WOOD

Introduction

The wood used for building or other engineering purposes is called timber. Timber
is generally obtained from the trunk of a tree. The timber is in the form of living
tree, The freshly felled tree and in the form of felled tree.

Important Technical Terms:

Standing timber: The timber in the form of living tree.

Green timber: The freshly felled tree which has not lost moisture.

Rough timber: The timber in the form of felled tree.

Converted timber: The timber when sawn into various market sizes such as beams,
battens, planks etc.

Dressed timber: The timber which has been sawn, placed and worked to the exact
required condition.

Structural timber: The timber used in framing and load bearing structures.

Clear Timber: Timber free from defects and stains.

Characteristics of Good Timber

Following are the characteristics of good timber:

i. It should have a uniform colour.

ii. A freshly cut surface should give a sweet smell.

iii. It should have regular annular rings.

iv. It should be sonorous when struck.

v. It should have straight and close fibres.

vi. It should be heavy in weight.

vii. It should be free from shakes, flaws, dead knots or blemishes of any kind.

viii. There should be firm adhesion of fibres and compact medullary rays.
ix. The cellular tissue of the medullary rays should be hard and compact.

x. When planed, its surface should present a firm bright appearance with a silky
lustre.

xi. Its fibrous tissues should adhere firmly together and should not clog the teeth of
the saw and the freshly-cut surface should not show wooliness.

xii. A good timber should be durable. It should be capable of resisting the actions of
fungi insects, chemicals, physical agencies and mechanical agencies.

xiii. A good timber should possess the property of elasticity. The timber is elastic
when it regains its original shape and size when the load is removed. This property
of timber would be essential when it is to be used for bows, sports goods, carriage
shafts etc.

xiv. It should be fire-resistant. Wood having dense texture offers great resistance to
fire. It should not contain resins and other inflammable oils which accelerate the
action of fire.

xv. A good timber should be hard (i.e., it should offer resistance when it is being
penetrated by another body). The chemicals present in hard wood and density of
wood impart hardness to the timber.

xvi. A good timber should be strong for working as structural member such as joint,
beam, rafter, etc. It should be capable of taking loads slowly or suddenly.

Note: The heavier and dark coloured timber is usually strong.

Advantages of Timber over Other Materials:

i. It is stronger than other materials of construction in use.

ii. It can be easily worked to any size and shape.

iii. It can be joined to the required form easily.

iv. Structural connections can be easily made in timberwork.

v. It can be used for furniture and other decorative fittings.

vi. Timber construction is economical as the wastage is minimum.

vii. It is quite durable.

viii. Its re-sale value is good

ix. It is a non-conductor of heat and sound.

Disadvantages:

The disadvantages of timber are few, but serious. These are:

i. The greatest disadvantage is its ready combustibility, which can be diminished but
not eliminated even by expensive treatment.

ii. Frame buildings built closely together present a serious conflagration hazard.

iii. Timber is destroyed by decay induced by fungi, and by insects that feed upon the
timber under favourable conditions. Decay may, however, be prevented by the
various methods that produce an environment unfavourable for the growth of the
causative organisms.

iv. Timber swells and undergoes shrinkage with changing atmospheric humidity.

Classification of Timber
Classification of Trees

According to their manner of growth, the tree may be divided into two main classes:

Exogenous trees:

These trees grow outwards and increase in bulk by the formation of successive annular rings on
the outside under the bark.

In these trees, each annual ring represents a layer of wood, deposited every year.

The timber that is used for building and engineering purposes belongs to this variety.

Examples: Deodar, chir, sal, kail, shishum, teak, etc.

Exogenous trees may be further divided into the following two types:

Conifers trees: They remain evergreen and bear fruits in cone form with needle-pointed leaves
(and hence the name). These trees yield soft woods which are generally light coloured, resinous,
light in weight and weak. They show distinct annual rings.

Deciduous trees: They shed their leaves in autumn and put on new leaves in the spring season.
These trees yield hardwoods which are usually close-grained, strong, heavy, dark coloured,
durable and non-resinous. They do not show distinct annual rings. The timber used for
engineering purposes is mostly derived from deciduous trees.
Endogenous trees:

These trees grow inwards or endwards.

The stems of these trees are too flexible and thus they are not much suitable for engineering
works.

They are found generally in tropical countries and have their own limited applications for
temporary construction.

Examples: Canes, Bamboos, Palms etc.

Comparison between Hard Wood and Soft Wood

Hard Wood

A variety of exogenous trees. It is heavy in weight. The colour of hard wood is dark. It is dense,
closed grained and strong. It does not show district annual rings. Being non-resinous, it is resistant
to fire. It is relatively smooth and non-scaly.

Soft Wood

It is obtained from coniferous variety of exogenous trees. It is light in weight. The colour of soft
wood is light. It is weak and can split easily. Its annual rings are distinct. Being resinous, it can
readily catch fire. It is scaly and often gives out resinous matter.

Comparison Table of Hard and Soft Wood

S.no Aspects Soft Woods Hard Woods

Trees from which Conifers trees Deciduous Trees
1. obtained

Annual Rings Distinct Indistinct

2.

Medullary Rays Indistinct Distinct

3.

Weight Light Heavy

4.

Colour Light Dark

5.

Structure Resinous and splits easily Non- resinous and

6. close grained
 Strength Strong for direct pull and weak Equally strong for
7. for resisting thrust or shear resisting tension,
compression and
shear.
Fire Resistance Poor Fair
8.

Defects in Timbers

In all kinds of timber several natural defects occur. There are caused by the nature of the soil upon
which the tree grew and also by the changes in nature to which it was subjected while growing. As
far as possible these defects should be avoided or removed during conversion for use.

Following are the most common defects in timber:

1. Heart shakes: These are the splits or cracks widest at the centre and diminishing towards the
outside circumference. This defect usually occurs in oven natured trees and is probably caused
due to the shrinkage of the heartwood. Heartwood shake which follows a straight course along the
timber is not so serious as compared with that which follows a twisted course.

2. Star shakes: These are radial splits or cracks widest at the circumference and get diminishing
towards the centre of the tree. Star shakes are more serious as they tend to separate the log into a
number of pieces when it is sawn. These may arise mostly from severe frost and fierce heat of
sun. They are mostly confined to sapwood.

3. Cup shakes or ring shakes: Refer Fig. 8.5. These are formed by the rupture of the tissues in a
circular direction across the cross-section of a log, usually along annular rings. When the rupture
extends only a part around, it is called a cup shake and when the whole way round or almost so a
ring shake.

4. Radial shakes: Refer Fig. 8.6. These are similar to star shakes but they are fine, irregular and
numerous. They usually occur when the tree is exposed to sun for seasoning after being felled.

5. Rind galls: Refer figure 8.7. the rind means the bark and gall indicates abnormal growth. Hence
peculiar curved swelling formed on the body of a tree are known as rind galls. These are generally
caused by the growth of layers over the wounds left after branches have been improperly cut off
or removes.

6. Upsets or rupture:. This defect is due to crushing of fibres which are deformed as a result of the
injury thus caused. These are due to unskilful felling and also the result of violent wind.
7. Twisted fibres or wandering hearts: . This defect is developed in a tree owing to its peculiar
position where the prevailing winds turn the tree constantly in one direction. The fibres of such a
tree are twisted longitudinally and if planks or any sections are

cut from it, many of the fibres would be cut through and the strength of the pieces is reduced. The
timber with twisted fibres is unsuitable for sawing. It can however be used for posts and poles in
an unsawn condition.

8. Burrs or excrescence: These are either due to unsuccessful attempts at the formation of
branches or due to injuries inflicted when the tree was young, so that undeveloped, dormant buds
grew and produced masse of contorted tissue. Technically, they are defects but, in practice, they
produce valuable figure-wood or veneers.

9. Wind cracks: when wood is exposed to atmospheric agencies, its exterior surface shrinks. Such
shrinkage results in cracks.

10.Knots: Knots are the roots of small branches of the tree. Knots disturb the homogeneity of
wood texture. The fibres of wood get twisted or curled in the vicinity of knots and this affects the
strength of the wood. The position, size of the knot, and the degree of grain distortion around it,
determine the magnitude of the reduction in strength that the knot can cause.
When the formation of knot is free from decay and other defects and is firmly intact with the
surrounding wood, it is called a live knot or sound knot. A knot which is not held firmly in place it
called a dead knot or loose knot.

There are various types of knots, most common being:

Round knot, oval knot, spike knot, grouped knot and pencil knot.

