Group 1
SEWAGE LAGOON
Lagoons are pond-like bodies of water or basins designed to
receive, hold, and treat wastewater for a predetermined period of
time. If necessary, they are lined with material, such as clay or an
artificial liner, to prevent leaks to the groundwater below. In the
lagoon, wastewater is treated through a combination of physical,
biological, and chemical processes. Much of the treatment occurs
naturally, but some systems use aeration devices to add oxygen to
the wastewater.
Types of lagoons
Anaerobic Lagoons
The word anaerobic means "without oxygen", which describes the
conditions inside this type of lagoon. Anaerobic lagoons are most
often used to treat animal wastes from dairies and pig farms,
commercial or industrial wastes, or as the first treatment step in
systems using two or more lagoons in a series. Typically, anaerobic
lagoons are designed to hold and treat wastewater from 20 to 150
days.* They are relatively deep (usually 8 to 15 feet) and work much
like septic tanks. Inside an anaerobic lagoon, solids in the wastewater
separate and settle into layers. The top layer consists of grease, scum,
and other floating materials. If not preceded with septic tanks, the
layer of sludge that settles at the bottom of an anaerobic lagoon
eventually accumulates and must be removed. The wastewater that
leaves an anaerobic lagoon will require further treatment. Odor can be
a problem with anaerobic lagoons. However, in many cases odor can
be managed through a variety of methods, such as adding sodium
nitrate, recirculating pond effluent, and through regular maintenance.
Naturally Aerobic Lagoons
Dissolved oxygen is present throughout much of the depth of aerobic
lagoons. They tend to be much shallower than other lagoons, so
sunlight and oxygen from air and wind can better penetrate the
wastewater. In general, they are better suited for warm, sunny
climates, where they are less likely to freeze. Wastewater usually
must remain in aerobic lagoons from 3 to 50 days to receive adequate
treatment.* Wastewater treatment takes place naturally in many
aerobic lagoons with the aid of aerobic bacteria and algae. Because
they are so shallow, their bottoms need to be paved or lined with
materials that prevent weeds from growing in them. Sometimes, the
wastewater in aerobic lagoons needs to be mixed to allow sunlight to
reach all of the algae and to keep it from forming a layer that blocks
out the air and sun.
Aerial view of the Veazie Sanitary District's aerated lagoon
system.
Aerated Lagoons
Aerated lagoons are common in small communities. These systems
use aerators to mix the contents of the pond and add oxygen to the
wastewater. They are sometimes referred to as partial-mix or
complete-mix lagoons depending on the extent of aeration. Partial-
mix aerated lagoons are often anaerobic lagoons that have been
adapted and upgraded to receive more wastewater. With the exception
of wind-driven designs, most aerators require energy to operate.
However, energy costs are almost always considerably less than those
for other mechanical treatment systems. Aeration makes treatment
more efficient, which offsets energy costs in some cases. Aerated
lagoons require less land area and shorter detention times.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Lagoon Systems
• Lagoon systems can be cost-effective to design and construct in
areas where land is inexpensive.
• They use less energy than most wastewater treatment methods.
• They are simple to operate and maintain and generally require only
part-time staff.
• They can handle intermittent use and shock loadings better than
many systems, making them a good option for campgrounds, resorts,
and other seasonal properties.
• They are very effective at removing disease-causing organisms
(pathogens) from wastewater.
• The effluent from lagoon systems can be suitable for irrigation
(where appropriate), because of its high-nutrient and low pathogen
content.
• Lagoon systems require more land than other treatment methods.
• They are less efficient in cold climates and may require additional
land or longer detention times in these areas.
• Odor can become a nuisance during algae blooms, spring thaw in
cold climates, or with anaerobic lagoons and lagoons that are
inadequately maintained.
• Unless they are property maintained, lagoons can provide a breeding
area for mosquitoes and other insects.
• They are not very effective at removing heavy metals from
wastewater.
• Effluent from some types of lagoons contains algae and often
requires additional treatment or "polishing" to meet local discharge
standard.
Operation Considerations
The Lagoon Task Force has evaluated operating systems and found
that effluent violations can occur for a number of reasons, including:
BOD, TSS, pH, algae, partial nitrification (leading to nitrification in
the BOD bottle), inflow and infiltration and other problems. It
appears that causes of these violations include partial nitrification,
benthal release, algae, winter cold, detention time, storage capacity,
lack of knowledge of the dynamics of the processes at work, and
recycling of BOD. Operator's experience with these issues indicates
that the following assessments and control strategies have improved
performance in some facilities and may limit effluent violations.
