MODULE 2

Reading techniques or Types

Whether a pupil or student preparing an assignment, a professional preparing a

summary report, or simply reading for pleasure, we have to be aware will as it is
useful to develop a number of reading techniques.

SCANNING

Scanning is the technique you use when looking up a word in a dictionary or

telephone directory. Because you know the word(s) or phrases you are searching
for, you can move your eyes at speed down the page knowing that your brain will
recognise the searchwords. By identifying keywords before you start reading, it
is possible to scan large quantities of text at speed.

Scanning is made easier if the keywords you identify are names, places, dates,
etc. - which are identified by capital letters or numbers. Similarly useful; some
texts may utilise paragraph headings or even show key ideas in the
margin. Occasionally, scanning may be made even easier if certain words are
emboldened, italicised, or in a different font size or style.

Scanning can be used to determine whether a particular piece of text will be

useful in your research. Having scanned the document, you might go back and
skim it.

SKIMMING

Skimming is a useful technique for reading through lots of material in a limited

amount of time. It is the technique to use when you merely want to identify the
main ideas of a text and is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal
reading. Skimming is a preliminary reading technique to help you check whether
an article or chapter is relevant to your research. It can also help you identify the
most relevant paragraphs of a chapter or text.

There are various skimming strategies.

 If they are present in the text, you may choose to read only the title, sub-
titles and sub-headings - or any marginal summaries that may be
included.
 You may decide to read the first and last paragraphs of each chapter - as
these may provide introductions and summaries.
 You could read the first (and maybe also the last) sentence of each
paragraph.
Whatever approach you use, bear in mind that the purpose of skimming is to get
a "rough idea" of what the text is about. Having identified particularly relevant
passages, you can return to these later in order to more fully understand them.

SPEED READING

It may be worthwhile developing speed-reading skills. There are various

 techniques. Some of these depend on reducing the randomness of the eyes' focus
- by concentrating on just two or three focal points on each line of text. Others
depend on reducing subvocalisation (the tendency to "say" the words - even if
only "in your mind"). There is some debate about whether comprehension can be
maintained at a suitably high level as reading speed increases.

MAKING NOTES

It is useful to make notes as you read. It is not necessary - nor is it a good idea -
to copy out whole sections of what you are reading, but it is recommended that
you summarise in your own words each major argument or piece of information
that you encounter. If something is summarised so succinctly by an author that
you cannot reduce it any further, consider using it as a quotation.

If it is your intention to write an academic assignment then you will need to make
a note of where you found out each piece of information (Author, book title,
publisher, place and date of publication - as required by Harvard referencing
conventions - see link below.) It is useful to have this information on each
section of your notes. Keeping a bibliography of the books you have consulted is
also recommended - especially if you need to go back to them to clarify an issue.

Intensive Reading
We need to have your aims clear in mind when undertaking intensive reading. Remember this is going to
be far more time consuming than scanning or skimming. If we need to list the chronology of events in a
long passage, you will need to read it intensively. This type of reading has indeed beneficial to language
learners as it helps them understand vocabulary by deducing the meaning of words in context. It
moreover, helps with retention of information for long periods of time and knowledge resulting from
intensive reading persists in your long term memory.
This is one reason why reading huge amounts of information just before an exam does not work very
well. When students do this, they undertake neither type of reading process effectively, especially
neglecting intensive reading. They may remember the answers in an exam but will likely forget
everything soon afterwards.
Extensive reading
Extensive reading involves reading for pleasure. Because there is an element of enjoyment in extensive
reading it is unlikely that students will undertake extensive reading of a text they do not like. It also
requires a fluid decoding and assimilation of the text and content in front of you. If the text is difficult and
you stop every few minutes to figure out what is being said or to look up new words in the dictionary, you
are breaking your concentration and diverting your thoughts.
SQ3RsCommunity & Visitors

Reading and Learning The SQ3R Method of Textbook Study

SQ3R is an abbreviation to help you remember the steps and to make references to it simpler. The
symbols stand for the steps followed in using the method: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review. A
description of each of these steps is given below:

These five steps, when applied to textbook assignments, will help you in making your study time more
efficient and effective. While this method will take time and practice to master, once it is learned and
applied, it will no longer be necessary to re-read textbook chapters. The added benefit of using the SQ3R
Method is that often you will find your own questions on a test. Because many instructors use the
textbook as an outline for their courses, test questions will be coming from the same source as yours. As
you review your notes and texts, you will be able to predict and prepare answers for many exam
questions.