Timber containing large dead (loose) knots or many smaller ones should be rejected, as they are
poorer in appearance and strength.

TIMBER TREES OF INDIA

Introduction

Some of the important timber trees in India are: - Deodar, babul, teak, shisham, mango, mahogany
etc.

Common Market Forms and Sizes of Timber

Log: The stem or trunk of tree which is felled with branches cut off.

Baulk: A piece of sawn timber, the cross-sectional dimensions of which exceed 5 cm in one
direction and 20 cm in other direction.

Battles: A piece of sawn timber, the dimensions do not exceeding 5 cm either in breadth or in
thickness.

Bole: The main stem of a tree.

Bolt: A short log 1.25 m or less in length.

Billet: A short length of a thin stem or branch.

Plank: A piece of sawn timber with thickness not exceeding 5 cm and the width exceeding 5 cm.

Board: A thin blank generally under 5 cm thick and 10 cm.

Cant: A thick piece of timber with or without squared edges, sawn from a log and intended for
further conversion into smaller sizes.

Deal: a swan piece of wood which is 5 cm to 10 cm thick and 20 cm to 25 cm wide.

Deal wood: The light timber used for packing cases.

Hewn timber: The timber converted to size by an axe.

Pole: A long, solid, straight trunk of a tree 10 to 30 cm in diameter at breast height and tapering
gradually to the top.

Post: A timber member used in an upright position in building.

Scantling: A piece of timber, the cross-sectional dimension of which exceed 5 cm in both the
directions but do not exceed 20 cm.

Slat: In pencil manufacture. A sawn piece of wood about 185 mm x 65 mm x 6 mm in size.

Sleeper: A piece of timber used as transverse support under rails in railway lines

Strip: A piece of timber under 5 cm thick and less than 10 cm wide.

Timber Trees of India

Description of some important timber trees in India is given below:

Deodar: It is a tall tree with long pointed leaves and is generally found in hills. It is the most
important timber tree providing soft wood.

Characteristics

i. It yields soft wood having well defined grains.

ii. It is highly durable.

iii. It is light coloured wood and has distinct annual rings.

iv. Its average weight is 5450 N/m3 (at 12 per cent moisture content).

v. It is strongly scented, oily and polishes well.

vi. It is moderately strong

vii. It can be easily worked.

Uses: It is used for making cheap and rough furniture, railway carriages, railway sleeper, packing
boxes, structural work etc.

Babul: This tree grows all over India and is available in abundance. It seldom attains a height
greater than 15 m.

Characteristics:

i. Its colour is whitish red.

ii. It takes up good polish.

iii. Its average weight is 7000 N/m3.

iv. It is not very durable.

Uses:

i. It is employed for constructional purposes, agricultural implements and tool handles.

ii. It is also used in low cost house construction and bullock carts.

Teak: Teak wood is one of the best available hard woods. Its durability is due to the presence of
aromatic oil which largely preserves it from the attack of white ants. It grows in Malabar (South
India) and Central India.
Characteristics

i. It is strong and durable.

ii. Its colour is deep yellow to dark brown.

iii. Its average weight is 6400 N/m3.

iv. It is not difficult to work and can be finished and polished to obtain an excellent surface.

v. It can be easily recognised by virtue of its distinct smell.

vi. It is resistant to moisture and certain chemicals.

vii. It does not corrode iron fastenings.

viii. It shrinks little.

ix. It can be easily seasoned.

x. It is fire-resistant.

xi. It is not attacked by white ants and dry rot.

xii. It is moderately hard.

Uses:

i. It is used for heavy construction of permanent character like shipbuilding, piling, railway
sleepers etc.

ii. It is also employed for high-class joinery and furniture.

iii. Its use is limited to superior work only as it is comparatively very costly.

Shisham (Tali):

It grows widely in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

Characteristics:
i. It is a broad leaved tree.

ii. It is moderately durable.

iii. Its average weight is 7000 N/m3

iv. The wood is dark brown in colour.

v. It is coarse grained.

Uses: It is used for constructional purposes, furniture and cabinet making, agricultural implements
and bridge-piles etc.

Mango: This tree is very famous for its fruit and is found all over India.

Characteristics:

i. Its wood is of inferior quality.

ii. It is coarse and open-grained.

iii. It has deep grey colour.

iv. The wood is readily attacked by white-ants and decays on exposure to wet atmosphere.

v. Its average weight is 6900 N/m3.

vi. Easy to work but keeps its shape well.

Uses: It is used for packing cases of all sorts, cheap furniture, tonga bodies, pattern making and
ornamental cabinet work.

Mahogany:

It is a native tree of Cuba in West Indies and Central America. It is now becoming popular in
India also.

Characteristics:

i. It has fine wavy grains.

ii. Reddish brown colour.

iii. Durable in water.

iv. Hard but easy to work.

v. Average weight 6700 N/m3.

vi. Takes high polish.

Uses: It is used for high-class furniture, pattern making and ornamental cabinetwork.

Walnut: It is available mostly in hilly areas.

Characteristics:

i. Light brownish colour.

ii. Broad leaved tree.

iii. Average weight 5750 N/m3

iv. Less durable.

v. Resists the attack of white ants.

vi. Easy to work.

vii. Tough and flexible.

Uses: It is employed for furniture, decorative work and cabinetwork.

Mulberry:

This tree yields strong, tough and elastic wood.

Characteristics:
i. Wood can be easily turned, carved and finished to a smooth surface.

ii. Wood is of brownish colour.

iii. Broad-leaved tree.

iv. Average weight is 6750 N/m3.

v. Seasons well.

Uses: It is used for making sports goods like hockey sticks, tennis and badminton racket

Sal: It is available mostly in hilly areas of U.P., Bihar, Assam and Visakhapatnam.

Characteristics:

i. Wood is hard, close-grained, heavy and durable.

ii. Not easily attacked by white ants.

iii. Average weight is 8600 Nlm3.

iv. Easily worked but does not take good polish.

v. Seasons slowly.

Uses: it is used in bridge construction, ship building, piling etc. It is however, not used for
ornamental work.

Chir: It is available in Himalayan region

Characteristics:

i. Reddish brown in colour.

ii. Average weight is 5700 Nlm3.

iii. Less durable.

iv. Easily worked but cracks.

v. Seasons well.

Uses: It is employed for inferior woodwork in low cost house building.

Kail: It is mostly grown in Himalayan region.

Characteristics:

i. Wood is close grained, heavy, moderately hard and durable.

ii. Brown in colour.

iii. Average weight is 5000 Nlm3.

iv. Seasons well.

Uses:

i. It is used for door and window frames and panels, furniture making, beams, posts etc.
ii. It is also used in heavy engineering works such as bridge construction, ship building, piling etc.

Bamboo: It grows in large varieties in Bengal, Assam and South India. Small varieties are found in low
hills also.

Characteristics:

Strong and durable.

Uses:

i. It is used in scaffolding, lanterns and bridge building.

ii. It is also employed for partitions, flooring, ceiling, roofing and almost all parts of house construction
except for the fireplace.

Other trees are Kikar, Toon, Oak, Jarul, Simul, Spruce, Pine, Hickory, Tamarind and Ash.

WOOD BASED PRODUCTS

Introduction

The product manufactured from different types of wood are called wood based products. Some important
technical terms used in the manufacture of wood based products.

Bond: An adhesive used on the wood at the time of application is called bond.

Bonding: The process of uniting two or more pieces of wood by means of an adhesive.

Core: The inner layer or layers of plywood.

Glue Line: The resultant layer of adhesive affecting union between any two adjacent pieces in an
assembly.

Ply: Individual layers of veneer. : Three Ply: Plywood board made from three layers of veneers having
thickness from 3 mm to 50 mm.

Multi-Ply: Plywood board made of more than three layers of veneers.

Open Defect: A defect in the plywood.

Pleat: A defect in the plywood due to a veneer being folded parallel to the grain.

Forms of Wood Based Products

Veneers

The layers or sheets of varying thickness from 1 to 6 mm are called veneers. These are obtained with a
rotary peeling machine. They are peeled off the log by a sharp knife in a long continuous sheet by rotating
the log on its longitudinal axis. They are slued from logs of timber having extremely attractive and curly
figures such as teak, sisoo, toon, mahogany, Walnut, Oak etc.
They are used in construction where light, strength, non-shrinking and non-splitting properties are expected
of timber.