WHAT ARE THEY?
Many of our daily chores such as bathing, doing laundry, flushing
toilets, preparing meals, washing dishes and other activities generate
domestic wastewater. Few people give thought to where wastewater
goes after it disappears down the drain. Domestic wastewater (i.e.
sewage) must be properly treated because it contains nutrients,
bacteria/viruses and household chemicals that may contaminate the
land and waters of our state. In the U.S., we are fortunate to have the
technology and the resources available to properly treat our
wastewater. Lagoons for both residential and small-public facilities
can accomplish proper treatment. A lagoon is a treatment method that
utilizes a septic tank for primary treatment with the clarified effluent
from the tank being discharged into a lagoon where sunlight,
temperature, and wind provide the final treatment. Lagoon size
increases from west to east across the state of Oklahoma. Lagoons are
a much more effective treatment method in central and western
Oklahoma. Lagoon sizes in the southeastern counties of Oklahoma
can be quite large due to the high rainfall and low evaporation rates.
DEQ regulations do not allow lagoons to be constructed on tracts of
land that are less than 2 ½ acres in size. Lagoons are a very effective
treatment method and relatively easy to maintain.
COMPONENTS OF A LAGOON
Lagoon systems are comprised of a septic tank (1) and the lagoon (2).
When lagoon systems are properly designed, operated and
maintained, the wastewater will receive proper treatment.
THE SEPTIC TANK –– PRIMARY TREATMENT
Primary treatment occurs when wastewater flows into the septic tank
where the liquids separate from the solids. The heavier solids settle to
the bottom of the tank while the lighter greases and scum float to the
top. This material is retained in the tank by vertical baffles. The
settling process takes about 24 hours. The natural bacteria in the
septic tank begin to breakdown the organic material found in the
wastewater. Only the treated liquid (effluent) found in the center level
of the tank flows out of the septic tank and into the lagoon. The
sludge and scum remain in the septic tank and must be periodically
removed to insure that they do not clog the outlet and/or spill into the
lagoon. A properly designed and maintained septic tank will allow
only the clarified effluent to discharge from the tank to the lagoon
THE LAGOON
The clarified effluent is discharged under the surface of the water to
the center of the lagoon. This allows even distribution and more
effective treatment. Exposure to sunlight is extremely important to
lagoons because it contributes to the growth of green algae on the
water surface. Because algae are plants, they live by a process called
photosynthesis. This process produces oxygen which many of the
bacteria in the water use to breakdown the waste. Lagoons are
designed to operate with three to five feet of wastewater, any more
than this and the bacteria cannot receive enough sunlight. The amount
of water in the lagoon is reduced through evaporation and wind
action. Lagoons should be built in locations where trees or other
structures will not restrict sunlight exposure or air movement. A dike
is constructed on all sides of the lagoon to prevent inflow of surface
water and discharge of effluent. Properly located lagoons must be
constructed in clay soil or be lined to prevent leakage. Lagoons are
designed to have no discharge (total retention) to the environment,
and if properly designed, operated, and maintained, lagoons normally
have no undesirable odors and provide effective treatment with
minimal threat to the environment.
MAINTENANCE OF LAGOON SYSTEMS
•Long-term efficient operation of your lagoon system is directly
dependent upon how you maintain it. The lagoon serving your home
is not a permanent or lifetime unit. It will malfunction if not properly
maintained. Malfunctioning systems can cause serious risks and
degradation of the environment and are often expensive to repair. A
permanent vegetative cover should be established on the lagoon dike
as soon as possible to prevent erosion of the dike. If the lagoon is not
constructed during the normal growing season, a temporary
vegetative cover should be planted, or other erosion control measures
should be utilized. Vegetative growth should be controlled to assure
necessary sunlight exposure and air movement. Grass should be
mowed on a regular basis during the growing season. It is not
recommended to allow livestock to graze to keep the vegetation
controlled. Livestock can damage the dikes. No trees should be
allowed to grow around the lagoon. A fence shall be constructed to
discourage entry and control access. The fence can be around the
lagoon area only or the entire property so long as it is access
controlled. The fence shall be at least four feet tall and provide
protection equivalent to the protection afforded by a chain link or
equally spaced five wires. Fencing placed around the lagoon should
be place on the outside toe of the lagoon dike to make mowing easier.
