SPE/IADC-189306-MS

Development of a Geomechanical Model for Drilling Deviated Wells through

the Zubair Formation in Southern Iraq

Ahmed K. Abbas, Iraqi Drilling Company, Missouri University of Science and Technology; Yousif M. B. Al-Asadi,
Schlumberger; Mortadha Alsaba, Australian College of Kuwait; Ralph E. Flori, Missouri University of Science and
Technology; Shaban Alhussainy, Iraqi Drilling Company

Copyright 2018, SPE/IADC Middle East Drilling Technology Conference and Exhibition

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE/IADC Middle East Drilling Technology Conference and Exhibition held in Abu Dhabi, UAE, 29-31 January 2018.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE/IADC program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s).
Contents of the paper have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers or the International Association of Drilling Contractors and are subject to correction
by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers or the International Association of Drilling Contractors,
its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers or
the International Association of Drilling Contractors is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations
may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE/IADC copyright.

Abstract
The Zubair Formation is the most prolific reservoir in Iraq, which is comprised of sandstones interbedded
with shale sequences. Drilling deviated boreholes in this formation has always been a challenge due to the
weak nature of the shale sequence. Historically, over 90% of wellbore problems in the Zubair Formation
are due to wellbore instability. These wellbore instability problems, such as hole collapse, tight hole, stuck
pipe, and sidetracks results in increasing the nonproductive time (NPT) and well costs. The present study
aims to construct a calibrated post-drill 1-D mechanical earth model (MEM) that can be used to conduct a
comprehensive geomechanical analysis of the Zubair Formation.
A practical methodology was detailed for (1) constructing the 1-D MEM by using data from several
open hole logs and (2) calibrating such a model using all the available data (e.g., observations of wellbore
failures, measurements of well testing, laboratory test results of rock mechanical properties, etc.). Three
failure criteria (i.e., Mohr-Coulomb, Mogi-Coulomb, and Modified Lade) were used to perform a root cause
analysis of borehole breakouts and to address the minimum required mud weight to minimize wellbore
instability-related issues for different well trajectories.
The wellbore failure analysis showed that the mud weight, that was used previously, is insufficient
to support the rock on the wellbore wall, and it is not appropriately adjusted according to the variation
in the wellbore azimuth and inclination. In addition, the heterogeneity of the Zubair Formation and the
inappropriate drilling practice have magnified the severity of the drilling problems. The predictions resulting
from this study can be used as cost-effective tools when planning for future neighboring deviated wells to
create better drilling efficiency by reducing the nonproductive time and well costs.

Introduction
The Lower Cretaceous Zubair Formation is a regionally extended oil-producing sandstone sequence in Iraq,
Kuwait, Syria, Iran, and Saudi Arabia. The Zubair Formation is composed mainly of shale and sandstone
intercalation, with minor streaks of limestone and siltstone. Shale contributes more than 55% of the Zubair
2 SPE/IADC-189306-MS