Plywood - A board formed by gluing together three or more layers of veneers or plies is known
as plywood. The veneers are glued together usually with the grains of adjacent veneers running at
right angles to each other. This cross binding of odd numbers of plies makes the plywood less
prone to shrinkage. The outer ones are termed as face plies and the inner one as the core or cross
band.

Advantages of Plywood:

1. It gives better appearances as it can be formed in decorative designs and patterns by selecting
figured veneers.

2. It is light in weight and has greater strength.

3. It gives uniform tensile strength in all directions.

4. It is obtainable in required size. It is very easy to work.

5. It is highly resistant to cracking, splitting and wrapping etc.

Uses

It is used commonly now days to save the increased cost of hard wood planks. It is mainly used
for the construction of furniture, partition, ceiling, doors, and windows and for decorative
purposes inside and outside the buildings.
Batten Boards and Block Boards

The boards having a core slab consisting of strips which are glued together between two veneers,
one or either side, are known as batten boards or block boards. The direction of the grains of core
battens is kept at right angles. They are manufactured or made on similar lines as plywood. They
are not light but are comparatively strong. They do not split or crack easily.

Uses

Batten boards are used for making partitions, packing, cases, floors, furniture panelling, bus
bodies, railway coaches or table tops etc.

Lamin Boards

The boards having core of strips not exceeding 7 mm in thickness glued together between two or
more veneers are known as lamin boards. They are also made on similar lines as plywood. lamin
boards are stronger and durable. Lamin boards are used for making partitions, packing cases and
for floors etc.

Fibre Boards

The boards which are made by pressing the mixture of saw dust, fibres of wood and glue are
known as fibre boards.

Manufacture of Fibre Boards

To manufacture fibre boards, the selected wood is converted into chips about 2 cm long. These
chips are put into an air tight steel vessel, called the gun and subjected to steam pressure of 30 to
60 kg/cm2. This process softens the wood gum which keeps the wood fibres in contact. They are
than discharged by opening a value at the bottom. The wood fibres will come out from the
cylinder with a great force. These fibres are refined, spread out on screens in the form of mats of
required thickness and subjected to heat and great pressure in hydraulic presses to form solid dry
sheets, known as fibreboards. These boards are generally from 3 to 12 mm in thickness, 1.2 to 5.5
in length and 1.2 m in width.

Fibre Boards are classified as under

i. Insulating Boards

ii. Light and hard Boards

iii. Laminated fibre building boards.

Uses

i. They are used for internal finish as well as panelling, suspended ceilings and for floors.

ii. They are used for insulation against heat and sound.

iii. They are used in making partitions.

iv. They are used in making flush doors, tabletops, for bus bodies, railway coaches etc.

Summary:

The unit discussed above include the uses of wood and wood products in an interior such as: for
structural purposes: Doors and windows, Floors, Ceilings, Furniture items, for decorative
purposes like: Trims and beadings and Panelling etc

Detailed studies of the types of wood and their characteristics and Main woods of India like Teak,
deodar, shisham, mahogany, walnut, sal etc. Characteristics of good timber, defects in timber,
seasoning of timber etc.

Revision points:

Detailed studies of the types of wood and their characteristics and Main woods of India like Teak,
deodar, shisham, mahogany, walnut, sal etc. Characteristics of good timber, defects in timber,
seasoning of timber etc.
Key words:

Timber: - is the wood suitable for building or engineering purposes and it is supplied to trees
measuring not less than 0.5 m in girth.

The most common defects are:-

Heart shake, star shake, cuoshake, radial shake, rind galls, upset, twisted fibres, burns, wind
cracks, knots, honeycombing etc.

Veneers:- are thin sheets or slices of wood of superior quality, having thickness varying from
0.4mm to 6 mm or more.

Plywood: - is made by cementing together several layers of wood which may be thin veneers or
thicker boards.
PLASTIC

Introduction

A plastic can be broadly defined as any non-metallic material than can be moulded to desired
shape. The most common definition for plastics is that they are natural or synthetic resins, or their
compounds, which can be moulded, extruded, cast or used as films or coatings. Most plastics are
of organic nature composed of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. The synthetic plastic
development dates from 1900 when Dr. Beekland announced the production of phenol
formaldehyde. Since then several new plastics have been developed. In order to give desired
properties to the finished plastic articles, certain moulding compounds like fillers, plasticizers,
solvents, pigments etc. are added. The basic raw materials used in the manufacture of plastics are
generally obtained from the following natural substances:

1. Coal

2. Petroleum

3. Limestone

4. Salt

5. Sulphur

6. Air

7. Water

8. Cellulose from cotton and wood.

In the field of building construction, plastics havebeen found very useful for a variety of purposes
e.g. fittings, fixtures, structural component parts etc.

Constituents of Plastics

As earlier stated that the basic raw materials for producing plastics are obtained from
coal,petroleum, are and water. A moulding composition for plastics is prepared from the
following raw material groups:

1. Binder. Binders may be either resins (synthetic or natural) or cellulose derivatives (polymeric
compounds), chemically both kinds of materials may be described as substances made up of
compounds of very large molecular weight.

2. Fillers. The materials added to the plastics to improve their mechanical properties and to make
them economical are called „fillers‟. These are powder, fibrous and laminated fillers.

Powder fillers: Quartz power, chalk, talcum and organic substances (ground saw dust).
These fillers improve hardness, durability, heat resistance and acid resistance of plastics and

reduce cost.

Fibrous fillers: Asbestos, wood wool, saw dust and glass fibres. The increase strength, reduce
brittleness and enhance thermal resistance and impact strength of plastics.

Laminated fillers, Paper, cotton and fibre glass cloths, asbestos, card board and wood veneer.

They increase mechanical strength of plastics. Asbestos and cardboards also increase heat and
acid resistance properties.

3. Plasticizers: The chemicals added to plastics to make them soft: to improve their toughness at
finishes stage and to make them flexible are called plasticizers. A plasticizer should be chemically
insert, non-volatile and non-toxic.

Common plasticizers are: Vegetable oils, aluminium stearates and dibutyl phthalate and camphor.

4. Colouring Matter. This is usually in the form of pigment and dyes and often added to
monomers and gives the required colour to the plastics. The colouring matter should be durable
and adequately fast to light. Commonly used dyes are: Organic (AZO dyes, anthraquinone vat
dyes) and mineral pigments (ochre, chromium oxide and ultramarine).

5. Lubricants. Common lubricants are: Mosallic soaps and stearates. They facilitate moulding
operation by increasing the flow of plastic mix in the die and also prevent sticking of plastic to
moulds.

6. Catalysts. These compounds are added to accelerate the chemical reaction during the process of
polymerisation of plastics. These compounds also act as hardners and accelerators.

Classification of Plastics

Most commonly, plastics are classified into,

1. Thermoplastic Materials are those which soften on the application of heat, with or without
pressure and require cooling to be set to ashape.

2. Thermosetting Materials are those plasticswhich require heat and pressure to be moulded into a
shape.

The difference between thermoplastics and thermosetting materials may be explained in terms of
molecular structure. The thermoplastics are essentially long chain macro-molecules with a limited
number of cross links. When heated and compressed, the chains glide over each other and fluid
materials take the shape of any mould in whichthese are placed. The thermosetting plastics are
characterized by strong cross links between the chains; once these are formed by heat and
pressure, the plastics set to rigid infusible solid.
Comparison between Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Materials

Thermoplastic Materials Thermosetting Materials

They are comparatively softer and less strong
They can be repeatedly softened by heat and
hardened by cooling.
Objects made by thermoplastic resins cannot
be used at comparatively higher
temperatures, as they will tend to soften
under heat.
They are usually supplied
as granular materials.
Thermoplastic Materials
They are stronger and harder than
thermoplastic resins
Once hardened and set
they do not soften
with the application of
heat.
Objects made by thermosetting resins
can be used at comparatively higher
temperatures without damage.
They are usually supplied in a
monomeric or partially polymerized form in
which they are either liquid or partially
thermoplastic solids.

Important thermoplastic materials are described

below:

1. Polythenes: This material originated in England was produced commercially in United States
in 1943. Polythenes are obtainable as viscous liquids, gums and tough flexible solids suitable for
moulding. They are wax like in appearance, translucent, odourless and one of the lightest plastics.

Flexible over a wide temperature range. High resistivity and dielectric strength. Chemically
resistant. Do no absorb moisture Dielectric losses and dielectric constant are low. They are
relatively low in cost.

Uses

High voltage (up to 30 KV) applications Coaxial cables.Packaging. Moisture proofing Coating
ice-cube trays. As insulation in submarine cables and radar lines.

