Journal of Consumer Marketing

The effect of female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising: neuromarketing approach

Lina Pileliene, Viktorija Grigaliunaite,
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Lina Pileliene, Viktorija Grigaliunaite, (2017) "The effect of female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising: neuromarketing
approach", Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 34 Issue: 3, pp.202-213, https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-02-2016-1723
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 The effect of female celebrity spokesperson in
FMCG advertising: neuromarketing approach
Lina Pileliene and Viktorija Grigaliunaite
Department of Marketing, Vytauto Didziojo Universitetas, Kaunas, Lithuania

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to develop guidelines for the selection of a female advertising spokesperson and brand position regarding
the selected spokesperson in the context of fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) advertising.
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Design/methodology/approach – The paper presents findings using both neuromarketing and traditional marketing research methods.
Findings – The findings are based on the results of P300 event-related brain potentials, eye-tracking experiments and a questionnaire research. It
was concluded that a famous female spokesperson indeed has a significant effect on FMCG advertising effectiveness.
Practical implications – The selection of a female celebrity spokesperson when seeking FMCG advertising effectiveness depends on the primary
determined aim of marketing communication. If the aim of the advertising campaign is to form attitude, then selecting a celebrity as the FMCG
advertising spokesperson is recommended, but if the aim of the FMCG advertising campaign is to enhance brand awareness, it is recommended to
select a non-celebrity spokesperson. Furthermore, the brand should be presented at the top of the advertisement’s layout, particularly when a
celebrity is chosen as a spokesperson because this allows lowering the possibility of the “vampire effect” occurrence.
Originality/value – As a study on the effect of a female spokesperson on FMCG advertising effectiveness, this research will be of academic interest,
integrating both marketing theory and neuroscience to analyze and evaluate consumer behavior. This research is also relevant to businesses, because
it provides guidelines for the selection of female advertising spokespersons in the context of FMCG advertising.
Keywords Neuromarketing, Advertising effectiveness, Celebrity spokesperson
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction non-celebrity spokespersons. Concentrating only on female

According to Hutton and Nolte (2011), images of the face in
advertisements have been shown to capture attention more
easily than other stimuli, because the neural systems in the
human brain are highly specialized for processing them; the
latter systems have developed because face recognition is
critical for effective social interaction. Weigold et al. (2013)
suggest that based on facial features people decide about one’s
personality. Moreover, the judgments of unknown faces are
often based on their similarity to the known faces. Tanner and
Ah-Reum (2010) emphasize that face familiarity might be
considered as a determinant of liking and trust of the person.
In the framework of advertising, consumers meet the face
of a spokesperson. Thus, the choice of the advertising
spokesperson might be considered as one of the core
indicators of advertising success (Lin, 2011). Moreover, the
advertising spokesperson can have a significant effect on the
attraction and retention of viewers’ attention. Attention enables
the development of brand awareness, which forms attitude,
influencing purchase intentions (Wangsa, 2007; Chang and
Chang, 2014). Despite a wide body of literature on the topic,
there are opposing views on which type of spokesperson leads to
advertising effectiveness across different product categories;
typically, these conflicting perspectives concern celebrity and
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on
Emerald Insight at: www.emeraldinsight.com/0736-3761.htm
celebrity/non-celebrity spokespersons and only on low
involvement fast-moving consumer goods (further – FMCG;
these are the products of low involvement, low price, frequent
purchase, short shelf life, sold in supermarkets) category, because
scientific research on using a celebrity spokesperson versus a
regular consumer as a spokesperson for FMCG is scarce, this
article deals with the problem of selecting a spokesperson, while
answering the question relevant to both academic and business
levels: what is the effect of a female celebrity spokesperson on
FMCG advertising effectiveness? The aim of the article is to
develop guidelines for the selection of a female advertising
spokesperson and the brand position regarding the selected
spokesperson in the context of FMCG advertising.
2. Theoretical substantiation
The growing competition of commercial brands in most
market segments supports advertising as being an essential
tool for highlighting product characteristics to consumers
(Hsu, 2009). Leong et al. (1999) highlight the fact that
This research was funded by a grant (No. MIP-098/2014) from the
Research Council of Lithuania. Authors also want to express their
appreciation to Associate Professor Dr Giedrius Janušas (Kaunas
University of Technology) and Dr Vladas Valiulis (Republican Vilnius
Psychiatric Hospital). Authors express their gratitude to all the volunteers
who participated in the study and to the reviewers for their valuable
comments as well.

Journal of Consumer Marketing

Received 24 February 2016
34/3 (2017) 202–213 Revised 7 September 2016
© Emerald Publishing Limited [ISSN 0736-3761] 8 December 2016
[DOI 10.1108/JCM-02-2016-1723] Accepted 28 December 2016