Formation. Wellbore instability is frequently reported as one of the most critical problems during drilling in
the Zubair Formation in several fields of southern Iraq. Problems associated with wellbore instability, such
as hole collapse, tight hole while tripping, stuck pipe and logging tools, hole enlargement, poor log quality,
and poor primary cement jobs, are the cause of the majority of the nonproductive time (NPT) in the Zubair
reservoir developments. The high cost resulting from NPT can be significantly reduced if the geomechanical
parameters, such as the mechanical properties of the rock and the in-situ stresses, are known (Al-Wardy
and Portillo 2010). The operating mud weight was chosen in such a way as to prevent the formation fluid
from flowing into the wellbore without considering geomechanical principles (Alkamil et al. 2017). In this
case, shear failures of rock (wellbore breakouts) will occur due to the imbalance between stress and rock
strength (Mansourizadeh et al. 2016), where stresses around the wellbore exceed the compressive strength
of the rock due to lack of pressure support from the drilling fluid. The problems are shear failures related
have been identified as a significant enlargement and elongation of the wellbore (Ma et al., 2015). The
wellbore enlargement issue, if not treated in time, can lead to a stuck pipe, problems with reaming operations,
and sidetracking or loss of the hole as the worst case. The drilling of an in-gauge wellbore requires mud
pressure higher than the breakout pressure, which is defined as the least mud pressure that can avoid wellbore
enlargement. However, if the mud pressure is greater than the weakest formation fracture gradient, the
drilling fluid will be lost, and lost circulation treatments should be applied. In addition, the high difference
between the mud pressure and formation pressure increases the risk of differential sticking and can lower
the rate of penetration (ROP). It is therefore imperative to include a comprehensive geomechanical analysis
at the well planning stage to mitigate the wellbore instability problems that arise when drilling deviated
wells (Peska and Zoback 1995).
In the present work, a 1-D mechanical earth model (MEM) was constructed using numerous field
and laboratory data for the Zubair Formation. Based on the offset well data, open hole wireline logging
measurements (e.g., density logs, gamma ray (GR) logs, sonic logs, formation micro-imager (FMI) logs,
porosity logs, resistivity logs, drilling records, and mud logs (master logs)), were used to estimate the in
situ principal stress magnitude and its orientations, pore pressure, and rock mechanical properties. The 1-
D-MEM was verified and calibrated using all the available data (i.e., drilling observations, caliper logs,
results of image data interpretation, repeated formation test (RFT), hydraulic fracturing, and laboratory
rock mechanical properties, etc.) such that it robustly and accurately predicts shear failure around given
wellbores. The generated model was then coupled with three failure criteria (i.e., Mohr-Coulomb, Mogi-
Coulomb, and Modified Lade) to analyze the existing wellbore stability problems for wells with directional
profiles and to determine the appropriate mud weight to drill a well in any desired direction. This study can
help in achieving a large reduction in indirect NPT and well drilling costs of deviated wells by avoiding
wellbore instability issues.

Time Distribution Record for the Zubair Formation Section

To study the impact of wellbore instability in the Zubair Formation on drilling performance, daily drilling
reports, final well reports, and mud logs (master logs) for 12 deviated wells were extensively investigated.
The time analysis for the 12 deviated wells indicated clearly that the Zubair section (8.5- inch section)
contributed toward about 30% of the total time spent to drill these wells (Fig. 1). The average thickness
drilled through the Zubair Formation varied between 350 m (+/-25m), which accounted for about 12%
of the total well depth. The total time breakdown for the 8.5-inch section was then analyzed separately
to determine the impact of NPT on the drilling progress for this section. An interesting observation from
this investigation was that the NPT (due to wellbore instability incidents) contributed toward more than
44% of the total time spent on the 8.5-inch section (Fig. 2). This analysis also revealed that the majority
of instability problems that have taken place in the Zubair Formation were a tight hole, shale caving, stuck
logging tools and subsequent fishing, stuck pipe, and sidetracking. Examining the drilling operation data of
SPE/IADC-189306-MS 3

these deviated wells revealed that these wellbore problems were mostly related to the shear failure of the
wellbore or borehole breakouts. These problems contributed to the NPT by increasing the time of circulation
and reaming. Out of the 12 deviated wells that were studied, two wells were sidetracked due to a stuck pipe
and unsuccessful fishing operations.

Figure 1—Time distribution analysis for 12 deviated wells.

Figure 2—Total time breakdown for the 8.5-inch section.

Overall, it can be clearly realized that wellbore instability in the Zubair Formation increased the total
well drilling time by approximately 14.5 days on average per well. The field development activity plan is
also affected by excessive increases in the well cost.

Geomechanical Modeling
An integrated workflow was applied to conduct a geomechanical model analysis for drilling through the
Zubair Formation, as described in Fig. 3. The first step in building the geomechanical model was collecting
the proper set of data for the Zubair Formation. The quality of the collected data was then checked against
the defined standards. After that, data from the open hole wireline logs was used to build the 1-D mechanical
earth model (MEM) for the Zubair Formation. The developed models were further calibrated using all the
available data, such as drilling observations, mini-frac tests, laboratory measurements of rock mechanical
properties, etc. The model parameters were then input into a wellbore stability analysis to optimize the mud
weight and wellbore trajectory for future drilling operations.
4 SPE/IADC-189306-MS

Figure 3—General workflow for the geomechanical model.