2. Polyvinyl Chloride: The vinyl chlorides are formed from hydrochloric acid, limestone, and
natural gas or coal. The forms of vinyl chloride are almost unlimited.

Properties:

The Flexible types are strong, tear resistant, and have good aging properties. The rigid types have
good dimensional stability and are water resistant. They are resistant to acids and alkalise. It
becomes soft beyond 80C. It is self-extinguishing when ignited and the source of lame removed.
The hard type of PVC is formulated with less plasticizer than the general-purpose grade and
shows less tendency to flow at high temperature which is an advantage when the cables are to be
laid in very hot surroundings. Although its electrical properties are not so good as those of rubber,
it offers more resistance to oxygen, ozone and sunlight.

Uses:

Cable jackets

Lead-wire insulation

Rubber substitute

Fabric Coating

3. Silicones: The basic ingredients of silicones are silica and coke which are mixed and placed in
an electric furnace. The silica is reduced to silicon, which is one of the starting materials. The
other reactant is methyl chloride, prepared by chlorinating methane gas. The two reactants are
mixed in a react at a high temperature and moderate pressure, using copper as a catalyst. The
desired products are then hydrolysed and condensed to form silicon polymers.

Properties:

They are a chemical hybrid, a cross between organic and inorganic materials. They hare both

the stability of inorganic products and the versatility of organic materials. As a moulding
compound they have good dielectric qualities and the ability to withstand high temperature (upto
260C). They are mechanically weak and have poor chemical resistance. They are water-repellent.

Uses:

They are used as high heat resistant insulators.

4. Polystyrene: A high strength plastic is obtained by copolymerisation of styrene with butadiene

and then blending with natural or synthetic rubber.

Properties

Moisture-resistant, Low dielectric constant, High resistivity, Adequate chemical resistance.

Uses:

Lenses

Refrigerator-cabinet compounds.

Radar components

Electrical insulation

Instrument panels

5. Polyvinylidene Chloride:
Properties:

Acid resistance, Toughness, Non Flammability, Solvent resistance

Uses:

Seat covers

Belts and gaskets

Woman Fabrics

Acid-resistant tubing

6. Bitumen:

Properties:

It is the oldest known plastic and has been employed since 3000 B.C. The bitumen plastics of
today are made from bituminous products by mixing with a suitable filler, such as slate dust or
asbestos in powder form They have good electrical insulating properties.

Uses:

They are uses for battery-cell plugs, stoppers, electrical mouldings of the cheaper class etc.

Thermosetting Materials
The important thermosetting materials are described below:

1. Aminos: these are of two types:

a. Urea Formaldehyde Resins:

Properties:

They are derived from the reaction of urea with formaldehyde or its polymers. These resins cannot
offer resistance to heat

Uses:

They are employed for high voltage application. They are also widely used in making ballpoint
pen barrels, electric mixer housing, cosmetic cases, distributor heads etc.

b. Melamine:

Properties:

They are derived from a reaction of dicyandiamide with formaldehyde. When the resin is used
with asbestos or glass fibres as filler material, its heat resistance is in the range of 2000 degree C.
Adequately resistant to Chemicals. Outstanding electric are resistance. Excellent resistance to
water. Available in a full range of translucent or opaque colours.
Uses:

Due to arc resistance they are widely used in electrical field particularly for such parts as
distributor housings. They are extensively in treating paper and cloth to impart water-repellent
properties and in producing laminates. They are used for tableware (but they are stained by
coffee) Amonos are used in all types of electrical items such as shades, switches, white plugs etc.

2. Phenolics (Phenol – formaldehyde resins)

Properties:

They are made by a reaction between phenol and formaldehyde. They are probably the most
widely used and cheapest of thermosetting plastics. Strong, rigid and dimensionally stable Heat
and solvent resistant. Non-conductor of electricity

Uses:

They are moulded into television and radio cabinets,telephones, appliance handles, electrical
sockets etc.

3. Epoxy Resins:

Properties

Epoxy resins is basically a polymer of epichlorohydrin and bisphenonl. They are transparent, light
amber colour and have very little shrinkage. As coating materials, they have shown superior
toughness, elasticity and chemical resistance. As adhesive these materials have shown extremely
high bond strength without the need for pressure for curing.

Uses:

They are used as an insulating material in cableend boxes, cable joint boxes, instrument
transformers etc. They have also found considerable use as casting materials

Properties of Plastics
The plastics have a variety of significant properties. The properties common to most plastics are
given below:

1. Light weight

2. Low thermal conductivity

3. A wide range of colours

4. Resistance to deterioration by moisture

5. Low electrical conductivity

6. Fairly good resistance offered to attack by inorganic acids, bases and salts.

7. Plastics in many cases are non-inflammable, self extinguishing, and burn very slowly

8. They are transparent, translucent or opaque.

9. Good dimensional stability

10.Good sound absorption properties

11.Bad conductor of heat

12.Good tensile strength

13.Can be easily fixed in position

14.Good resistance to peeling

15.Lack ductility

16.Quite Durable

17.Easy maintenance of plastic surfaces (do not require any protective coat of paints).

Shortcomings of Plastics
Following are the shortcoming/limitations of plastics

1. Low heat resistance

2. Not very hard

3. Disintegrate gradually with the passage of time

4. Exhibit high creep

5. High coefficient of thermal expansion

Uses of Plastics
They typical uses of plastics in buildings are:

1. Electrical conduits

2. Electrical insulators

3. Floor tiles

4. Jointless flooring

5. Decorative laminates and mouldings

6. Bath and sink units

7. Foams for thermal insulation

8. Overhead water tanks

9. Roof lights

10.Wall tiles

11.Corrugated and plain sheets

12.Cistern ball floats

13.Lighting fixtures

14.Paints and varnishes

15.Water resistances adhesives etc.

16.Pipes to carry cold water etc.

Commercial forms of plastics

The important commercial forms of plastics used for civil engineering purposes are described
below:

Plastics sheets

PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) Sheets: PVC and its compounding ingredients are heated, masticated
and then rolled into thin sheets between heated rollers. The sheets are then annealed and after
cooling, they are rolled. PVC sheets (generally kept 1 mm for economic purposes) can resist the
effects of grease solvent etc. These should be laid only on dry surfaces, as they expand on being
wetted.

1. Fabric-backed sheets: These are PVC sheets in which hession or felt is used for backing. These
sheets are suitable for foot-traffic in dry conditions

2. Polythene Sheets: They are rough and water resisting: available in wide rolls and in varying
thicknesses. They are used for sheltering materials from rain on building site and to assist curing
of concrete; also used as temporary covering for window and door opening etc.

3. Corrugated plastic sheets: They are light in weight and fire resistant. Employed for roofing
purposes in public buildings and factories

Plastic Tiles

1. PVC tiles: These tiles are used for flooring etc.

2. Fabric backed PVC tiles These tiles are used for paving floors in dry conditions
3. Thermoplastic vinyl tiles: These tiles are manufactured from mixture of plasticised PVC,
asbestos, limestone and pigments. They are suitable for heavy foot traffic in dry as well as in wet
conditions. They can be used both on wooden and concrete sub-floors.

4. Polystyene wall tiles: They are suitable for lining of walls of high class buildings.

Plastic Laminates
These are formed by impregnating sheets of fibrous materials such as paper, linen, canvas or silk
with a synthetic resin and then compressing the sheets together with application of heat. The
synthetic resin may be phenolic resin, urea formaldehyde or a vinyl resin. The resin is usually
dissolved in alcohol. The material in roll form is immersed in the resin solution at atmospheric
pressure and at room temperature and then run through a drier at 150C. The rolls are next cut into
sheets of given size, which are arranged into stacks. These stacks finally are compressed in a
hydraulic press at about 170C under pressure of 20MN/m2. The sheets are thus bonded to one
another Some of the important type of plastic laminates are:

i. Laminate bakelite

ii. Melamine surfaced phenolic paper laminates

iii. Polyster paper laminate

iv. Corrugated phenolic resin bonded paper laminates

Properties:

The laminated plastics have the following properties:

i. Light and strong

ii. Machineable

iii. Resistant to wear, acids and alkalis

iv. Impervious to water and oil

v. Have high dielectric constant

Uses:

The laminated plastics are used for:

i. Electric insulation

ii. Making silent gears

iii. Water lubricated bearings

iv. Pulley wheels

v. Pump parts

vi. Press tools

vii. Decorative purpose in wall panelling, translucent panelling table and counter parts.