202
 FMCG advertising
Lina Pileliene and Viktorija Grigaliunaite
consumers have been overloaded with advertising information
and it is becoming near impossible for them to remember
many of the advertisements they are exposed to. It becomes
necessary that advertising captures consumers’ attention in
likeable ways (Pieters et al., 2010). The ability of attracting
consumers’ attention can be considered as one of the
core indicators of advertising effectiveness. Thus, the
spokesperson’s role in capturing consumers’ attention makes
them a key component of overall advertising effectiveness.
Hsu (2009) emphasizes that the selection of an appropriate
spokesperson is a crucial task: a good spokesperson can
improve consumer perception and confidence in a product,
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boost sales and increase the brand value, while a poor
spokesperson can have minimal or even negative effects.
Accordingly, different spokespersons will have different effects
in different markets and on different products. Arguing that
different advertising spokespersons can produce different
effects on consumer responses, Freiden (1984) categorizes
advertising spokespersons into celebrities, top corporate
managers, experts and ordinary consumers (non-celebrities).
Belch and Belch (2013) argue that to draw attention to the
message advertisers often use celebrities who are familiar, often
admired, or even idolized, by their target audience, such as actors
and actresses, athletes, entertainers and other popular public
figures. However, selection of a famous celebrity spokesperson is
sometimes harmful. It might occur that consumers remember
the celebrity more than the product or brand being advertised
(Hsu, 2009). Of course, a non-celebrity spokesperson could not
have such a harmful effect.
Companies often use a number of marketing criteria to
determine the appropriateness of a celebrity (Kamins and Gupta,
1994). The criteria used for advertising spokesperson selection
include the spokesperson’s popularity, consistency with brand
identity and position, also the lineament consistency that the
spokesperson can share with the target market (Hsu, 2009). Wu
(2013) suggests that such indicators of a spokesperson’s
suitability as a spokesperson’s attraction, reliability and fit with
products have to be considered to enhance advertising
effectiveness, business image and the benefits of the product. Lin
(2011) suggests that because it is easier for consumers to
recognize the celebrities, they can attract attention more easily.
Whereas Pai (2013) argues that a typical consumer identifies best
with another typical consumer; thus, the choice of an ordinary
consumer as a spokesperson can make the advertising seem more
natural and believable.
According to Kamins (1989), not every product is
appropriate to be advertised by a celebrity, nor is every
celebrity appropriate to advertise a certain product. The
research provided by Biswas et al. (2006) reveals that for
products with high technology orientation and for targeting
consumers with high product knowledge, expert
endorsements are more effective than celebrity endorsers.
Atkin and Block (1983) state that the use of a celebrity
endorser is suitable where the product purchases involve high
social and psychological risk; thus, it is more applicable for
luxury products. This is substantiated by another research
provided by Kamins and Gupta (1994), which shows that
when the degree of congruence between the type of a
spokesperson and the product advertised is growing, the
believability of the spokesperson grows as well. This leads to
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Volume 34 · Number 3 · 2017 · 202–213
the idea that using a celebrity spokesperson is more
appropriate for luxury or hedonic product categories, whereas
for low involvement FMCG products a non-celebrity or a
regular consumer may be a better choice as a spokesperson.
However, the scientific research for using a celebrity
spokesperson versus a regular consumer as a spokesperson for
low involvement FMCG is scarce. Consequently, in this
research the effect of a female celebrity spokesperson on
FMCG advertising effectiveness is analyzed.
Previous studies (Ma et al., 2015) have shown that
event-related potential P300, a large positively deflected peak,
occurring from approximately 300 to 800 ms following
stimulus onset, provides extensive information about the
neural activity of fundamental cognitive operations (Ma et al.,
2008) and reflect attentional allocation modulated by affective
processing to stimulus. It was proven by the research results
that fans having affection for their favorite celebrity, paid
considerable attention to the photographs of the celebrity
despite their not having met the celebrity, and this was
reflected in P300 amplitude. Moreover, the photograph of the
celebrity that elicited larger P300 amplitudes elicited more
positive attitude toward them as well. Consequently, in the
context of the advertising spokesperson, recording and
analysis of the P300 component can reveal whether a celebrity
spokesperson in advertising leads to more attentional
resources being engaged in processing an advertisement as
well as whether a celebrity spokesperson has a higher
emotional value to consumers in comparison with a
non-celebrity. Moreover, further analysis can reveal whether a
celebrity spokesperson in the advertisement is evaluated and
classified faster than a non-celebrity one. Taken these aspects
into consideration, we hypothesize that:
H1. A female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising
leads to a larger P300 amplitude in comparison with a
non-celebrity female spokesperson.
H2. A female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising
leads to a shorter P300 latency than a non-celebrity
female spokesperson.
As the object of the research is the effect of a female
spokesperson on advertising effectiveness in FMCG category
and from a consumer’s perspective these products are of low
price, low involvement and frequent purchase (Park et al.,
2014), brand recall has to be created (Mukerjee, 2010).
Hence, we hypothesize that:
H3. A female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising
leads to better brand recall in comparison with a
non-celebrity female spokesperson.
H4. A female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising
leads to better advertising recognition in comparison
with a non-celebrity female spokesperson.
According to Felix and Borges (2014), consumers who pay more
visual attention to a spokesperson in an advertisement may
develop more positive attitudes either toward the spokesperson
or toward the advertisement. The attitude toward the
advertisement influences the attitude toward the brand, which in
turn influences purchase intentions (Antioco et al., 2012).
 FMCG advertising
Lina Pileliene and Viktorija Grigaliunaite
Nevertheless, Erfgen et al. (2015) introduced the “vampire
effect”:
[. . .] the use of a celebrity in the execution of an advertisement can be so
powerful in grabbing visual attention, it can suck the blood out of the
advertising’s core message of communication – the brand’s name.
Thus, the probability exists that paying more visual attention
to the spokesperson results in less visual attention to the
brand. On the other hand, endeavoring to make a deeper
research, the assumption could be made that such an effect
depends on the brand position in the advertisement.
Consequently, we hypothesize that:
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H5. A female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising
attracts more visual attention in comparison with a
non-celebrity female spokesperson.
H6. Visual attention to the brand presented with a female
non-celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising is
bigger in comparison with visual attention to the brand
presented with a female celebrity spokesperson in
FMCG advertising.
H7. Different brand positions in the FMCG advertisements
regarding the spokesperson attract different amount of
visual attention to the brand.
H8. A female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising
develops a more positive attitude toward the
spokesperson in comparison with a non-celebrity
female spokesperson.
H9. A female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising
develops a more positive attitude toward the
advertisement in comparison with a non-celebrity
female spokesperson.
H10. A female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising
develops a more positive attitude toward the brand in
comparison with a non-celebrity female spokesperson.
H11. A female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising
elicits higher purchase intention in comparison with a
non-celebrity female spokesperson.
Neuromarketing and traditional marketing research methods