WHEN TO PUMP YOUR SEPTIC TANK
Under average conditions, you should have your septic tank pumped
every three to five years. However, a number of factors impact the
frequency of pumping. You may contact a professional to inspect
your tank or you can check it yourself. You can measure the depth
(see pictures on the next page) by using a pipe, rod or pole about six
feet in length. Generally speaking, the tank should be pumped when
the sludge depth reaches 40 percent of the tank depth or about 25
inches on the pole. If the sludge and surface scum combined are one-
third or more of the liquid depth of your tank, have it contents
pumped and properly disposed of by a contractor licensed by the
DEQ.
Constructing the Lagoon
Excavation
Typically, a small bulldozer or front-end loader is used for
constructing a lagoon. The installer will remove vegetation from the
floor of the lagoon area. This vegetation must not be put in the dike
since it will gradually decay, causing soil settling. The lagoon floor
will be constructed so that it is level and will not allow more than 1/8
inch of seepage per day. Soil borings and/or tests described below
will determine whether the natural soil will meet seepage restrictions
when compacted, or if soda ash, bentonite, or a synthetic liner must
be used.
The interior lagoon side slopes should be no steeper than 3:1, and the
exterior dike slopes 4:1. There should be at least 1 foot of freeboard
above the normal maximum wastewater depth. The top of the dike
should be at least 4 feet wide for easier mowing.
Testing Final Seepage Rate
There are three ways to test the final seepage rate of a lagoon to make
sure it does not exceed the 1/8-inch per-day limit. One
expensive, and will leave a hole that would compromise the integrity
of the lagoon. The hole should be plugged with bentonite or soil of
similar material that was removed and then compacted. Another
method is the two-barrel test, conducted prior to filling the lagoon.
The third method, the 5-gallon bucket test, requires that the lagoon be
filled to a depth of 2 feet with fresh water. Do not introduce
wastewater into the lagoon until the seepage rate has been
determined.
Wastewater Line To Lagoon
The installer will use at least a 4-inch diameter sewer line (also
known as influent line or distribution pipe) from the house to the
lagoon. All joints must be watertight, as leaks attract tree roots that
will clog the line, causing a wastewater backup. The pipe should have
a loading capacity of not less than 1,000 lb/sq ft. Schedule 40
thermoplastic sewer pipe with solvent welded joints is durable and
easy to install.
Lagoon Fence
A lagoon can attract pets, children, and unsuspecting adults who may
think it looks like a good place to play and even swim. Nebraska law
requires a fence at least 4-feet high with a locking gate surround a
lagoon. A large, rigid, frame-hinged gate with lock provides easy
access for mowing and maintenance. The fence may be woven wire,
welded wire, or seven strands of barbed wire with the lowest wire 3
inches from the ground and the other strands spaced evenly to a
height of 4 feet. The fence should be at the top of the dike, or 4 feet
outside the base of the dike. Each gate must have a warning sign that
reads “NO TRESPASSING — WASTEWATER LAGOON.”
Group 2
Activated Sludge
Executive Summary
An activated sludge process refers to a multi-chamber reactor unit
that makes use of highly concentrated microorganisms to degrade
organics and remove nutrients from wastewater to produce a high-
quality effluent. To maintain aerobic conditions and to keep the
activated sludge suspended, a continuous and well-timed supply of
oxygen is required.
Activated sludge consists of flocs of bacteria, which are suspended
and mixed with wastewater in an aerated tank. The bacteria use the
organic pollutants to grow and transform it to energy, water, CO2 and
new cell material. Activated sludge systems are suspended-growth
type and are used in conventional high-tech wastewater treatment
plants to treat almost every wastewater influent as long as it is
biodegradable. A physical pre-treatment unit, a post-settling unit (a
clarifier) from which active sludge is re-circulated to the aerated tank,
and excess sludge treatment, are compulsory for appropriate
treatment. The process is highly mechanised and thus mainly adapted
for centralised systems where energy, mechanical spare parts and
skilled labour are available. Provided the reactor is well operated, a
very good removal of organics and suspended solids can be achieved,
though pathogen removal is low.