Plastic Panels
These are the sheets (3m x 1.5m x 25mm) made from special craft paper impregnated with a
phenolic resin. They are chiefly used for making light weight partitions

Plastic pipes
PVC Pipes: They have good ductility. They do not burst due to freezing of water. Used for
distribution of water, mine drainage, gas distribution etc. Used at the places where the
temperatures are moderate.

Polythene plastic pipes: They have inherent flexibility and excellent resistance to breakage from
mechanical shock. Suitable for water supplies, and for use in chemical and food industries.

Summary:

Unit discussed above includes the study of the properties and role of iron and steel used in
interiors, the advantages and disadvantages of using this material vis-à-vis other materials such as
wood glass and plastics, Aluminium used in interior. Properties and usage of brass, silver, gold,
chrome and copper etc. in interiors. Types of finishes that can be applied to metals Role of plastics
in a decorating scheme. Plastic products like furniture, doors and windows etc.

METALS

Introduction
Cast and wrought work, firm and strong in itself, turns functional items into works of artistic
interest. Duct and grill covers, floors, walls, ceilings, staircases, panels, fireplaces etc. are just
some of the areas which can be enhanced by this versatile material. Then there are door surrounds,
light fittings, furniture trimmings... the list is enormous. Scintillating and glowing in various
degrees of reflective finishes, smooth mounted sheets create effects more subtle than mirror glass,
blurring and blending metallic reflections into stronger depths and brighter highlights. Elaborately
etched, beaten or embossed panels, polished or perhaps enamelled, can serve a functional as well
as a decorative purpose. Finally the small, often solid or composite cast items that can be made as
ornamental features in addition to being necessary items of hardware, all contribute to the
contrasting gleam that is so necessary in most interiors to enliven and maintain their interest.
Metals do not necessarily harden the atmosphere or create a clinical environment; but if that effect
is required then metals and plastics among other things can combine beautifully and elegantly to
create just that. There is no need for harshness or crudity of detailing, although all too often this is
in people's minds when they condemn the so-called 'modern' materials. Therefore it is important
to appreciate fully the qualities that such materials can afford. Developments in recent years in the
plastics field have been involved in improving their overall strength after processing and
moulding. It is now possible to obtain plastics with all their advantages of fluidity and lightness
and increase their strength so that they are comparable to metals. As you can imagine, this has
important and far-reaching implications, although one always has to temper new discoveries and
research with a certain amount of caution. The behaviour of new materials or newly imposed
properties on existing materials must be at least as satisfactory as well-established and well-tried
materials. These are already covered by British Standards, Codes of Practice and other yardsticks
adopted throughout the world. Since these outline criteria of minimum performance requirements,
anything below these values would not be reaching satisfactory standards. The term 'metal' has
been used generally, being intended to cover both those ores that are mined and the metal by-
products that are subsequently separated in the purifying process.

Ferrous Materials

The ferrous metals are iron base metals which include all varieties of irons and steels. These
metals go a long way in bringing prosperity to a country.Ordinarily, the terms, iron, cast iron and
steel in reference to a metal in which the element iron (Fe) is the major element do not refer to a
specific metal or alloy, but are loosely used to indicate a general type of iron alloy. The term iron
should be used only when reference is made to the element iron (Fe). In speaking of the
commercial forms of iron such terms as Pig iron, grey cast iron, wrought iron etc. may be used.
Each of these terms represents some commercial form of element iron, and each form may occur
in many variations of chemical composition which influence the functions within each class. Due
to tremendous production tonnage of these metals, and to their many forms and varied uses, a
detailed study is not a simple and easy task.

Steel (master metal) is obtainable in great quantities, both in wrought and cast form. Its plasticity,
whether at room temperature or at elevated temperatures, allows it to be worked either hot or cold.
Its combination of strength with plasticity makes it the most important metal for use in large
structures. By varying the carbon content and by suitable heat treatments, we can alter the
properties from a very soft, workable steel of the type used, in pressed metal parts, wire and
similar materials to a hard, strong steel suitable for use in tools and machinery where great
strength and hardness are required.
Wrought iron is the oldest form of iron made by man. It was originally produced by slow
reduction of the metal from the ore in the forge fire. This reduction process resulted in a very
impure iron which required further refining by mechanical working, that is by hammering or
shaping to the form in which it is used. Wrought iron is a metal containing high purity iron and
iron silicate in physical association. It is very low in carbon and the iron silicate or slag is
distributed throughout the base metal in fibres which gives it a woody or fibrous appearance when
fractured.

Cast iron is fundamentally an alloy whose chief elements are iron, silicon and carbon. Irons are
available with a wide range of properties. Pig iron, grey cast iron, white cast iron, chilled cast iron
and malleable iron are all referred to as cast iron, chiefly because these forms of irons are not
plastic enough, even when hot to be forgeable; therefore they are always produced commercially
by a process of melting and casting into shape, the commercial form of each of these metals is in
castings.
Aluminium
Introduction

Aluminium is relatively soft, non-magnetic and much less dense than brass or copper. Silvery in
colour, it has a wide range of uses and can be easily worked. Extruded, pressed, forged, drawn,
moulded, stamped, bent, hot- and cold-rolled, and shaped, it is attacked by alkalis and weak acids
but inert to sulphur. It does not interact with zinc, magnesium or cadmium, but has to be insulated
from other metals. Zinc and copper can be used as alloy elements which affect the final properties
of the metal, that can then be brazed, welded, rivetted, soldered or joined by adhesives.

Use of Aluminium in Interior Design

Although aluminium has been known since at least 500 BC, and is quite a common element of the
earth's resources, it has been relatively recently used in the fields of architecture and interior
design. Since the mid 1920s ornamental grille work, balustrades and railing, windows, doors,
meshwork, chain curtains, screens and panels, plain, patterned or enamelled, have been
incorporated into sympathetic schemes in many types of buildings. Moreover, wall and acoustic
tiles, Venetian blinds and decorative rolling shutters and duct covers are items also normally
available in standard components and castings, which vary considerably due to specific treatments
and processing conditions. There are certain different names and definitions for this metal around
the world, so you should check every aluminium product under consideration for exact properties
and suitable uses, getting the latest information from the manufacturers. Chemical action may
occur between aluminium, wood, masonry and mortar in certain conditions, and therefore the
metal needs special treatment or a protective membrane to prevent it being affected detrimentally,
or indeed causing problems itself. As always, when designing something purpose made, you
should bear in mind how the item is going to be dealt with while being made in the workshop,
then in transportation, and finally during its assembly on site. If it is not possible to use standard
component parts, then one must understand the limitations on size that the various finishing
processes impose. It will always be easier to ensure a satisfactory design both aesthetically and
technically if all the separate parts are arranged to fit together easily and compatibly with rhythm
and balance between the joints. Otherwise untold difficulties and expenses are likely to occur.
Any moving parts that are likely to rub against each other should be designed with separators or
spacers to avoid the coating being undermined. If aluminium panelling has to comply with fire
requirements then it has to face composite panels of suitable backing and core infill, since it has a
very low melting point. Otherwise this has to be combated in some way by a toughening up
process. Aluminium foil, however, is used successfully for insulation in composite panel form but
expansion joints as always have to be included. The various finishes for aluminium, which also
apply to other metals, include grinding, polishing, scratching, sand-blasting, embossing, chemical
finishes (developed especially for aluminium) and the more expensive but most effective and
satisfactory electrochemical and anodized finishes. It is possible to create metallic colours with
this treatment; other interesting finishes that can be obtained are opaque, translucent or glossy,
and in varying degrees of reflectivity. Surfaces that have been prepared can take other finishes
such as porcelain, vitreous enamel, paints and lacquers, or be electroplated with another metal.
The finished surfaces must be cleaned by the correct methods and cleaning agents to avoid
undermining the effects.

Other Metals
Copper

Copper is an extremely important historical metal, used extensively in the past, both in the
Mediterranean world of the Ancients, and China and India, and later in Central America and Peru.
It is a rich-looking and non-magnetic metal, with a reddish-brown colour that is bright when
polished but has a protective green patina (verdigris) when allowed to tarnish (oxidation caused
by interaction with the oxygen in the atmosphere). It can be welded, brazed and soldered and is an
excellent conductor of heat, although it must not be allowed to come into contact with steel,
aluminium, zinc, magnesium or stainless steel as it will corrode them. Also in damp areas there is
a tendency for it to affect some building materials and cause staining, so care has to be taken with
its installation.