are applied for testing the hypotheses and are further discussed
in the next section.
3. Research methodology
3.1 P300 event-related brain potential
Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) are the ongoing
electrophysiological activities resulting from the synchronous
activation of several neural subpopulations that occur in
response to sensory, motor or cognitive events (Ibanez et al.,
2012). Thus, ERPs are regarded as neural manifestations of
specific psychological functions (Fabiani et al., 2007). The
ERP waveform can be quantitatively characterized across two
main dimensions: amplitude and latency. The amplitude
provides an index of the extent of neural activity; the latency
reveals the timing of this activation (Sanei and Chambers,
2007). The ERP signals are represented by their polarity (P –
positive; N – negative) and order of occurrence (e.g. P1 – the
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Volume 34 · Number 3 · 2017 · 202–213
first positive component) or latency – time in terms of
milliseconds (further – ms) after the stimuli (audio, visual or
somatosensory) (e.g. P300) (Vaitkevičius et al., 2007).
Bearing in mind that a static advertisement is a visual
stimulus, it can be assumed that the analysis of ERPs is an
objective method for the assessment of effectiveness of specific
advertising elements (including the advertising spokesperson).
All the components of ERPs can be recorded and analyzed,
but the focus of most clinical studies has been on P300 (Veiga
et al., 2004), becoming the most applied component in social
sciences, including neuromarketing (Nazari et al., 2014).
P300 is a large positively-deflected peak occurring
approximately from 300 ms to 800 ms following the stimulus
onset (Pontixex et al., 2009), providing a great deal of
information about the neural activity of fundamental cognitive
operations (Ma et al., 2008). According to Gray et al. (2004):
[. . .] the amplitude of P300 is proportional to the amount of attentional
resources engaged in processing a given stimulus and it is not influenced by
factors related to response selection or execution; moreover, P300 varies
with the emotional value of the stimulus to the perceiver: stimuli with either
high negative or positive emotional value evoke larger P300 components
than neutral material.
P300 peak latency is proportional to stimulus evaluation time
(Polich, 2007). Thus, in this research we analyze the
differences in P300 peak amplitude and latency regarding
different female advertising spokespersons in the context of
FMCG advertising.
3.2 Experimental stimuli
P300 is usually assessed using an “oddball paradigm” –
presenting infrequent target stimuli in a background of
frequently occurring standard stimuli and infrequently
occurring distracter stimuli (Gray et al., 2004; Fabiani et al.,
2007; Polich, 2007; Mayaud et al., 2013). As such, it was used
for this electroencephalography (EEG) experiment. The visual
stimuli consisted of two target stimuli (probability ⫽ 0.05 for
each), distractor stimulus (probability ⫽ 0.1) and standard
stimulus (probability ⫽ 0.8). The first target stimulus
contained a globally known female celebrity image paired with
an existing known-brand mineral water product; the second
target stimulus contained an unknown female image paired
with a different existing known-brand mineral water product.
Both target stimuli were visually similar (the same color
background and spokespersons’ clothing, the same position of
the spokesperson and of the product), the only difference
being the different spokespersons and different mineral water
brands used. The spokespersons and mineral water brands
were selected and paired randomly. Both images were
professional, of the same agency. The brands were selected
based on the following criteria:
● the products had to be sold in the experiment holding
country (to analyze purchase intentions); and
● they had to be foreign brands with no advertising campaigns
in the experiment holding country, i.e. last-of-the-mind
brands (to minimize the influence of pre-experiment
attitudes on the results as much as possible).
The celebrity female was chosen based on these criteria:
● she had to be a known foreign celebrity (because celebrities
from the experiment holding country have much stronger
attitudes towards them);
 FMCG advertising
Lina Pileliene and Viktorija Grigaliunaite
● there had to be no advertising campaigns with the chosen
celebrity in the experiment holding country; and
● she had to have as positive a reputation as possible.
The unknown female was chosen based on her similarity to the
chosen celebrity. The pre-test of the stimuli revealed that the
celebrity was recognizable, the non-celebrity was
unrecognizable and both the females were assessed as equally
attractive. The product of mineral water represented the
FMCG product category.
The standard stimuli contained an animated female
spokesperson in the white background; the distractor stimulus
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contained a picture of a flower.
All visual stimuli were presented in the center of the
computer screen (resolution: 1,366 ⫻ 768) for 631 trials in
total. The stimuli were presented in a randomly generated
order for the participants using Matlab R2012b software
package. The stimuli were always presented at fixation for 800
ms each; the interstimulus (black screen) time interval varied
from 0.3 to 1.5 s in random order (average interstimulus
interval – 900 ms).
Both target stimuli were also used for the eye tracking
experiment. Moreover, for the latter experiment, additional
stimuli containing the same photos of females and the same
brands were created with different brand positions: left and top,
right and top, left and bottom and right and bottom from the
spokesperson (the same positions were used with both the
celebrity and non-celebrity spokespersons). Consequently, eight
target stimuli (four with the celebrity spokesperson and the same
brand in four different positions, four with the non-celebrity
spokesperson and the same brand in four different positions)
were applied for the eye tracking experiment. These stimuli were
presented to the participants in a randomized order using Matlab
R2012b software package; participants looked at the
advertisements at their own pace, controlling the switch of
advertisements by clicking the computer mouse. Between the
advertisements, the interstimulus (black screen) appeared for two
seconds to eliminate the influence of the last seen advertisement
on the trajectory of gaze.
3.3 ERP recording and analysis
P300 ERP is usually analyzed over the midline electrodes (Fz,
Cz, Pz) (Polich, 2007); nevertheless, the wave reflecting the
top-down allocation of attentional resources to stimulus
evaluation has a central/parietal maximum (Polich, 2007;
O’Connell et al., 2012). Because the EMOTIV EPOC EEG
headset does not contain midline electrodes, the analysis was
provided for the electrodes P3, P4 in the parietal region. To
perform the experiment, we applied the procedure provided by
Mayaud et al. (2013): to allow the collection of signals located in
the parietal and occipital areas instead of in the frontal region, the
EMOTIV EPOC EEG headset was setup front-side-back
(according to Duvinage et al. (2013), the low-cost EMOTIV
EPOC EEG is suitable for measuring P300 ERP for non-medical
applications). The 14 single-use felt pads were irrigated with
saline solution and located approximately at the extended 10/20
locations Fp1, F7, CP5, T7, P7, P3, PO3, Fp2, F8, T8, CP6,
P8, P4 and PO4. The EMOTIV headset uses a common mode
sense electrode at F4 location and a driven right leg electrode at
F3 that can be related to the ground and reference, respectively,
in more traditional acquisition systems. Electrode impedances
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Journal of Consumer Marketing
Volume 34 · Number 3 · 2017 · 202–213
were controlled visually with the EMOTIV control panel and
EMOTIV TestBench. Signals are internally digitized at 2048 Hz
(16-bit) and subsequently low pass filtered (43 Hz) and down
sampled to 128 Hz before transmission to the acquisition
module.
All of the participants were instructed to respond to the
female photo (both target stimuli) by pressing on a response
box with their right index finger and not to respond to the
animated persons or other material. The distance between
the computer screen and the participants’ eyes was about
30 cm and the screen was centered in their line of sight.
Markers that indicated the precise stimulus onset times were
sent from the Matlab R2012b software to the EMOTIV
TestBench v1.5.1.2 software via com0com serial port.
The recorded EEG file of each participant was imported
from the EMOTIV TestBench to the add-in programs of the
Matlab R2012b software: EEGLAB 13.14.3b (Delorme and
