A PROJECT REPORT

ON

HYDRAULIC JACK
INTRODUCTION

The goal of the basic project is to impart a base level understanding of the principles
behind hydraulics. A superb introductory project is setting up a basic demonstration,
showing how a gravity powered hydraulic lever can move a small object. The project
only needs a few basic items: SERINZ to create hydraulic pressure, wooden link , wheels
to rotate the trolly , dc motor 100rpm speed cluster wheel and pressure switches to make
wired remote . When the fluid pressure applied the links attached with the trolly moves
upward and downward which lift the object by the hook attached with the arms. Use
some tape to seal the hose to the bag. A Styrofoam plate is one of the best items to use for
the lifting demonstration, because of its low weight and relative stability. Assemble all
the parts, then place the plate on the on the bag. Pour water into the funnel while holding
it as high as possible. The water pressure should cause bag to expand lifting the plate and
demonstrating the concept

A fine example of a basic project teaching hydraulic principles is the construction of a

hydraulic braking device. In order to build a break there will need to be a few simple
pistons in action. The simplest way to construct a piston is by using a pair syringes
without needles. Attach the syringe to a small length of plastic hose and seal it with tape
or glue. Fill the device with water and attach another syringe to the other end, creating a
rudimentary hydraulic piston system. Allow students to construct models that transfer the
force of one syringe to a small brake. The brake pad which can simply be an eraser glued
to the end of the other syringe plunger. Students will also need to set up a positioning
apparatus, however this should not prove particularly difficult. A perfectly completed
classroom sized project of this nature will have the student pressing one plunger into the
syringe, and the other syringe plunger applying brake pressure to a spinning model
wheel.
Expanding upon the basic principles of hydraulics demonstrated in other experiments
students can be directed to construct a mini-jack. The jack will make use of several of the
ordinary pistons outlined in the intermediate hydraulics projects. Since a jack has a
number of moving joints, students will need to construct several hydraulic pistons and
control them independently to achieve the desired effect. Giving students team challenges
such as moving candies from one dish, to another can add a memorable competitive
aspect to a lesson. A basic hydraulic jack will have an arm with at least four actuated
points, in addition to two more moving points to rotate the base. Adding a counterweight
opposite to the arm will significantly improve stability.

JACK

A 'Jack' is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist, wire ropes or chains, and
sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally.
It is mainly used for lifting heavy things and transporting them to other places. It uses one
or more simple machines to create mechanical advantage and thus move loads beyond the
normal capability of a man. jacks are commonly employed in the transport industry for
the loading and unloading of freight, in the construction industry for the movement of
materials and in the manufacturing industry for the assembling of heavy equipment.

The first construction jacks were invented by the Ancient Greeks and were powered by
men or beasts of burden, such as donkeys. These jacks were used for the construction of
tall buildings. Larger jacks were later developed, employing the use of human
treadwheels, permitting the lifting of heavier weights. In the High Middle Ages, harbour
jacks were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction – some
were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest jacks were
constructed from wood, but cast iron and steel took over with the coming of the Industrial
Revolution.

For many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or animals,
although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the harnessed natural
power. The first 'mechanical' power was provided by steam engines, the earliest steam
jack being introduced in the 18th or 19th century, with many remaining in use well into
the late 20th century. Modern jacks usually use internal combustion engines or electric
motors and hydraulic systems to provide a much greater lifting capability than was
previously possible, although manual jacks are still utilized where the provision of power
would be uneconomic.

jacks exist in an enormous variety of forms – each tailored to a specific use. Sometimes
sizes range from the smallest jib jacks, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower jacks,
used for constructing high buildings. For a while, mini - jacks are also used for
constructing high buildings, in order to facilitate constructions by reaching tight spaces.
Finally, we can find larger floating jacks, generally used to build oil rigs and salvage
sunken ships.

This article also covers lifting machines that do not strictly fit the above definition of a
jack, but are generally known as jacks, such as stacker jacks and loader jacks.

Hydraulic system

The controlled movement of parts or a controlled application of force is a common

requirement in the industries. These operations are performed mainly by using electrical
machines or diesel, petrol and steam engines as a prime mover. These prime movers can
provide various movements to the objects by using some mechanical attachments like
screw jack, lever, rack and pinions etc. However, these are not the only prime movers.
The enclosed fluids (liquids and gases) can also be used as prime movers to provide
controlled motion and force to the objects or substances. The specially designed enclosed
fluid systems can provide both linear as well as rotary motion. The high magnitude
controlled force can also be applied by using these systems. This kind of enclosed fluid
based systems using pressurized incompressible liquids as transmission media are called
as hydraulic systems. The hydraulic system works on the principle of Pascal’s law which
says that the pressure in an enclosed fluid is uniform in all the directions. The Pascal ’s
law is illustrated in figure 5.1.1. The force given by fluid is given by the multiplication of
pressure and area of cross section. As the pressure is same in all the direction, the smaller
piston feels a smaller force and a large piston feels a large force. Therefore, a large force
can be generated with smaller force input by using hydraulic systems.

The hydraulic systems consists a number of parts for its proper functioning. These
include storage tank, filter, hydraulic pump, pressure regulator, control valve, hydraulic
cylinder, piston and leak proof fluid flow pipelines. The schematic of a simple hydraulic
system is shown in figure 5.1.2. It consists of:
• a movable piston connected to the output shaft in an enclosed cylinder
• storage tank
• filter
• electric pump
• pressure regulator
• control valve
• leak proof closed loop piping.

The output shaft transfers the motion or force however all other parts help to control the
system. The storage/fluid tank is a reservoir for the liquid used as a transmission media.
The liquid used is generally high density incompressible oil. It is filtered to remove dust
or any other unwanted particles and then pumped by the hydraulic pump. The capacity of
pump depends on the hydraulic system design. These pumps generally deliver constant
volume in each revolution of the pump shaft. Therefore, the fluid pressure can increase
indefinitely at the dead end of the piston until the system fails. The pressure regulator is
used to avoid such circumstances which redirect the excess fluid back to the storage tank.
The movement of piston is controlled by changing liquid flow from port A and port B.
The cylinder movement is controlled by using control valve which directs the fluid flow.
The fluid pressure line is connected to the port B to raise the piston and it is connected to
port A to lower down the piston. The valve can also stop the fluid flow in any of the port.
The leak proof piping is also important due to safety, environmental hazards and
economical aspects. Some accessories such as flow control system, travel limit control,
electric motor starter and overload protection may also be used in the hydraulic systems
which are not shown in figure

2. Applications of hydraulic systems

The hydraulic systems are mainly used for precise control of larger forces. The main
applications of hydraulic system can be classified in five categories:
2.1 Industrial: Plastic processing machineries, steel making and primary metal
extraction applications, automated production lines, machine tool industries, paper
industries, loaders, crushes, textile machineries, R & D equipment and robotic systems
etc.
2.2Mobile hydraulics: Tractors, irrigation system, earthmoving equipment, material
handling equipment, commercial vehicles, tunnel boring equipment, rail equipment,
building and construction machineries and drilling rigs etc.
2.3 Automobiles: It is used in the systems like breaks, shock absorbers, steering system,
wind shield, lift and cleaning etc.
2.4 Marine applications: It mostly covers ocean going vessels, fishing boats and navel
equipment.
2.5 Aerospace equipment: There are equipment and systems used for rudder control,
landing gear, breaks, flight control and transmission etc. which are used in airplanes,
rockets and spaceships.