Copper

Copper can be cast, drawn, extruded, spun, hammered, punched, or worked hot or cold, and, being
an excellent conductor of electricity, is often used as a base for other metal plating, including
chromium and silver. Woven into wire cloth or mesh, it is ideal for flame-proof vents, grilles and
screens. It is also the main ingredient for several other alloys (mixtures of more than one metal)
such as brass and bronze, which are equally attractive in their form, but different in colouring. In
sheet form there are many uses for copper, including facing counters, forming light fittings and
edging display cases, for example, although expansion can be a problem, as it does have a high
coefficient of expansion when heated. It is attacked by alkalis and many acids, but resists sea air
well.

Brass

Brass is mainly a mixture of copper and zinc, which vary in proportions and thereby affect the
colour of the resultant alloy, which can be from a very light yellow to a dark golden colour. Not as
strong or as hard as iron-based alloys, it is easier to work and resists corrosion better. It must not
be placed in contact with iron, steel, stainless steel, aluminium, zinc or magnesium if there is a
risk of galvanic action. It is used for all types of decorative doors, fittings and trimmings for
architectural details such as doors, windows, counters and furniture. Brazing is a normal method
of joining, besides welding and soldering, and polishing is used to obtain the bright sheen that is
so attractive.

Bronze

Bronze is very similar to brass and can be rolled and extruded, forged and cast, since it is dense,
hard and corrosion-resistant. Bronze and brass sometimes get confused in annotation, but tin
rather than zinc is the main ingredient mixed with copper to produce bronze, and it is a darker,
redder material than brass.
There are simulated bronzed finishes that will be discussed later, but the main architectural ideas
for this somewhat difficult to work and expensive material are tiles, plaques, screens and
ornamental grilles. Sculptures, both free standing and as murals, whether cast, forged or extruded,
can be impressive as focal points in prestige buildings.

Antimony

Antimony is primarily important these days as a fire-proofing element and as an ingredient for
paints, enamels and lacquers, although it is strictly a metal, and was used as such by the
Chaldeans as long ago as 4000 BC. In view of its modern use it will be referred to later in the
'Applied Finishes' section, together with titanium, and zinc, which in solid form is only used
internally for very functional positions such as ducting.

Chromium

Chromium (Chrome) is associated with the modern interior more than any other metal. Capable of
a brilliant sparkling finish, it is generally speaking non-magnetic and oxidation-resistant, sheds
water well and does not tarnish in air. While it can be cast and hot-forged, it is too brittle to be
worked cold. Besides being useful in non-ferrous alloys, it has increased in use and importance as
ferro-chromium in cast iron, alloy and stainless steel. Although there are several methods of
producing chromium commercially, the processes are expensive and specific. Whether it is to coat
alloys or ferrous metals, to be completely protective the coating needs to be of ample thickness,
preferably with a coating of copper, or nickel, or both. Again, you may find dimensional
limitations in the processing plant, so that if a particular design is envisaged, discussions in order
to understand the possibilities are imperative. The resultant attractive steel-white, water-resistant
surface, if handled properly in the interior, is well worthwhile, however, giving an elegant and
sophisticated appearance. For a firm chance of continuing satisfaction, small types of items,
trimmings, furniture, framing, counters, display and bar details, bathroom fittings and light fittings
are recommended, particularly as these will show off its qualities to best advantage.

Gold

Gold is known to everybody in some form or another, but is very limited for decorative use in
interior work due to its cost and availability. It is most malleable and ductile, and can be rolled,
drawn, spun, hammered and cast. It has a special lustre and pleasant colouring which varies in
tone from a white, bright yellow to a reddish blue gold. It is corrosion-resistant to air and not
attacked by acids, having itself a great chemical stability.

Used to plate metals, it is chiefly found as a decorative finish on interior fittings, and can be
applied to brass, bronze, copper, nickel and silver. Welding or soldering, but not machining, are
acceptable methods of joining. Gold leaf as an applied finish will be mentioned later.
Silver

Silver follows naturally from gold, and is in fact the next easiest metal to work. Rolled, extruded,
spun, bent, drawn or hammered, it resists oxidation but tarnishes in a sulphurous atmosphere. As it
is more readily available than gold, usually the most beautiful accessories are to be found in this
whitest of metals. Constructional arc welding or brazing are the normal methods of joining this
material. While chrome affords much glitter if desired, and silver conducts heat too readily to
make it feasible for many fittings, it is used extensively for mirrors. Therefore the use of silver
will depend a great deal on your purse and your imagination, since the result of a repetition of
design in silver would enhance the quality to such an extent that rich furniture and lavish
furnishings would be needed to counterbalance the effect. More usually a chromium or nickel
alloy is likely to substitute for the real thing.

Nickel

Nickel was, like all the main metals, known to the Ancients in many parts of the world, who
worked with it to great effect. It is another silvery metal that takes a high polish, is corrosion-
resistant and also very valuable. Strong, like iron, it resists oxidation, strong alkalis and most
acids. When mixed with other alloys, which is usual, it therefore imparts its good qualities and is
much used in stainless steel and nickel silver, the latter being used for ornamental metal work,
bathroom accessories and fittings, food equipment, plates, silverware and white metal hardware. It
can be hotand cold-rolled, bent, forged, extruded, spun and punched. For joining, oxyacetylene,
brazing and soldering are the main processes. Electroplating is the commonest way to ensure a
decorative and/or protective coating of nickel which is imparted to other metals such as
aluminium, copper, brass and steel. It can be given a matt, satin or bright polished finish, and
there is a limited colour range of decorative coatings. It is also possible to get it co-deposited with
other metals such as copper, where nickel-copper combinations give various resultant tones of
light golden colour. To get the desired effects, however, very careful enquiries should be made
concerning the possibilities afforded by such processing developments.

Stainless Steel

Stainless Steel is part of the much wider and complex subject of steel. It is itself a group of steels
rather than one in particular. However, this inexact term 'stainless steel' has come to mean a
smooth, gleaming, elegant material that graces much of modern architecture, both externally and
internally, and gives a very satisfactory performance and appearance.

Generally the term covers highly alloyed steels containing more than 10% chromium, with nickel
and manganese as other important elements. Consequently they are resistant to heat, oxidation and
corrosion, and have special characteristics such as strength, toughness and ease of fabrication.
Although each different combination of alloys and elements produces steels that go into sub-
groups, they can all be cast, rolled, drawn, forged, bent and formed. Ribbed, corrugated sheets, for
example, are quite usual. While joining methods vary according to the particular alloy, generally
rivetting and welding are used. Since stainless steel is very strong, a thinner gauge is possible than
would normally serve, but care has to be taken to ensure that distortion or surface flaws are not
incurred. It can be obtained in sheets, strip, plate and various forms including bars and square
section, with different types of finishes as required, and in different weights. Interior wall finishes,
doors, screens, trimmings, grilles, louvres and counter tops are common items found executed in
this worthwhile material; indeed it is also found in fitted kitchens, dairies and laboratories. After
the material has been installed it should always be cleaned down, since this not only leaves it
looking immaculate but helps the protective film of chrome oxide to form on the clean surface.
Care must be taken to provide adequate expansion joints in the fabrication to avoid distortion.
Despite its agreeable, highly polished and smooth surface, it requires very little maintenance.

Metal Finishes
These are the main metals you are likely to deal with as an interior designer, and to round off the
subject we include below an outline of the processes and equipment required to obtain the various
finishes mentioned above.

Roughing is a preliminary operation to prepare very scratched surfaces for polishing, which may
necessitate greasing, which is a 'refined' roughing done with a lubricant, before finally buffing the
surface with felt polisher and powder. If grease is added to this, the high speed soft polishing
wheels can get an even higher finish which almost makes the surface appear to change colour.

Burnishing that substitutes for these processes produces a reasonable but inexact perfection of
high lustre finish. When coarse- or smooth-lined surfaces or satinized, sheeny finishes are
required, these can be obtained through wire brush finishing applied with different thicknesses
and at different angles of application.

Sandblasting can also be used to give metals a surface texture, although this should be protected
by anodizing or lacquer to prevent dirt accumulating in the crevices.

Hammered metal can have the surface highlighted in order to emphasize the texture or pattern
produced, as can an etched surface that can have modulations of depth controlled and organized.
Metals that are to be painted are given suitable 'key' surfaces at the mill for better adhesion.
Metals themselves can be sprayed onto other metals and materials, although such coatings tend to
be porous. Such methods are dealt with in 'Applied Finishes'. It is sufficient to say here that if you
are considering using metals in the interior, use their intrinsic qualities of reflectivity, whether
they are dazzlingly bright or softly illuminated to shimmer or cast a gentle sheen. It is with these
and mirrored materials that optical illusions combined with lighting techniques are intriguing.
Unusual effects, fantasy environments and highly original schemes are possible with metals.
Besides this they are able to convey a feeling of luxury with their quality and lustre.

