. High-purity, vacuum-melted
filler wire and carefully controlled welding procedures
and post-weld heat treatments are specified.
Carefully controlled weld buildups have been
used successfully for a variety of turbine applications
(Figure 23).27-31 When defects are found in one or two
blade attachments, local repairs may be adequate.
Local repairs require extreme care during preheating,
welding, and post-weld heat treatment to avoid dis-
tortion and residual stresses in adjacent areas. More
often, the damage is more widespread and a full 360°
repair is performed. Full 360° repairs offer distinct
advantages with respect to the level of residual stress
that is likely to be encountered. Most of the vendors
surveyed indicated that all or nearly all of their
repairs were full 360° repairs.
The majority of weld repairs to LP rotors have used
filler metal with a composition very similar to that of
FIGURE 20. Ultrasonic examination of GE straddle-mount design
the rotor. Slight modifications to the composition have
rim attachment.
been made to improve weldability and to achieve
improved resistance to SCC.30,32-34 Weld filler metal
compositions similar to that of types 403 or 410
Both the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
stainless steel (UNS S40300 or UNS S41000)(2) with
process, using a temper bead technique, in which
addition requirements on many of the alloying and
the heat of welding serves to temper beads applied
trace elements have been selected for some of the
earlier in the sequence, and the SAW process have
weld repairs to produce good weldability and deposits
been used for repairs. Both processes are readily
with the desired combination of mechanical proper-
amenable to automation a key consideration for ap-
ties and SCC resistance.7,27,33,35 The SCC resistance of
plications where large amounts of weld metal must
martensitic stainless steels is a strong function of the
be deposited and the quality requirements on the
strength level. Lower strength material (e.g., tensile
deposit are critical.
strength < 100 ksi or hardness < Rc 32) exhibits a
The major advantage of the GTAW process is the
high resistance to SCC in all of the solutions of inter-
flexibility and capability for control that are afforded
est (i.e., hydroxides, sulfates, chlorides, etc.).36-40
by separate controls on arc parameters and filler
(2)
metal addition. The major disadvantage is the limita-
UNS numbers are listed in Metals and Alloys in the Unified
Numbering System, published by the Society of Automotive tion on deposition rates. Use of multiple wire and hot
Engineers (SAE) and cosponsored by ASTM. wire technique can improve deposition rates. The

CORROSION–Vol. 54, No. 7 541

CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION
FIGURE 21. Ultrasonic examination of Westinghouse axial-entry
design rim attachment.
FIGURE 22. Number of weld repairs to utility steam turbine generators
by year.26
GTAW process described in several patent disclo-
sures for rotor repair, offers some advantages in
toughness of as-deposited weld metal for 12% Cr.41-45
In general, the fracture toughness of SAW deposits is
less than that of GTAW or GMAW deposits. Nonethe-
less, hundreds of rows of turbine rotors have been
repaired successfully using SAW.
Shot Peening
While some OEM reportedly have adopted shot
peening for additional protection against stress cor-
rosion, at least one other OEM avoids peening in
initial manufacturing and in repair. However, the
process is used increasingly in the field by utilities in
conjunction with the removal of cracks by grinding
generally as a temporary measure until a more per-
542
manent repair or replacement can be implemented.
No performance data was available for the prevention
of the recurrence of SCC by shot peening in low-alloy
steels, albeit, the benefit has been demonstrated for
other materials.
Effect of Steel Composition
The 3% Cr-Mo disks of the original Hinkley Point
design combined the adverse effects of high strength,
high operating stress, and low fracture toughness. It
has long been recognized that nickel additions
increase fracture toughness and lower fracture ap-
pearance transition temperature (FATT), but it has
been thought that increased nickel concentration
relative to chromium would reduce the resistance to
SCC. For this reason, 2% Cr-Ni-Mo steel was selected
by certain OEM in preference to 2% Ni-Cr-Mo-V to
3.5% Ni-Cr-Mo-V used elsewhere. It now is recog-
nized that, in addition to improved brittle facture
resistance, increased nickel level provides greater
resistance to SCC, although the effect of yield
strength clearly dominates both the initiation and
propagation stages of cracking. The superior
through-thickness hardenability and toughness of
3% Ni-Cr-Mo-V have been cited as the basis for
selecting this material for welded rotor construction.