1. SURVEY: (before class) Read the following:This survey should take no

more than 10-25 minutes, even on the longest chapter. The purpose of
surveying the chapter is to get a general idea of what it is going to be
about, what kind of information the author gives, how many sub-topics the
information is broken down into, and how much time you will have to
spend reading it.
o Chapter Title
o Introduction
o Objectives
o Vocabulary
o Summary
o Review questions
o Boldface headings
o Graphics and their accompanying captions
2. QUESTION: (before class) Turn each boldfaced heading into a question
by using one of the following words: who, what, where, when, why, or
how.
The reason for creating a question out of each heading is to
set a purpose for reading the material in more detail. When
you are reading to find the answer to a specific question, you
are reading actively.

3. READ: (after class)

Actively read the section of the text accompanying the heading for an
answer to the question you asked yourself in step 2. The answer will
usually be made up of the main idea(s) of the paragraph(s) and the
supporting details. Read the section to find the answer. The purpose of
reading is to find the answer to your question.
4. RECITE: (after class)
Recite the answer to each question to yourself. Put the answer into your
own words, or rephrase the author's words. Be sure that you can recall the
 answer, not just recognize the information as correct. Write the questions
in your notebook along with a few key words or phrases that summarize
the answer. The purpose for doing this is to help you think about and
understand what you have read. When you rewrite or rephrase what you
read, your comprehension and retention will improve.
5. REVIEW: (before next class)
To review, cover the answers and ask yourself the questions. If you can't
answer the question, look at your notes and test yourself again. Once you
are sure you know and understand the question and answer, check it off.
The purpose for reviewing is to help you prepare for the eventual test.
Remember that very few people read textbooks for pleasure; they are read
to acquire information and to remember and apply it in a testing situation.
Reviewing helps you remember the information

Paraphrasing and summarising

In contrast to quoting directly, by summarising or paraphrasing an author's ideas you are able to present
your interpretation of an author's ideas and to integrate them more fully into the structure of your writing.

Paraphrasing is generally used when you wish to refer to sentences or phrases in the source text. It is
particularly useful when you are dealing with facts and definitions. Paraphrasing involves rewriting a
short section from the source text in different words whilst keeping the same meaning.

Summarising is generally used when you wish to refer to ideas contained in a long text. Summarising
enables you to reduce the author's ideas to key points in an outline of the discussion or argument by
omitting unnecessary details and examples.

Whether you summarise or paraphrase, you will still need to include a reference citing the source of the
ideas you have referred to.

A process for paraphrasing and summarising

Many students find the following process useful for summarising and paraphrasing information.

 Read the text carefully - you may need to read the text several times, and check the meaning of
terms you do not understand in a dictionary.
 Identify and underline the key words and main ideas in the text, and write these ideas down.
 Consider these points as a whole and your purpose for using this information in relation to the
structure of your assignment. You may be able to group the ideas under your own headings, and
arrange them in a different sequence to the original text.
 Think about the attitude of the author, i.e. critical, supportive, certain, uncertain. Think about
appropriate reporting verbs you could use to describe this attitude.
 Think of words or phrases which mean roughly the same as those in the original text.
Remember, if the key words are specialised vocabulary for the subject, they do not need to be
changed. (see Using synonyms below.)
 Using your notes from the above steps, draft your summary or paraphrase.
  When you have finished your draft reread the original text and compare it to your paraphrase or
summary. You can then check that you have retained the meaning and attitude of the original text.

Using synonyms

To paraphrase a text, you can use a variety of techniques, such as synonymous words, synonymous word
forms, or synonymous phrases. For example, the student text below has used synonymous word
forms(scanners - scanner, use - using) (in bold), synonymous words (convert - recreates) (in bold italics),
and synonymous phrases (their "eyes" - the scanner eye) (in italics).

Original source

scanners convert analog data into digital information... scanners use small electronic components (called
CCDs, PMTs, or CISs) as their "eyes"...

Student text

A scanner recreates an image such as a graphic using small electronic components referred to as the
scanner's eyes...

Changing word forms

A common approach to changing the word forms in a sentence is to change the main verb into a noun, or
less commonly to change the main noun into a verb. For example, compare the two sentences below:

Original source

Scanners convert analog data into digital information.

Paraphrased sentence

The conversion of an image such as a graphic by a scanner occurs...

Re-ordering main ideas

Another way of paraphrasing is to change the order of the main ideas in a sentence. One way of doing this
is to change the active voice to passive voice or the passive voice to active voice. The active voice focuses
on who or what is affected by a process or event, whilst the passive voice focuses on the event or process.
For example compare the use of ' scanners convert' and ' the conversion of' in the examples above.