Data Gathering
The needed data to start the geomechanical modeling study were gathered from various sources from the
offset wells, mainly from the ones with major wellbore instability events and high NPT values.

Data Quality Check

The second step in generating the geomechanical model was assessing the logging input data. The quality of
the gathered dataset was checked before using it to construct a basic 1-D mechanical earth model (MEM).
A data audit was performed to make sure that all data, which were acquired from the laboratory and field,
were complete, accurate, and reasonable. In fact, there was sometimes considerable scatter in the measured
wireline log values, especially when wellbore conditions were poor (i.e., significantly enlarged).
In general, the data gathered for this study was almost complete and of good quality. Moreover, most
of the necessary data for the 1-D-MEM modeling, including gamma ray logs, density logs, porosity logs,
sonic logs (compression and shear wave velocities), resistivity logs, formation micro-imager (FMI) logs,
caliper logs, mud logs (master logs), mini-frac tests, and laboratory measurements, were available for most
of the selected wells.

Rock Mechanical Properties

Rock mechanical properties consist mainly of strength parameters, which include unconfined compressive
strength (UCS), cohesive strength, and internal friction angle (φ), and elastic parameters, which include
the Young's modulus (E) and Poisson's ratio (v). Understanding these parameters is essential for any
geomechanical modeling study. The predicted, continuous rock mechanical profile provided a good
indication of the natural variation in the formation strength and stability around the wellbore in different
layers within the interval of interest.
Dynamic elastic properties were calculated using the compressional and shear acoustic wave velocity logs
along with the bulk density log. These dynamic properties were converted to static elastic properties using
SPE/IADC-189306-MS 5

an appropriate correlation. The static elastic properties were then calibrated to the laboratory measurements,
where triaxial testing techniques were carried out on core samples retrieved from the Zubair Formation.
Rock strength parameters are defined as the ability of the rock to withstand the in-situ stress environment
around the borehole. The most commonly used rock strength parameters, the UCS and internal friction angle
(φ), were computed from compressional wave velocity logs using the empirical correlation that provided
the best match to the laboratory test results. Both triaxial and triaxial multistage tests were conducted to
measure the rock strength properties for the shale and sandstone.
The mechanical responses as well as the properties of both the sandstone and shale formations were
significantly different. Therefore, by classifying rocks according to their mechanical stratigraphy, it became
possible to apply different correlations for different facies to best estimate their rock mechanical properties
and geomechanical parameters. The lithology of the Zubair Formation included mainly shale and sandstone.
The differentiation of sandstone from shale was realized by applying a threshold of 75 gAPI to the gamma
ray logs in the evaluated wells (Fig. 4). The established mechanical stratigraphy was also validated with the
data provided in the available master mud logs. Fig. 5 presents the continuous profile of rock mechanical
properties that were generated using the wireline log measurements.

Figure 4—Wireline log measurements used as input for the 1-D-MEM.

6 SPE/IADC-189306-MS

Figure 5—Continuous profile of rock mechanical properties, showing the results of the laboratory measurements.

Vertical Stress Magnitude

Vertical stress or overburden is the most basic input parameter in the 1-D-MEM analysis. In areas with
low tectonic activity, the vertical stress represents the weight of overlying formations (Jaeger et al. 2007).
The vertical stress at the Zubair Formation level was calculated by integrating the bulk density log over
the vertical depth using Eq. 1

(1)

where σv is the vertical stress, z is the vertical depth, g is the acceleration constant due to gravity, and ρ is the
rock bulk density at a specific depth. For shallow zones, where the density log was not recorded because it
was not of geological interest, a compaction relationship based on regional density data was used to create
a synthetic density curve to fill the gaps where direct measurement was not available.

