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On this map the Mediterranean Sea can be discerned as a large inlet, with
landmasses to the north and south, and with a western entry point labelled Pillars,
(from the Greek designation ~ 'the Pillars of Hercules').
Today's Italian peninsula can be easily seen with mainland Greece being located to its
right and with today's Turkey, (or Asia Minor), being furthur right again.
In Herodotus day Halicarnassus was an "Ionian" Greek colonial town subject to
Persian overlordship and located at the bottom left of Asia Minor.
When he was in his early thirties (circa 457 BC) some political difficulties between
Herodotus' wider family and the rulers of Halicarnassus contributed to his living in
exile for several years. During these times his initial destination seems to have been
the the island of Samos but thereafter Herodotus traveled widely throughout virtually
the entire ancient Middle East visiting Asia Minor, Babylonia, Egypt, and Greece.
Herodotus was centrally involved in the rebellious overthrow of the unpopular ruler of
Halicarnassus and was thereby enabled to enjoy full rights of citizenship in his home
city. He did not settle down there however but, circa 447 BC, went to Athens, then the
center and focus of culture in the Greek world, where he won the admiration of the
most illustrious men of Greece, including the great Athenian statesman Pericles.
During a stay of some years in Athens Herodotus seems to have been awarded a
substantial sum, by a decree of the people, in appreciation of his literary talents.
Herodotus did not enjoy the status of citizenship, with associated enhancements in
rights, in Athens and this may have contributed to his joining in (443 BC) with a new
colonial settlement at Thurii in southern Italy where he could hope to be a citizen.
Such colonies were widely sponsored by individual greek city states for commercial
reasons and also to better provide for the employment of their citizens.
Herodotus settled down in Thurii and devoted his efforts to the completion of a great
work entitled 'Inquiry' ( a Greek word which passed into Latin and took on its modern
meaning as History ). Herodotus' wide-ranging work has subsequently been presented
by scholars as a nine part work the first six 'books' of which are introductory and give
rounded introductions to most of the peoples of the ancient world giving insights into
their customs, legends, history, and traditions. The last three 'books' treat with the
rivalries and conflicts between the Greek and Persian worlds from the early fifth
century B. C.
In the several sections of The Histories, Herodotus describes the expansion of the
Persian Achaemenid empire under several of its kings including Cyrus the Great (557-
530 BC: Book1), Cambyses (530-522 BC: Book 2 and part of Book 3) and Darius I the
Great (521-486 BC: the rest of Book 3 then Books 4,5,6), culminating in king Xerxes'
(486-479 BC: Books 7, 8, 9) expedition in 480 BCE against the Greeks, which met
with disaster in the naval engagement at Salamis and the land battles at Plataea and
Mycale.
Herodotus believed that the universe is ruled by Fate and Chance, and that nothing is
stable in human affairs. Moral choice is still important, however, since arrogance
(Hubris) brings down upon itself the retribution of the gods (Nemesis).
Herodotus' effective attempt to draw moral lessons from the study of great events
formed the basis of the Greek and Roman historiographical tradition which he is held
to have established.
Some men give up their designs when they have almost reached the goal; While
others, on the contrary, obtain a victory by exerting, at the last moment, more vigorous
efforts than ever before.
He is the best man who, when making his plans, fears and reflects on everything that
can happen to him, but in the moment of action is bold.
Several pages on our site, treating with aspects of nineteenth century European
history, have been favored with some degree of popularity, rank highly in some search
engines, and receive many visitors.
The preparation of these pages was greatly influenced by a particular "Philosophy of
History" as suggested by this quote from the famous Essay "History" by Ralph Waldo
Emerson:-
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