PRECIS WRITING

While keeping the above in mind, you need to keep in mind what a precis is not. The following are some
of things that should not be a part of or a reflection of the precis:

 simply a summary of a passage.

 simply an abstract of a passage.
 an outline of a passage.
 a mere selection of a few important sentences from a passage.
 a collection of disconnected facts and statements.

Features of a Good Precis

 A good Precis:
 is marked by clarity, brevity and precision.
 is not just lifting of the sentences from the original. It should be written in the precis writer's own words.
 is a miniature version of the original passage.
 must have a logical order and be well-knit and well connected.
 must have coherence; must use linking devices such as so, therefore, and, because further etc. and must
follow the
 order of ideas of the original.
 must have a title.
 is written in reported speech.
 must not contain any details not found in the original.
 Do's in a précis:
 Start your précis by highlighting the main idea of the passage and you should create contextual
environment where you can place the necessary points. Once the main idea is established in the précis,
you can present the methods, points, facts etc. used by the author of the passage.
 Compress and clarify a lengthy passage, article, or book, while retaining important concepts, key words,
and important data.
 Remove what is superfluous and retain the core essence of the work.
 Always remember that mentions about history/writing about history should be advisably done in the past
tense.
 State the purpose of the research or piece of writing (why was it important to conduct this research or
write on this topic?)
 Don'ts in a précis:
 Do not express your own opinion, wish, remark or criticism.
 Do not insert any question in your précis. Its significance, if essential, may be expressed by a statement.
 Do not use abbreviations or contractions.
 Do not be jerky. This suggests that most probably, you have not understood the sense of the passage
properly.

Precis in the making

When one is writing a précis, one should take care of a few essential points. The first thing is that one
needs to convey the general idea of the argument with absolute clarity. The second thing that you need to
do is to make sure that all the important points of the original passage are included in the precis. Lastly,
make sure that the language of the précis is clear, crisp and concise, and follows the rule for correct
diction.

The following rules are general guidelines you should follow while writing a précis:

 Closely read the passage, and identify the central idea of the passage. It is vital to identify the general idea
of the passage and incorporate it in one’s précis.
 Look-out for the total number of words. If the number is not provided, quickly calculate the number using
approximations.
 In order to understand the passage clearly, make sure that you read the passage closely, and give it a
couple of reads before you start writing the précis.
 Highlight the most important points in the passage, and make notes. Leave out all non-essential
information from the précis.
 Provide an apt heading to your précis.
 Note making is an essential task for writing précis. You should try to arrange the points in most logical
order, and ensure the order of thought is the same as the original.
 The three grammatical rules you need to follow while writing a précis are: write it in third person, indirect
form and appropriate past tense.
 It is advisable to provide designations of officials rather than names and titles. In case the official
designation is not provided, you can use the personal name. kindly be consistent with the pattern you
adopt.
 Make sure you review your rough draft, remove the chinks and ensure that you have made no language
related errors.
 Before writing your précis, make sure you have a glance over the original to make sure you have not
missed anything.
 Finally, a wise policy would be a count the words of your precis and put them down in a bracket at the
end.

Listening Comprehension
Listening comprehension encompasses the multiple processes involved in understanding and making
sense of spoken language. These include recognizing speech sounds, understanding the meaning of
individual words, and/or understanding the syntax of sentences in which they are presented. Listening
comprehension can also involve the prosody with which utterances are spoken (which can, e.g., change
intended meaning from a statement to a question), and making relevant inferences based on context, real-
world knowledge, and speaker-specific attributes (e.g., to what information the speaker has access and
about what he/she is likely to be talking). For longer stretches of language or discourse, listening
comprehension also involves significant memory demands to keep track of causal relationships expressed
within the discourse.

Here are 10 tips to help you develop effective listening skills.

Step 1: Face the speaker and maintain eye contact.

In most Western cultures, eye contact is considered a basic ingredient of effective communication. When
we talk, we look each other in the eye. That doesn't mean that you can't carry on a conversation from
across the room, or from another room, but if the conversation continues for any length of time, you (or
the other person) will get up and move. The desire for better communication pulls you together.

Do your conversational partners the courtesy of turning to face them. Put aside papers, books, the phone
and other distractions. Look at them, even if they don't look at you. Shyness, uncertainty, shame, guilt, or
other emotions, along with cultural taboos, can inhibit eye contact in some people under some
circumstances. Excuse the other guy, but stay focused yourself.

Step 2: Be attentive, but relaxed.