Pore Pressure
Pore pressure is an important component in the 1-D-MEM and is critical to the estimation of in-situ
horizontal principal stresses. Both direct and indirect methods are used in the petroleum industry to predict
pore pressure. The indirect methods are normally used to estimate the pore pressure as a function of the
sonic and resistivity wireline logs (Eaton 1969), whereas the direct measurement methods are the drill stem
test (DST) and repeated formation test (RFT). In the current study, normal compaction technique (NCT)
using Eaton's method was used to estimate the pore pressure in the shales (nonproducing formations). On
the other hand, the linear interpolation method was used to predict the pore pressure in permeable sandstone
(production section), and the resultant profile was calibrated against actual pressure point measurements
from the main offset well to reduce the uncertainty of the estimated pore pressure.
SPE/IADC-189306-MS 7

Magnitude of Horizontal Stresses (Minimum and Maximum)

Horizontal principal stresses are fundamental parameters used in wellbore stability analysis. The magnitudes
of the minimum and maximum horizontal stresses can be modeled or inferred from other measurements
of vertical stress, mechanical properties, strain, pore pressure, etc. (Alsahlawi et al. 2017). The poroelastic
horizontal strain model was applied to represent the magnitudes of the horizontal principal stresses, using
Eqs. 2 and 3 (Prats 1981; Warpinski 1989; Thiercelin and Plumb 1994)

(2)

(3)

where v is the Poisson's ratio; PP is the pore pressure; α is the Biot's coefficient; ɛx and ɛy are tectonic
strains in maximum and minimum horizontal stress directions, respectively; and E is the Young's modulus.
The two horizontal strains (ɛx and ɛy) cannot be directly measured. Instead, this can be accomplished with
considerable accuracy by treating these strains as calibration factors that can be adjusted to determine the
best match of the calculated stress in relation to all available data from the leakoff test or specific modes of
rock failure seen in the image and caliper logs (Desroches and Kurkjian 1999).
The magnitude of the estimated horizontal stresses was calibrated using measured closure and breakdown
pressures, which were available from micro-frac tests. Fig. 6 shows the estimation of the pore pressure,
vertical stress, and maximum and minimum horizontal stress magnitudes. The results indicate that the Zubair
Formation appears to be experiencing a normal faulting regime. This agrees with studies that concluded
that the normal faulting regime is dominant in the majority of this oilfield in Southern Iraq (Jassim and Goff
2006; Amin and Al-Bahadily 2014).

Figure 6—Estimation of the in-situ principal stress and pore pressure magnitudes at a single well location.
8 SPE/IADC-189306-MS

In Situ Stress Orientation

The common use of wellbore image logs and caliper logs in the petroleum industry has yet to yield detailed
information about the failure around the wellbore (Zoback et al. 1985). Formation micro-imager (FMI) log
data acquired from a vertical well was processed and interpreted (Fig. 7), showing the orientation of the
breakout zones in a 140°–145° direction (Fig. 8). The breakouts in a vertical wellbore develop parallel to the
minimum horizontal stress. Therefore, the direction of the minimum horizontal stress is between 140° and
145°, and the direction of the maximum horizontal stress ranges from 50° to 55°. This is in close agreement
with nearby stress measurements from an oilfield in southern Iraq (Alsubaih and Nygaard 2016; Hadi et
al. 2017).

Figure 7—Image log showing the direction of the borehole breakouts oriented between 140° and 145°.

Figure 8—Orientation of the identified borehole breakouts: (a) Schmidt plot-upper

hemisphere, (b) rosette plot of the dip azimuth, and (c) rosette plot of the strike azimuth.

Wellbore Stability Analysis

The validity of a geomechanical model should be verified prior to its application. After a complete 1-
D-MEM of the main offset well has been developed, a failure criterion can be used to determine when
SPE/IADC-189306-MS 9

