See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/313382986

Neurophenomenology of Savant Syndrome

Article · September 2015

CITATIONS READS

0 1,044

1 author:

Taruna Ikrar
Pacific Health Sciences University, California, United State
76 PUBLICATIONS   497 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

The potential of cell-based therapy for Macular Degenerations View project

Advanced Medicine as a current solution for degenerative disorders View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Taruna Ikrar on 06 February 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 tinjauan pustaka

Neurophenomenology
of Savant Syndrome
Dito Anurogo,1-3 Taruna Ikrar1,4
1
Health consultant at detik.com
2
Indonesian Young Health Professionals’ Society (IYHPS)
3
Brain Circulation Institute of Indonesia (BCII), Surya University, Indonesia
4
School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, USA

ABSTRACT
Savant syndrome is an enigmatic disorder. It is characterized by cluster of outstanding mental ability in otherwise handicapped individuals.
People with savant syndrome exhibit exceptional-extraordinary abilities and demonstrate some specific talents or particular skills along
with developmental disabilities. Their profound and prodigous abilities are far in excess of what are considered normal. There is a paradoxical
presence of special skills and distinguished disabilities. The documented savant skills include “lightning-speed” numerical calculation,
calendrical calculation, musical savants (exceptional musical abilities, especially perfect pitch), artistic skills, hyperlexics (fast reading
and understanding). Other types of talents and artistic skills involving three-dimensional drawing, map memory, poetry, painting, and
sculpturing are also observed. The goal of this scientific article is to review savant syndrome, based on neurophenomenology framework and
recent findings.

Keywords: Savant syndrome, neurophenomenology, neurocognitive models

ABSTRAK
Sindrom savant adalah gangguan yang misterius. Sindrom ini ditandai dengan adanya beberapa kemampuan mental yang menonjol pada
individu dengan kelainan/cacat jasmani. Orang dengan sindrom savant menunjukkan beragam kemampuan luar-biasa serta memiliki
beberapa bakat khusus atau keterampilan yang istimewa di samping gangguan perkembangan. Kemampuan yang dimilikinya melampaui
kondisi normal. Ada paradoks dari kehebatan dan cacat yang dimilikinya. Beberapa keterampilan yang terdokumentasikan, misalnya
perhitungan numerik kilat, kalkulasi kalender, musik (kecuali kemampuan musikal, terutama pitch yang sempurna), keterampilan artistik,
hiperleksia (kemampuan membaca dan memahami kilat). Jenis bakat dan kemampuan artistik lainnya antara lain menggambar tiga
dimensi, ingatan tentang peta, puisi, lukisan, dan seni memahat. Tujuan artikel ilmiah ini adalah untuk meninjau sindrom savant berdasar­
kan pendekatan neurofenomenologi dan kepustakaan serta riset terkini. Dito Anurogo, Taruna Ikrar. Neurofenomenologi dari Sindrom
Savant.

Kata kunci: Sindrom savant, neurofenomenologi, model neurokognitif

Introduction
‘Savant’ is person with obvious mental
retardation who is capable of performing in
sharply circumscribed areas (e.g. arithmetic,
calendar calculating) at a remarkably high
level.1 Savant syndrome is a constellation
of symptoms or behaviors, a collection
of characteristics or conditions that is
superimposed and grafted on to some
underlying disabilities.2-7 It is not a disorder
or disease.8
It is characterized by certain spectacular
skill(s) or prodigious intellectual gifts in a
Alamat korespondensi email: ditoanurogo@gmail.com
specific area (i.e.: mathematical, musical,
artistic, mechanical abilities, etc), subnormal
intelligence, massive memory, different
disability/handicap or sometimes with seve­
rely limited emotional range.2-7 Formerly,
savant syndrome is known as idiot savant,
first coined by Down.9
Type
Savant syndrome has been differentiated
into two kinds, i.e.:10
1. ‘Prodigious’ savants, i.e.: individuals
whose talents and abilities are exceptional
and well beyond the range of normal
functioning in relation to both their overall
level of functioning and the general
population.
2. ‘Talented’ savants, i.e.: individuals
showing outstanding skills in comparison
with their overall levels of functioning.
Both prodigious and talented savants
are most frequently reported as autism
spectrum disorder (ASD).
Epidemiology
Savant syndrome occurs in less than 1%
of the intellectually disabled population.11

674 CDK-232/ vol. 42 no. 9, th. 2015

 tinjauan pustaka

Table 1. The mnemonics of SAVANT (original idea) Table 2. Summary of some brain researches related to savant syndrome

