Polymers are of two types synthetic and natural

SYNTHETIC POLYMERS :
1.ORGANIC :
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is a thermoplastic made from the monomer

ethylene. It was the first grade of polyethylene, produced in 1933 by Imperial Chemical
Industries (ICI) using a high pressure process via free radical polymerization. [1] Its
manufacture employs the same method today. The EPA estimates 5.7% of LDPE
(recycling number 4) is recycled.[2] Despite competition from more modern polymers,
LDPE continues to be an important plastic grade. In 2013 the worldwide LDPE market
reached a volume of about US$33 billion.[3]

PREPARATION:
Low density polyethylene (LDPE) containing activated carbon (AC) was foamed with
azodicarbonamide (ADC), an exothermic chemical foaming agent, through an extrusion
process.The effects of ADC and AC contents on the cellular structure, density, void
fraction, and mechanical properties of LDPE-AC composite foams were investigated.
The density of composite foams decreased but the void fraction increased as the
content of ADC increased due to higher gas liberation. Moreover, the large cell size was
also observed in composite foams with high amount of ADC. At low AC dosages (5-10
wt%), the density of composite foams decreased with increasing the void fraction
compared to the composite foam without AC because more foaming nucleation centers
was induced by adding AC in the composite foam leading to more gas bubble
generation. However, the addition of AC up to 15-20 wt% decreased the cell formation
and the average cell size tended to decrease with increasing AC content. This attributed
to AC particles that assisted to generate more foaming nucleation sites in the polymer
matrix, resulting in high viscosity, which enhanced the resistance against cell growth
and produced cells with smaller dimensions. Maximum reduction of density by 30% with
the void fraction of 30% was achieved when ADC and AC were applied at 7 wt% and 10
wt%, respectively. Larger content of ADC and AC led to composite foams with lower
tensile properties as well as impact strength, because of the formation of thinner cell
walls, AC agglomeration, and the reduction of polymer matrix.

Properties :
LDPE is defined by a density range of 0.917–0.930 g/cm 3.[4] It is not reactive at room
temperatures, except by strong oxidizing agents, and some solvents cause swelling. It
can withstand temperatures of 80 °C continuously and 90 °C (194 °F) for a short time.
Made in translucent or opaque variations, it is quite flexible and tough.
LDPE has more branching (on about 2% of the carbon atoms) than HDPE, so its
intermolecular forces (instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction) are weaker, its
tensile strength is lower, and its resilience is higher. Also, because its molecules are
less tightly packed and less crystalline due to the side branches, its density is lower.

When exposed to ambient solar radiation the plastic produces two greenhouse gases,
methane and ethylene. Due to its low density properties (branching) it breaks down
more easily over time, leading to higher surface areas. The production of these trace
gases from virgin LDPE increase with surface area/time, with rates at the end of a 212-
day incubation of 5.8 nmol g-1 d-1 of methane, 14.5 nmol g-1 d-1 of ethylene, 3.9 nmol
g-1 d-1 of ethane and 9.7 nmol g-1 d-1 of propylene. When incubated in air, LDPE emits
gases at rates ~2 times and ~76 times higher in comparison to water for methane and
ethylene, respectively.

USES :
LDPE is widely used for manufacturing various containers, dispensing bottles, wash bottles, tubing,
plastic parts for computer components, and various molded laboratory equipment. Its most common
use is in plastic bags. Other products made from it include:

 Trays and general purpose containers

 Corrosion-resistant work surfaces

 Parts that need to be weldable and machinable

 Parts that require flexibility, for which it serves very well

 Very soft and pliable parts such as snap-on lids

 Six pack rings

 Juice and milk cartons are made of liquid packaging board, a laminate of paperboard and
LDPE (as the waterproof inner and outer layer), and often with of a layer of aluminum foil (thus
becoming aseptic packaging).

 Packaging for computer hardware, such as hard disk drives, screen cards, and optical disc
drives

 Playground slides

 Plastic wraps
 High-density polyethylene (HDPE)

HDPE (high-density polyethylene) is one of the most durable

and versatile thermoplastics in today’s market. It’s used for
a variety of different materials like bottles, automotive parts,
furniture, and different construction products. HDPE is even
recyclable. But despite HDPE’s versatile and efficient nature,
how is it made?

The Process of Making HDPE:

HDPE is made under controlled conditions by applying
intense heat to petroleum. This process, also known as
“cracking,” helps create ethylene gas. During its production,
the gas molecules will attach to form polymers, which then
produce polyethylene.

After this process, the polyethylene will have a sludgy

appearance, but after it’s put through a series of molds, it
forms into granules. Once the molding process is complete,
you’ll have a strong polymer material that can have a variety
of uses and applications in your home or facility.