failure will occur around the wellbore. The wellbore stability analysis ensured that all geomechanical model
parameters were well constrained with reasonable accuracy by comparing the predicted wellbore instability
with the drilling events and observing the hole condition from the image and/or caliper logs. Using the
defined mud weight of an offset well and failure criterion, the collapse and tensile failures were computed
along the wellbore trajectory. A failure match was then performed between the predicted wellbore failure
and the actual data from wellbore instability-related drilling events or log data.
In this study, the most commonly applied failure criteria (i.e., Mohr-Coulomb, Mogi-Coulomb, and
Modified Lade, Appendix A) were used to predict the breakout regions. The predicted occurrences of the
breakout regions using the Mogi-Coulomb criteria showed a good agreement with the observed breakouts
in the caliper log (Fig. 9). Therefore, the Mogi-Coulomb criterion was selected as the most appropriate
failure criterion for the Zubair Formation. Practically, the Mogi-Coulomb criterion considers the effect of
the intermediate principal stress component in the failure analysis, which is the best choice for predicting
rock failures around the wellbore during drilling (Al-Ajmi and Zimmerman 2006; Gholami et al. 2014).

Figure 9—Determination of stable mud weight windows using Mogi-Coulomb criteria.

Assessment of a Safe Mud Weight Window

In this study, three failure criteria (i.e., Mohr-Coulomb, Mogi-Coulomb, and Modified Lade) were applied to
predict the safe mud weight window for wells of arbitrary deviation and orientation to keep well integrity at
a specific depth (Figs. 10, 11, and 12). The mud weight window was estimated based on the 1-D-MEM built
earlier and on drilling data investigations. Stereographic plots were constructed to evaluate the impact of
the deviation and azimuth on the breakout and breakdown pressures. These plots were conducted on critical
depths across the problematic formations (especially shale and weak sandstone) to represent the minimum
mud weight required to drill a well through the Zubair Formation in any direction with any inclination.
10 SPE/IADC-189306-MS

Figure 10—Minimum mud weight plots using the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion: (a) breakout mud weight vs. orientation,
(b) breakdown mud weight vs. orientation, (c) mud weight window vs. deviation, and (d) mud weight window vs. azimuth.

Figure 11—Minimum mud weight plots using the Mogi-Coulomb failure criterion: (a) breakout mud weight vs. orientation,
(b) breakdown mud weight vs. orientation, (c) mud weight window vs. deviation, and (d) mud weight window vs. azimuth.
SPE/IADC-189306-MS 11

Figure 12—Minimum mud weight plots using the Modified Lade failure criterion: (a) breakout mud weight vs. orientation,
(b) breakdown mud weight vs. orientation, (c) mud weight window vs. deviation, and (d) mud weight window vs. azimuth.

The results presented show that the safe mud weight window becomes narrow with a deviation higher
than 50° (Figs. 10c, 11c, and 12c). In addition, no effect of the wellbore azimuth on the breakout mud weight
was observed due to the low-stress contrast (Figs. 10d, 11d, and 12d). Furthermore, higher breakdown mud
weights are anticipated in the direction of the minimum horizontal stress with inclinations less than 60°
compared to a wellbore drilled parallel to the maximum horizontal stress direction (Figs. 10b, 11b, and 12b).
It can be concluded that the well trajectory should be designed to avoid a high deviation, or the mud weights
should be high enough to prevent the collapse failure and to tolerate limited mud loss.
It should be highlighted that the evaluated failure criteria Mohr-Coulomb, Mogi-Coulomb, and Modified
Lade represent, respectively, conservative, realistic, and optimistic criteria (Rahimi and Nygaard 2015).
The Mohr-Coulomb criterion usually overestimates the predicted mud weight, while the Modified Lade
predicts the lower bound for the minimum required mud weight for safe drilling. The Mogi-Coulomb failure
criterion was found to be the most indicative failure criterion, predicting the minimum required mud weight,
which was close to the field mud weight used to drill a successful wellbore. For a high degree of certainty,
using the Mogi-Coulomb failure criterion to estimate a more reliable and realistic minimum mud weight
is recommended.