3. Hydraulic Pump

The combined pumping and driving motor unit is known as hydraulic pump. The
hydraulic pump takes hydraulic fluid (mostly some oil) from the storage tank and delivers
it to the rest of the hydraulic circuit. In general, the speed of pump is constant and the
pump delivers an equal volume of oil in each revolution. The amount and direction of
fluid flow is controlled by some external mechanisms. In some cases, the hydraulic pump
itself is operated by a servo controlled motor but it makes the system complex. The
hydraulic pumps are characterized by its flow rate capacity, power consumption, drive
speed, pressure delivered at the outlet and efficiency of the pump. The pumps are not
100% efficient. The efficiency of a pump can be specified by two ways. One is the
volumetric efficiency which is the ratio of actual volume of fluid delivered to the
maximum theoretical volume possible. Second is power efficiency which is the ratio of
output hydraulic power to the input mechanical/electrical power. The typical efficiency of
pumps varies from 90-98%.
The hydraulic pumps can be of two types:
• centrifugal pump
• reciprocating pump
Centrifugal pump uses rotational kinetic energy to deliver the fluid. The rotational energy
typically comes from an engine or electric motor. The fluid enters the pump impeller
along or near to the rotating axis, accelerates in the propeller and flung out to the
periphery by centrifugal force as shown in figure 5.1.3. In centrifugal pump the delivery
is not constant and varies according to the outlet pressure. These pumps are not suitable
for high pressure applications and are generally used for low-pressure and high-volume
flow applications. The maximum pressure capacity is limited to 20-30 bars and the
specific speed ranges from 500 to 10000. Most of the centrifugal pumps are not self-
priming and the pump casing needs to be filled with liquid before the pump is started.

The reciprocating pump is a positive plunger pump. It is also known as positive

displacement pump or piston pump. It is often used where relatively small quantity is to
be handled and the delivery pressure is quite large. The construction of these pumps is
similar to the four stroke engine as shown in figure 5.1.4. The crank is driven by some
external rotating motor. The piston of pump reciprocates due to crank rotation. The piston
moves down in one half of crank rotation, the inlet valve opens and fluid enters into the
cylinder. In second half crank rotation the piston moves up, the outlet valve opens and the
fluid moves out from the outlet. At a time, only one valve is opened and another is closed
so there is no fluid leakage. Depending on the area of cylinder the pump delivers constant
volume of fluid in each cycle independent to the pressure at the output port.

4. Pump Lift
In general, the pump is placed over the fluid storage tank as shown in figure 5.1.5. The
pump creates a negative pressure at the inlet which causes fluid to be pushed up in the
inlet pipe by atmospheric pressure. It results in the fluid lift in the pump suction. The
maximum pump lift can be determined by atmospheric pressure and is given by pressure
head as given below:
(5.1.1) Pressure Head, P = ghρ
Theoretically, a pump lift of 8 m is possible but it is always lesser due to undesirable
effects such as cavitation. The cavitation is the formation of vapor cavities in a liquid.
The cavities can be small liquid-free zones ("bubbles" or "voids") formed due to partial
vaporization of fluid (liquid). These are usually generated when a liquid is subjected to
rapid changes of pressure and the pressure is relatively low. At higher pressure, the voids
implode and can generate an intense shockwave. Therefore, the cavitation should always
be avoided. The cavitation can be reduced by maintaining lower flow velocity at the inlet
and therefore the inlet pipes have larger diameter than the outlet pipes in a pump. The
pump lift should be as small as possible to decrease the cavitation and to increase the
efficiency of the pump.

5. Pressure Regulation
The pressure regulation is the process of reduction of high source pressure to a lower
working pressure suitable for the application. It is an attempt to maintain the outlet
pressure within acceptable limits. The pressure regulation is performed by using pressure
regulator. The primary function of a pressure regulator is to match the fluid flow with
demand. At the same time, the regulator must maintain the outlet pressure within certain
acceptable limits.
The schematic of pressure regulator and various valves placement is shown in figure
5.1.6. When the valve V1 is closed and V2 is opened then the load moves down and fluid
returns to the tank but the pump is dead ended and it leads to a continuous increase in
pressure at pump delivery. Finally, it may lead to permanent failure of the pump.
Therefore some method is needed to keep the delivery pressure P1 within the safe level.
It can be achieved by placing pressure regulating valve V3 as shown in figure 5.1.6. This
valve is closed in normal conditions and when the pressure exceeds a certain limit, it
opens and fluid from pump outlet returns to the tank via pressure regulating valve V3. As
the pressure falls in a limiting range, the valve V3 closes again.

When valve V1 is closed, the whole fluid is dumped back to the tank through the pressure
regulating valve. This leads to the substantial loss of power because the fluid is
circulating from tank to pump and then pump to tank without performing any useful
work. This may lead to increase in fluid temperature because the energy input into fluid
leads to the increase in fluid temperature. This may need to the installation of heat
exchanger in to the storage tank to extract the excess heat. Interestingly, the motor Power
Consumption is more in such condition because the outlet pressure is higher than the
working pressure.
6. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydraulic system

6.1 Advantages
• The hydraulic system uses incompressible fluid which results in higher efficiency.
• It delivers consistent power output which is difficult in pneumatic or mechanical drive
systems.
• Hydraulic systems employ high density incompressible fluid. Possibility of leakage is
less in hydraulic system as compared to that in pneumatic system. The maintenance cost
is less.
• These systems perform well in hot environment conditions.

6.2 Disadvantages
• The material of storage tank, piping, cylinder and piston can be corroded with the
hydraulic fluid. Therefore one must be careful while selecting materials and hydraulic
fluid.
• The structural weight and size of the system is more which makes it unsuitable for the
smaller instruments.
• The small impurities in the hydraulic fluid can permanently damage the complete
system, therefore one should be careful and suitable filter must be installed.
• The leakage of hydraulic fluid is also a critical issue and suitable prevention method
and seals must be adopted.
• The hydraulic fluids, if not disposed properly, can be harmful to the environment.

Hydraulics is the study of liquids and their mechanical properties: how they move, resist
movement, act when subject to pressure, and so forth. In engineering, one application of
hydraulics is using liquids, like water and oil, to move things.