Properties
HDPE is known for its large strength-to-density ratio.[3] The density of HDPE can range from 930 to
970 kg/m3.[4] Although the density of HDPE is only marginally higher than that of low-density
polyethylene,[5] HDPE has little branching, giving it stronger intermolecular forces and tensile
strength than LDPE. The difference in strength exceeds the difference in density, giving HDPE a
higher specific strength.[6] It is also harder and more opaque and can withstand somewhat
higher temperatures (120 °C/248 °F for short periods). High-density polyethylene,
unlike polypropylene, cannot withstand normally required autoclaving conditions. The lack of
branching is ensured by an appropriate choice of catalyst (e.g., Ziegler–Natta catalysts)
and reaction conditions.
The physical properties of HDPE can vary depending on the molding process that is used to
manufacture a specific sample; to some degree a determining factor are the international
standardized testing methods employed to identify these properties for a specific process. For
example, in Rotational Molding, to identify the environmental stress crack resistance of a sample,
the Notched Constant Tensile Load Test (NCTL) is put to uses .Owing to these desirable properties,
pipes constructed out of HDPE are ideally applicable for potable water, and waste water (storm and
sewage).

USES:

Corrugated HDPE pipe installation in storm drain project in Mexico

HDPE is resistant to many different solvents and has a wide variety of applications:

 3D printer filament

 Banners

 Bottle caps

 Boats

 Food storage containers

 Fuel tanks for vehicles

 Plastic bags

 Plastic bottles suitable both for recycling (such as milk jugs) or re-use

 Plastic lumber

 Plastic surgery (skeletal and facial reconstruction)

 Potable water mains

 Root barrier

 Sewage mains

 Snowboard rails and boxes

 Stone paper

 Storage sheds
 Swimming pool installation

 Water pipes for domestic water supply and agricultural processes

 Wood plastic composites (utilizing recycled polymers)

HDPE Sheet which has been extrusion welded

HDPE is also used for cell liners in subtitle D sanitary landfills, wherein large sheets of HDPE are
either extrusion welded or wedge welded to form a homogeneous chemical-resistant barrier, with the
intention of preventing the pollution of soil and groundwater by the liquid constituents of solid waste.
HDPE is preferred by the pyrotechnics trade for mortars over steel or PVC tubes, being more
durable and safer: HDPE tends to rip or tear in a malfunction instead of shattering and becoming
shrapnel like the other materials.
Milk bottles, jugs, and other hollow goods manufactured through blow molding are the most
important application area for HDPE, accounting for one-third of worldwide production, or more than
8 million tonnes.
Above all, China, where beverage bottles made from HDPE were first imported in 2005, is a growing
market for rigid HDPE packaging, as a result of its improving standard of living. In India and other
highly populated, emerging nations, infrastructure expansion includes the deployment of pipes and
cable insulation made from HDPE.[2] The material has benefited from discussions about possible
health and environmental problems caused by PVC and polycarbonate associated Bisphenol A, as
well as its advantages over glass, metal, and cardboard.

Why Is HDPE Better Than Other Materials?

Other materials like Phenolic Plastic and Solid Color

Reinforced Composite (SCRC) are often brought up as
durable and versatile materials used for bathroom stalls or
partitions. However, when it comes to comparing these
materials to HDPE, there’s not really much of a
competition. HDPE is more resistant to microbes while
providing a stronger surface. It even has a stronger screw
retention than Phenolic Plastic or SCRC, meaning that
whatever is built with HDPE will be more structurally sound
than items made from Phenolic Plastic or SCRC.

The great thing about HDPE material is that it never needs

to be touched up or repainted, resulting in less volatile
organic compound emissions. These carbon-based
chemicals can easily evaporate into the air at any
temperature, and when inhaled, can result in health
complications. Items made with HDPE can help improve air
quality because the material resists mold, fungus, and
bacteria. SCRC and Phenolic Plastic materials can absorb
mold, resulting in odors and lesser air quality.

When it comes to sustainability, there’s no question that

HDPE has a strong lead over the others. HDPE is 100%
recyclable and made from post-consumer content. SCRC and
Phenolic Plastic aren’t made from post-consumer materials,
and therefore can’t be recycled.

Do you want to learn more about the many benefits of

choosing HDPE over other materials? Check out our
eBook, Sustainable Building Products: How to Make Your
Facility Eco-Friendly from Top to Bottom.

 Polypropylene (PP)

Production:
Polypropylene is produced by the chain-growth polymerization of propene:
The industrial production processes can be grouped into gas phase polymerization, bulk
polymerization and slurry polymerization. All state-of-the-art processes use either gas-phase or bulk
reactor systems.[31]

 In gas-phase and slurry-reactors, the polymer is formed around heterogeneous catalyst

particles. The gas-phase polymerization is carried out in a fluidized bed reactor, propeneis
passed over a bed containing the heterogeneous (solid) catalyst and the formed polymer is
separated as a fine powder and then converted into pellets. Unreacted gas is recycled and fed
back into the reactor.