Conclusions
In this paper, a general workflow was implemented to develop a robust and accurate 1-D mechanical earth
model (MEM) based on measurements of in-situ reservoir conditions and consistent with observations
of wellbore failures. This model was then used as a basis for wellbore stability analysis for a number of
wells, which were drilled through mechanically unstable shale formations. The model and field data were
in good agreement, where the majority of the wellbore instability issues in the Zubair Formation were due
to inadequate mud support at the borehole wall. It is therefore recommended to increase the mud weight as
required based on the trajectory of the planned well. The heterogeneity of the Zubair Formation should be
12 SPE/IADC-189306-MS

considered in the mud weight calculation as the mud weight is designed to maintain the stability of weak
and non-depleted shale zones. It is also vital to consider how much overbalance this mud will cause in
depleted sandstone sections. The findings of the study indicate that the results obtained from the Mogi-
Coulomb failure criterion were in good agreement with field observations when compared to the Mohr-
Coulomb and Modified Lade criteria. This results from the fact that the Mogi-Coulomb criterion takes
into consideration the impact of the intermediate principal stress on the failure prediction, which is a more
realistic representation of failure occurring in a real situation. The results also indicate that drilled wells with
inclinations less than 50° are more safe and stable. The safe mud weight window in the Zubair Formation for
inclinations higher than 50° is relatively narrow. For the cases of drilling highly deviated wells (inclination
above 50°), which is more challenging in terms of hole cleaning and tripping, the preferred orientation
is parallel to the minimum horizontal stress. This orientation will provide a comparatively wider mud
weight window for stable drilling. In addition, surge and swab should be avoided while drilling these highly
deviated wells. Ultimately, good drilling practices, such as good hole cleaning, monitoring tripping speed,
proper mud conditioning, and controlled ROP while building inclination in a shale formation will help to
mitigate wellbore instability-related issues while drilling.

Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank the Higher Committee for Educational Development (HCED) in Iraq for
awarding him a fully funded Ph.D. scholarship. The authors would like to thank Basrah Oil Company in
Iraq for their permission to publish the results. We also want to thank Missouri University of Science and
Technology for providing the facilities to do this work.

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14 SPE/IADC-189306-MS

Appendix A
Rock Failure Criteria for Wellbore Stability Analysis
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion. Due to its simplicity, the Mohr-Coulomb is the most frequently used
failure criterion in mechanical earth modeling. Mohr-Coulomb criterion is considered to be a 2-D linear
approach because it assumes that the intermediate principal stress has no influence on rock strength.
Coulomb concluded that rock failure would occur when the shear stress on a specific plane reaches a value
that is sufficient to overcome the frictional force, which is a function of the internal friction angle, normal
stress components, and internal cohesion of rock:
(A.1)
(A.2)
Mohr failure criteria can also be expressed by the maximum and minimum principal stresses, as follows:
(A.3)
The parameter q represents the internal friction angle, while the parameter UCS is related to both the
cohesion of the rock and internal friction angle, as follows:

(A.4)

(A.5)

Mogi-Coulomb Failure Criterion. The Mogi-Coulomb failure criterion takes into consideration the
impact of intermediate principal stress on rock deformation. The Mogi-Coulomb criterion can be formulated
as a linear relation as follows:
(A.6)
where the octahedral shear and normal stresses are defined as in Eqs. A.7 and A.8, respectively:

(A.7)

(A.8)

Al-Ajmi and Zimmerman (2005) introduced a linear relation that fit well with polyaxial test results in a
similar format to the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, as follows:
(A.9)

(A.10)

where the linear Mogi-Coulomb criterion parameters (a and b) can be determined by following relations:

(A.12)

(A.13)
SPE/IADC-189306-MS 15

Modified Lade Failure Criterion. The Modified Lade is a three-dimensional failure criterion that
considers the effect of intermediate principal stress and is an original relation that initially was applied to
cohesionless soil. Fourteen years later, Ewy (1999) further developed the Lade criteria and adopted it to
analyze standard rock mechanics parameters. In this failure criterion, only two rock strength parameters are
required: rock cohesion and the internal friction angle.

(A.14)

The invariant stress parameters and are defined as:

(A.15)

(A.16)
The Modified Lade cohesion of the rock (S) and Lade internal friction (η) parameters can be derived
directly from the Mohr-Coulomb criterion parameters, including rock cohesion and the internal friction
angle.

(A.17)

(A.18)