Makeig, 2004) and ERPLAB 4.0.3.1 (Lopez-Calderon and
Luck, 2014). In these programs, data pre-processing was
performed by using independent component analysis to
remove blink and saccadic movement artifacts from the EEG
data, an automatic EEG artifact detector based on the joint
use of spatial and temporal features – ADJUST 1.1 and band
pass filter (0.1-30 Hz). The data were organized in epochs
corresponding to intervals [⫺100; 800 ms], centered on a
stimuli onset. Epochs were rejected according to the ⫾100-␮V
threshold criterion. In total, 30 ⫾ 2 epochs per participant
(n ⫽ 30) per target stimuli were obtained. A time window of
100 ms before stimuli onset was used as the baseline.
Averaged ERPs were generated for every participant and for
every electrode for each stimulus. Latencies and amplitudes of
P300 were compared for different stimuli by applying Student
t test in IBM SPSS Statistics V.20 software package.
3.4 Eye tracking experiment
For the eye tracking experiment Tobii Eye-Tracking Glasses
were applied. It is a mobile video-based eye tracker recording
monocular gaze data from the right eye at a sampling rate of
30 Hz. The accuracy of this eye tracker is 0.5°. The system has
a camera to record a scene video with a resolution of 640 ⫻
480 pixels; maximum recording angles are 56° of visual angle
in horizontal and 40° of visual angle in vertical direction.
For each of the participants, a standard nine-point
calibration procedure was used to provide the most accurate
results. The calibration quality ranged from four to five on a
six-point scale (where zero indicates the worst and five – the
best calibration quality).
The distance between the participants’ eyes and the
computer screen (diameter – 58 cm; screen was centered in
the line of gaze) was 40 cm. The heads of the participants were
stabilized with a special tool holding the chin and the
forehead.
For the analysis of eye tracing results, Tobii Studio v.3.2.3
software was used. Viewing times of the different target
advertisements, different spokespersons and brands presented
in different positions (which composed of the areas of interest)
were calculated. IBM SPSS Statistics v.20 software package
was applied for the statistical analysis of the results obtained
from the Tobii Studio v.3.2.3 software.
 FMCG advertising
Lina Pileliene and Viktorija Grigaliunaite
3.5 Questionnaire research
To determine the differences between brand recall,
advertising recognition and attitudes toward the brand,
spokesperson and advertisement as well as purchase intentions
regarding the brand advertised by different spokespersons, a
questionnaire research was conducted. There were three main
parts of the questionnaire:
3.5.1 Brand recall and advertising recognition
This section contained four questions concerning unaided
brand recall, aided brand recall, unaided advertising recall and
advertising recognition (Dikčius, 2011):
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1 What brand did you see during the experiment (if you
remember two, which one comes to mind first)?
2 Who was advertising that brand?
3 Please mark all of the brands you saw during the
experiment (12 brands, 2 of them were presented during the
experiment);
4 Please write the brand which was advertised in the
provided advertisements (parts of both advertisements with
faces and without brands provided).
3.5.2 Attitudes toward the brands, spokespersons, advertisements
and purchase intentions
The attitudes were measured on a semantic differential scale,
thus revealing the strength and direction of a person’s attitude
toward the specific object (Megehee, 2009). The attitudes
were measured by 11 items each (Spears and Singh, 2004;
Megehee, 2009):
● brand – low quality/high quality, unlikable/likable, bad/
good, worthless/valuable, unattractive/attractive, not
advisable to choose/advisable to choose, not distinctive/
distinctive, useless/useful, inferior/superior, negative/
positive, ineffective/effective;
● spokesperson – inappropriate/appropriate, not believable/
believable, not trustworthy/trustworthy, not attractive/
attractive, not knowledgeable/knowledgeable, irritating/not
irritating, unpleasant/pleasant, dull/interesting, not confident/
confident, not likeable/likeable, not natural/natural; and
● advertisement – dull/interesting, unpleasant/pleasant, not
important/important, unattractive/attractive, inappropriate/
appropriate, not useful/useful, not informative/informative,
not persuasive/persuasive, irrelevant/relevant, ineffective/
effective, bad/good.
A seven-point Likert scale was used to measure purchase
intentions regarding the specific mineral water brand
advertised by specific spokespersons.
3.5.3 Socio-demographic data
Respondents were asked to identify their age and gender.
Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses using IBM
SPSS Statistics V.20 and XLSTAT 2014 software packages
were performed to assess the differences in attitudes, recall,
recognition and purchase intentions regarding brands
advertised by celebrity and non-celebrity spokespersons.
3.6 Participants
According to electroencephalogram/ERP methodologies, when
the number of study participants is between 30 and 40 (per target
demographic grouping), there is a less than 1 per cent chance of
error (Sands, 2009). Nevertheless, not all of the participants’
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Volume 34 · Number 3 · 2017 · 202–213
EEG results can be interpreted because of very few trials
remaining after artifact removal. Thus, the EEG experiment was
continued until there were 30 appropriate sets of participants’
data. Consequently, 37 participants participated in the
experiment and 30 participants’ (seven female) data were used
for the analysis. All of the participants were right-handed with
normal or normal-to-corrected vision. Twenty-one participants
(out of 30) were in the age group of 18-29, nine participants were
aged 30-39.
Regarding eye tracking experiments, 30 participants’ (20
female and 10 male) data were used for the analysis as well. All
of the participants were right-handed with normal or normal-to-
corrected vision. Twenty-five participants (out of 30) were in the
age group of 18-29, five participants were over 29 years old.
All of the participants were volunteers and were not paid for
the participation in the EEG and eye tracking experiments.
Before the experiments each of the participants was informed
in detail about the experiment and signed the form of
information and informed persons’ consent.
All of the participants of the EEG research completed the
questionnaire research (during the eye-tracking experiment,
the timing of watching the advertisements was not controlled;
thus, because of a different experiment design, they did not fill
in the questionnaire). Because 30 respondents are not
sufficient to get reliable results of a questionnaire research, a
questionnaire research was conducted with university
students, using the same questionnaire given to subjects of the
EEG research. All of the respondents were shown the same
experimental design as the one in the EEG experiment. Thus,
201 respondents in total participated in the questionnaire
research (38 per cent male, 62 per cent female respondents; 90
per cent of the respondents were in the age group of 18-29, 10
per cent of the respondents were in the age group of 30-39).
All parts of the experiment were conducted at a large
university in Eastern Europe, February-April, 2015.
According to Felix and Borges (2014), the use of student
samples in marketing research may be problematic because
students may not adequately represent the average consumer
in the population; however, student samples may be
acceptable when relationships between constructs and not
absolute magnitudes are of interest for the researchers. Hence,
the sample of this research is considered appropriate to reach
the aim of the article.
4. Research results
4.1 P300 event-related potential
The grand-averaged latencies of P300 component for different
spokespersons in the different parietal channels are provided
in Table I. The longer latency of the P300 component in
channel P4 is elicited by the non-celebrity spokesperson, while
in channel P3 the longer latency of the P300 component is
elicited by the celebrity spokesperson. Nevertheless, the
analysis of the P300 latencies in the parietal region
(grand-averaged latencies in both P3 and P4 channels) reveals
that the latencies of P300 component are the same for
celebrity as well as non-celebrity spokespersons.
Based on the mean values of P300 latencies for different
spokespersons, it is not surprising that there are no statistically
significant differences in the latencies of P300 component for
different spokespersons (see Table II). It can be stated that the
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Table I P300 latencies (ms)