 In bulk polymerization, liquid propene acts as a solvent to prevent the precipitation of the
polymer. The polymerization proceeds at 60 to 80 °C and 30–40 atm are applied to keep the
propene in the liquid state. For the bulk polymerization, typically loop reactors are applied. The
bulk polymerization is limited to a maximum of 5% ethen as comonomer due to a limited
solubility of the polymer in the liquid propene.

 In the slurry polymerization, typically C4–C6 alkanes (butane, pentane or hexane) are
utilized as inert diluent to suspend the growing polymer particles. Propene is introduced into the
mixture as a gas.
The properties of PP are strongly affected by its tacticity, the orientation of the methyl groups (CH
3) relative to the methyl groups in neighboring monomer units (see above). The tacticity of

polypropylene can be chosen by the choice of an appropriate catalyst.

Manufacturing from polypropylene

Melting process of polypropylene can be achieved via extrusion and molding. Common extrusion
methods include production of melt-blown and spun-bond fibers to form long rolls for future
conversion into a wide range of useful products, such as face masks, filters, diapers and wipes.
The most common shaping technique is injection molding, which is used for parts such as cups,
cutlery, vials, caps, containers, housewares, and automotive parts such as batteries. The related
techniques of blow molding and injection-stretch blow molding are also used, which involve both
extrusion and molding.
The large number of end-use applications for polypropylene are often possible because of the ability
to tailor grades with specific molecular properties and additives during its manufacture. For
example, antistatic additives can be added to help polypropylene surfaces resist dust and dirt. Many
physical finishing techniques can also be used on polypropylene, such as machining. Surface
treatments can be applied to polypropylene parts in order to promote adhesion of printing ink and
paints.
Expanded Polypropylene (EPP) has been produced through both solid and melt state processing.
EPP is manufactured using melt processing with either chemical or physical blowing agents.
Expansion of PP in solid state, due to its highly crystalline structure, has not been successful. In this
regard, two novel strategies were developed for expansion of PP. It was observed that PP can be
expanded to make EPP through controlling its crystalline structure or through blending with other
polymers

PROPERTIES :
Chemical and physical properties
Polypropylene is in many aspects similar to polyethylene, especially in solution behaviour and
electrical properties. The methyl groupimproves mechanical properties and thermal resistance,
although the chemical resistance decreases.[6]:19 The properties of polypropylene depend on the
molecular weight and molecular weight distribution, crystallinity, type and proportion of comonomer
(if used) and the isotacticity.[6] In isotactic polypropylene, for example, the methyl groups are oriented
on one side of the carbon backbone. This arrangementcreates a greater degree of crystallinity and
results in a stiffer material that is more resistant to creep than both atactic polypropylene and
polyethylene.[7]

Mechanical properties
The density of (PP) is between 0.895 and 0.92 g/cm³. Therefore, PP is the commodity plastic with
the lowest density. With lower density, moldings parts with lower weight and more parts of a certain
mass of plastic can be produced. Unlike polyethylene, crystalline and amorphous regions differ only
slightly in their density. However, the density of polyethylene can significantly change with fillers.
The Young's modulus of PP is between 1300 and 1800 N/mm².
Polypropylene is normally tough and flexible, especially when copolymerized with ethylene. This
allows polypropylene to be used as an engineering plastic, competing with materials such
as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). Polypropylene is reasonably economical.
Polypropylene has good resistance to fatigue

Thermal properties
The melting point of polypropylene occurs in a range, so the melting point is determined by finding
the highest temperature of a differential scanning calorimetry chart. Perfectly isotactic PP has a
melting point of 171 °C (340 °F). Commercial isotactic PP has a melting point that ranges from 160
to 166 °C (320 to 331 °F), depending on atactic material and crystallinity. Syndiotactic PP with a
crystallinity of 30% has a melting point of 130 °C (266 °F).[8] Below 0 °C, PP becomes brittle.[9]
The thermal expansion of polypropylene is very large, but somewhat less than that of polyethylene. [9]