Why use a liquid to move things, instead of, say, air?

One important reason is that a liquid is incompressible, which means that if you press on
it, you cannot change its volume. For example, if you have a cup filled with
marshmallows, you can fit even more marshmallows into the cup by compressing
(squeezing) the marshmallows together. But if the cup is filled with water, you cannot fit
more water into the cup - no matter how hard you squeeze! Because liquid is
incompressible, applying a force (for example, a push or a pull) to one end of a hydraulic
system transmits (moves) the force through the liquid to the other end.

Pressure is a force spread out over an area, or a force divided by an area. Pushing on the
top of a glass of water, for instance, puts pressure on all of the water in the glass. Another
way of thinking about pressure is to imagine pushing on an object with your finger or
with the palm of your hand. In both cases, you are applying the same force, but
the pressure is different because the area of the tip of your finger is much smaller than
the palm of your hand. Figure 1 below shows a simple hydraulic system that uses the
concepts of force and pressure.

The hydraulic system in Figure 1 is made up of a liquid-filled tube topped with

two pistons that move up or down as the liquid moves. Applying a downward force on
this closed system (in this case, pushing down on the left-hand piston) causes the liquid to
move against the right-hand piston and, because the liquid is incompressible, push the
piston up. The pressure in the liquid is the same at every point within the liquid, because
the liquid is incompressible. When the Energy From the force applied to one piston is
transferred to the liquid and then to the second piston, thus moving it, we say
that work has been done by the first piston. Hydraulic machinery, like wheelchair lifts
and excavators, use liquids to do work. That work can be applied to big jobs, like lifting
heavy loads.

An advantage of hydraulic tools is the concept of force multiplication. Force

multiplication enables the force you apply to one piston to be multiplied, by a
multiplicative factor, to make a larger force acting on the second piston. This only works
if the first piston is smaller in area than the second piston. Taking the simple hydraulic
system mentioned above and altering it to use force multiplication, it will look like Figure
2 below.

Figure 2. Simple hydraulic system with pistons of different areas. The piston with the
smaller area is called the master and the piston with the larger area is called the slave. The
difference in areas between the two enables force multiplication.

When you push in the master (smaller) piston, the amount of force applied to
the slave (larger) piston by the liquid is multiplied by the ratio of the area of the slave
piston to the area of the master piston. Using Equations 1 to 3 below derives this
relationship.

Equation 1.
Pressure at slave piston = Pressure at master piston
  Pressure is in units of newtons(N)/area

 Area is in units of centimeters (cm) squared

Because pressure is force acting over an area, Equation 1 is transformed into Equation 2.

Equation 2.
Fs Fm
— —
=
— —
As Am
 Fs = Force applied by liquid on slave piston (in units of newtons, N)
 Fm = Force applied to liquid by master piston (N)
 As = Area of slave piston (cm²)

 Am = Area of master piston (cm²)

In Figure 2, the area of both pistons is a circle and the area of a circle is πr², where r is
the radius of the circle. Using this given, you can transform Equation 2 into Equation 3
to find the force the liquid applies on the slave piston.

Equation 3.
Force on slave piston = Force applied by master piston x (area of slave piston/area of
master piston)

πrs2
—
Fs = Fm ( — )
πrm2

 Fs= Force applied by liquid on slave piston (N)

  Fm=Force applied to liquid by master piston (N)
 rs= radius of slave piston (cm)
 rm= radius of master piston (cm)

 π= pi (approximately 3.14)

The ratio of the areas of the two different pistons in Equation 3 is called
the multiplicative factor. Using Equation 3, you can see that the force on the slave
piston in Figure 2 is four times the force applied by the master piston. So if the master
piston applies 1 N of force to the liquid, the liquid's force on the slave piston is 4 N. But
note that the master must be pushed down 4 cm while the slave rises only 1 cm.

Force multiplication is the reason hydraulic machinery is so useful. A small force from
the operator on one end of the machine is multiplied and results in a much larger force on
the other end. Construction equipment like excavators and forklifts use the force
multiplication of hydraulics. Often these machines have hydraulic cylinders. A hydraulic
cylinder is made up of a piston and a cylinder that houses the piston and the hydraulic
liquid.

MECHANICAL LINKAGE

A mechanical linkage is an assembly of bodies connected to manage forces and

movement. The movement of a body, or link, is studied using geometry so the link is
considered to be rigid. The connections between links are modeled as providing ideal
movement, pure rotation or sliding for example, and are called joints. A linkage modeled
as a network of rigid links and ideal joints is called a kinematic chain.

Linkages may be constructed from open chains, closed chains, or a combination of open
and closed chains. Each link in a chain is connected by a joint to one or more other links.
Thus, a kinematic chain can be modeled as a graph in which the links are paths and the
joints are vertices, which is called a linkage graph.
The deployable mirror linkage is constructed from a series of rhombus or scissor
linkages.

The movement of an ideal joint is generally associated with a subgroup of the group of
Euclidean displacements. The number of parameters in the subgroup is called the degrees
of freedom (DOF) of the joint. Mechanical linkages are usually designed to transform a
given input force and movement into a desired output force and movement. The ratio of
the output force to the input force is known as the mechanical advantage of the linkage,
while the ratio of the input speed to the output speed is known as the speed ratio. The
speed ratio and mechanical advantage are defined so they yield the same number in an
ideal linkage.

A kinematic chain, in which one link is fixed or stationary, is called a mechanism, and a
linkage designed to be stationary is called a structure.

Uses
A spatial 3 DOF linkage for joystick applications.

Perhaps the simplest linkage is the lever, which is a link that pivots around a fulcrum
attached to ground, or a fixed point. As a force rotates the lever, points far from the
fulcrum have a greater velocity than points near the fulcrum. Because power into the
lever equals the power out, a small force applied at a point far from the fulcrum (with
greater velocity) equals a larger force applied at a point near the fulcrum (with less
velocity). The amount the force is amplified is called mechanical advantage. This is the
law of the lever.

Two levers connected by a rod so that a force applied to one is transmitted to the second
is known as a four-bar linkage. The levers are called cranks, and the fulcrums are called
pivots. The connecting rod is also called the coupler. The fourth bar in this assembly is
the ground, or frame, on which the cranks are mounted.

Linkages are important components of machines and tools. Examples range from the
four-bar linkage used to amplify force in a bolt cutter or to provide independent
suspension in an automobile, to complex linkage systems in robotic arms and walking
machines. The internal combustion engine uses a slider-crank four-bar linkage formed
from its piston, connecting rod, and crankshaft to transform power from expanding
burning gases into rotary power. Relatively simple linkages are often used to perform
complicated tasks.