Now that you've made eye contact, relax. You don't have to stare fixedly at the other person. You can
look away now and then and carry on like a normal person. The important thing is to be attentive. The
dictionary says that to "attend" another person means to:

 be present

 give attention

 apply or direct yourself

 pay attention

 remain ready to serve

Mentally screen out distractions, like background activity and noise. In addition, try not to focus on the
speaker's accent or speech mannerisms to the point where they become distractions. Finally, don't be
distracted by your own thoughts, feelings, or biases.

Step 3: Keep an open mind.

Listen without judging the other person or mentally criticizing the things she tells you.

Listen without jumping to conclusions.

Don't be a sentence-grabber

Step 4: Listen to the words and try to picture what the speaker is saying.

Allow your mind to create a mental model of the information being communicated. Whether a literal
picture, or an arrangement of abstract concepts, your brain will do the necessary work if you stay focused,
with senses fully alert. When listening for long stretches, concentrate on, and remember, key words and
phrases.

Step 5: Don't interrupt and don't impose your "solutions."

Children used to be taught that it's rude to interrupt. Interrupting sends a variety of messages. It says:

 "I'm more important than you are."

 "What I have to say is more interesting, accurate or relevant."

 "I don't really care what you think."

 "I don't have time for your opinion."

 "This isn't a conversation, it's a contest, and I'm going to win."

We all think and speak at different rates. If you are a quick thinker and an agile talker, the burden is on
you to relax your pace for the slower, more thoughtful communicator—or for the guy who has trouble
expressing himself.

When listening to someone talk about a problem, refrain from suggesting solutions. Most of us don't want
your advice anyway. If we do, we'll ask for it.

Step 6: Wait for the speaker to pause to ask clarifying questions.

When you don't understand something, of course you should ask the speaker to explain it to you. But
rather than interrupt, wait until the speaker pauses. Then say something like, "Back up a second. I didn't
understand what you just said about…"

Step 7: Ask questions only to ensure understanding.

Our questions may lead people in directions that have nothing to do with where they thought they were
going. Sometimes we work our way back to the original topic, but very often we don't.

When you notice that your question has led the speaker astray, take responsibility for getting the
conversation back on track by saying something like, "It was great to hear about Alice, but tell me more
about your adventure in Vermont."

Step 8: Try to feel what the speaker is feeling.

If you feel sad when the person with whom you are talking expresses sadness, joyful when she expresses
joy, fearful when she describes her fears—Empathy is the heart and soul of good listening.

To experience empathy, you have to put yourself in the other person's place and allow yourself to feel
what it is like to be her at that moment. This is not an easy thing to do. It takes energy and concentration.
But it is a generous and helpful thing to do, and it facilitates communication like nothing else does.

Step 9: Give the speaker regular feedback.

Show that you understand where the speaker is coming from by reflecting the speaker's feelings. "You
must be thrilled!" "What a terrible ordeal for you." "I can see that you are confused." If the speaker's
feelings are hidden or unclear, then occasionally paraphrase the content of the message. Or just nod and
show your understanding through appropriate facial expressions and an occasional well-timed "hmmm"
or "uh huh."

MODULE 3

Different types of Visual Aids:

Presentation Skills

Different types of visual aids

There are many different types of visual aids. The following

advice will help you make the most of those most
commonly used.

PowerPoint (or equivalent)

Microsoft PowerPoint is probably now the most commonly

used form of visual aid. Used well, it can really help you in
your presentation; used badly, however, it can have the
opposite effect. The general principles are:

Do Don't
use a big enough font
(minimum 20pt)
keep the background simple
use animations when
appropriate
make things visual
make it so small you can't
read it
use a fussy background
image
but don't over-do the
animation - it gets
distracting
use endless slides of bulleted
lists that all look the same

Overhead projector slides/transparencies

Overhead projector slides/transparencies are displayed on

the overhead projector (OHP) - a very useful tool found in
most lecture and seminar rooms. The OHP projects and
enlarges your slides onto a screen or wall without requiring
the lights to be dimmed. You can produce your slides in
three ways:

 pre-prepared slides : these can be words or images

either hand written/drawn or produced on a
computer;
 spontaneously produced slides: these can be written
as you speak to illustrate your points or to record
comments from the audience;
 a mixture of each: try adding to pre-prepared slides
when making your presentation to show
movement, highlight change or signal detailed
interrelationships.