The introduction of vacuum degassing and
vacuum carbon deoxidizing into steel making prac-
tice by 1975 allowed the reduction of sulfur levels to
the vicinity of 10 ppm and the achievement of total
concentrations of tramp elements of < 20 ppm. The
reduction of sulfur, in turn, allowed steel makers to
lower manganese content to around 200 ppm with-
out incurring the risk of hot shortness.25 The results
were a dramatic reduction in the size and density of
nonmetallic inclusions and the virtual elimination of
temper embrittlement associated with segregation of
tramp elements on prior austentite grain boundaries.
The steel industry has been able to produce
“superclean” Ni-Cr-Mo-V for LP turbine rotors in
sizes up to 9 ft (2.74 m) in diameter and ingot
weights up to 570 tons.46 One rotor manufacturer,
Japan Steel Works,† has reported delivery of 28 fossil
LP nonblock rotors.46 Several potential advantages
have been claimed for superclean rotor forgings. The
most dramatic improvements have been achieved in
elevated temperature properties, both in the resis-
tance to temper embrittlement and the increase of
creep properties form 350°C to 500°C, the latter
attributed to the elimination of sulfur-containing
intergranular inclusions. These improvements allow
additional flexibility in design that result in more
efficient and cost-effective turbine designs, such as
an increase in the crossover steam temperature for a
fossil plant and combined cycle steam turbines with
high-and low-pressure sections on the same rotor.47
The crossover temperature heretofore has been lim-
ited by the concern for embrittlement of conventional
CORROSION–JULY 1998

FIGURE 23. Illustration of the types of weld repairs that have been performed.26
Ni-Cr-Mo-V rotors. By the same token, the elimina-
tion of embrittlement allows increased stress levels
for the same critical crack size, affording the option
of increased last stage blade length.
From the standpoint of SCC, the benefits of su-
perclean LP rotors are less dramatic and the amount
of benefit more problematic. Early stress corrosion
tests of superclean 3.5% Ni-Cr-Mo-V demonstrated
clear superiority with respect to crack initiation, al-
beit, not much difference in crack growth rates. For
example, Scarlin and Denk compared conventional
and superclean 3.5% Ni-Cr-Mo-V at a yield strength
level of 860 MPa in 30% NaOH at 100°C and demon-
strated increased initiation life at stresses from
700 MPa up to yield.48 Such increased life would be
expected in view of the reduced size and density of
inclusions in the superclean steel, which are known
to govern the formation of pits that may be the site of
microcracking. However, testing of clean and conven-
tional rotor steels by Magdowski and Speidel in water
at various temperatures and yield strength ranging
from 600 MPa to 1,300 MPa did not reveal any sig-
nificant difference in stress corrosion crack growth
rates for these steels.49 Testing of superclean 3.5%
Ni-Cr-Mo-V in pure steam at 95°C by Holdsworth,
et al.,10 also failed to establish any superiority over
conventional steels at the same stress level and, at
stresses close to yield, exhibited significantly inferior
initiation resistance to that of conventional steels of
comparable strength level (i.e., 875 MPa). Testing
CORROSION–Vol. 54, No. 7
CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION
was reported to be in progress on superclean steel
with a yield strength of 740 MPa in pure steam in an
attempt to resolve this apparent discrepancy.10
Holdsworth, et al., suggested that the discrepancy
might be the result of a noted susceptibility to creep
at 95°C when loaded to yield point level stresses
which necessitated repeated loading to counterbal-
ance the relaxation of stress during the test.
Despite substantial differences in pit depth
between superclean and conventional steels, it ap-
peared that extensive cracking had occurred in the
superclean steel at times prior to microcrack initia-
tion in the conventional steel. Holdsworth, et al.,
observed initiation of stress corrosion cracks at pits
obtained in low- to medium-strength steel with yield
stress < 850 MPa, but at higher strength levels
(above 900 MPa), cracks could initiate at grain
boundaries by a film rupture process. Denk reported
observations of pitting and crack initiation in conven-
tional and superclean 3.5% Ni-Cr-Mo-V steels at a
yield strength level of 700 MPa to 750 MPa.50 Pitting
occurred readily in stagnant aerated water with
much larger density in the conventional steel. How-
ever, in deaerated water, the superclean steel did not
pit, while pits developed in the conventional steel.