Interesting examples of linkages include the windshield wiper, the bicycle suspension,
and hydraulic actuators for heavy equipment. In these examples the components in the
linkage move in parallel planes and are called "planar linkages." A linkage with at least
one link that moves in three-dimensional space is called a "spatial linkage." The skeletons
of robotic systems are examples of spatial linkages. The geometric design of these
systems relies on modern computer aided design software.

The 4-bar linkage is an adapted mechanical linkage used on bicycles. With a normal full-
suspension bike the back wheel moves in a very tight arc shape. This means that more
power is lost when going uphill. [clarification needed] With a bike fitted with a 4-bar linkage, the
wheel moves in such a large arc that it is moving almost vertically. This way the power
loss is reduced by up to 30%.

History

Archimedes applied geometry to the study of the lever. Into the 1500s the work of
Archimedes and Hero of Alexandria were the primary sources of machine theory. It was
Leonardo da Vinci who brought an inventive energy to machines and mechanism.

In the mid-1700s the steam engine was of growing importance, and James Watt realized
that efficiency could be increased by using different cylinders for expansion and
condensation of the steam. This drove his search for a linkage that could transform
rotation of a crank into a linear slide, and resulted in his discovery of what is called Watt's
linkage. This led to the study of linkages that could generate straight lines, even if only
approximately; and inspired the mathematician J. J. Sylvester, who lectured on the
Peaucellier linkage, which generates an exact straight line from a rotating crank.

The work of Sylvester inspired A. B. Kempe, who showed that linkages for addition and
multiplication could be assembled into a system that traced a given algebraic curve.
Kempe's design procedure has inspired research at the intersection of geometry and
computer science.

In the late 1800s F. Reuleaux, A. B. W. Kennedy, and L. Burmester formalized the

analysis and synthesis of linkage systems using descriptive geometry, and P.L.Chebyshev
introduced analytical techniques for the study and invention of linkages.
In the mid-1900s F. Freudenstein and G. N. Sandor used the newly developed digital
computer to solve the loop equations of a linkage and determine its dimensions for a
desired function, initiating the computer-aided design of linkages. Within two decades
these computer techniques were integral to the analysis of complex machine systems and
the control of robot manipulators.

R.E.Kaufman combined the computer’s ability to rapidly compute the roots of polynomial
equations with a graphical user interface to unite Freudenstein’s techniques with the
geometrical methods of Release and Burmester and form KINSYN, an interactive
computer graphics system for linkage design

The modern study of linkages includes the analysis and design of articulated systems that
appear in robots, machine tools, and cable driven and tense gritty systems. These
techniques are also being applied to biological systems and even the study of proteins.

Mobility

Simple linkages are capable of producing complicated motion.

The configuration of a system of rigid links connected by ideal joints is defined by a set
of configuration parameters, such as the angles around a revolute joint and the slides
along prismatic joints measured between adjacent links. The geometric constraints of the
linkage allow calculation of all of the configuration parameters in terms of a minimum
set, which are the input parameters. The number of input parameters is called the
mobility, or degree of freedom, of the linkage system.
A system of n rigid bodies moving in space has 6n degrees of freedom measured relative
to a fixed frame. Include this frame in the count of bodies, so that mobility is independent
of the choice of the fixed frame, then we have M=6(N-1), where N=n+1 is the number of
moving bodies plus the fixed body.

Joints that connect bodies in this system remove degrees of freedom and reduce mobility.
Specifically, hinges and sliders each impose five constraints and therefore remove five
degrees of freedom. It is convenient to define the number of constraints c that a joint
imposes in terms of the joint's freedom f, where c=6-f. In the case of a hinge or slider,
which are one degree of freedom joints, we have f=1 and therefore c=6-1=5.

Thus, the mobility of a linkage system formed from n moving links and j joints each with
fi, i=1, ..., j, degrees of freedom can be computed as,

where N includes the fixed link. This is known as Kutzbach-Gruebler's equation

There are two important special cases: (i) a simple open chain, and (ii) a simple closed
chain. A simple open chain consists of n moving links connected end to end by j joints,
with one end connected to a ground link. Thus, in this case N=j+1 and the mobility of the
chain is

For a simple closed chain, n moving links are connected end-to-end by n+1 joints such
that the two ends are connected to the ground link forming a loop. In this case, we have
N=j and the mobility of the chain is
An example of a simple open chain is a serial robot manipulator. These robotic systems
are constructed from a series of links connected by six one degree-of-freedom revolute or
prismatic joints, so the system has six degrees of freedom.

An example of a simple closed chain is the RSSR spatial four-bar linkage. The sum of the
freedom of these joints is eight, so the mobility of the linkage is two, where one of the
degrees of freedom is the rotation of the coupler around the line joining the two S joints.

Planar and spherical movement

Linkage mobility

Locking pliers exemplify a four-bar, one degree of freedom mechanical linkage. The
adjustable base pivot makes this a two degree-of-freedom five-bar linkage.

It is common practice to design the linkage system so that the movement of all of the
bodies are constrained to lie on parallel planes, to form what is known as a planar
linkage. It is also possible to construct the linkage system so that all of the bodies move
on concentric spheres, forming a spherical linkage. In both cases, the degrees of freedom
of the link is now three rather than six, and the constraints imposed by joints are now
c=3-f.

In this case, the mobility formula is given by

and we have the special cases,

 planar or spherical simple open chain,

 planar or spherical simple closed chain,

An example of a planar simple closed chain is the planar four-bar linkage, which is a
four-bar loop with four one degree-of-freedom joints and therefore has mobility M=1.

Joints

The most familiar joints for linkage systems are the revolute, or hinged, joint denoted by
an R, and the prismatic, or sliding, joint denoted by a P. Most other joints used for spatial
linkages are modeled as combinations of revolute and prismatic joints. For example,

 the cylindric joint consists of an RP or PR serial chain constructed so that the axes
of the revolute and prismatic joints are parallel,
 the spherical joint consists of an RRR serial chain for which each of the hinged
joint axes intersect in the same point;
 the planar joint can be constructed either as a planar RRR, RPR, and PPR serial
chain that has three degrees-of-freedom.

Analysis and synthesis of linkages

The primary mathematical tool for the analysis of a linkage is known as the kinematics
equations of the system. This is a sequence of rigid body transformation along a serial
chain within the linkage that locates a floating link relative to the ground frame. Each
serial chain within the linkage that connects this floating link to ground provides a set of
equations that must be satisfied by the configuration parameters of the system. The result
is a set of non-linear equations that define the configuration parameters of the system for
a set of values for the input parameters.

Freudenstein introduced a method to use these equations for the design of a planar four-
bar linkage to achieve a specified relation between the input parameters and the
configuration of the linkage. Another approach to planar four-bar linkage design was
introduced by L. Burmester, and is called Burmester theory.