Make sure that the text on your slides is large enough to

be read from the back of the room. A useful rule of thumb
is to use 18 point text if you are producing slides with text
on a computer. This should also help reduce the amount of
information on each slide. Avoid giving your audience too
much text or overly complicated diagrams to read as this
limits their ability to listen. Try to avoid lists of abstract
words as these can be misleading or uninformative.
White or black board

White or black boards can be very useful to help explain

the sequence of ideas or routines, particularly in the
sciences. Use them to clarify your title or to record your
key points as you introduce your presentation (this will
give you a fixed list to help you recap as you go along).
Rather than expecting the audience to follow your spoken
description of an experiment or process, write each stage
on the board, including any complex terminology or precise
references to help your audience take accurate notes.
However, once you have written something on the board
you will either have to leave it there or rub it off - both can
be distracting to your audience. Check to make sure your
audience has taken down a reference before rubbing it off -
there is nothing more frustrating than not being given
enough time! Avoid leaving out of date material from an
earlier point of your presentation on the board as this
might confuse your audience. If you do need to write 'live',
check that your audience can read your writing.

Paper handouts

Handouts are incredibly useful. Use a handout if your

information is too detailed to fit on a slide or if you want
your audience to have a full record of your findings.
Consider the merits of passing round your handouts at the
beginning, middle and end of a presentation. Given too
early and they may prove a distraction. Given too late and
your audience may have taken too many unnecessary
notes. Given out in the middle and your audience will
inevitably read rather than listen. One powerful way of
avoiding these pitfalls is to give out incomplete handouts at
key stages during your presentation. You can then
highlight the missing details vocally, encouraging your
audience to fill in the gaps.

Flip chart
 A flip chart is a large pad of paper on a stand. It is a very
useful and flexible way of recording information during your
presentation - you can even use pre-prepared sheets for
key points. Record information as you go along, keeping
one main idea to each sheet. Flip back through the pad to
help you recap your main points. Use the turning of a page
to show progression from point to point. Remember to
make your writing clear and readable and your diagrams as
simple as possible.

Video (DVD or VHS)

Video gives you a chance to show stimulating visual

information. Use video to bring movement, pictures and
sound into your presentation. Always make sure that the
clip is directly relevant to your content. Tell your audience
what to look for. Avoid showing any more film than you
need.

Artefacts or props

Sometimes it can be very useful to use artefacts or props

when making a presentation (think of the safety routine on
an aeroplane when the steward shows you how to use the
safety equipment). If you bring an artefact with you, make
sure that the object can be seen and be prepared to pass it
round a small group or move to different areas of a large
room to help your audience view it in detail. Remember
that this will take time and that when an audience is
immersed in looking at an object, they will find it hard to
listen to your talk. Conceal large props until you need
them; they might distract your audience's attention.

Designing visual aids

There are many different rules for designing visual aids, some of which will apply
directly to different kinds of equipment. In general, sticking to the following
guidelines will produce high quality visual images:
  use one simple idea for each visual;
 make the text and diagrams clear and readable;
 avoid cluttering the image;
 keep your images consistent (use the same font, titles, lay out etc. for each
image);
 make sure your images are of a high quality (check for spelling and other
errors).

Always remember that an audience should be able to understand a visual image in

a matter of seconds.

Room layout

Remember that your audience needs to be able to see you as well as your visual
aids. Try to involve every member of your audience by changing the layout of your
room. Below are some suggested layouts to help maximise contact between you,
your audience and your visual aids.

Types of Nonverbal Communication

1. Define kinesics.
2. Define haptics.
3. Define vocalics.
4. Define proxemics.
5. Define chronemics.
Just as verbal language is broken up into various categories, there are also different types of
nonverbal communication. As we learn about each type of nonverbal signal, keep in mind that
nonverbals often work in concert with each other, combining to repeat, modify, or contradict the
verbal message being sent.

1. Kinesics

The word kinesics comes from the root word kinesis, which means “movement,” and refers to
the study of hand, arm, body, and face movements. Specifically, this section will outline the use
of gestures, head movements and posture, eye contact, and facial expressions as nonverbal
communication.

Appearance
Physical characteristics include body shape, height, weight, attractiveness, and other physical
features of our bodies.
Aside from clothes, jewelry, visible body art, hairstyles, and other political, social, and cultural
symbols send messages to others about who we are. In the United States, body piercings and
tattoos have been shifting from subcultural to mainstream over the past few decades.