Advantages
 Resistant to organic and hydraulic shock loads
 Can be operated at a range of organic and hydraulic loading
rates
 High reduction of BOD and pathogens (up to 99%) at after
secondary treatment
 High nutrient removal possible
 High effluent quality
 Little land required compared to extensive natural system
(e.g. waste stabilisation ponds)
 Can be modified to meet specific discharge limits
 is of high quality, it still poses a health risk and should not be directly
Disadvantages
 High energy consumption, a constant source of electricity is
required - High capital and operating costs
 High capital and operating costs
 Requires operation and maintenance by skilled personnel
 Prone to complicated chemical and microbiological problems
 Not suitable for application on community level
 Not all parts and materials may be locally available
 Requires expert design and construction
 Sludge and possibly effluent require further treatment and/or
appropriate discharge
 Operation & Maintenance
Design Considerations
Activated sludge processes are one part of a complex treatment
system. They are usually used following primary treatment (that
removes settleable solids) and are sometimes followed by a final
polishing step (see tertiary filtration and disinfection). The biological
processes that occur are effective at removing soluble, colloidal and
particulate materials. The reactor can be designed for biological
nitrification and denitrification, as well as for biological phosphorus
removal.
The design must be based on an accurate estimation of the wastewater
composition and volume. Treatment efficiency can be severely
compromised if the plant is under- or over-dimensioned. Depending
on the temperature, the solids retention time (SRT) in the reactor
ranges from 3 to 5 days for BOD removal, to 3 to 18 days for
nitrification.
The excess sludge requires treatment to reduce its water and organic
content and to obtain a stabilized product suitable for end-use or final
disposal. It is important to consider this step in the planning phase of
the treatment plant). To achieve specific effluent goals for BOD,
nitrogen and phosphorus, different adaptations and modifications
have been made to the basic activated sludge design. Well known
modifications include sequencing batch reactors (SBR), oxidation
ditches, extended aeration, moving beds and membrane bioreactors.
Appropriateness
An activated sludge process is only appropriate for a Centralized
Treatment facility with a well-trained staff, constant electricity and a
highly developed management system that ensures that the facility is
correctly operated and maintained.
Because of economies of scale and less fluctuating influent
characteristics, this technology is more effective for the treatment of
large volumes of flows .
An activated sludge process is appropriate in almost every climate.
However, treatment capacity is reduced in colder environments.
Health Aspects/Acceptance
Operation and maintenance of activated sludge system is generally
carried out by skilled labourers, which should be sufficiently well
trained regarding any health risks. Because of space requirements and
odours, Centralized Treatment facilities are generally located in the
periphery of densely populated areas. Although the effluent produced
handled but undergo an appropriate disinfection treatment before
discharge (e.g. UV-light, chlorination) . In the excess sludge
pathogens are substantially reduced, but not eliminated. Excess
sludge contains even higher amounts of microorganisms, as well as
phosphorus and heavy metals if they are present in the influent
wastewater. This can be the case because the wastewater treated in
such reactors generally comes from an array of different sources
(domestic, industrial and stormwater), which makes it a hard-to-treat
mixture and therefore also a difficult resource to recycle. Hence, the
sludge generally needs to be thickened and incinerated with the ashes
being stored in a controlled landfill.
Highly trained staff is required for maintenance and trouble-shooting.
The mechanical equipment (mixers, aerators and pumps) must be
constantly maintained. A continuous supply of oxygen and sludge is
essential (WSP 2008). Control of concentrations of sludge and
oxygen levels in the aeration tanks is required and technical
appliances (e.g. pH-meter, temperature, oxygen content etc.) need to
be maintained carefully. As well, the influent and effluent must be
constantly monitored and the control parameters adjusted, if
necessary, to avoid abnormalities that could kill the active biomass
and the development of detrimental organisms which could impair the
process (e.g., filamentous bacteria).
At a Glance
Activated sludge consisting of
suspended flocs of active bacteria is
mixed with the wastewater. The organic
Working Principle pollutants are used for growth by
 bacteria and thereby transformed to
water, CO2 and new cell
material. Nitrogen is removed by
nitrification/denitrification and
phosphorus is either removed
chemically or biologically and
accumulated in the excess sludge.
Excess sludge requires a further
treatment chain.
High-tech centralized system, not
Capacity/Adequacy adapted for small communities. Almost
every wastewater can be treated as long
as it is biodegradable. Usually applied in
densely populated areas for treatment of
domestic wastewater.