GLASS
Introduction

The various types of glass available in the market and its basic terminology like Annealing,
annealed glass, bevelling etc Annealed Glass: Standard float glass.

Annealing: In the manufacturing of float glass, it is the process of controlled cooling done in a
lehr to prevent residual stresses in the glass. Re-annealing is the process of removing
objectionable stresses in glass by re-heating to a suitable temperature followed by a controlled
cooling.

Annealing Lehr: An on-line, controlled heating/cooling apparatus located after the tin bath &
before the cooling conveyor of a float glass production line. It's purpose is to relieve induced
stress from the flat glass product to allow normal cold end processing.

Beveling: The process of edge finishing flat glass toa bevel angle.

Bow (& Warp): A curve, bend or other deviation from flatness in glass.

Bubbles: In laminated glass, a gas pocket in the interlayer material or between the glass & the
interlayer. In float glass, a gaseous inclusion greater than 1/32" in diameter.

Bullet Resistant: A multiple lamination of glass or glass and plastic designed to resist penetration
from medium-to-super-power small arms and high-power rifles.
Caulk: The application of a sealant to a joint, crack or crevice. A compound used for sealing that
has minimum joint movement capability; sometimes called low performance sealant.

Caulking: The blocking of exterior air or moisture leaks by filling cracks around doors, windows,
or anywhere else where two surfaces meet and have minimum movement with a "putty"
compound. Large cracks can be stuffed with mineral wood and weather sealed with caulking

Curtain wall: An exterior building wall which carries no roof or floor loads and consists entirely
or principally of metal or a combination of metal, glass, and other surfacing materials supported
by a metal frame. There are two basic types:

Custom - Walls designed specifically for one project, and using parts and details specially made
for this purpose;

Standard - Walls made up principally of parts and details standardized by their manufacturer and
assembled in accord with either the architect's design or the manufacturer's stock patterns.

Cutting: Scoring glass with a diamond, steel wheel, or other hard alloy wheel & breaking it along

the score. Other methods of cutting glass include water jet & laser.

Distortion: Alteration of viewed images caused by variations in glass flatness or inhomogeneous

portions within the glass. An inherent characteristic of heat-treated glass.
Double Glazing: In general, any use of two thicknesses of glass, separated by an air space, within
an opening, to improve insulation against heat transfer and/or sound transmission. In factorymade
double glazing units the air between the glass sheets is thoroughly dried and the space is sealed
airtight, eliminating possible condensation and providing superior insulating properties.

Fenestration: Any glass panel, window, door, curtain wall, or skylight unit on the exterior of a
building.

Flat glass: A general term that describes float glass, sheet glass, plate glass and rolled glass.

Float glass: Glass formed on a bath of molten tin. The surface in contact with the tin is known as
the tin surface or tin side. The top surface is known as the atmosphere surface or airside. Glass
which has its bottom surfaces formed by floating on molten metal, the top surface being gravity
formed, producing a high optical quality of glass with parallel surfaces and, without polishing and
grinding, the fire-finished brilliance of the finest sheet glass.

Fully Tempered Glass: Fully tempered glass if broken will fracture into many small pieces (dice)
which are more or less cubical. Fully tempered glass is approximately four times stronger than
annealed glass of the same thickness when exposed to uniform static pressure loads. Outside of
North America is sometimes called "toughened glass".

Glass: A hard brittle substance, usually

transparent, made by fusing silicates, under high

temperatures, with soda, lime, etc.

Heat Absorbing Glass: Glass that absorbs an

appreciable amount if solar energy.

Heat-resistant glass: Glass able to withstand high

thermal shock, generally because of a low

coefficient of expansion.
Heat-Strengthened Glass: Twice as strong as annealed glass; therefore, it is able to resist slightly
stronger impacts. Produced in a similar manner to tempered glass (slower cooling than tempered).
Heat strengthened glass is not considered safety glass & will not completely dice as will fully
tempered glass.

Heat Treated: Term used for both fully tempered glass & heat-strengthened glass.

Insulating Glass: Insulating glass refers to two pieces of glass spaced apart and hermetically
sealed to form a single-glazed unit with an air space between. Heat transmission through this type
of glass may be as low as half that without such an air space. It is also called Double Glazing.

Lite: Another term for a pane of glass used in a window. Frequently spelled "light" in the
industry, but often spelled "lite" in text to avoid confusion with light as in "visible light".

Patterned glass: One type of rolled glass having a pattern impressed on one or both sides. Used
extensively for light control, bath enclosures and decorative glazing. Sometimes called "rolled",
"figured" or "obscure" glass.

Plate Glass: Polished plate glass is a rolled, ground and polished product with true flat parallel
plane surfaces affording excellent vision. It has less surface polish than sheet glass and is
available in thickness varying from 1/4" to 1-1/4". Now replaced by float glass.

Polished Wire Glass: Wired glass that has been ground & polished on both surfaces.
Reflective Glass: Glass with a metallic coating to reduce solar heat gain.

Rolled glass: Glass formed by rolling, including patterned and wired glass.

Sandblasted Finish: A surface treatment for flat glass obtained by spraying the glass with hard
particles to roughen one or both surfaces of the glass.

Glazing: (n) A generic term used to describe an infill material such as glass, panels, etc. (v) The
process of installing an infill material into a prepared opening in windows, door panels, partitions,
etc.

Sheet Glass: A transparent, flat glass whose surface has a characteristic waviness replaced by
float glass. There were three basic classifications of sheet glass: 1) single strength 3/32" thick; 2)
double strength: 1/8" thick; 3) heavy sheet which has 3 thicknesses: 3/16", 7/32" and 1/4

Solar Control Glass: Tinted and/or coated glass that reduces the amount of solar heat gain
transmitted through a glazed product.

Tempered Glass: As with heat-strengthened glass, it is re-heated to just below the melting point,
but suddenly cooled. When shattered it breaks into small pieces. It is approximately five times
stronger than standard annealed glass. It must be used as safety glazing in patio doors, entrance
doors, side lites, and other hazardous locations. It can't be recut after tempering.

Fully tempered glass is approximately four times stronger than annealed glass of the same
thickness when exposed to uniform static pressure loads.

Tinted glass: Glass with colorants added to the basic glass batch that gives the glass colour, as
well as, light and heat-reducing capabilities. A mineral admixture is incorporated in the glass,
resulting an a degree of tinting. Any tinting reduces both visual and radiant transmittance

Transmittance: The ability of the glass to pass light and/or heat, usually expressed in percentages
(visible transmittance, thermal transmittance, etc.)

Double strength: In float glass, approximately 1/8" (3 mm) thick

Edgework: Grinding the edge of flat glass to a desired shape or finish.

Etch: To alter the surface of glass with hydrofluoric acid or other caustic agents. Unintentional
permanent etching of glass may occur from alkali and other runoff from surrounding building
materials.
Wire glass: Rolled glass with a layer of meshed or stranded wire completely imbedded. Available
as polished glass and patterned glass. Approved polished wired glass is used as transparent or
translucent fire protection rated glazing. The wire restrains the fragments from falling out of the
frame when broken. Polished or clear glass 1/4" thick. Wire mesh is embedded within the glass
such that the glass will not shatter when broken. The wire pattern is available in many types. It is
frequently used in skylights, overhead glazing, and locations where a fire-retardant glass is
required.

Laminated Glass: Two or more sheets with an inner layer of transparent plastic to which the glass
adheres if broken. Used for overhead, safety glazing, and sound reduction. Can be made of any
kind of glass, but is most typically made of annealed, heat-strengthened, or tempered glass.

GLASS
Introduction: Glass is any substance or mixture of substances that has solidified from the liquid
state without crystallization. Elements, compounds and mixture of varying composition can exist
in the glass state, but the term “glass” as ordinarily used refers to material which is made by the
fusion of mixture of silica, basic oxides and a few other compounds that react either with silica or
with the basic oxides. No definite chemical compound can be identified in glass. Many of its
properties correspond to those of a super cooled liquid whose ingredients can not be identified
because they have not separated from the solution in crystalline form. Glass may also be defined
as a hard, brittle, transparent or translucent material chiefly a compound of silica, combined with
varying proportions of oxides of sodium, potassium calcium, magnesia, iron and other minerals.
Glass is an amorphous substance having a homogeneous texture.