Chemical properties
Polypropylene at room temperature is resistant to fats and almost all organic solvents, apart from
strong oxidants. Non-oxidizing acids and bases can be stored in containers made of PP. At elevated
temperature, PP can be dissolved in nonpolar solvents such as xylene, tetralin and decalin. Due to
the tertiary carbon atom PP is chemically less resistant than PE (see Markovnikov rule).[10]
Most commercial polypropylene is isotactic and has an intermediate level of crystallinity between
that of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Isotactic & atactic
polypropylene is soluble in P-xylene at 140 °C. Isotactic precipitates when the solution is cooled to
25 °C and atactic portion remains soluble in P-xylene.
The melt flow rate (MFR) or melt flow index (MFI) is a measure of molecular weight of
polypropylene. The measure helps to determine how easily the molten raw material will flow during
processing. Polypropylene with higher MFR will fill the plastic mold more easily during the injection
or blow-molding production process. As the melt flow increases, however, some physical properties,
like impact strength, will decrease.
There are three general types of polypropylene: homopolymer, random copolymer, and block
copolymer. The comonomer is typically used with ethylene. Ethylene-propylene rubber
or EPDM added to polypropylene homopolymer increases its low temperature impact strength.
Randomly polymerized ethylene monomer added to polypropylene homopolymer decreases the
polymer crystallinity, lowers the melting point and makes the polymer more transparent.

Applications

As polypropylene is resistant to fatigue, most plastic living hinges, such as those on flip-top bottles,
are made from this material. However, it is important to ensure that chain molecules are oriented
across the hinge to maximise strength.
Polypropylene is used in the manufacturing piping systems; both ones concerned with high-purity
and ones designed for strength and rigidity (e.g. those intended for use in potable
plumbing, hydronic heating and cooling, and reclaimed water). This material is often chosen for its
resistance to corrosion and chemical leaching, its resilience against most forms of physical damage,
including impact and freezing, its environmental benefits, and its ability to be joined by heat
fusion rather than gluing.

Many plastic items for medical or laboratory use can be made from polypropylene because it can
withstand the heat in an autoclave. Its heat resistance also enables it to be used as the
manufacturing material of consumer-grade kettles Food containers made from it will not melt in the
dishwasher, and do not melt during industrial hot filling processes. For this reason, most plastic tubs
for dairy products are polypropylene sealed with aluminum foil (both heat-resistant materials). After
the product has cooled, the tubs are often given lids made of a less heat-resistant material, such as
LDPE or polystyrene. Such containers provide a good hands-on example of the difference in
modulus, since the rubbery (softer, more flexible) feeling of LDPE with respect to polypropylene of
the same thickness is readily apparent. Rugged, translucent, reusable plastic containers made in a
wide variety of shapes and sizes for consumers from various companies such
as Rubbermaid and Sterilite are commonly made of polypropylene, although the lids are often made
of somewhat more flexible LDPE so they can snap onto the container to close it. Polypropylene can
also be made into disposable bottles to contain liquid, powdered, or similar consumer products,
although HDPE and polyethylene terephthalate are commonly also used to make bottles. Plastic
pails, car batteries, wastebaskets, pharmacy prescription bottles, cooler containers, dishes and
pitchers are often made of polypropylene or HDPE, both of which commonly have rather similar
appearance, feel, and properties at ambient temperature. A diversity of medical devices are made
from PP.

Polypropylene items for laboratory use, blue and orange closures are not made of polypropylene.

A common application for polypropylene is as biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP). These BOPP
sheets are used to make a wide variety of materials including clear bags. When polypropylene is
biaxially oriented, it becomes crystal clear and serves as an excellent packaging material for artistic
and retail products.
Polypropylene, highly colorfast, is widely used in manufacturing carpets, rugs and mats to be used at
home.
Polypropylene is widely used in ropes, distinctive because they are light enough to float in water. For
equal mass and construction, polypropylene rope is similar in strength to polyester rope.
Polypropylene costs less than most other synthetic fibers.
Polypropylene is also used as an alternative to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as insulation for electrical
cables for LSZH cable in low-ventilation environments, primarily tunnels. This is because it emits
less smoke and no toxic halogens, which may lead to production of acid in high-temperature
conditions.
Polypropylene is also used in particular roofing membranes as the waterproofing top layer of single-
ply systems as opposed to modified-bit systems.
Polypropylene is most commonly used for plastic moldings, wherein it is injected into a mold while
molten, forming complex shapes at relatively low cost and high volume; examples include bottle
tops, bottles, and fittings.
It can also be produced in sheet form, widely used for the production of stationery folders,
packaging, and storage boxes. The wide color range, durability, low cost, and resistance to dirt make
it ideal as a protective cover for papers and other materials. It is used in Rubik's Cube stickers
because of these characteristics.
The availability of sheet polypropylene has provided an opportunity for the use of the material by
designers. The light-weight, durable, and colorful plastic makes an ideal medium for the creation of
light shades, and a number of designs have been developed using interlocking sections to create
elaborate designs.
Polypropylene sheets are a popular choice for trading card collectors; these come with pockets (nine
for standard-size cards) for the cards to be inserted and are used to protect their condition and are
meant to be stored in a binder.