80 to almost 100% BOD and TSS
Performance removal. High nitrogen removal. P
accumulated in biomass and sludge.
Low pathogen removal. HRT of some
hours up to several days
Very high construction and maintenance
Costs costs; operation very expensive due to
requirement of permanent professional
operation, high electricity consumption
and costly mechanical parts.
Self-help Compatibility System parts not locally available;
implementation only possible by
experienced consultant firms.
O&M Activated sludge units require
professional operation and maintenance
providers.
Reliability Fails in case of power failure or fall-out
of technical equipment.
Main strength High removal efficiency for large range
of wastewaters.
Highly mechanized system requiring
Main weakness expert design, operation and
maintenance as well as mechanical spare
parts. Large energy requirements (e.g.
for aeration).
Applicability
An activated sludge process is only appropriate for a Centralized
Treatment facility (SASSE 1996; TILLEY et al. 2008) with the
construction of long distance sewage channels, a well-trained staff,
constant electricity , technical equipment (e.g. spare parts, monitoring
appliances), the funding for all of this, and a highly developed
management system that ensures that the facility is correctly operated
and maintained.
Because of economies of scale and less fluctuating influent
characteristics, this technology is more effective for the treatment of
large volumes of flows of municipal wastewater from medium to
large towns (WSP 2008) of 10000 up to 1 million population
equivalent (SANIMAS 2005; TILLEY et al. 2008) .
An activated sludge process is appropriate in almost every climate for
the removal of both settable (physical primary treatment) and
dissolved, colloidal and particulate organic matter and nutrients
(biological removal in the activated sludge) . However, treatment
capacity is reduced in colder environments.
Sludge Treatment
Step One: Air Floatation Thickening (AFT)
In this step, the activated sludge removed from the aeration process is
thickened by attaching the biological solids to minute bubbles of air.
The floating mass of solids is then removed using surface skimmers.
The water removed from the solids is returned to the head of the plant
for treatment. In this step, the solids concentration is increased from
less than 1% to 3.5%.
Step Two: Anaerobic Digestion
The thickened activated sludge from the AFT is combined with the
primary sludge in this step and pumped into the primary digester. In
this tank, the combined sludge is heated to 98 degrees Fahrenheit and
allowed to mix for an average of 35 days. This process is also
biological, but uses anaerobic bacteria for treatment. The pollutants
are digested and converted to cell mass, water, methane gas, and
carbon dioxide gas. The process is heated entirely by the methane gas
produced by the biological activity in the digester.
Step Three: Gravity Belt Thickening
After digestion, sludge is pumped from the digester system to the
gravity belt thickener to be thickened once again. To allow the water
to drain away from the solids in the sludge, polymer is added to the
sludge as it is pumped from the digester. The polymer treated sludge
is then directed to a porous, traveling belt where the water drains
through the belt and into a collection basin.
This water, called filtrate, is very high in ammonia and is pumped to a
holding tank where it is slowly metered back to the head of the plant
for treatment over an extended time period. The thickened sludge is
taken off the porous belt and pumped to storage where it is held for
up to eight months before it is pumped out to tank trucks which take it
to agricultural spreading sites. The thickening process is a batch
process operated approximately eight hours every week.
Step Four: Biosolids Hauling and Injection
The ultimate disposal of the remaining sludge from the treatment
process is an important recycling measure exercised for the mutual
benefit of the city and area farmers. The sludge held in storage after
thickening in step three is hauled by tank truck in the spring and fall
by a contracted biosolids handling company.
The sludge, now termed biosolids, is transported to farm fields where
it is pumped by injection equipment. This equipment injects the
biosolids into the soil where it provides the farmer with valuable soil
amendments including ammonia, nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium. The city’s treatment facility produces an average of 1.7
million gallons of biosolids annually.
Treatment Steps
Step 1: Screening and Pumping
The incoming wastewater passes through screening equipment where
objects such as rags, wood fragments, plastics, and grease are
removed. The material removed is washed and pressed and disposed
of in a landfill. The screened wastewater is then pumped to the next
step: grit removal.
Step 2: Grit Removal
In this step, heavy but fine material such as sand and gravel is
removed from the wastewater. This material is also disposed of in a
landfill.