Planar one degree-of-freedom linkages

The mobility formula provides a way to determine the number of links and joints in a
planar linkage that yields a one degree-of-freedom linkage. If we require the mobility of a
planar linkage to be M=1 and fi=1, the result is

or

This formula shows that the linkage must have an even number of links, so we have

 N=2, j=1: this is a two-bar linkage known as the lever;

 N=4, j=4: this is the four-bar linkage;
 N=6, j=7: this is a six-bar linkage [ it has two links that have three joints, called
ternary links, and there are two topologies of this linkage depending how these
links are connected. In the Watt topology, the two ternary links are connected by a
 joint. In the Stephenson topology the two ternary links are connected by binary
links;
 N=8, j=10: the eight-bar linkage has 16 different topologies;
 N=10, j=13: the 10-bar linkage has 230 different topologies,
 N=12, j=16: the 12-bar has 6856 topologies.

See Sunkari and Schmidt for the number of 14- and 16-bar topologies, as well as the
number of linkages that have two, three and four degrees-of-freedom.

The planar four-bar linkage is probably the simplest and most common linkage. It is a
one degree-of-freedom system that transforms an input crank rotation or slider
displacement into an output rotation or slide.

Types of four-bar linkages, s = shortest link, l = longest link

Examples of four-bar linkages are:

 the crank-rocker, in which the input crank fully rotates and the output link rocks
back and forth;
 the slider-crank, in which the input crank rotates and the output slide moves back
and forth;
 drag-link mechanisms, in which the input crank fully rotates and drags the output
crank in a fully rotational movement.

Other interesting linkages

A function generator linkage that approximates a parabolic output.
 Pantograph (four-bar, two DOF)
 Five bar linkages often have meshing gears for two of the links, creating a one
DOF linkage. They can provide greater power transmission with more design
flexibility than four-bar linkages.
 Jansen's linkage is a twelve-bar Leg mechanism that was invented by kinetic
sculptor Theo Jansen.
 Klann linkage is a six-bar linkage that forms the leg of a walking mechanism;
 Toggle mechanisms are four-bar linkages that are dimensioned so that they can
fold and lock. The toggle positions are determined by the colinearity of two of the
moving links.[17] The linkage is dimensioned so that the linkage reaches a toggle
position just before it folds. The high mechanical advantage allows the input
crank to deform the linkage just enough to push it beyond the toggle position.
This locks the input in place. Toggle mechanisms are used as clamps.

Straight line mechanisms

Main article: Straight line mechanism

 James Watt's parallel motion and Watt's linkage
 Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage, the first planar linkage to create a perfect straight line
output from rotary input; eight-bar, one DOF.
 A Scott Russell linkage, which converts linear motion, to (almost) linear motion
in a line perpendicular to the input.
  Chebyshev linkage, which provides nearly straight motion of a point with a four-
bar linkage.
 Hoekens linkage, which provides nearly straight motion of a point with a four-bar
linkage.
 Sarrus linkage, which provides motion of one surface in a direction normal to
another.
 Hart's inversor, which provides a perfect straight line motion without sliding
guides.

Biological linkages

Linkage systems are widely distributed in animals. The most thorough overview of the
different types of linkages in animals has been provided by Mees Muller, who also
designed a new classification system which is especially well suited for biological
systems. A well-known example is the cruciate ligaments of the knee.

An important difference between biological and engineering linkages is that revolving

bars are rare in biology and that usually only a small range of the theoretically possible is
possible due to additional mechanical constraints (especially the necessity to deliver
blood). Biological linkages frequently are compliant. Often one or more bars are formed
by ligaments, and often the linkages are three-dimensional. Coupled linkage systems are
known, as well as five-, six-, and even seven-bar linkages. Four-bar linkages are by far
the most common though.

Linkages can be found in joints, such as the knee of tetrapods, the hock of sheep, and the
cranial mechanism of birds and reptiles. The latter is responsible for the upward motion
of the upper bill in many birds.

Linkage mechanisms are especially frequent and manifold in the head of bony fishes,
such as wrasses, which have evolved many specialized feeding mechanisms. Especially
advanced are the linkage mechanisms of jaw protrusion. For suction feeding a system of
linked four-bar linkages is responsible for the coordinated opening of the mouth and 3-D
expansion of the buccal cavity. Other linkages are responsible for protrusion of the
premaxilla.

Linkages are also present as locking mechanisms, such as in the knee of the horse, which
enables the animal to sleep standing, without active muscle contraction. In pivot feeding,
used by certain bony fishes, a four-bar linkage at first locks the head in a ventrally bent
position by the alignment of two bars. The release of the locking mechanism jets the head
up and moves the mouth toward the prey within 5-10 ms.

Image gallery

Four-bar function generator of the function Log(u) for 1 < u < 10.

Rocker-slider function generator of the function Log(u) for 1 < u < 10.

Slider-rocker function generator of the function Tan(u) for 0 < u < 45°.


Fixed and moving centrodes of a four-bar linkage

Gear 5-bar left-hand closure

Gear 5-bar right-hand closure

Rack-and-pinion four-bar linkage

RTRTR mechanism
 

RTRTR mechanism

Gear five-bar mechanisms

3D slider-crank mechanism

Wheels

A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle bearing. The wheel
is one of the main components of the wheel and axle which is one of the six simple
machines. Wheels, in conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects to be moved easily
facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load, or performing labor in
machines. Wheels are also used for other purposes, such as a ship's wheel, steering wheel,
potter's wheel and flywheel.
Common examples are found in transport applications. A wheel greatly reduces friction
by facilitating motion by rolling together with the use of axles. In order for wheels to
rotate, a moment needs to be applied to the wheel about its axis, either by way of gravity,
or by the application of another external force or torque.

The first evidence of wheeled vehicles appears in the second half of the 4th millennium
BCE, near-simultaneously in Mesopotamia (Sumerian civilization), the Northern
Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central Europe, so the question of which culture
originally invented the wheeled vehicle is still unsolved.

The earliest well-dated depiction of a wheeled vehicle (here a wagon — four wheels, two
axles) is on the Bronocice pot, a c. 3500 – 3350 BCE clay pot excavated in a
Funnelbeaker culture settlement in southern Poland.

The oldest securely dated real wheel-axle combination, that from Stare Gmajne near
Ljubljana in Slovenia (Ljubljana Marshes Wooden Wheel) is now dated in 2σ-limits to
3340-3030 BCE, the axle to 3360-3045 BCE.

Two types of early Neolithic European wheel and axle are known; a circumAlpine type of
wagon construction (the wheel and axle rotate together, as in Ljubljana Marshes Wheel),
and that of the Baden culture in Hungary (axle does not rotate). They both are dated to c.
3200-3000 BCE.
In China, the wheel was certainly present with the adoption of the chariot in c. 1200
BCE, although Barbieri-Low argues for earlier Chinese wheeled vehicles, c. 2000 BC.