Standard Lower bound Upper bound
Spokesperson Channel Mean value SD error (95% C.I.) (95% C.I.) Minimum Maximum
Celebrity P4 317.969 17.785 3.247 311.327 324.610 281.25 343.75
Non-celebrity P4 320.314 22.192 4.051 312.027 328.600 289.06 359.38
Celebrity P3 318.751 29.474 5.381 307.744 329.757 273.44 375.00
Non-celebrity P3 316.407 20.795 3.796 308.641 324.172 289.06 351.56
Celebrity P3/4 318.360 24.138 3.116 312.124 324.595 273.44 375.00
Non-celebrity P3/4 318.360 21.413 2.764 312.828 323.892 359.38 359.38
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Table II Differences of the mean P300 latencies regarding different spokespersons (celebrity–non-celebrity spokesperson)
Lower bound Upper bound
Channel Mean difference SD Standard error (95% C.I.) (95% C.I.) t-statistics p-value
P4 ⫺2.3450 21.0401 3.8413 ⫺10.2015 5.5115 0.610 0.546
P3 2.3440 27.0742 4.9430 ⫺7.7657 12.4537 0.474 0.639
P3/4 ⫺0.0005 24.1553 3.1184 ⫺6.2404 6.2394 0.000 1.000

evaluation and classification time does not differ for the
celebrity spokesperson in comparison with the non-celebrity
spokesperson. Hence, H2 is rejected.
The grand-averaged amplitudes of P300 component for
different spokespersons in channels P3, P4 are provided in
Table III. As it can be seen, the larger amplitude of P300
component is elicited by the celebrity spokesperson.
It can be seen from Table IV that in channel P4 the
celebrity spokesperson elicited larger P300 amplitudes than
the non-celebrity spokesperson, but the difference in the
latter channel of the amplitude of P300 component
regarding these spokespersons is statistically non-
significant. However, in channel P3 the celebrity
spokesperson elicited larger P300 amplitudes than the
non-celebrity spokesperson and the difference in the latter
channel of the amplitude of P300 component regarding
these spokespersons is statistically significant. Thus, the
assumption can be made that the source of P300 ERPs is in
the left hemisphere. Finally, the amplitude of P300
component in the parietal region is statistically significantly
larger for the celebrity spokesperson compared to the
non-celebrity spokesperson.
The topographic map of the difference in P300
amplitudes in the parietal channels regarding different
advertising spokespersons (celebrity versus non-celebrity) is
provided in Figure 1 below. Consequently, it can be stated
that the celebrity spokesperson in advertising leads to
more attentional resources engaged in processing an
advertisement. Moreover, the celebrity spokesperson has
higher emotional value to the consumers in comparison
with the non-celebrity spokesperson in the advertisement.
Thus, H1 is supported.
4.2 Eye-tracking experiment: brand position
Average viewing time (s) of different elements of
advertisement is presented in Table V. As it can be seen,