S : Specific savant skills Explanation of (Brain) Researches Reference(s)

A : Autism (is sometimes superimposed)
V : Variations (and veridical mapping)
A : Anomaly (in specific brain’s region)
Neurological-neurodevelopmental
N :
disorders-disability
T : Talents (or talented)
The incidence of savant syndrome is 10%
in autistic disorder (531 savant in 5400
children with autism).12 If the presence of
savant syndrome is not limited to autism, it
is estimated to be 1-2 in 200.6 In population
with mental retardation, the incidence of
savant skills was 1:2000.13 The prevalence
of savant syndrome is 1.4 per 1000.14 Ratio
males: females is 6:1.15 At present, there are
perhaps fewer than 100 known prodigious
savants living worldwide.15
Seventeen autistic subjects (4 savants) were investigated with pneumographic 29
techniques. Fifteen cases demonstrated enlargement of the left ventricle, in particular,
enlargement of the left temporal horn. These abnormalities represented mild and
variable atrophy in the left cerebral hemisphere.
In a blind and retarded savant with exceptional musical abilities, a CAT (Computerized 30
Axial Tomography) scan demonstrates clear left sided abnormalities.
One prodigiously talented savant was observed in CAT (Computerized Axial 31
Tomography) scan. This scan demonstrated a considerable left sided abnormality,
especially in the left frontal lobe, which was considered a large area of scarring. There
was also damage to the anterior and posterior portions of the left parietal lobes and to
a minor degree damage to the left and right occipital lobes.
There are alterations in brain cytoarchitecture. In the future, it may help to explain 32
exceptional abilities in both autistic savants and the intellectually gifted.
Dominance in hemisphere is important for the acquisition of savant abilities/skills. In 33
people who acquire savant-like abilities, an injury to the frontal lobe, particularly in the
left hemisphere, preceded the emergence of the abilities/skills. Frontotemporal lobe
is associated with several skills possessed by savants (i.e.: memory). Degeneration of
the lobe leads to varying effects depending on the hemisphere it targets in individual
cases.

“SAVANT” as Clinical Portraits, Early
Detection and Identification
The clinical portraits of savant syndrome
can be memorized easily by mnemonics
“SAVANT” below (Table 1). It can also be
used as the fastest way in early detection or
identification of savant syndrome.
Specific Savant Skills, Abilities, or
Expertise
Savant skills are often referred to the exis­
tence of extraordinary talent in art, music,
maths, calendar calculation, or memory.16
Actually, savant skills have multispecific areas.
They are certain arithmetic-mathematical
skills, art (visual arts; particularly drawing),
calendar calculations (the ability to give the
correct day of the week for a given date),
The effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) of the left anterior 34,35
temporal lobe (LATL) lend credence to Treffert’s damage-compensation theory and
open the possibility for scientists to uncover talents in ordinary people. Improvements
may only be possible for some, not all, individuals, just like savant abilities are not
present in all autistic patients. rTMS is a noninvasive method that works by depolarizing
or hyperpolarizing neurons in the brain, allowing a researcher to safely shut off the left
frontotemporal lobe to observe the right hemisphere compensate for this reduction
in function.
Prodigious artistic skills in a 63-year-old male with autistic savant were observed in 36
a high-resolution magnetic resonance (MR) imaging, J-resolved MR spectroscopy,
and diffusion tensor imaging; they revealed no gross anatomical differences, a larger
cerebral volume (1362 mL) than normal adults males’ brain. The corpus callosum
was intact. The right cerebral hemisphere was 1.9% larger than the left hemisphere.
The right amygdala and right caudate nuclei were 24% and 9.9% larger, respectively,
compared to the left side. The putamen was 8.3% larger on the left side. Fractional
anisotropy was increased on the right side as compared to the left side for 4 of the 5
bilateral regions studied (the amygdala, caudate, frontal lobe, and hippocampus). Fiber
tract bundle volumes were larger on the right side for the amygdala, hippocampus,
frontal lobe, and occipital lobe. Both the left and the right hippocampi had substantially
increased axial and mean diffusivities as compared to those of a comparison sample
of nonsavant adult males. The corpus callosum and left amygdala also exhibited high
axial, radial, and mean diffusivities. MR spectroscopy revealed markedly decreased
gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamate in the parietal lobe.