Step 3: Primary Settling
The material, which will settle, but at a slower rate than step two, is
taken out using large circular tanks called clarifiers. The settled
material, called primary sludge, is pumped off the bottom and the
wastewater exits the tank from the top. Floating debris such as grease
is skimmed off the top and sent with the settled material to digesters.
In this step, chemicals are also added to remove phosphorus.
Step 4: Aeration / Activated Sludge
In this step, the wastewater receives most of its treatment. Through
biological degradation, the pollutants are consumed by
microorganisms and transformed into cell tissue, water, and nitrogen.
The biological activity occurring in this step is very similar to what
occurs at the bottom of lakes and rivers, but in these areas the
degradation takes years to accomplish.
Step 5: Secondary Settling
Large circular tanks called secondary clarifiers allow the treated
wastewater to separate from the biology from the aeration tanks at
this step, yielding an effluent, which is now over 90% treated. The
biology (activated sludge) is continuously pumped from the bottom of
the clarifiers and returned to the aeration tanks in step four.
Step 6: Filtration
The clarified effluent is polished in this step by filtering through 10
micron polyester media. The material captured on the surface of the
disc filters is periodically backwashed and returned to the head of the
plant for treatment.
Step 7: Disinfection
To assure the treated wastewater is virtually free of bacteria,
ultraviolet disinfection is used after the filtration step. The ultraviolet
treatment process kills remaining bacteria to levels within our
discharge permit.
Step 8: Oxygen Uptake
The treated water, now in a very stabilized high quality state, is
aerated if necessary to bring the dissolved oxygen up to permit level.
After this step, the treated water passes through the effluent outfall
where it joins the Oconomowoc River. The water discharged to the
river must meet stringent requirements set by the DNR. Pollutant
removal is maintained at 98% or greater.
Sludge Treatment
The primary sludge pumped from the bottom of the primary clarifiers
in step three, along with the continuous flow of waste activated
sludge from the aeration / activated sludge process in step four, must
be treated to reduce volume and produce a usable end product. The
sludge treatment process involves four steps as described here.
Disinfection of Wastewater...
Disinfection is treatment of the effluent for the destruction of all
pathogens. Another term that is sometimes also used in describing the
destruction of microorganisms is sterilization. Sterilization is the
destruction of all microorganisms
In the past, wastewater treatment practices have principally relied on
the use of chlorine for disinfection. The prevalent use of chlorine has
come about because chlorine is an excellent disinfecting chemical
and, until recently, has been available at a reasonable cost. However,
the rising cost of chlorine coupled with the fact that chlorine even at
low concentrations is toxic to fish and other biota as well as the
possibility that potentially harmful chlorinated hydrocarbons may be
formed has made chlorination less favored as the disinfectant of
choice in wastewater treatment. As a result, the increased use of
ozone (ozonation) or ultraviolet light as a disinfectant in the future is
a distinct possibility in wastewater disinfection. Both ozone and
ultraviolet light, as well as being an effective disinfecting agent, leave
no toxic residual.
The use of both chlorine and ozone as chemical disinfectants and
their disinfecting properties and actions will be considered
individually. However, since chlorine continues to be used
extensively as a disinfectant, we will mainly be concerned with the
principles and practice of chlorination.
Disinfection...
Chlorine is a very effective disinfecting agent and has been the agent
of choice in reducing bacterial numbers in wastewater effluents. As
noted, neither primary nor secondary methods of wastewater
treatment can completely eliminate pathogenic bacteria which are
always potentially present. When wastewaters or treated effluents are
discharged to bodies of water which are, or may be used as a source
of public water supply, or for recreational purposes, treatment or
disinfection for the destruction of pathogenic organisms is required to
minimize the health hazards of pollution to these receiving waters.
Chlorination for disinfection requires that essentially all of the
pathogens in the wastewater plant effluent be destroyed. At the same
time it should be noted that many but not all of the nonpathogenic
microorganisms are also destroyed. As noted, no attempt is made to
sterilize wastewater and this is not only unnecessary but impractical.
In some instances sterilization might be detrimental where other
treatment dependent upon microbial activity may follow chlorination.
Fortunately pathogenic microorganisms are less resistant to chlorine
than most nonpathogens so that disinfection can be effected without
sterilization. Chlorination as commonly practiced in wastewater
treatment is insufficient to inactivate all of the enteric (intestinal)
viruses which may be present in wastewater.