Polyvinyl chloride "PVC"

Polyvinyl chloride : polyvinyl, vinylabbreviated: PVC) is the world's third-most widely produced
synthetic plastic polymer, after polyethylene and polypropylene. About 40 million tonnes are
produced per year.
PVC comes in two basic forms: rigid (sometimes abbreviated as RPVC) and flexible.

Production[edit]
Polyvinyl chloride is produced by polymerization of the vinyl chloride monomer (VCM).
About 80% of production involves suspension polymerization. Emulsion polymerization accounts for
about 12%, and bulk polymerization accounts for 8%. Suspension polymerization affords particles
with average diameters of 100–180 μm, whereas emulsion polymerization gives much smaller
particles of average size around 0.2 μm. VCM and water are introduced into the reactor along with a
polymerization initiator and other additives. The contents of the reaction vessel are pressurized and
continually mixed to maintain the suspension and ensure a uniform particle size of the PVC resin.
The reaction is exothermic and thus requires cooling. As the volume is reduced during the reaction
(PVC is denser than VCM), water is continually added to the mixture to maintain the suspension. [7]
The polymerization of VCM is started by compounds called initiators that are mixed into the droplets.
These compounds break down to start the radical chain reaction. Typical initiators include
dioctanoyl peroxide and dicetyl peroxydicarbonate, both of which have fragile O-O bonds. Some
initiators start the reaction rapidly but decay quickly, and other initiators have the opposite effect. A
combination of two different initiators is often used to give a uniform rate of polymerization. After the
polymer has grown by about 10 times, the short polymer precipitates inside the droplet of VCM, and
polymerization continues with the precipitated, solvent-swollen particles. The weight average
molecular weights of commercial polymers range from 100,000 to 200,000, and the number average
molecular weights range from 45,000 to 64,000.
Once the reaction has run its course, the resulting PVC slurry is degassed and stripped to remove
excess VCM, which is recycled. The polymer is then passed through a centrifuge to remove water.
The slurry is further dried in a hot air bed, and the resulting powder is sieved before storage or
pelletization. Normally, the resulting PVC has a VCM content of less than 1 part per million. Other
production processes, such as micro-suspension polymerization and emulsion polymerization,
produce PVC with smaller particle sizes (10 μm vs. 120–150 μm for suspension PVC) with slightly
different properties and with somewhat different sets of applications.

Producers
About half of the world's PVC production capacity is in China despite the closure of many Chinese
PVC plants due to issues complying with environmental regulations and poor capacities of scale.
The largest single producer of PVC as of 2018 is Shin-Etsu Chemical of Japan, with a global share
of around 30%.[13] The other major suppliers are based in North America and Western Europe.

Properties
Mechanical
PVC has high hardness and mechanical properties. The mechanical properties enhance with the
molecular weight increasing but decrease with the temperature increasing. The mechanical
properties of rigid PVC (uPVC) are very good; the elastic modulus can reach 1500-3,000 MPa. The
soft PVC (flexible PVC) elastic limit is 1.5–15 MPa.

Thermal and fire

The heat stability of raw PVC is very poor, so the addition of a heat stabilizer during the process is
necessary in order to ensure the product's properties. Traditional product PVC has a maximum
operating temperature around 140°F (60°C) when heat distortion begins to occur. Melting
temperatures range from 212°F to 500°F (100°C to 260°C) depending upon manufacture additives
to the PVC. The linear expansion coefficient of rigid PVC is small and has good flame retardancy,
the limiting oxygen index (LOI) being up to 45 or more. The LOI is the minimum concentration of
oxygen, expressed as a percentage, that will support combustion of a polymer and noting that air
has 20% content of oxygen.
As a thermoplastic, PVC has an inherent insulation that aids in reducing condensation formation and
resisting internal temperature changes for hot and cold liquids.

Electrical
PVC is a polymer with good insulation properties, but because of its higher polar nature the electrical
insulating property is inferior to non polar polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene.
Since the dielectric constant, dielectric loss tangent value, and volume resistivity are high, the
corona resistance is not very good, and it is generally suitable for medium or low voltage and low
frequency insulation materials.

Chemical
PVC is chemically resistant to acids, salts, bases, fats, and alcohols, making it resistant to the
corrosive effects of sewage, which is why it is so extensively utilized in sewer piping systems. It is
also resistant to some solvents, this, however, is reserved mainly for uPVC (unplasticized PVC).
Plasticized PVC, also known as PVC-P, is in some cases less resistant to solvents. For example,
PVC is resistant to fuel and some paint thinners. Some solvents may only swell it or deform it but not
dissolve it, but some, like tetrahydrofuran or acetone, may damage it.