In Britain, a large wooden wheel, measuring about 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter, was
uncovered at the Must Farm site in East Anglia in 2016. The specimen, dating from
1,100-800 years BCE, represents the most complete and earliest of its type found in
Britain. The wheel's hub is also present. A horse's spine found nearby suggests the wheel
may have been part of a horse-drawn cart. The wheel was found in a settlement built on
stilts over wetland, indicating that the settlement had some sort of link to dry land.

Although they did not develop the wheel proper, the Olmec and certain other American
cultures seem to have approached it, as wheel-like worked stones have been found on
objects identified as children's toys dating to about 1500 BC. It is thought that the
primary obstacle to large-scale development of the wheel in the Americas was the
absence of domesticated large animals which could be used to pull wheeled carriages.
The closest relative of cattle present in Americas in pre-Columbian times, the American
Bison, is difficult to domesticate and was never domesticated by Native Americans;
several horse species existed until about 12,000 years ago, but ultimately went extinct.
The only large animal that was domesticated in the Western hemisphere, the llama, did
not spread far beyond the Andes by the time of the arrival of Columbus.

Nubians from after about 400 BCE used wheels for spinning pottery and as water wheels.
It is thought that Nubian waterwheels may have been ox-driven. It is also known that
Nubians used horse-drawn chariots imported from Egypt.

The wheel was barely used, with the exception of Ethiopia and Somalia, in Sub-Saharan
Africa well into the 19th century but this changed with the arrival of the Europeans.

Early wheels were simple wooden disks with a hole for the axle. Because of the structure
of wood, a horizontal slice of a tree trunk is not suitable, as it does not have the structural
strength to support relevant stresses without failing; rounded pieces of longitudinal
boards are required.The spoked wheel was invented more recently, and allowed the
construction of lighter and swifter vehicles. In the Harappan civilization of the Indus
Valley and Northwestern India, we find toy-cart wheels made of clay with lines which
have been interpreted as spokes painted or in relief, and a symbol interpreted as a spoked
wheel in the script of the seals, already in the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE.
The earliest known examples of wooden spoked wheels are in the context of the
Andronovo culture, dating to c. 2000 BCE. Soon after this, horse cultures of the Caucasus
region used horse-drawn spoked-wheel war chariots for the greater part of three
centuries. They moved deep into the Greek peninsula where they joined with the existing
Mediterranean peoples to give rise, eventually, to classical Greece after the breaking of
Minoan dominance and consolidations led by pre-classical Sparta and Athens. Celtic
chariots introduced an iron rim around the wheel in the 1st millennium BCE. The spoked
wheel was in continued use without major modification until the 1870s, when wire
wheels and pneumatic tires were invented.

The invention of the wheel has also been important for technology in general, important
applications including the water wheel, the cogwheel (see also antikythera mechanism),
the spinning wheel, and the astrolabe or torquetum. More modern descendants of the
wheel include the propeller, the jet engine, the flywheel (gyroscope) and the turbine.

Mechanics and function

The wheel is a device that enables efficient movement of an object across a surface where
there is a force pressing the object to the surface. Common examples are a cart pulled by
a horse, and the rollers on an aircraft flap mechanism.

Wheels are used in conjunction with axles; either the wheel turns on the axle, or the axle
turns in the object body. The mechanics are the same in either case.

The low resistance to motion (compared to dragging) is explained as follows (refer to

friction):

 the normal force at the sliding interface is the same.

 the sliding distance is reduced for a given distance of travel.
 the coefficient of friction at the interface is usually lower.
Bearings are used to help reduce friction at the interface. In the simplest and oldest case
the bearing is just a round hole through which the axle passes (a "plain bearing").

Example:

 If a 100 kg object is dragged for 10 m along a surface with the coefficient of

friction μ = 0.5, the normal force is 981 N and the work done (required energy) is
(work=force x distance) 981 × 0.5 × 10 = 4905 joules.
 Now give the object 4 wheels. The normal force between the 4 wheels and axles
is the same (in total) 981 N. Assume, for wood, μ = 0.25, and say the wheel
diameter is 1000 mm and axle diameter is 50 mm. So while the object still moves
10 m the sliding frictional surfaces only slide over each other a distance of 0.5 m.
The work done is 981 × 0.25 × 0.5 = 123 joules; the work done has reduced to
1/40 of that of dragging.

Additional energy is lost from the wheel-to-road interface. This is termed rolling
resistance which is predominantly a deformation loss. This energy is also lowered by the
use of a wheel (in comparison to dragging) because the net force on the contact point
between the road and the wheel is almost perpendicular to the ground, and hence,
generates an almost zero net work. This depends on the nature of the ground, of the
material of the wheel, its inflation in the case of a tire, the net torque exerted by the
eventual engine, and many other factors.

A wheel can also offer advantages in traversing irregular surfaces if the wheel radius is
sufficiently large compared to the irregularities.

The wheel alone is not a machine, but when attached to an axle in conjunction with
bearing, it forms the wheel and axle, one of the simple machines. A driven wheel is an
example of a wheel and axle. Note that wheels pre-date driven wheels by about 6000
years, themselves an evolution of using round logs as rollers to move a heavy load —a
practice going back in pre-history so far, it has not been dated.

Construction
Rim

An aluminium alloy wheel

The rim is the "outer edge of a wheel, holding the tire." It makes up the outer circular
design of the wheel on which the inside edge of the tire is mounted on vehicles such as
automobiles. For example, on a bicycle wheel the rim is a large hoop attached to the outer
ends of the spokes of the wheel that holds the tire and tube.

In the 1st millennium BCE an iron rim was introduced around the wooden wheels of
chariots.

Hub

The hub is the center of the wheel, and typically houses a bearing, and is where the
spokes meet.

A hubless wheel (also known as a rim-rider or centerless wheel) is a type of wheel with
no center hub. More specifically, the hub is actually almost as big as the wheel itself. The
axle is hollow, following the wheel at very close tolerances.

Spokes

Main article: spoke

A spoked wheel on display at The National Museum of Iran, in Tehran. The wheel is
dated to the late 2nd millennium BCE and was excavated at Choqa Zanbil.

A spoke is one of some number of rods radiating from the center of a wheel (the hub
where the axle connects), connecting the hub with the round traction surface. The term
originally referred to portions of a log which had been split lengthwise into four or six
sections. The radial members of a wagon wheel were made by carving a spoke (from a
log) into their finished shape. A spokeshave is a tool originally developed for this
purpose. Eventually, the term spoke was more commonly applied to the finished product
of the wheelwright's work, than to the materials used.

Wire

Main article: wire wheel

The rims of wire wheels (or "wire spoked wheels") are connected to their hubs by wire
spokes. Although these wires are generally stiffer than a typical wire rope, they function
mechanically the same as tensioned flexible wires, keeping the rim true while supporting
applied loads.