Group 3
SEQUENCING BATCH REACTOR
History
 During the early development of the activated sludge process in
the United Kingdom by two engineers, E. Ardern and W. Lockett
around 1913, plants were operated using fill-and-draw or batch
feed methods, which produced a highly treated effluent.
 Activated sludge process was developed in the early 20th century
at the Davyhulme Sewage Works Laboratory.
 Around 1956, development of oxidation ditch technology.
 By the late 1970’s, the sequencing batch reactor (SBR) was well
established and many small plants were in operation.
 Recent developments in technology made SBR’s a more viable
option for small to medium size facilities.
Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
 The sequencing batch reactor (SBR) is a fill-and draw activated
sludge system used to treat municipal and industrial wastewater.
 In this system, wastewater is added to a single “batch” reactor,
treated to remove undesirable components, and then discharged.
 Although the processes involved in SBR are identical to the
conventional activated sludge process, SBR is compact and time
 oriented system, and all the processes are carried out sequentially  TSS
in the same tank.  Fecal Coliform
 SBR system is the upgraded version of the conventional activated In addition, many states are moving toward requiring nutrient removal.
sludge process, and is capable of removing nutrients from the Therefore, total nitrogen (TN), TKN, NH3 -N, or TP may also be
wastewater. required. It is imperative to establish effluent requirements because
Treatment Stages: (typical SBR process) they will impact the operating sequence of the SBR.
1. Fill - during this stage the, influent wastewater fills the tank,
mixing with biomass that settles during the previous cycle. Once the influent and effluent characteristics of the system are
-There are three variations that are used for the Fill stage determined, the engineer will typically consult SBR manufacturers for
and any or all of them may be used depending on the operating a recommended design. Based on these parameters, and other site
strategy. specific parameters such as temperature, key design parameters are
a.) Static Fill selected for the system. An example of these parameters for a
b.) Mixed Fill wastewater system loading is listed in Table 1.
c.) Aerated Fill
2. React – air is added to the tank to aid biological growth and Table 1:
facilitate subsequent waste reduction and it reacts to form non- KEY DESIGN PARAMETERS
soluble compounds, which settle into the sludge in the next stage. FOR A CONVENTIONAL LOAD
3. Settle – usually the same length in time as the aeration and during Municipal Industrial
Food to Mass (F:M) 0.15-0.4/day 0.15-0.6/day
this stage the sludge formed by the bacteria is allowed to settle to
Treatment Cycle 4.0 hours 4.0-24 hours
the bottom of the tank.
Duration
4. Decant – final clarified effluent is stored for disposal to a wetland, Typically Low
tree growing lot, ocean outfall, or to be further treated for use on Water Level Mixed 2,000-2,500 2,000-4,000
parks etc. Liquor Suspended mg/L mg/L
5. Idle – sludge removal occurs during this stage. Solids
PROCESS Hydraulic Retention 6-14 hours varies
Time
Installation:
The installation consists of at least two identically equipped And once the key design parameters are determined, the
tanks with a common inlet which can be switched between them. While number of cycles per day, number of basins, decant volume, reactor
the other is in settle/decant mode the other is aerating and filling. size, and detention times can be calculated. Additionally, the aeration
equipment, decanter, and associated piping can then be sized.
APPLICABILITY
SBRs are typically used at flowrates of 5 MGD or less. The more Other site specific information is needed to size the aeration
sophisticated operation required at larger SBR plants tends to equipment, such as site elevation above mean sea level, wastewater
discourage the use of these plants for large flowrates. temperature, and total dissolved solids concentration.
As these systems have a relatively small footprint, they are useful for
areas where the available land is limited.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Design Criteria: Advantages:
For any wastewater treatment plant design, the first step is to Equalization, primary clarification (in most cases), biological
determine the anticipated influent characteristics of the wastewater treatment, and secondary clarification can be achieved in a single
and the effluent requirements for the proposed system. reactor vessel.
 Operating flexibility and control.
These influent parameters typically include
 Minimal footprint.
 design flow
 Potential capital cost savings by eliminating clarifiers and
 maximum daily flow BOD5
other equipment.
 pH
 High efficiency of the plant.
 alkalinity
 Applicable even large capacity plant.
 wastewater temperature
 High retention time increases the efficiency of the plant.
 total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN)
 Sludge recycling is required.
 ammonia-nitrogen (NH3 -N)
 Bio-sludge can be used as manure for garden.
 total phosphorus (TP)
 Good control of the system since it is a batch process.