Table III P300 amplitudes (␮V)

Standard Lower bound Upper bound
Spokesperson Channel Mean value SD error (95% C.I.) (95% C.I.) Minimum Maximum
Celebrity P4 8.553 5.944 1.085 6.333 10.772 2.88 19.66
Non-celebrity P4 6.778 4.282 0.781 5.179 8.377 2.56 15.42
Celebrity P3 11.942 9.041 1.650 8.566 15.318 2.11 29.71
Non-celebrity P3 7.847 3.021 0.551 6.718 8.975 3.57 12.22
Celebrity P3/4 10.247 7.776 1.003 8.239 12.256 2.11 29.71
Non-celebrity P3/4 7.313 3.713 0.479 6.353 8.272 2.56 15.42

Table IV Differences in the mean P300 amplitudes regarding different spokespersons (celebrity versus non-celebrity spokespersons)
Lower bound Upper bound
Channel Mean difference SD Standard error (95% C.I.) (95% C.I.) t statistics p-value
P4 1.7744 5.8727 1.0722 ⫺0.4185 3.9673 1.655 0.109
P3 4.0954ⴱ 8.9228 1.6290 0.7635 7.4272 2.514 0.018
P3/4 2.9349ⴱⴱ 7.5799 0.9785 0.9767 4.8930 2.999 0.004
Notes: ⴱ p ⬍ 0.05; ⴱⴱ
p ⬍ 0.01

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Figure 1 Topographic map of the difference of P300 amplitude in Figure 2 Visual attention map (average brand viewing time in
the parietal channels (celebrity versus non-celebrity spokesperson) different positions is a percentage from advertisement’s viewing
time)
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4.3 Eye-tracking experiment: viewing time to the

average viewing time to the spokesperson and to the brand
presented in the advertisement differs depending upon the
selected spokesperson as well as upon the selected brand
position in the layout of the advertisement.
Based on these results, a visual attention map (Figure 2) is
elaborated where the average brand viewing time in different
positions is measured as a percentage from the advertisement’s
viewing time. As it can be seen, visual attention to the brand
in the advertisements lowers according to letter “Z” pattern.
Accordingly, H7 is supported.
different spokespersons and their advertised brands
To assess the differences in participants’ viewing time to the
celebrity and non-celebrity spokespersons in the advertisements
as well as participants’ viewing time to the brand presented in the
advertisement with a celebrity spokesperson and with a
non-celebrity spokesperson, a Wilcoxon signed-rank test is used
(two dependent samples, non-normally distributed data) and the
results are presented in Table VI below.
As it can be seen, the participants’ viewing time to the
celebrity spokesperson presented in the advertisement is
statistically significantly higher than the participants’ viewing
time to the non-celebrity spokesperson presented in the
advertisement. Thus, H5 is supported. The results of the
eye-tracking experiment substantiate the results obtained
during the EEG experiment.
Despite this, brand viewing time (measured as a percentage
from advertisements’ viewing time) is a little higher regarding the
advertisement with the non-celebrity spokesperson when
compared to brand viewing time regarding the advertisement
with the celebrity spokesperson (implying the appearance of the
“vampire effect”). Nevertheless, there is no statistically
significant difference in participants’ viewing time to the brand
presented in the advertisement with the non-celebrity
spokesperson and viewing time to the brand presented in the

Table V Average viewing time (s) of different ad elements

Including zeros
Average ad
viewing time Average spokesperson viewing time Average brand viewing time
Statistics % from ad Statistics % from ad
Spokesperson Brand position Statistics SD (N ⴝ 30) SD viewing time (N ⴝ 30) SD viewing time
Celebrity Left, bottom 5.34 3.51 2.93 3.03 55 0.72 0.75 14
Celebrity Right, bottom 3.95 2.62 2.00 2.34 51 0.67 0.69 17
Celebrity Left, top 2.68 1.74 1.13 1.03 42 0.96 1.29 36
Celebrity Right, top 2.38 1.60 1.45 2.23 61 0.54 0.60 23
Non-celebrity Left, bottom 3.91 2.81 2.09 2.08 53 0.85 0.73 22
Non-celebrity Right, bottom 2.63 1.91 1.23 1.15 47 0.47 0.64 18
Non-celebrity Left, top 2.91 1.62 1.41 1.23 48 0.80 0.78 27
Non-celebrity Right, top 2.44 1.42 1.19 1.27 49 0.58 0.44 24