Applications

Pipes
Roughly half of the world's polyvinyl chloride resin manufactured annually is used for producing
pipes for municipal and industrial applications.[28] In the water distribution market, it accounts for 66%
of the market in the U.S., and in sanitary sewer pipe applications, it accounts for 75%. [29][30] Buried
PVC pipes in both water and sanitary sewer applications that are 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter and
larger are typically joined by means of a gasket-sealed joint. The most common type of gasket
utilized in North America is a metal reinforced elastomer, commonly referred to as a Rieber sealing
system.[31] Its light weight, low cost, and low maintenance make it attractive. However, it must be
carefully installed and bedded to ensure longitudinal cracking and overbelling does not occur.
Additionally, PVC pipes can be fused together using various solvent cements, or heat-fused (butt-
fusion process, similar to joining high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe), creating permanent joints
that are virtually impervious to leakage.

PVC is used extensively in sewage pipe due to its low cost, chemical resistance and ease of jointing

Electric cables
PVC is commonly used as the insulation on electrical cables such as teck; PVC used for this
purpose needs to be plasticized. Flexible PVC coated wire and cable for electrical use has
traditionally been stabilised with lead, but these are being replaced with calcium-based systems.

Construction

PVC is a common, strong but lightweight plastic used in construction. It is made softer and more
flexible by the addition of plasticizers. If no plasticizers are added, it is known as uPVC
(unplasticized polyvinyl chloride) or rigid PVC.
uPVC is extensively used in the building industry as a low-maintenance material, particularly
in Ireland, the United Kingdom, in the United States and Canada
Clothing

PVC fabric is water-resistant, used for its weather-resistant qualities in coats, skiing equipment,
shoes, jackets, aprons, and sports bags.
PVC fabric has a niche role in specialty clothing, to either create a artificial leather material or at
times simply for its effect. PVC clothing is common in Goth, Punk, clothing fetish and alternative
fashions. PVC is less expensive than rubber, leather, and latex which it is used to simulate.

Flooring[edit]
Flexible PVC flooring is inexpensive and used in a variety of buildings, including homes, hospitals,
offices, and schools. Complex and 3Ddesigns are possible, which are then protected by a clear wear
layer. A middle vinyl foam layer also gives a comfortable and safe feel. The smooth, tough surface of
the upper wear layer prevents the buildup of dirt, which prevents microbes from breeding in areas
that need to be kept sterile, such as hospitals and clinics.

Polystyrene
Structure

Polystyrene is flammable, and releases lots of black smoke upon burning.

In chemical terms, polystyrene is a long chain hydrocarbon wherein alternating carbon centers are
attached to phenyl groups (a derivative of benzene). Polystyrene's chemical formula is (C8H8)n
it contains the chemical elements carbon and hydrogen.
The material's properties are determined by short-range van der Waals attractions between
polymers chains. Since the molecules consist of thousands of atoms, the cumulative attractive force
between the molecules is large. When heated (or deformed at a rapid rate, due to a combination of
viscoelastic and thermal insulation properties), the chains are able to take on a higher degree of
conformation and slide past each other. This intermolecular weakness (versus the
high intramolecular strength due to the hydrocarbon backbone) confers flexibility and elasticity.

Polymerization[edit]
Polystyrene results when styrene monomers interconnect. In the polymerisation, the carbon–
carbon π bond of the vinyl group is broken and a new carbon–carbon σ bond is formed, attaching to
the carbon of another styrene monomer to the chain. The newly formed σ bond is stronger than the
π bond that was broken, thus it is difficult to depolymerize polystyrene. About a few thousand
monomers typically comprise a chain of polystyrene, giving a molecular weight of 100,000–400,000.

Each carbon of the backbone has tetrahedral geometry, and those carbons that have a phenyl
group (benzene ring) attached are stereogenic .

Degradation
Polystyrene is chemically very inert, being resistant to acids and bases but is easily dissolved by
many chlorinated solvents, and many aromatic hydrocarbon solvents. Because of its resilience and
inertness, it is used for fabricating many objects of commerce. It is attacked by many organic
solvents, which dissolve the polymer. Foamed polystyrene is used for packaging chemicals.
Like all organic compounds, polystyrene burns to give carbon dioxide and water vapor. Polystyrene,
being an aromatic hydrocarbon, typically combusts incompletely as indicated by the sooty flame.

Biodegradation
Although polystyrene is generally considered to be non-biodegradable certain organisms are able to
degrade it, albeit very slowly

Forms produced
Polystyrene is commonly injection molded, vacuum formed, or extruded, while expanded polystyrene
is either extruded or molded in a special process. Polystyrene copolymers are also produced; these
contain one or more other monomers in addition to styrene. In recent years the expanded
polystyrene composites with cellulose[29][30] and starch[31] have also been produced. Polystyrene is
used in some polymer-bonded explosives (PBX).