Gestures

There are three main types of gestures: adaptors, emblems, and illustrators (Andersen,
1999). Adaptors are touching behaviors and movements that indicate internal states typically
related to arousal or anxiety. Adaptors can be targeted toward the self, objects, or others. In
regular social situations, adaptors result from uneasiness, anxiety, or a general sense that we are
not in control of our surroundings. Some self-adaptors manifest internally, as coughs or throat-
clearing sounds. Use of object adaptors can also signal boredom as people play with the straw in
their drink or peel the label off a bottle of beer. Smartphones have become common object
adaptors, as people can fiddle with their phones to help ease anxiety. Finally, as noted, other
adaptors are more common in social situations than in public Emblems are gestures that have a
specific agreed-on meaning. Even though they have a generally agreed-on meaning, they are not
part of a formal sign system like ASL that is explicitly taught to a group of people. Emblems can
be still or in motion; for example, circling the index finger around at the side of your head says
“He or she is crazy,” or rolling your hands over and over in front of you says “Move on.”

Illustrators are the most common type of gesture and are used to illustrate the verbal message
they accompany. For example, you might use hand gestures to indicate the size or shape of an
object. Unlike emblems, illustrators do not typically have meaning on their own and are used
more subconsciously than emblems. Although we are never explicitly taught how to use
illustrative gestures, we do it automatically.

Head Movements and Posture

I group head movements and posture together because they are often both used to acknowledge
others and communicate interest or attentiveness. In terms of head movements, a head nod is a
universal sign of acknowledgement in cultures where the formal bow is no longer used as a
greeting.

There are four general human postures: standing, sitting, squatting, and lying down Within each
of these postures there are many variations, and when combined with particular gestures or
other nonverbal cues they can express many different meanings. Most of our communication
occurs while we are standing or sitting.

Eye Contact

We also communicate through eye behaviors, primarily eye contact. While eye behaviors are
often studied under the category of kinesics, they have their own branch of nonverbal studies
called oculesics, which comes from the Latin word oculus, meaning “eye.” The face and eyes are
the main point of focus during communication, and along with our ears our eyes take in most of
the communicative information around us.

Facial Expressions
Our faces are the most expressive part of our bodies. Think of how photos are often intended to
capture a particular expression “in a flash” to preserve for later viewing. Even though a photo is
a snapshot in time, we can still interpret much meaning from a human face caught in a moment
of expression, and basic facial expressions are recognizable by humans all over the world. Much
research has supported the universality of a core group of facial expressions: happiness,
sadness, fear, anger, and disgust.

Our faces are the most expressive part of our body and can communicate an array of different
emotions.

2. Haptics

Think of how touch has the power to comfort someone in moment of sorrow when words alone
cannot. This positive power of touch is countered by the potential for touch to be threatening
because of its connection to sex and violence. To learn about the power of touch, we turn
to haptics, which refers to the study of communication by touch. We probably get more explicit
advice and instruction on how to use touch than any other form of nonverbal communication. A
lack of nonverbal communication competence related to touch could have negative
interpersonal consequences; for example, if we don’t follow the advice we’ve been given about
the importance of a firm handshake, a person might make negative judgments about our
confidence or credibility.
At the functional-professional level, touch is related to a goal or part of a routine professional
interaction, which makes it less threatening and more expected. At the functional-professional
and social-polite levels, touch still has interpersonal implications. The touch, although
professional and not intimate, between hair stylist and client, or between nurse and patient, has
the potential to be therapeutic and comforting. In addition, a social-polite touch exchange plays
into initial impression formation, which can have important implications for how an interaction
and a relationship unfold.

3. Vocalics

We learned earlier that paralanguage refers to the vocalized but nonverbal parts of a
message. Vocalics is the study of paralanguage, which includes the vocal qualities that go along
with verbal messages, such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality, and verbal fillers .
Pitch helps convey meaning, regulate conversational flow, and communicate the intensity of a
message.

Paralanguage provides important context for the verbal content of speech. For example, volume
helps communicate intensity. A louder voice is usually thought of as more intense, although a
soft voice combined with a certain tone and facial expression can be just as intense. We typically
adjust our volume based on our setting, the distance between people, and the relationship.

Speaking rate refers to how fast or slow a person speaks and can lead others to form impressions
about our emotional state, credibility, and intelligence. As with volume, variations in speaking
rate can interfere with the ability of others to receive and understand verbal messages. Speaking
a little faster than the normal 120–150 words a minute, however, can be beneficial, as people
tend to find speakers whose rate is above average more credible and intelligent .
Our tone of voice can be controlled somewhat with pitch, volume, and emphasis, but each voice
has a distinct quality known as a vocal signature. Voices vary in terms of resonance, pitch, and
tone, and some voices are more pleasing than others. People typically find pleasing voices that
employ vocal variety and are not monotone, are lower pitched (particularly for males), and do
not exhibit particular regional accents.