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Table VI Wilcoxon test
Spokesperson viewing time Brand viewing time
Ad with non-celebrity Ad with non-celebrity
Criteria versus Ad with celebrity versus Ad with celebrity
Z statistics ⫺1.968 ⫺0.611
p-value 0.049ⴱ 0.541
Note: ⴱ p ⬍ 0.05
advertisement with the celebrity spokesperson. This leads to the
rejection of H6.
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4.4 Brand recall and advertising recognition
When analyzing unaided brand and advertising recall, it is
important to mention that 97 per cent of the respondents
remembered at least one of the brands that they saw during
the research procedure. The brand advertised by the
non-celebrity spokesperson was the first to come to mind for
55.3 per cent of the respondents and 40.3 per cent of them
correctly associated that brand to the spokesperson, whereas
15 per cent could not recall the spokesperson. The brand
advertised by the celebrity spokesperson was most memorable
for 41.7 per cent of the respondents and 40.3 per cent of them
correctly associated that brand to the spokesperson whereas
only 1.4 per cent did not.
So a greater proportion of the respondents recalled first the
brand advertised by the non-celebrity spokesperson. However,
among the respondents, a greater proportion were able to
correctly associate the brand with the celebrity spokesperson
than with the non-celebrity (i.e. they thought that the brand
advertised by a non-celebrity was advertised by a celebrity).
This helps to substantiate the assumption about the “vampire
effect” where the audience remembers the celebrity but not
the product/brand.
To compare the aided brand recall and advertising recognition
levels regarding different advertising spokespersons, the
McNemar test is applied (two dependent samples; non-normally
distributed data with dichotomous variables). As can be seen in
Table VII, there is no statistically significant difference in the
level of the aided brand recall when the brand is advertised by
the celebrity spokesperson and when it is advertised by the
non-celebrity spokesperson. Moreover, there is no statistically
significant difference in the level of advertising recognition when
the spokesperson in the advertisement is a celebrity and when the
spokesperson in the advertisement is a non-celebrity. This leads
to the rejection of H3 and H4. Hence, despite the fact that using a
celebrity spokesperson in advertising leads to more attentional
resources engaged in processing that advertisement and elicits a
higher emotional response in the consumers, it does not improve
Table VII McNemar test
Aided brand recall Advertising recognition
(comparing brand (comparing advertisement
advertised with celebrity with celebrity to
to advertised with advertisement
Statistics non-celebrity) with non-celebrity)
Chi-square 2.017 1.939
p-value 0.156 0.164
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the aided brand recall and advertising recognition. Furthermore,
not only does the celebrity spokesperson not improve the brand
recall, but they may also cause a decrease in brand recall because
of the “vampire effect”.
4.5 Attitude toward brand, advertisement,
spokesperson and level of purchase intentions
To assess the differences in attitude toward the brand, the
attitude toward the advertisement, the attitude toward the
spokesperson and the purchase intentions when the spokesperson is
a celebrity and non-celebrity, the Mann–Whitney test is used (two
independent samples; non-normally distributed data; ordinal scale)
(see Table VIII).
The values of Cronbach’s alpha being above 0.7 indicate the
reliability of the measurement scales. As it can be seen in
Table VIII, the attitude toward the brand, attitude toward the
spokesperson and attitude toward the advertisement are more
positive when the spokesperson in the advertisement is a
celebrity. The attitude toward the brand does not statistically
significantly differ between the brand advertised by a celebrity
and the brand advertised by a non-celebrity spokesperson
(though a more positive attitude is to the brand advertised by
a celebrity spokesperson). This leads to the rejection of H10.
The attitude toward the spokesperson and attitude toward the
advertisement are statistically significantly and more positive
when the spokesperson in the advertisement is a celebrity.
Hence, H8 and H9 are supported. The celebrity spokesperson
in the advertisement elicits more positive attitudes than the
non-celebrity spokesperson. Nevertheless, the level of
purchase intentions does not differ for the brand advertised by
a celebrity compared to the brand advertised by a
non-celebrity spokesperson. Consequently, H11 is rejected.
The results of the hypotheses testing are summarized in
Table IX.
Discussion as well as theoretical and managerial
implications regarding the research results is further discussed
in the next section.
5. Discussion and conclusions
5.1 Discussion
Based on the results of the current study, a famous
spokesperson can have a significant effect on FMCG
advertising effectiveness. The analysis of the research
results supports the hypothesis that different advertising
spokespersons lead to different amount of attentional
resources engaged in processing the advertisement – the
celebrity spokesperson leads to more attentional resources
engaged in processing an advertisement when compared to the
non-celebrity one. Moreover, visual attention to the celebrity
spokesperson presented in the advertisement is higher than
visual attention to the non-celebrity one. Thus, the results of
the eye-tracking experiment substantiate the results obtained
during the EEG experiment. Additionally, the celebrity
spokesperson has higher emotional value to the consumers in
comparison with the non-celebrity spokesperson. However,
the evaluation and classification time does not differ regarding
famous and non-famous spokespersons.
The research suggests that a celebrity spokesperson in the
advertisement elicits more positive attitudes than a
non-celebrity spokesperson. The assumption can be made
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Table VIII Mann–Whitney test

Attitude toward Attitude toward Attitude toward Purchase intentions
the brand (Cronbach’s the spokesperson (Cronbach’s the ad (Cronbach’s (Cronbach’s
Statistics alpha ⴝ 0.904) alpha ⴝ 0.932) alpha ⴝ 0.956) alpha ⴝ 0.871)
Mean value (SD)
Celebrity 5.0303 (0.79435) 5.7632 (0.91314) 4.1134 (1.56713) 3.0556 (1.39194)
Non-celebrity 4.7340 (1.16693) 5.0348 (1.09597) 3.4143 (1.24814) 3.0556 (1.76600)

95% C.I. (Lower bound/Upper bound)

Celebrity 4.8547/5.2059 5.5613/5.9651 3.7668/4.4599 2.7478/3.3633
Non-celebrity 4.4760/4.9920 4.7925/5.2771 3.1383/3.6902 2.6651/3.4460
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Mann–Whitney U 2,979.000 1,926.000 2,452.500 2,979.000

Wilcoxon W 6,300.000 5,247.000 5,773.500 6,300.000
Z ⫺1.011 ⫺4.541 ⫺2.776 ⫺1.017
p-value 0.312 0.000ⴱⴱ 0.006ⴱⴱ 0.309
ⴱⴱ
Note: p ⬍ 0.01