coordination skills, computation-calculation,

language, mechanical aptitude/skills, me­
mory (dates, facts, places, routes, etc), music
or musical performance, prime number
derivation, ‘pseudo-verbal’ skills (hyperlexia/
facility with foreign languages), sensory
sensitivity, visuospatial, or multiple skills (more
than one skill simultaneously in one savant).
They might be reported or observed by
parents, friends, medical practitioners,
etc.12,17-22 The savant skills above could be
classified into five major expertises, i.e.: art,
musical abilities, calendar calculation,
mathematics, and spatial skills.15 Calendar
calculation is one of the most prevalent
savant skills.12,23
The specific areas of savant skills above are
mainly categorized into three spectra, i.e.:15
1. Splinter skills (e.g.: memorization of
music and historical facts trivia)
2. Talented savants (e.g.: having special
abilities but cognitively impaired)
3. Prodigious savant [e.g.: having special
skill(s) which is so amazing, astonishing,
outstanding, and spectacular).
Autism
Some of savants have autism.24,25 The autistic
savants have a tendency to have repetitive
behaviour and/or preoccupations with a
restricted area of interest. They also show
interest in one specific topic.26,27 Not
all persons with savant syndrome have
autistic disorder and vice versa.15 Increased
perceptual expertise may be implicated
in the choice of special ability in savant
autistics.28 Therefore, autism is sometimes
superimposed in savant syndrome.
Variations and Anomalies
There are a lot of variation that can be
observed in person with savant syndrome.
Variations are in intelligences and maturity of
emotion (usually severely limited emotional
range). Table 2 summarizes some brain
researches related to savant syndrome.

CDK-232/ vol. 42 no. 9, th. 2015 675

 tinjauan pustaka
It is concluded that there are a lot of
variations and anomalies in specific regions
in the brain of person with savant syndrome.
Veridical Mapping Mechanism
Savant abilities share the same structure-
developmental course. They represent related
ways by which the perceptual brain deals
with objective structures under different
conditions. These different phenomena
develop through a veridical mapping (VM)
mechanism whereby perceptual information
is coupled with homological data drawn
from isomorphic structures.37
VM is a peculiar mechanism that can
expound the higher incidence of savant
abilities especially in autism. It has also been
hypothesized in an effort to account for the
role of perception in the high prevalence of
savant syndrome, particularly in autism.17,38
The prevalence of savant abilities among
persons with autism range from 1/20039 to
1/3 or higher.17,38
The mechanisms involved in savant abilities
initially entail VM between perceptually
presented isomorphic patterns. It is veridical
in the sense that the mapping emerges
when there is a sufficient level of similarity
between at least two structures. The mapping
involves the coupling of homologue
elements of recurrent isomorphic patterns,
and is the basic mechanism for structure
detection.40
The seven basic components in savant
abilities based on VM are:37
1. Savant abilities involve materials with a
high density of isomorphisms.
2. Savant abilities are based on the early
implicit within- and between-code mapping
among large isomorphic structures.
3. Material and operations involved in a
domain-specific ability depend on episodic
exposure to this material.
4. Superior performance of savants
on domain-relevant tasks results from a
combination of enhanced perception and
expertise.
5. Savant performance involves non-
strategic recall or redintegration.
6. Understanding of linguistic codes is
achieved in perceptual, non-linguistic ways.
7. During development period, savant
abilities become gradually more explicit, and
676
merge with typical reasoning/algorithmic
processes, resulting in a unique combination
