ABSTRACT

phonetics and phonology are concerned

with speech sounds and the sound system
MUHAMMAD ABDULLAH

A Manual of English
Phonetics and Phonology
LINGUISTICS:
What is linguistics?
Prescriptivism and descriptivism
From ancient times until the present, language purists have believed that the task of the
grammarian is to/prescribe (rather than describe) correct usage that all educated people
should use in speaking and writing. Prescriptive language scholars have laid down
rules that are often based on Latin and Greek, on a classical canon of literary works, on
the origin of particular words, on logic, or simply on their personal likes and dislikes.
Prescriptivists have been criticised for not taking sufficient account of ongoing language change
and stylistic variation. By contrast, the aim of linguistics is to describe
language objectively and systematically. Descriptive linguists observe and analyse language as it
is used naturally in any given speech community [Sprachgememschaft], and
they attempt to discover the rules and regularities of the underlying language system,
or code.

The four core areas of linguistics:

The system or structure of a language (langue or competence) can be described at four
different levels, which form the core areas of linguistics, sometimes called microlinguis
tics:
( 1 ) Phonetics and phonology:
deal with pronunciation, or, more precisely, with
speech sounds and the sound system.
(2) Morphology:
covers the structure of words.
(3) Syntax:
explains sentence patterns. (Morphology and syntax, often combined into
morphosyntax, have traditionally been referred to as grammar.)
( 4) Lexicology:
and semantics describe the vocabulary, or lexicon, and explore different aspects of meaning.

Phonetics:-
Phonetics first of all divides, or segments, concrete utterances into individual speech
sounds. It is therefore exclusively concerned with parole or performance. Phonetics
can then be divided into three distinct phases: (1) articulatory phonetics, (2) acoustic
phonetics, and (3) auditory phonetics.

(1) ARTICULATORY PHONETICS:

(2) describes in detail how the speech organs, also called
vocal organs or articulators [Sprechwerkzeuge], in the vocal tract [Mundraum] are used
in order to produce, or articulate, speech sounds.
(2) ACOUSTIC PHONETICS :
studies the physical properties of speech sounds, i.e. the way in which the air vibrates as
sounds pass from speaker to listener. A spectrograph is a machine that measures the
soundwaves [Schallwellen] and depicts them as images, called spectrograms or sonograms,
showing the duration, frequency, intensity, and quality of the sounds. ( 3)
AUDITORY PHONETICS:
investigates the perception of speech sounds by the listener, i.e. how the sounds are
transmitted from the ear to the brain, and how they are processed.

Phonology:
Phonology deals with the speakers' knowledge of the sound system of a language. It is
therefore exclusively concerned with langue or competence, (Phonology, then, is not the
study of telephone manners, as one student once jokingly suggested.) Phonology can be
divided into two branches: (1) segmental phonology and (2) suprasegmental phonology.

(1) Segmental phonology:

is based on the segmentation of language into individual
speech sounds provided by phonetics. Unlike phonetics, however, segmental phonology is not
interested in the production, the physical properties, or the perception of
these sounds, but in the function and possible combinations of sounds within the
sound system
. (2) Suprasegmental phonology:
, also called prosody, is concerned with
those features of pronunciation that cannot be segmented because they extend over
more than one segment, or sound. Such features include stress [Betonung], rhythm, and
intonation (also called pitch contour or pitch movement [Tonbdhenbewegung]} .

The three phases of phonetics and the different spheres of phonetics and phonology
are illustrated by the speech chain

SPEECH CHAIN
Speaker’s mind phonology
Speaker’s mouth articulatory phon.
Sound waves in air acoustic phon.
Listner’ ear auditory phon.
Listner’s mind phonology

HISTORY OF PHONETICS
Hidu Rshi:
The ancient Hindu Rishis who composed the VEDAS must have been in the know of
phonetics. THE VEDAS must be chanted and pronounced very accurately. To mispronounce a
VEDIC MANTRA or rich a was regarded as A SIN OF THE FIRST ORDER.

OTHER PHONETICIANS:(Of india)

In the work of Panini_400 B.C_ and Patanjali_2nd century A.D_
We can have some concret and outstanding evidences of the
Ancient Phonetics of India.
OTHER PHONETICIANS OF THE WORLD:
Besides the Indians ,the GREEK, THE ROMANs THE EGYPTIONs and
THE ARABS also took interest in speech around the Seventh century A.D in connection with
THE HOLY QURAN in Arabic leading to developments in LEXICOGRAPHY (Dictionary Making).
The Bhudist missionaries contributed to the study of the phonetics of Chinese and Japanese
from as early as the fifth Century A.D and the Christian missionaries contributed towards the
study of not only Greek Roman and Hebrew but also of a number of languages whose written
forms didn’t exist.
16th and 17th Century:
William salesbury(Dictionary in English and Walshe,1547)
John hart (orthography,1569)
John Wallis (grammatical linguae Anglican,1563)
Special mention must be made of John Hart and John Wallis .Besides making out his case for
Spelling reforms and proposing a revised system ,Hart took a keen interest in the description of
the Organs of the speech and noted the Aspiration of the Vowels.
John Wallis intented his grammar to help foreigner to learn English more easily and also to enable
his countrymen to understand more thoroughly the true nature of their language.