Structure of glass:

The glass is a random arrangement of molecules, the great majority of which are oxygen ions

bounded together with the network forming ions of silicon, boron or phosphorous. A glass made
of silica alone has many desirable characteristics but unfortunately the high temperatures involved
make it expensive, and difficult to prepare. In order to reduce the temperature, required network
modifying ions are added. Sodium, potassium and calcium are the most common.

Constituents Of Glass And Their Functions

The various constituents of glass and their functions are described below:
1. Silica: It is the principal constituent of glass. If silica alone is used in the manufacture of glass,
it could be fused only at a very high temperature but it would give a good glass on cooling.
However, it is imperative to add some alkaline materials (sodium or potassium carbonate) and
lime in suitable proportion to make this glass workable and resistant to weathering agents.

2. Sodium or potassium carbonate: It is an alkaline material and forms an essential component of

glass. It is added in suitable proportion to reduce the melting point of silica and to impart viscosity
to the molten glass.

3. Lime: It is added in the form of chalk. It is imparts durability, to the glass. In place of lime,
sometimes, lead oxide is also added; it makes the glass bright and shining.

4. Manganese dioxide; It is added in suitable proportion to correct the colour of glass due to the
presence of iron in raw materials of glass. It is also called 'Glass maker' soap.

5. Cullet It is the old broken glass of the same type as that which is intended to be prepared. It is
added in small quantity to provide body to the glass.

6. Colouring substance: While manufacturing a coloured glass, a suitable colouring substance is

added at fusion stage to provide the desired colour to the glass.

The various colouring substances for manufacturing glass of different colours are given below;

Colour Colouring Colour Colouring

substance substance
Black Cobalt, nickel Violet Manganese
and dioxide
manganese
oxide
Green Chromic White Cryolite, tin
oxide oxide
Red Cuprous Yellow Cadmium
oxide, sulphate
selemium
Properties Of Glass

Following are the properties of glass:

1. No definite crystalline structure.

2. No sharp melting point.

3. Absorbs, refracts or transmits light.

4. Affected by alkalies.

5. An excellent electrical insulator at elevated temperatures.

6. Extremely brittle.
7. Available in beautiful colours.

8. Not affected by air or water.

9. Not easily attacked by ordinary chemical reagents.

10.Capable of being worked in several ways.

11.Can take up a high polish (and may be used as substitute for very costly gems).

12.Possible to weld pieces of glass by fusion.

13.As a result of advancement made in the science of glass production, it is possible to make glass

lighter than cork or softer than cotton or stronger than steel.

14.Glass can be cleaned easily by any of the following methods:

a. Applying methylated spirit.

b. Rubbing finely powdered chalk.

c. Rubbing damp salt for

d. Painting the glass panes with lime-wash

cleaning paint spots, and leaving it to dry and then washing with clean water.

Requirements Of Commercial Glass

1. The material must melt at commercially obtainable temperature. Fused silica cools to a glass
that is superior to ordinary glass, but the temperature required to melt it is so high that its
production is expensive and its use restricted.

2. The molten mixture must remain in the amorphous or non-crystalline condition after cooling.

3. The fluidity of molten glass must persist to a sufficient extent to permit the formation of desired
shaped while the glass is cooling.

4. The glass must be reasonably permanent in the use for which it is intended. Water and acids
more readily attack glass with a high proportion of sodium oxide than glass that contains less
sodium oxide and more lime and magnesia. Glasses low in basic oxides are less readily attacked.

Classification of Glass

Glass may be classified in the following categories based upon its composition and properties:

Soda lime or crown glass:

It is the cheapest quality of glass. Its composition is not rigidly fixed, but can be varied both as to
the amount of ingredients and the chemical compound used. It is easily fusible at low
temperatures. It has a clean a clear state. It is possible to blow or to melt articles made of this glass
with the help of simple sources of heat.

Uses: it is typically used for window glazing, plate glass and container bottles.

Flint glass:

It contains varying proportions of lead oxide to make it suitable for various purposes. Leads
provides brilliance and high polish to the glass making it suitable for special purposes. It liquefies
at a lower temperature than sodalime glass and has a better lustre.

Pyrex or heat resistant glass:

Both soda-lime and flint glass are unable to withstand sudden temperature changes due to their
large co-efficient of thermal expansion. Elimination of the basic oxides and inclusion of boron
oxide produce a glass that is very resistant to thermal shock and to attack by water and acids. The
temperature required to melt and fine such a glass is so high that it has to be heated in the electric
arc The familiar Pyrex glasses, which are used extensively for cooking utensils and laboratory
wares, are borosilicate glasses.

Special types of glasses:

There are several types of glass, as a designer, you need to understand the differences and
appropriate uses of each.

Float glass

Float glass is the most common type of glazing in use today. It succeeds plate glass, and has very
similar qualities to plate glass (although float glass is less expensive), except the manufacturing
process is different. There is no need to polish or grind float glass (plate glass is polished for an
exceptionally clear quality). Float and plate glass can be treated in various ways during the
manufacturing process to reduce heat transfer (such as with low-E glass), alter visibility (mirrored
coatings), and to tint the glass with a colour.

Glazing

Glazing refers to the panes or sheets of glass that are set into a frame or frameless condition.
Laminated glass

Laminated glass refers to two or more layers of glass that have been laminated together, most
often the bonding occurs with polyvinylbutryal. The glass being laminated together can be float,
tempered, or heat-strengthened glass. Laminated glass has higher impact strength than other types
of glazing working alone. When laminated glass is broken, the inner layer of laminating material
holds the glass pieces together. Unless the glass laminated together is tempered glass, the
lamination process does nothing to affect the shards of glass present, it merely holds them
together. Several characteristics of glazing can be enhanced or introduced with the use of
laminated glass. The glass may be designed for security purposes (bullet-resistant glass is a
laminated product), for acoustical performance (laminated glass has much better sound resistance
than float or tempered glass), for privacy purposes (a chemical can be introduced to the lamination
that, when activated, causes the glass to appear opaque). In addition, patterns and graphics may be
laminated within the glass. Laminated glass is considered safety glass.

Tempered glass

Tempered glass is most easily distinguished by it's breaking characteristics. When tempered glass
breaks, it breaks into small cubical or rounded pieces, not into shards of glass. Tempered glass is
created through a re-heating process during it's manufacture. Tempered glass is considered safety
glass. Because of it's breakage characteristics, and because it resists impact better than float glass,
tempered glass is required in many locations in the built environment where human impact
contact is a possibility. This includes locations near the handles of doors, and where kicking may
inadvertently occur. Tempered glass is much stronger than float glass, by approximately four
times. After glass has been tempered, it cannot be cut or drilled (or deeply etched). Any of these
activities must be anticipated and accomplished prior to the glass being tempered.

Wired glass

Wired glass is most commonly used in fire-rated assemblies. Wired glass receives its descriptive
name due to the wire mesh that is embedded in its centre. This wire mesh helps the glass
withstand both impact breakage and helps the glass retain it's shape and integrity in the case of
excessive heat. Wired glass cannot be tempered. Other types of glazing can be used in fire-rated
situations, including many newer products such as gel-filled glass and a clear ceramic material.
The building official must always be consulted in the proposed use of special or newer products in
fire-rated situations.

Glass block

Glass block is typically found with masonry products in its classification, but is included here for
it's potential use in glazed opening situations. Glass block is available in several standard sizes
and is installed with either a mortar or silicone system. Glass block may be clear or with many
different available patterns, the level of visual privacy can be adjusted greatly with appropriate
selection of glass block. Because of the construction of individual glass blocks as well as the
installation method, glass block provides a higher degree of acoustical privacy than other forms of
glazing.

Insulated glass

Insulated glass refers to two or more sheets of glass that are separated by a sealed air space.
Double glazing is typically insulated glass, as is triple glazing. The incorporation of a dead air
space between the sheets of glass improves thermal performance and reduces condensation on the
face of the glass. There are varying thicknesses of insulated glass; typically the thickness is
dependent on the width of the air space incorporated. Sometimes an inert gas replaces the air in
the space between the sheets of glass to improve thermal performance even more.
Curtain walls
Curtain walls refer to exterior walls consisting of metal framing and either glass or spandrel
panels. Curtain walls are typically not load-bearing walls, and create a 'skin' for the building.
There are several methods of assembly for curtain walls, each refers to the major components
used to frame the glass.