Sheet or molded polystyrene

Polystyrene (PS) is used for producing disposable plastic cutlery and dinnerware, CD "jewel"
cases, smoke detector housings, license plate frames, plastic model assembly kits, and many other
objects where a rigid, economical plastic is desired.Production methods
include thermoforming (vacuum forming) and injection molding.
Polystyrene Petri dishes and other laboratory containers such as test tubes and microplates play an
important role in biomedical research and science. For these uses, articles are almost always made
by injection molding, and often sterilised post-molding, either by irradiation or by treatment
with ethylene oxide. Post-mold surface modification, usually with oxygen-rich plasmas, is often done
to introduce polar groups. Much of modern biomedical research relies on the use of such products;
they therefore play a critical role in pharmaceutical research.
Thin sheets of polystyrene are used in polystyrene film capacitors as it forms a very stable dielectric,
but has largely fallen out of use in favor of polyester.

2.INORGANIC:
polysiloxanes:
Silicones, also known as polysiloxanes
Synthesis
Most common are materials based on polydimethylsiloxane, which is derived by hydrolysis
of dimethyldichlorosilane. This dichloride reacts with water as follows:
n Si(CH3)2Cl2 + n H2O → [Si(CH3)2O]n + 2n HCl
The polymerization typically produces linear chains capped with Si-Cl or Si-OH (silanol) groups.
Under different conditions the polymer is a cyclic, not a chain. [1

Combustion
When silicone is burned in air or oxygen, it forms solid silica (silicon dioxide)(SiO2) as a white
powder, char, and various gases. The readily dispersed powder is sometimes called silica fume.
The pyrolysis of certain polysiloxanes under an inert atmosphere is a valuable pathway towards the
production of amorphous silicon oxycarbide ceramics, also known as polymer derived ceramics.

Properties
Silicones exhibit many useful characteristics

 Low thermal conductivity

 Low chemical reactivity

 Low toxicity

 Thermal stability (constancy of properties over a wide temperature range of −100 to 250 °C).

 The ability to repel water and form watertight seals.

 Does not stick to many substrates, but adheres very well to others, e.g. glass.

 Does not support microbiological growth.

 Resistance to oxygen, ozone, and ultraviolet (UV) light. This property has led to widespread
use of silicones in the construction industry (e.g. coatings, fire protection, glazing seals) and the
automotive industry (external gaskets, external trim).

 Electrical insulation properties. Because silicone can be formulated to be electrically

insulative or conductive, it is suitable for a wide range of electrical applications.

 High gas permeability: at room temperature (25 °C), the permeability of silicone rubber for
such gases as oxygen is approximately 400 times that of butyl rubber, making silicone useful for
medical applications in which increased aeration is desired. Conversely, silicone rubbers cannot
be used where gas-tight seals are necessary.
Silicone can be developed into rubber sheeting, where it has other properties, such as being FDA
compliant. This extends the uses of silicone sheeting to industries that demand hygiene, for
example, food and beverage and pharmaceutical.

Uses
Silicones are used in many products. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry lists the
following major categories of application: Electrical (e.g., insulation), electronics (e.g., coatings),
household (e.g., sealants and cooking utensils), automobile (e.g., gaskets), aeroplane (e.g., seals),
office machines (e.g., keyboard pads), medicine and dentistry (e.g., tooth impression molds), textiles
and paper (e.g., coatings). For these applications, an estimated 400,000 tons of silicones were
produced in 1991.

Automotive
In the automotive field, silicone grease is typically used as a lubricant for brake components since it
is stable at high temperatures, is not water-soluble, and is far less likely than other lubricants to
foul. DOT 5 brake fluids are based on liquid silicones.
Automotive spark plug wires are insulated by multiple layers of silicone to prevent sparks from
jumping to adjacent wires, causing misfires. Silicone tubing is sometimes used in automotive intake
systems (especially for engines with forced induction).
Sheet silicone is used to manufacture gaskets used in automotive engines, transmissions, and other
applications.
Automotive body manufacturing plants and paint shops avoid silicones, as they may cause "fish
eyes", small, circular craters in the finish.

Aerospace
Silicone is a widely used material in the aerospace industry due to its sealing properties, stability
across an extreme temperature range, durability, sound dampening and anti-vibration qualities, and
naturally flame retardant properties. Maintaining extreme functionality is paramount for passenger
safety in the aerospace industry, so each component on an aircraft requires high-performance
materials.
Specially developed aerospace grades of silicone are stable from -70°C to + 220°C, [8] these grades
can be used in the construction of gaskets for windows and cabin doors. During operation, aircraft
go through large temperature fluctuations in a relatively short period of time; from freezing
temperatures when flying at full altitude to the ambient temperatures when on the ground in hot
countries. Silicone rubber can be moulded with tight tolerances ensuring gaskets form airtight seals
both on the ground and in the air, where atmospheric pressure decreases.
Silicone Rubbers resistance to heat corrosion enables it to be used for gaskets in aircraft’s engines
where it will outlast other types of rubber, both improving aircraft safety and reducing maintenance
costs. Silicone acts to seal instrument panels and other electrical systems in the cockpit, protecting
printed circuit boards from the risks of extreme altitude such as moisture and extreme low
temperature. Silicone can be used as a sheath to protect wires and electrical components from any
dust or ice that may creep into a plane’s inner workings.