Stresses near the yield level were required to form
active pits. In 30% NaOH, intergranular cracks
occurred at the same stress level in both steels. Ini-
tiation was attributed to a strain-controlled film
rupture mechanism. Denk commented that, in addi-
543
CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION
tion to environmental conditions, the film rupture
mechanism is influenced strongly by loading history
effects.
Lyle investigated the crack initiation lifetime of
superclean and conventional 3.5% Ni-Cr-Mo-V steels
at a yield strength of 740 MPa (108 ksi) in 130°C
(266°F) water of three different purity levels under
simulated crevice conditions.3 The times to initiate
cracking in the superclean steel were ≈ 70% of those
for the conventional steel and the cracks were gener-
ally deeper. Lyle observed that cracks initiated
preferentially in grain boundary trenches rather than
at pits, which he attributed to the existence of an
oxygen-depleted zone under the crevice corrosion
film. He commented that this lack of association of
cracks with pitting was consistent with examinations
of cracked disks.
The conclusion that can be drawn from the pub-
lished data on SCC of superclean steels is that the
relative lifetime in crack initiation is not understood
adequately at present, particularly in regard to the
role of transient low-temperature creep under crevice
corrosion conditions.
SUMMARY
Comparison of the results of the current industry
survey with those of the 1981 survey indicated the
downstream stages of nuclear LP turbines eventually
crack despite lower surface temperature and presum-
ably cleaner steam. This observation appears consis-
tent with the dominant effects of material strength
level, oxygen imbalance, and crevice conditions on
susceptibility to stress corrosion and the effect of
temperature on the rates of crack initiation and growth.
It appears that the incidence of rim attachment
cracking is increasing for nuclear and fossil turbines.
The current industry approach to rotor integrity
under wet film conditions assumes that cracks have
initiated unless direct surface inspection indicates
their absence. When ultrasonic examination is used,
the presence of cracks with depth dimension equal to
the detectability limit is assumed. Remaining life
estimates for bore/keyway or rim attachment crack-
ing either are performed deterministically using best
estimates for key variables or probabilistically to
account for the scatter in these variables. Typical
estimates of remaining life range from < 1 year to 10
years or more depending upon the specific disk being
evaluated. Local grindout followed by shot peening is
considered by some to be a suitable temporary repair
for a rim attachment. There does not appear to be
test data or analysis to support an extended initia-
tion lifetime for a peened surface. Accordingly, a
more permanent repair is planned, the affected disk
is replaced, or an integral rotor may be substituted to
eliminate bore cracking (and rim cracking, if the yield
strength and applied stress levels are suitably low).
544
The chemistry of the forging does not appear to influ-
ence significantly the initiation or propagation resis-
tance, provided the strength level remains constant.
To extend the interval between turbine outages,
it would be desirable to be able to predict the time,
past or future, at which stress corrosion cracks initiate
and, in the process, to take advantage of improve-
ments in steam chemistry control. Such prediction
would entail knowledge of the corrosion conditions in
crevices of the bore or rim attachments, in addition
to strength of the disk, stress level, and temperature.
Monitoring of the presence of wet surface films would
aid in assessing the long-term accumulation of stress
corrosion under variable operating conditions. Moni-
toring film chemistry obviously would enhance this
assessment, and monitoring of crevice chemistry or
potential, if it were feasible, would be even better. The
current international effort to monitor droplet nucle-
ation, growth, and chemistry in a bypass circuit of
the main steam flow is intended to provide this local
chemistry. To make full use of this information, it
would appear that the understanding of crack initia-
tion in crevices should be revisited. Several issues
require resolution, beginning with the basic mechanism
of initiation, which recent research now suggests
may involve strain rate-controlled film rupture rather
than pitting. If this is the case, the accelerating effect
of periodic unloading, the influence of surface cold
work on film formation, the benefit of surface com-
pressive stress, the allowable stress level relative to
the yield strength, and the low-temperature transient
creep of the material may come into play.
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CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION
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