of perceptual and abstract structure.
Neurological-neurodevelopmental
Disorders-disability
Neurological and/or neurodevelopmental
disorders and any disability are a possibility
and susceptibility in person with savant
syndrome. It is estimated 50% of persons
with savant syndrome have developmental
disability, mental retardation, or other CNS
injury/disease. Another 50% have autistic
disorder.15
There is at least one specific disability in
person with savant syndrome, i.e.: autism,
brain injury, cerebral palsy, congenital syphillis,
delayed language, depression, echolalia,
encephalitis, epilepsy, high fever at age one,
language delay, language disorder, language
impairment, left hemispherectomy, left side
convulsions, Marfan syndrome, mentally
handicapped, premature, meningitis, per­
vasive development disorder, rubella “autistic”,
schizophrenia, slow speech, socially obtuse,
“limited” speech, Tourette syndrome, very
distracted, visual impairment, unspecified.41-
46
Talents or Talented
A person with savant syndrome can have
one or some talents in specific area, i.e.: art,
music, calendrical and numerical calculation,
linguistic and language-related.47 Savants
aren’t gifted. Someone can be gifted without
necessarily being talented (as with the case
of underachievers), but not vice versa.48
The documented savant skills include
“lightning-speed” numerical calculation,
calendrical calculation, musical savants
(exceptional musical abilities, especially
perfect pitch), artistic skills, and hyperlexics
(fast reading and understanding). Other
types of talents and artistic skills involving
three-dimensional drawing, map memory,
poetry, painting, and sculpturing are also
observed. Savant talent has traditionally
involved exceptional memory, and some­
times for peculiar material (e.g. bus routes,
telephone directories, etc). People with
savant syndrome exhibit exceptional-
extraordinary abilities and demonstrate
some specific talents or particular skills with
developmental disabilities. Their profound
and prodigous abilities are far in excess
of what are considered normal. There is a
paradoxical presence of special skills and
distinguished disabilities.
Cognitive Models
There are three current cognitive models of
savant syndrome:55
1. A hypermnesic model.55
This model suggests that savant skills
develop from existing or dormant cognitive
functions (i.e.: memory). Recent researches
based on neuropsychological examinations
imply that savant individuals use problem-
solving strategy fairly different from a non-
autistic one.
2. A paradoxical functional facilitation
model.55
This model offers possible explanations on
how pathological states in the brain lead
to development of prodigious skills. This
model emphasizes the role of reciprocal
inhibitory interaction among adjacent or
distant cortical regions, especially that of
the prefrontal cortex and the posterior
regions of the brain. This model is adjacent
and related to the paradoxical cognitive
phenomena.
Five forms of the paradoxical cognitive
phenomena:56
(a) Enhanced cognitive performance of
neurological patients vis-à-vis neurologi­
cally intact individuals (‘lesion facilitation’).
(b) Alleviation or restoration to normal of
a particular cognitive deficit following
the occurrence of a second brain lesion
(‘double-hit recovery’).
(c) ‘Hinder–help effects’, a variable that
produces facilitation or detriment of
performance in healthy participant’s
results in opposite effects.
(d) Anomalies in the usual relationship
between the presence/size of a brain
lesion and the degree of cognitive deficit
(‘lesion–load paradox’).
(e) There may appear to be direct or indirect
benefits for long-term neurological out­
come as the result of specific cognitive
deficits being present (‘paradoxical
positive outcome’).
3. Autistic models based on weak central
coherence theory.
CDK-232/ vol. 42 no. 9, th. 2015
 tinjauan pustaka