Cookware

 As a low-taint, non-toxic material, silicone can be used where contact with food is required.
Silicone is becoming an important product in the cookware industry,
particularly bakeware and kitchen utensils.

 Silicone is used as an insulator in heat-resistant potholders and similar items; however, it is

more conductive of heat than similar less dense fiber-based products. Silicone oven mitts are
able to withstand temperatures up to 260 °C (500 °F), allowing reaching into boiling water.

 Molds for chocolate, ice, cookies, muffins and various other foods.

 Non-stick bakeware and reusable mats used on baking sheets.

 Other products such as steamers, egg boilers or poachers, cookware lids, pot
holders, trivets, and kitchen mats.
Dry cleaning[edit]
Liquid silicone can be used as a dry cleaning solvent, providing an alternative to the
traditional chlorine-containing perchloroethylene (perc)solvent. Use of silicones in dry cleaning
reduces the environmental effect of a typically high-polluting industry.

Polyphosphazene:
Synthesis
The method of synthesis depends on the type of polyphosphazene. The most widely used method
for linear polymers is based on a two-step process. In the first step a cyclic small molecule
( )
phosphazene, known as hexachlorocyclotriphosphazene, with the formula NPCl2 3, is heated in
a sealed system at 250 °C to convert it to a long chain linear polymer with typically 15,000 or
more repeating units. In the second step the chlorine atoms linked to phosphorus in the polymer are
replaced by organic groups through reactions
with alkoxides, aryloxides, amines or organometallic reagents. Because many different reagents can
participate in this macromolecular substitution reaction, and because two or more different reagents
may be used, a large number of different polymers can be produced, each with a different
combination of properties. Variations to this process are possible
using poly(dichlorophosphazene) made by condensation reactions.

Another synthetic process uses a living cationic polymerization that allows the formation of block
copolymers or comb, star, or dendritic architectures. Other synthetic methods include the
condensation reactions of organic-substituted phosphoranimines.
Cyclomatrix type polymers made by linking small molecule phosphazene rings together employ
difunctional organic reagents to replace the chlorine atoms in (NPCl2)3, or the introduction
of allyl or vinyl substituents, which are then polymerized by free-radical methods.[13] Such polymers
may be useful as coatings or thermosetting resins, often prized for their thermal stability.

Properties and uses

The linear high polymers have the geometry shown in the picture. More than 700
different macromolecules that correspond to this structure are known with different side groups or
combinations of different side groups. In these polymers the properties are defined by the high
flexibility of the backbone. Other potentially attractive properties include radiation resistance,
high refractive index, ultraviolet and visible transparency, and its fire resistance. The side groups
exert an equal or even greater influence on the properties since they impart properties such
as hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, color, useful biological properties such as bioerodibility, or ion
transport properties to the polymers.

Polymer electrolytes
Linear polyphosphazenes with oligo-ethyleneoxy side chains are gums that are good solvents for
salts such as lithium triflate. These solutions function as electrolytes for lithium ion transport, and
they were incorporated into fire-resistant rechargeable lithium-ion polymer battery. The same
polymers are also of interest as the electrolyte in dye-sensitized solar cells. Other polyphosphazenes
with sulfonated aryloxy side groups are proton conductors of interest for use in the membranes
of proton exchange membrane fuel cells.

Hydrogels
Water-soluble poly(organophosphazenes) with oligo-ethyleneoxy side chains can be cross-
linked by gamma-radiation. The cross-linked polymers absorb water to form hydrogels, which are
responsive to temperature changes, expanding to a limit defined by the cross-link density below
a critical solution temperature, but contracting above that temperature. This is the basis of controlled
permeability membranes. Other polymers with both oligo-ethyleneoxy and carboxyphenoxy side
groups expand in the presence of monovalent cationsbut contract in the presence of di- or tri-valent
cations, which form ionic cross-links. Phosphazene hydrogels have been utilized for controlled drug
release and other medical applications.

Bioerodible polyphosphazenes
The ease with which properties can be controlled and fine-tuned by the linkage of different side
groups to polyphosphazene chains has prompted major efforts to address biomedicalmaterials
challenges using these polymers. Different polymers have been studied as macromolecular drug
carriers, as membranes for the controlled delivery of drugs, as biostable elastomers, and especially
as tailored bioerodible materials for the regeneration of living bone.