4. Proxemics

Proxemics refers to the study of how space and distance influence communication. We only need
look at the ways in which space shows up in common metaphors to see that space,
communication, and relationships are closely related. For example, when we are content with
and attracted to someone, we say we are “close” to him or her. When we lose connection with
someone, we may say he or she is “distant.” In general, space influences how people
communicate and behave. Smaller spaces with a higher density of people often lead to breaches
of our personal space bubbles. Additionally, research has shown that crowding can lead to
criminal or delinquent behavior, known as a “mob mentality” (Andersen, 1999). To better
understand how proxemics functions in nonverbal communication, we will more closely
examine the proxemic distances associated with personal space and the concept of territoriality.

Proxemic Distances

We all have varying definitions of what our “personal space” is, and these definitions are
contextual and depend on the situation and the relationship. Although our bubbles are invisible,
people are socialized into the norms of personal space within their cultural group. Scholars have
identified four zones for US Americans, which are public, social, personal, and intimate distance
(Hall, 1968). The zones are more elliptical than circular, taking up more space in our front,
where our line of sight is, than at our side or back where we can’t monitor what people are
doing.

Figure 4.1 Proxemic Zones of Personal Space

Public Space (12 Feet or More)

Public and social zones refer to the space four or more feet away from our body, and the
communication that typically occurs in these zones is formal and not intimate. Public space
starts about twelve feet from a person and extends out from there. This is the least personal of
the four zones and would typically be used when a person is engaging in a formal speech and is
removed from the audience to allow the audience to see or when a high-profile or powerful
person like a celebrity or executive maintains such a distance as a sign of power or for safety and
security reasons.

Social Space (4–12 Feet)

Communication that occurs in the social zone, which is four to twelve feet away from our body,
is typically in the context of a professional or casual interaction, but not intimate or public. This
distance is preferred in many professional settings because it reduces the suspicion of any
impropriety. The expression “keep someone at an arm’s length” means that someone is kept out
of the personal space and kept in the social/professional space. If two people held up their arms
and stood so just the tips of their fingers were touching, they would be around four feet away
from each other, which is perceived as a safe distance because the possibility for intentional or
unintentional touching doesn’t exist. Don’t feel obligated to interact with them, but when
people come much closer than six feet to us then we often feel obligated to at least acknowledge
their presence.

Personal Space (1.5–4 Feet)

Personal and intimate zones refer to the space that starts at our physical body and extends four
feet. These zones are reserved for friends, close acquaintances, and significant others. Much of
our communication occurs in the personal zone, which is what we typically think of as our
“personal space bubble” and extends from 1.5 feet to 4 feet away from our body. Even though we
are getting closer to the physical body of another person, we may use verbal communication at
this point to signal that our presence in this zone is friendly and not intimate. Even people who
know each other could be uncomfortable spending too much time in this zone unnecessarily

Intimate Space

As we breach the invisible line that is 1.5 feet from our body, we enter the intimate zone, which
is reserved for only the closest friends, family, and romantic/intimate partners. It is impossible
to completely ignore people when they are in this space, even if we are trying to pretend that
we’re ignoring them. A breach of this space can be comforting in some contexts and annoying or
frightening in others. We need regular human contact that isn’t just verbal but also physical. We
have already discussed the importance of touch in nonverbal communication. Being close to
someone and feeling their physical presence can be very comforting when words fail.

5. Chronemics

Chronemics refers to the study of how time affects communication. Time can be classified into
several different categories, including biological, personal, physical, and cultural time. Biological
time refers to the rhythms of living things. Humans follow a circadian rhythm, meaning that we
are on a daily cycle that influences when we eat, sleep, and wake. When our natural rhythms are
disturbed, by all-nighters, jet lag, or other scheduling abnormalities, our physical and mental
health and our communication competence and personal relationships can suffer. Keep
biological time in mind as you communicate with others. Remember that early morning
conversations and speeches may require more preparation to get yourself awake enough to
communicate well and a more patient or energetic delivery to accommodate others who may still
be getting warmed up for their day.
Personal time refers to the ways in which individuals experience time. The way we experience
time varies based on our mood, our interest level, and other factors.

Physical time refers to the fixed cycles of days, years, and seasons. Physical time, especially
seasons, can affect our mood and psychological states. Some people experience seasonal
affective disorder that leads them to experience emotional distress and anxiety during the
changes of seasons, primarily from warm and bright to dark and cold (summer to fall and
winter).