Wire wheels are used on most bicycles and still used on many motorcycles. They were
invented by aeronautical engineer George Cayley and first used in bicycles by James
Starley. A process of assembling wire wheels is described as wheelbuilding.
Stacked and standing car tires

A tire (in American English and Canadian English) or tyre (in some Commonwealth
Nations such as UK, India, South Africa and Australia) is a ring-shaped covering that fits
around a wheel rim to protect it and enable better vehicle performance by providing a
flexible cushion that absorbs shock while keeping the wheel in close contact with the
ground. The word itself may be derived from the word "tie," which refers to the outer
steel ring part of a wooden cart wheel that ties the wood segments together (see
Etymology below).

The fundamental materials of modern tires are synthetic rubber, natural rubber, fabric and
wire, along with other compound chemicals. They consist of a tread and a body. The tread
provides traction while the body ensures support. Before rubber was invented, the first
versions of tires were simply bands of metal that fitted around wooden wheels to prevent
wear and tear. Today, the vast majority of tires are pneumatic inflatable structures,
comprising a doughnut-shaped body of cords and wires encased in rubber and generally
filled with compressed air to form an inflatable cushion. Pneumatic tires are used on
many types of vehicles, such as cars, bicycles, motorcycles, trucks, earthmovers, and
aircraft.

Trywheel
A trywheel is an arrangement of three wheels mounted on a y-shaped frame for the
purpose of passing over stairs or rough ground. These may be driven by external force or
integral motors.

Alternatives

While wheels are very widely used for ground transport, there are alternatives, some of
which are suitable for terrain where wheels are ineffective. Alternative methods for
ground transport without wheels include:

 Electromagnetic maglev trains

 Sled or travois
 Hovercraft
 A walking machine
 Caterpillar tracks (although it is still operated by wheels)
 Pedrail wheels, using aspects of both wheel and caterpillar track
 Spheres, as used by Dyson vacuum cleaners and hamster balls
 Screw-propelled vehicle

Symbolism

The wheel has also become a strong cultural and spiritual metaphor for a cycle or regular
repetition (see chakra, reincarnation, Yin and Yang among others). As such and because
of the difficult terrain, wheeled vehicles were forbidden in old Tibet. The wheel in
ancient China is seen as a symbol of health and strength and utilized by some villages as
a tool to predict future health and success. The diameter of the wheel is indicator of one's
future health.

The winged wheel is a symbol of progress, seen in many contexts including the coat of
arms of Panama and the logo of the Ohio State Highway Patrol.
The introduction of spoked (chariot) wheels in the Middle Bronze Age appears to have
carried somewhat of a prestige. The sun cross appears to have a significance in Bronze
Age religion, replacing the earlier concept of a Solar barge with the more "modern" and
technologically advanced solar chariot.

The wheel was also a solar symbol for the Ancient Egyptians.

The wheel is also the prominent figure on the flag of India. The wheel in this case
represents law (dharma). It also appears in the flag of the Romani people, hinting to their
nomadic history and their Indian origins.

MOTOR
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying
conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic
field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the
strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with
magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities
(North and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration of a motor is
designed to harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an
external magnetic field to generate rotational motion.
Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole electric motor (here red represents a magnet or
winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a
"South" polarization).
Every motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor , stator, commutator, field magnet(s), and
brushes. In most common motors, the external magnetic field is produced by high-
strength permanent magnets1.
The stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as
two or more permanent magnet pole pieces.
The rotor (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotate with respect to the
stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being
electrically connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor
layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.
The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that
when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s)
are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field
magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator
contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation
reverses the direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the
rotor's magnetic field, driving it to continue rotating.
In real life, though, motors will always have more than two poles (three is a very
common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You can
imagine how with our example two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its
rotation (perfectly aligned with the field magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile,
with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out the power
supply (i.e., both brushes touch both commutator contacts simultaneously). This would
be bad for the power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well. Yet
another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would exhibit a high amount of
torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic with the position of the
rotor).
As each brush transitions from one commutator contact to the next, one coil's field will
rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this occurs within a few
microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of this later, but in the meantime you can
see that this is a direct result of the coil windings' series wiring: The use of an iron core
armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite
common, and has a number of advantages. First off,
the iron core provides a strong, rigid support for the
windings -- a particularly important consideration
for high-torque motors. The core also conducts heat
away from the rotor windings, allowing the motor to
be driven harder than might otherwise be the case.
Iron core construction is also relatively inexpensive
compared with other Figure 3.1.2 Iron Core
construction types.
But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron armature has a
relatively high inertia which limits motor acceleration. This construction also results in
high winding inductances which limit brush and commutator life.
In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a 'coreless' armature
winding. This design depends upon the coil wire itself for structural integrity. As a result,
the armature is hollow, and the permanent magnet can be mounted inside the rotor coil.
Coreless DC motors have much lower armature inductance than iron-core motors of
comparable size, extending brush and commutator life.

Figure 3.1.3 Coreless armature winding

The coreless design also allows manufacturers to build smaller motors; meanwhile, due
to the lack of iron in their rotors, coreless motors are somewhat prone to overheating. As
a result, this design is generally used just in small, low-power motors. BEAMers will
most often see coreless motors in the form of pager motors.