This model focuses on how savant skills
emerge from an autistic brain.55 Central
coherence theory refers to the common
tendency to process incoming information
globally and in context, thus aiding human
beings to make sense and understand
structure and meaning. This tendency
operates at the expense of attention to
details.57,58
Differential Diagnosis
Clinicians, general practitioners, and prac­
titioners should be careful in establishing
savant syndrome as a certain diagnosis.
Patients are recommended to undergo
specific genetic examination. Specific skills
are also reported in genetic disorders, such as:
Prader–Willi syndrome (memory-visuospatial
skills),59-61 Smith–Magenis syndrome
(computing-memory),62 Williams syndrome
(music-memory).63,64
SUMMARY
Savant syndrome is an enigma among the
great mysteries of cognitive neuroscience.
It has great challenges for new discoveries
that could reveal greater depths of the
concept of genius from human mind.

Daftar Pustaka
1. Grossman H. Classification in mental retardation. Washington, DC: The American Association on Mental Deficiency; 1983.
2. Bolte S, Poustka F. Comparing the intelligence profiles of savant and nonsavant individuals with autistic disorder. Intelligence. Elsevier Inc; 2004. 32(2). p.121-31.
3. Davidson T. Savant syndrome [Internet]. [cited 2013 Aug 20]. Available from: http://www.healthofchildren.com/S/Savant-Syndrome.html#b.
4. Edelson, Stephen M. Autistic savant. Center for the study of autism [Internet]. [cited 2004 Oct 17]. Available from: http://www.autism.org/savant.html.
5. The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. Savant syndrome. Encyclopaedia Britennica [Internet]. [cited 2013 August 20]. Available from: http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/
topic/282018/savant-syndrome.
6. Hermelin B. Bright splinters of the mind: A personal story of research with autistics savant. Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley publisher; 2001.
7. Treffert D. Extraordinary people: Understanding savant syndrome. New York, NY: Ballantine Books; 2000.
8. Kaufman SB. Conversations on creativity with Darold Treffert, part I: Defining autism, savantism, and genius. Darold Treffert on defining autism, savantism, and genius [Internet]. 2011 April
11. Available from: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/beautiful-minds/201104/conversations-creativity-darold-treffert-part-i-de.
9. Down JL. On some of the mental affections of childhood and youth. London, UK: Churchill; 1887.
10. Treffert D. Extraordinary people: Understanding ‘idiot savants’. New York, NY: Harper & Row; 1989.
11. Hill AL. Savants: Mentally retarded individuals with special skills. In: Ellis NR, editor. International review of research in mental retardation. New York: Academic Press; 1978; 9: 277-
98.
12. Rimland B. Savant capabilities of autistic children and their cognitive implications. In: Serban G, editor. Cognitive defects in the development of mental illness. New York, NY: Brunner/
Mazel; 1978. p.43-65.
13. Hill AL. Idiot savants: Rate of incidence. Percept Mot Skills 1977; 44: 161-2.
14. Saloviita T, Ruusila L, Ruusila U. Incidence of savant skills in Finland. Percept Mot Skills 2000; 91: 120-2.
15. Treffert DA. The savant syndrome: An extraordinary condition. A synopsis: Past, present, future. Phil Trans R Soc B. 2009; 364: 1351-7.
16. Discussion Meeting Issue ‘Autism and talent’. The beautiful otherness of the autistic mind. Phil Trans R Soc B. 2009; 364: 1345-50.
17. Howlin P, Goode S, Hutton J, Rutter M. Savant skills in autism: Psychometric approaches and parental reports. Phil Trans R Soc B. 2009; 364: 1359-67.
18. Miller LK. Musical savants: Exceptional skill in the mentally retarded. 1st ed. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ; 1989.
19. O’Connor N, Hermelin B. A specific linguistic ability. Am J Ment Retard. 1991; 95: 673-81.
20. Sacks O. The twins. New York: New York Review of Books; 1985.
21. Selfe L. Normal and anomalous representational drawing ability in children. Methuen, London; 1983.
22. Tredgold A. Mental deficiency. New York: Williams & Wilkins; 1952.
23. Treffert DA. The idiot savant. A review of the syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry 1988; 145: 563-72.
24. Dubischar-Krivec AM, Neumann N, Poustka F, Braun C, Birbaumer N, Bölte S, et al. Calendar calculating in savants with autism and healthy calendar calculators. Psychol Med. 2009; 39(8):
1355-63. doi: 10.1017/S0033291708004601.
25. Rimland B, Fein DA. Special talents of autistic savants. In: Obler LK, Fine DA, editors. The exceptional brain: Neuropsychology of talent and special abilities. New York: Guilford Press; 1988.
p.474-92.
26. O’Connor N, Hermelin B. Annotation: Low intelligence and special abilities. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1988; 29: 391-6.
27. O’Connor N, Hermelin B. Talents and preoccupations in idiots-savants. Psychol Med. 1991; 21: 959-64.
28. Mottron L, Dawson M, Soulières I, Hubert B, Burack J. Enhanced perceptual functioning in autism: An update, and eight principles of autistic perception. J Autism Dev Disord. 2006; 36(1):
27-43.
29. Hauser SL, DeLong GR, Rosman NP. Pneumographic findings in the infantile autism syndrome. A correlation with temporal lobe disease. Brain 1975; 98: 667-88.
30. Charness N, Clifton J, MacDonald L. A case study of a musical mono-savant: A cognitive psychological focus. In: Olber LK, Fein DA, editors. The exceptional brain: Neuropsychology of talent
and special abilities. New York, Guilford Press; 1988.
31. Treffert DA. Extraordinary people. London: Bantam Press; 2000.
32. Casanova MF, Switala AE, Trippe J, Fitzgerald M. Comparative minicolumnar morphometry of three distinguished scientists. Autism 2007; 11: 557-69.
33. Miller BL. Creativity in the context of neurological Illness. CNS Spectrums 2008; 13: 2(Suppl 2)7-9.
34. Hughes JR. A review of savant syndrome and its possible relationship to epilepsy. Epilepsy & Behavior 2010; 17: 147-52.
35. Young RL, Ridding MC, Morrell TL. Switching skills on by turning off part of the brain. Neurocase 2004; 10(3): 215-22.
36. Corrigan NM, Richards TL, Treffert DA, Dager SR. Toward a better understanding of the savant brain. Comprehensive Psychiatry 2012; 53: 706-17.
37. Mottron L, Bouvet L, Bonnel A, Samson F, Burack JA, Dawson M, et al. Veridical mapping in the development of exceptional autistic abilities. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2013; 37(2):