Cultural time refers to how a large group of people view time. Polychronic people do not view
time as a linear progression that needs to be divided into small units and scheduled in advance.
Polychronic people keep more flexible schedules and may engage in several activities at once.
Monochronic people tend to schedule their time more rigidly and do one thing at a time. A
polychronic or monochronic orientation to time influences our social realities and how we
interact with others.
Chronemics also covers the amount of time we spend talking. We’ve already learned that
conversational turns and turn-taking patterns are influenced by social norms and help our
conversations progress. We all know how annoying it can be when a person dominates a
conversation or when we can’t get a person to contribute anything.

Audience & Feedback in Presentation Skills

The Audience

The audience is an important variable in any communication situation; as a rule, however,

analyzing an audience for an oral presentation is easier than analyzing an audience for a written
message. You also usually have some information about your audience’s other interests, as well
as their range in ages, educational backgrounds, and occupations. Based on your analysis of that
information, you should be able to make some predictions about how the audience will receive
you and your message.

The attributes of your audience that will have the greatest influence on your presentation are size,
attitude toward you and your subject, and their previous knowledge about the subject.

Audience Size. The size of the audience is an important influence on any presentation. In
general, the larger the group, the more difficult it is to satisfy everyone. Sometimes, just gaining
the attention of a large group can be a challenge. The three most important qualities of large
audiences that cause problems for presenters are the following:

1. The members of a large group are less cohesive—less willing to stick together—than
members of a smaller group. The behavior of large audiences is less predictable than that
of small groups.
2. The members of a large group are likely to have less in common with one another than
members of a small group. In any large group, some members of the audience will
disagree with you.
3. The members of a large group have a greater variation in attitudes, knowledge about the
subject, and educational level than members of a smaller group. Large groups present
greater challenges for finding the appropriate balance of technical and nontechnical
information.

Audience Attitude. The attitude of the audience toward you and your subject can vary in several
ways. The audience may

 Like you and like your subject.

 Like you but dislike your subject.
 Dislike you but like your subject.
 Dislike both you and your subject.
 Like or dislike you and be neutral about your subject.
 Be neutral about you and like or dislike your subject.
 Be neutral about you and your subject.

Audience Knowledge. What does your audience already know about your subject? What is the
typical educational level of those in the audience? The answers to these questions determine what
you will need to do to adapt your presentation to fit a specific audience. When the audience is
unfamiliar with the subject, or when the subject is complex given their educational background,
you will need to make a special effort to help your audience understand:

1. Use a vocabulary that everyone will understand.

2. Explain technical terms.
3. Make your organizational plan obvious, and make transitions clear.
4. Repeat and emphasize key points.

Obtaining Feedback

You need to obtain feedback from your audience for two distinct reasons. First, you need
feedback to make sure that your audience is hearing and understanding your message. Second,
you need feedback to help you do a better job on your next presentation.

To ensure that everyone is hearing and understanding you, maintain eye contact with your
audience and invite questions.

 Use eye contact. The only way to know how the members of your audience are
responding to you is to look at them. If the entire back row has fallen asleep, they
probably can’t hear you. If members of the audience have turned their attention to their
calendars or to the stack of reading materials they brought with them, you have lost their
attention and will have to do something to regain it.
 Invite questions. Let your audience know in advance whether you prefer to receive
questions at the end of the presentation or as you go along. Some speakers think that in
formal situations, questions should be held until the end—or at least until the end of
logical units. The concern is that questions may interrupt the flow of the presentation. In
general, however, questions are best asked when they occur so that they can be related to
the topic being discussed.

When someone has a question, others probably have the same question, which suggests a
need for clarification. If a question anticipates a point that you will be addressing later in
the presentation, you can ask the person to hold the question until that point by saying
something like, “That’s a good question, and I will be addressing that issue in a few
minutes. I’d appreciate it if you’d ask your question at that time.”

To obtain feedback for the second objective of doing a better job with your next presentation, do
the following:

 Analyze the audience’s questions. Keep track of the questions the members of your
audience ask, and then revise your presentation to ensure that you provide better coverage
of the topics they asked about during your next presentation.
 Invite evaluation. When it's appropriate for you to do so, request an evaluation of your
presentation by your supervisor or a trusted colleague. In sales situations, you can often
ask for and receive feedback from one or more of the people to whom you
presented after they have made the decision about whether to buy from you.

Remember that the feedback does you no good unless you act on what you have learned.
Not every comment you receive will be valid, but if four or five people tell you that you
need to speak more slowly or more quickly, you would do well to change the pace of
your delivery.