3.2 WORKING OF MOTOR

The direct current
motor is one of the
first machines
devised to convert
electrical power into
mechanical power.
Permanent magnet
(PM) direct current
convert electrical
energy into
mechanical energy
through the
interaction of two
magnetic fields. One field is produced by a permanent magnet assembly, the other
Figure 3.2.1 Working of dc motor
field is produced by an electrical current flowing in the motor windings. These two fields
result in a torque which tends to rotate the rotor. As the rotor turns, the current in the
windings is commutated to produce a continuous torque output. The stationary
electromagnetic field of the motor can also be wire-wound like the armature or can be
made up of permanent magnets.
In either style (wound-field or permanent magnet) the commutator, acts as half of a
mechanical switch and rotates with the armature as it turns. The commutator is composed
of conductive segments (called bars), usually made of copper, which represent the
termination of individual coils of wire distributed around the armature. The second half
of the mechanical switch is completed by the brushes. These brushes typically remain
stationary with the motor's housing but ride (or brush) on the rotating commutator. As
electrical energy is passed through the brushes and consequently through the armature a
torsional force is generated as a reaction between the motor's field and the armature
causing the motor's armature to turn. As the armature turns, the brushes switch to
adjacent bars on the commutator. This switching action transfers the electrical energy to
an adjacent winding on the armature which in turn perpetuates the torsional motion of the
armature.
Permanent magnet (PM) motors are probably the most commonly used motors, but there
are also some other type of motors(types which use coils to make the permanent
magnetic field also) .motors operate from a direct current power source. Movement of the
magnetic field is achieved by switching current between coils within the motor. This
action is called "commutation". Very many motors (brush-type) have built-in
commutation, meaning that as the motor rotates, mechanical brushes automatically
commutate coils on the rotor. You can use dc-brush motors in a variety of applications. A
simple, permanent-magnet dc motor is an essential element in a variety of products, such
as toys, servo mechanisms, valve actuators, robots, and automotive electronics. There are
several typical advantages of a PM motor. When compared to AC or wound field motors,
PM motors are usually physically smaller in overall size and lighter for a given power
rating. Furthermore, since the motor's field, created by the permanent magnet, is constant,
the relationship between torque and speed is very linear. A PM motor can provide
relatively high torque at low speeds and PM field provides some inherent self-braking
when power to the motor is shutoff. There are several disadvantages through, those being
mostly being high current during a stall condition and during instantaneous reversal.
Those can damage some motors or be problematic to control circuitry. Furthermore, some
magnet materials can be damaged when subjected to excessive heat and some loose field
strength if the motor is disassembled.
A simplest method to control the rotation speed of a motor is to control it's driving
voltage. The higher the voltage is, the higher speed the motor tries to reach. In many
applications a simple voltage regulation would cause lots of power loss on control circuit,
so a pulse width modulation method (PWM)is used in many motor controlling
applications. In the basic Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) method, the operating power
to the motors is turned on and off to modulate the current to the motor. The ratio of "on"
time to "off" time is what determines the speed of the motor. When doing PWM
controlling, keep in mind that a motor is a low pass device. The reason is that a motor is
mainly a large inductor. It is not capable of passing high frequency energy, and hence will
not perform well using high frequencies. Reasonably low frequencies are required, and
then PWM techniques will work. Lower frequencies are generally better than higher
frequencies, but PWM stops being effective at too low a frequency. The idea that a lower
frequency PWM works better simply reflects that the "on" cycle needs to be pretty wide
before the motor will draw any current (because of motor inductance). A higher PWM
frequency will work fine if you hang a large capacitor across the motor or short the motor
out on the "off" cycle (e.g. power/brake pwm) The reason for this is that short pulses will
not allow much current to flow before being cut off. Then the current that did flow is
dissipated as an inductive kick - probably as heat through the fly-back diodes. The
capacitor integrates the pulse and provides a longer, but lower, current flow through the
motor after the driver is cut off. There is not inductive kick either, since the current flow
isn't being cut off. Knowing the low pass roll-off frequency of the motor helps to
determine an optimum frequency for operating PWM. Try testing your motor with a
square duty cycle using a variable frequency, and then observe the drop in torque as the
frequency is increased. This technique can help determine the roll off point as far as
power efficiency is concerned.
Besides "brush-type" motors, there is another motor type: brushless motor. Brushless
motors rely on the external power drive to perform the commutation of stationary copper
winding on the stator. This changing stator field makes the permanent magnet rotor to
rotate .A brushless permanent magnet motor is the highest performing motor in terms of
torque / vs. weight or efficiency. Brushless motors are usually the most expensive type of
motor. Electronically commutated, brush-less motor systems are widely used as drives
for blowers and fans used in electronics, telecommunications and industrial equipment
applications. There is wide variety of different brush-less motors for various applications.
Some are designed to rotate at constant speed (those used in disk drives) and the speed of
some can be controlled by varying the voltage applied to them (usually the motors used
in fans). Some brushless motors have a built-in tachometer which gives out pulses as the
motor rotates (this applies to both disk drive motors and some computer fans). In general,
users select brush-type motors when low system cost is a priority, and brushless motors
to fulfill other requirements (such as maintenance-free operation, high speeds, and
explosive environments where sparking could be hazardous). Brush type motors are used
in very many battery powered appliances. Brushless motors are commonly used in
applications like powered fans and disk drive rotation motors.

Motor is a device that creates motion, not an engine; it usually refers to either an
electrical motor or an internal combustion engine. It may also refer to:

 Electric motor, a machine that converts electricity into a mechanical motion

o AC motor, an electric motor that is driven by alternating current
 Synchronous motor, an alternating current motor distinguished by
a rotor spinning with coils passing magnets at the same rate as the
alternating current and resulting magnetic field which drives it
 Induction motor, also called a squirrel-cage motor, a type of
asynchronous alternating current motor where power is supplied to
the rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction
o DC motor, an electric motor that runs on direct current electricity
 Brushed DC electric motor, an internally commutated electric
motor designed to be run from a direct current power source
 Brushless DC motor, a synchronous electric motor which is
powered by direct current electricity and has an electronically
controlled commutation system, instead of a mechanical
commutation system based on brushes
o Electrostatic motor, a type of electric motor based on the attraction and
repulsion of electric charge
o Servo motor, an electric motor that operates a servo, commonly used in
robotics
o Internal fan-cooled electric motor, an electric motor that is self-cooled by
a fan, typically used for motors with a high energy density
Other uses:

 Actuator, a mechanical device for moving or controlling a mechanism or system

 Hydraulic motor, a machine that converts the energy of pressurized liquid flow
into mechanical motion
 Rocket motor, usually refers to solid rocket engines
 Molecular motor, the agents of movement in living organisms
o Synthetic molecular motor, molecular machines capable of rotation under
energy input
 Motor language, extinct since the 1840s, a Uralic language that was spoken in the
northern region of the Sayan Mountains in Siberia
 Motor system, the physiological system that is responsible for physical movement
o Motor neuron, neurons that originate in the spinal cord and synapse with
muscle fibers
o Motor skill, the ability of an organism to use the motor system effectively
 Nanomotor, a molecular device capable of converting energy into movement
 Pneumatic motor, a machine that converts the energy of compressed air into
mechanical motion
 The Motors, a British pub rock/punk band, formed in 1977 by Nick Garvey, Andy
McMaster, Ricky Slaughter and Rob Hendry, who was replaced by Bram
Tchaikovsky the same year.

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very typically
through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse
process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a
generator or dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice
versa. For example a starter/generator for a gas turbine or Traction motors used on
vehicles often perform both tasks.

Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and
pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be
powered by direct current (for example a battery powered portable device or motor
vehicle), or by alternating current from a central electrical distribution grid. The smallest
motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly
standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for
industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for propulsion of large ships, and
for such compressors, with ratings in the millions of watts. Electric motors may be
classified by the source of electric power, by their internal construction, by their
application, or by the type of motion they give.

The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric

current and a magnetic field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing
efficiency were constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of
electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical generators and electrical
distribution networks.

Some devices, such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers, although they generate
some mechanical power, are not generally referred to as electric motors, and are usually
termed actuators and transducers, respectively.

REFERENCES

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 Lancaster, Lynne (1999), "Building Trajan's Column", American Journal of
Archaeology 103 (3): 419–439, doi:10.2307/506969, JSTOR 506969
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