Table IX Results of hypotheses testing

No. Hypothesis Result
1 Female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising leads to larger P300 amplitude in comparison with non-celebrity Supported
female spokesperson
2 Female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising leads to shorter P300 latency than non-celebrity female spokesperson Rejected
3 Female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising leads to better brand recall in comparison with non-celebrity female Rejected
spokesperson
4 Female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising leads to better advertising recognition in comparison with non- Rejected
celebrity female spokesperson
5 Female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising attracts more visual attention in comparison with non-celebrity Supported
female spokesperson
6 Visual attention to the brand presented with female non-celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising is bigger in Rejected
comparison with visual attention to the brand presented with female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising
7 Different brand positions in the FMCG advertisements regarding spokesperson attract different amount of visual attention Supported
to the brand
8 Female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising develops more positive attitude toward spokesperson in comparison Supported
with non-celebrity female spokesperson
9 Female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising develops more positive attitude toward advertisement in comparison Supported
with non-celebrity female spokesperson
10 Female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising develops more positive attitude toward brand in comparison with Rejected
non-celebrity female spokesperson
11 Female celebrity spokesperson in FMCG advertising elicits higher purchase intention in comparison with non-celebrity Rejected
female spokesperson

that attentional allocation, modulated by affective
processing to the advertisement with the celebrity
spokesperson leads to a more positive attitude toward the
spokesperson, which leads to a more positive attitude
toward the advertisement (assuming that the emotional
value elicited by a certain celebrity spokesperson is
positive). According to our results, this research is in
alignment with the studies (Klucharev et al., 2008) arguing
that a single exposure to a combination of the celebrity and
an object leads to a long-lasting positive effect on memory
for and attitude toward the object.
On the other hand, the level of purchase intentions does
not differ for the brand advertised by a celebrity compared
to the brand advertised by a non-celebrity spokesperson.
Hence, this research is in alignment with studies (Stallen
et al., 2010) arguing that purchase intentions are not higher
for the products presented in the context of fame than for
products associated with an unknown female. Then again,
it is proved that the attitude toward the advertisement
influences the attitude toward the brand (Felix and Borges,
2014), which in turn influences purchase intentions
(Antioco et al., 2012), allowing a possibility that in the long
term the effect of celebrity spokespeople in the advertising
of products in the FMCG category can enhance the level of
purchase intentions.
5.2 Theoretical implications
The results of this research enhance readers’ understanding of
the holistic view of a female spokesperson’s effect on
consumer cognitive, affective and conative response. Thus,
the findings of this investigation complement those of earlier
studies by revealing the reasons of specific consumer behavior
as a consequence of exposure to advertising.

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Lina Pileliene and Viktorija Grigaliunaite
While prior research mostly analyzed the effect of a female
spokesperson on advertising effectiveness in the context of
high involvement products, the present research contributes to
the literature by extending the knowledge of the effect of a
female spokesperson on advertising effectiveness in the
context of low involvement FMCG category.
Furthermore, this research of the effect of a female
spokesperson on FMCG advertising effectiveness contributes
to the literature by integrating both marketing theory and
neuroscience to objectively analyze and evaluate consumer
behavior. Hence, the framework of this research will serve as a
base for future studies.
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5.3 Managerial implications
The findings of this study have a number of specific practical
implications. Based on the research results, the implication
could be made that if the aim of the advertising campaign is to
form attitude, then selecting a celebrity as the FMCG
advertising spokesperson is recommended. Of course, as it is
revealed in the theoretical part of the research, the selected
celebrity spokesperson should be consistent with a brand
identity and position; moreover, the spokesperson’s attraction,
reliability and fit with products should be considered.
However, considering that the use of a celebrity spokesperson
does not improve brand recall and advertising recognition,
and can cause a decrease in brand recall because of the
“vampire effect”, the case could be made that if the aim of the
FMCG advertising campaign is to enhance brand awareness,
it is recommended to select a non-celebrity spokesperson. The
selected non-celebrity spokesperson’s attraction, reliability
and fit with products should be considered as well.
Thus, when the mode of marketing communication is
advertising, the determined aim of marketing communication
becomes the primary factor for the selection of the advertising
spokesperson. Furthermore, the brand should be presented in
the top of the advertisement’s layout, particularly when the
celebrity is chosen as a spokesperson, because this allows
lowering the possibility of the “vampire effect” occurrence. By
following these recommendations organizations can improve
the chances of creating successful and effective FMCG
advertising campaigns.
5.4 Limitations and future research directions
The first limitation of this study is that participants of the
experiment were from Eastern Europe; thus, the reading
pattern is from left to right, from top to bottom; consequently,
the assumption could be made that in the countries where the
reading pattern differs, the results of this research may not be
applicable.
The limitation of this study is the analysis considers only
female spokespersons; consequently, there is a probability that
the latter results apply for male spokespersons as well, but this
must be analyzed in the future research. Furthermore, the
limitation of this research is the absence of the analysis of
the influence of different participants’ age and gender on the
results.
This research revealed that only a theoretical possibility
exists that in the long term the effect of celebrity spokespeople
in the advertising of products in the FMCG category can
enhance the level of purchase intentions. Consequently, this
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Volume 34 · Number 3 · 2017 · 202–213
becomes the direction for future research. Moreover, the
framework of this research, analyzing the effect of a
spokesperson on consumer behavior in a holistic view, could
be used for the analysis of the effect of a spokesperson on
consumer behavior in the context of high involvement
products.
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 FMCG advertising
Lina Pileliene and Viktorija Grigaliunaite
About the authors
Lina Pileliene, PhD, is a Professor in the Marketing
Department, Faculty of Economics and Management,
Vytautas Magnus University. She specializes in marketing.
During her academic career, she has published more than
40 articles in scholarly journals (referred in scientific
databases), participated and presented her research findings
at more than 20 international scientific events. Her
main scientific research areas are consumer behavior,
customer satisfaction and loyalty, place marketing and
neuromarketing.
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213
Journal of Consumer Marketing
Volume 34 · Number 3 · 2017 · 202–213
Viktorija Grigaliunaite, PhD student, is an Assistant
Professor and Researcher in the Marketing Department,
Faculty of Economics and Management, Vytautas Magnus
University. Viktorija Grigaliu៮ naitė focuses on investigating
the various phenomena in marketing areas by applying
mathematical methods. She analyzes consumer behavior by
applying neuromarketing techniques (electroencephalography and
eye-tracking). Her main scientific research areas are
neuromarketing, advertising effectiveness, customer
satisfaction and loyalty. Viktorija Grigaliunaite is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at:
v.grigaliunaite@evf.vdu.lt
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