CDK-232/ vol. 42 no. 9, th. 2015 677

 tinjauan pustaka

209-28.
38. Bennett E, Heaton P. Is talent in autism spectrum disorders associated with a specific cognitive and behavioural phenotype? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2012; 42(12):
2739-53.
39. Hermelin B. Bright splinters of the mind: A personal story of research with autistic savants. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers; 2001.
40. Mottron L, Dawson M, Soulières I. Enhanced perception in savant syndrome: Patterns, structure and creativity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B,
Biological Sciences 2009; 364: 1385-91.
41. Burling T, Sappington J, Mead A. Lateral specialization of a perpetual calculating task by a moderately retarded adult. Am J Ment Def.1983; 88: 326-8.
42. Miller LK. Defining the savant syndrome. J Dev Phys Dis. 1998; 10(1): 73-85.
43. Minogue B. A case of secondary mental deficiency in musical talent. J Appl Psychol.1923; 7: 349-52.
44. Nurcombe B, Parker N. The idiot savant. Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1964; 3: 469-87.
45. Palo J, Kivalo A. Calendar calculator with progressive mental deficiency. Acta Paedopsychiat. 1977; 42: 227-31.
46. Rubin E, Monaghan S. Calendar calculation in a multiply handicapped blind person. Am J Ment Def. 1965; 70: 478-84.
47. Pring L. Savant talent. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 2005; 47: 500-3.
48. Gagné F. Giftedness and talent: Reexamining a reexamination of the definitions. Gifted Child Quarterly Summer 1985; 29(3): 103-12.
49. Foerstl J. Early interest in the idiot savant. Am J Psychiatry 1989; 146(4): 566.
50. Grandin T. Thinking in pictures: And other reports from my life with autism.
51. Pegg D. 25 Amazing savant minds [Internet]. 2011 Nov 30. Available from: http://list25.com/25-amazing-savant-minds.
52. The childhood and the life of James Henry Pullen, the Victorian idiot savant (1832-1916)” in “history of paediatrics and child health”. Archives of Disease in Childhood 2003;
88(90001): 59.
53. Savant syndrome. Wikipedia [Internet]. [cited 2013 August 22]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savant_syndrome.
54. Wisconsin Medical Society. Savant Syndrome. 2013.
55. Takahata K, Kato M. Neural mechanism underlying autistic savant and acquired savant syndrome. Brain Nerve. 2008; 60(7): 861-9.
56. Kapur N. Paradoxical functional facilitation and recovery in neurological and psychiatric conditions. In: Kapur N, editor. The paradoxical brain. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press;
2011: (3). p.40-73.
57. Frith U. Autism. Explaining the enigma. 1st ed. Oxford, England:Blackwell; 1989.
58. Frith U. Autism. Explaining the enigma. 2nd ed. Oxford, England: Blackwell; 2003.
59. Prader A, Labhart A, Willi H. Ein syndrom von adipositas, kleinwuchs, kryptorchismus und pligophrenie nach myatonieartigem zustand im neugeborenenalter. Schweiz Med Wschr. 1956;
86: 1260-1.
60. Martin A, State M, Koenig K, Schultz R, Dykens EM, Cassidy SB, et al. Prader-Willi syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155(9): 1265-73. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.155.9.1265
61. Milner KM, Craig EE, Thompson RJ, Veltman MW, Thomas NS, Roberts S, et al. Prader–Willi syndrome: Intellectual abilities and behavioural features by genetic subtype. J Child Psychol
Psychiatry 2005; 46: 1089-96.
62. Allanson JE, Greenberg F, Smith ACM. The face of Smith-Magenis syndrome: A subjective and objective study. J Med Genet. 1999; 36: 394-7.
63. Martens MA, Wilson SJ, Reutens DC. Williams syndrome: A critical review of the cognitive, behavioral, and neuroanatomical phenotype. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2008; 49(6):
576-608.
64. Levitin DJ, Cole K, Chiles M, Lai Z, Lincoln A, Bellugi U. Characterizing the musical phenotype in individuals with Williams syndrome. Child Neuropsychol. 2004; 10: 223-47.

678 CDK-232/ vol. 42 no. 9, th. 2015

View publication stats