Bishop john wilkins(Real character and philosophical langue1668). He provide

suggestion for a phonetic alphabet.
Cooper (the English teacher or the discovery of the art
Of teaching and learning English tongue 1687) He gives
rules for the pronunciation of English fo Gentlemen Ladies Merchants schools and stangers.
18th century:
The work done in 17th century continued in 18th century but lost its originality.
The 18th century writers were deeply interested in production of dictionaries to stabilize and
standardized the language.
Samuel johnson (1755), Thomas Sheridan(1780) and John Walker(1791)
noteworthy contribution to this age.
19th Century:
Alexander alis (1814-90) in England presented to English children as well as well
to foreighners and alphabets (phenotype)(1847).He also developed other type of alphabets
notably Glossies and Palacotype.
 Alexander Melville Bell (1867) set out to classify all the sounds capable of being
articulated by human speech organs and to allot a systematic and related series of symbals to
the sound.
Henry Sweet in the late 19th century attempted at producing a phonetic alphabet
and the International phonetic Alphabet. Which is still the system in general use cam to be for-
mulated in 1889.
20th Century :
In the 20th century phonetics has developed immensely into various branches and
is mature to a great extent to claim and independent status as a discipline .
The focus of interest in this century has been to find out accurate and precise
ways to modern age.
Spectrographs, Oscillograph,Sound monitoring machine ,Tape recorders and a
number of other electronic devices developed have been greatly helpful in studying sound.
Now a Days:
The aim of phonetics now a days is not to provide a notation, it is to analyse
speech into its basics units which may thereafter be transcribed in some way, hence the
Phonetic description is primary a notation secondary.
Major Contribution
Daniel jones, Lbercrombie Gimson (in Britain)
Noam Chomsky, Trager and Smith (United states)
Jacobson Morris Halle (Roman)

ORGANS OF SPEECH
Speech sounds are produced by a moving the column of air in a resonating chamber – just like a
musical instrument.
Different sounds are produced by varying the speed of the column of air, the size and
shape of the resonating chamber, and by introducing various kinds of vibrations into
the column.
This is why different musical instruments sound different. This is also why different people
sound different when they talk.

THE SOUNDS PRODUCING

SYSTEM

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
lungs : (set air in motion)

Most human sounds are produced by an egressive pulmonic airstream.

i.e. lungs pushing the air outwards
During speech, the lungs take in air rapidly and let it go slowly

WIND_PIPE:(TREACHAE)
 PHONETRY SYSTEM:
Found at the very top of the trachea
Contains the two vocal folds, one on the left one on the right

Voca lfolds
Their outer edges are attached to muscle in the larynx while their inner edges are free.

If the back end of the vocal folds are held apart, a triangular space opens up between them. The space is
called glottis

State of the vocal folds

Adjustments of the glottis is very crucial in speech production 3 positions :

Open glottis
Narrow glottis

Closed glottis

EXPLANATION:
Open glottis,
the folds are apart normal breathing[sssssssssss] voiceless sounds[ffffffffffffffffff]

2) Narrow glottis:
held gently together ,the air from the lungs forces its way through them causing the folds to
vibrate.
Voiced sounds[zzzzzzzz], [vvvvvvvvv]
3) Closed glottis,
vocal folds are firmly pressed together. Airstream is stopped completely (Glottal stop)
The [t] in American English in words like ‘button’

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
Vocal tract:
The air passages above the larynx are known as ‘vocal
tract’. The shape of the vocal tract is very important in the production of speech. Made up of:
_ Oral cavity (mouth and pharynx)
_ Nasal cavity
The parts of the vocal tract that are used to form sounds are called articulators.
Upper and lower surface

pharynx
oral cavity
nasal cavity
.

Nasal cavity
Not possible to perform an articulation since there are no moveable parts. Sounds produced
with lower velum
ARTICULATORS:
parts of the vocal tract that can be used to form sounds.
* lips
Move upper and lower lips [b] and [m] Round both your lips [u]
Lower lip contact upper teeth [f]
* teeth
* Alveolar Ridge : the small protuberance behind the upper lip
* Hard Palate : the front part of roof of the mouth →formed by a bony structure
* Soft Palate (velum) : muscular flap at the back of the roof of the mouth
* Uvula : small appendage hanging down at the lower end of the velum.
* Pharynx : part of the vocal tract between the uvula and the larynx
* Tongue:
~ Tip and Blade → most mobile parts
~ Body of the tongue
▲Front : behind the blade, lies underneath the hard palate
▲Center : partly beneath the hard palate and the soft palate
▲ Back : beneath the soft palate
▲ Root : opposite the back wall of the pharynx
* Epligottis : attached to the lower part of the root of the tongue

VOCAL TRACKT:
AIRSTREAM MECHANISM
The PULMONIC EGRESSIVE
↓↓
??
AIRSTREAM MECHANISM
VOICED & VOICELESS SOUNDS WITH EXAMPLES:
Airstream from the lungs moves out through the trachea and the opening between the vocal
cords (glottis)
~ Voiced: when the airstream forces its way through and caused the vocal cords (which
aren’t apart) to vibrate e.g. /b, d, g, v, ð, dʒ, z, ʒ/
~ Voiceless: when the air is not obstructed at the glottis, -since the vocal cords are apart-
and passes freely into the supragottal cavities e.g. /p, t. k, f, θ, tʃ, s, ʃ, h/

VOICED & VOICELESS SOUNDS (CONT.)

The formula:
Voiced (+ voice)
Voiceless (- voice)NASAL & ORAL SOUNDS
Nasal Sounds:
 produced when the velum is lowered, so the air escapes not only through the mouth but also
the nose e.g. /m, n, η/
Oral Sounds:
produced when the velum is raised , so the air escapes only through the
mouth e.g. /b, d, g,/
The formula:
Nasal (+ nasal)
Oral (- nasal)