The effluent discharge parameters will be dictated by the state in the
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit.
The parameters typically permitted for municipal systems are Disadvantages:
 flowrate  A higher level of sophistication is required (compared to
conventional systems), especially for larger systems, of
 BOD5
timing units and controls.
  Higher level of maintenance (compared to conventional removed while the liquid will flows out continuously under
systems) associated with more sophisticated controls, partitions.
automated switches, and automated valves.
Chemical treatment
 Potential of discharging floating or settled sludge during the SEDIMENTATION
DRAW or decant phase with some SBR configurations. allows suspended particles to settle out of water or wastewater as it
 Potential plugging of aeration devices during selected flows slowly through the tank, thereby providing some degree of
operating cycles, depending on the aeration system used by purification. A layer of accumulated solids, called sludge, forms at
the manufacturer. the bottom of the tank and is periodically removed
 Potential requirement for equalization after the SBR,
coagulation
depending on the downstream process. Very fine suspended particles can be removed by increasing their
size. Certain chemical compound called COAGULANTS are added
Group4 to the wastewater which on thorough mixing from a gelatinous
precipitate called floc.
BIOLOGICAL WASTEWATERTREATMENT
flocculation
Biological treatment is used worldwide because it’s effective and Particles that aggregate by the use of polymers that binds them
more economical than many mechanical or chemical processes. together. Coagulation and flocculation are well-known techniques
Biological wastewater treatment is often a secondary treatment within wastewater treatment. They are typically used for
process, used to remove any material remaining after primary treatment of wastewater containing colloids (suspended particles)
treatment. and metal ions
These processes are usually divided into:
Aerobic Process filtration
Anaerobic Process is used in addition to regular coagulation and sedimentation for
primary TREATMENT removal of solids from surface water or wastewater.
Physical Treatment
a. Screening Filtration does not remove dissolved solids, but may be used
b. Grit Chamber together with a softening process, which does reduce the
c. Floatation or skimming Tank concentration of dissolved solids.
Chemical Treatment
a. Sedimentation
b. Coagulation
• AEROBIC TREATmENT
Aerobic wastewater treatment is a process where bacteria utilize
c. Flocculation oxygen to degrade organic matter (generally quantified as
d. Filtration biochemical oxygen demand or BOD) and other pollutants involved
COARSE SCREEN HAND CLEAN COARSESCREEN in various production systems.
Used to protect Pumps, Valves, and Pipelines from damage or In an Aerobic process, air is circulated throughout a treatment in
clogging by rags and large objects. order to cause bacteria that break down waste within the wastewater.
Electricity is used throughout the process.
Bar spacing is approximately 6-50mm and inclined at 45-60
degrees. An aerobic bacteria or aerobe is an organism that can survive and
Mechanically cleaned screens grow in an oxygenated environment.
The advantage is that parts which required maintenance are Categories of aerobic bacteria:
above water line.
Disadvantage is that screen may have limited capacity in pROCESS:
handling heavy objects. Pretreatment Process: Some systems reduce the solids that the aerobic
Micro screens bacteria could not easily break down (such as toilet paper) prior to the
The waste water enters The Open and End of the Drum and flows main treatment to reduce the chance of clogging the system.
through the Rotating drum screening cloth.
Fine screens drum screens Main Treatment: Treats household wastewater, and includes both
They have 0.2-1.22mm Clean openings and are designed for flow domestic greywater and blackwater.
rates of about 400-1200 l/m^2 min. head loss ranges from 1.2-
2m. Forced air from an air blower or compressor is mixed with the
The waste water flows into one end of the drum and outward wastewater, where the aerobic bacteria feed on the waste in the water
through the screen with solid collection on the interior surface and reproduce.
Solid wastes that the bacteria are unable to process settle out as
Grit Chambers sludge. Some aerobic treatment systems include a secondary settling
are long narrow tanks that are designed to slow down the flow so that tank to facilitate this settling process.
solids such as sand, coffee grounds, and eggshells will settle out of The sludge is frequently pumped out of the system to reduce
the water. Grit causes excessive wear and tear on pumps and other opportunities for clogging.
plant equipment.
Final Treatment and Disposal:
Floatation or skimming tank The final treatment processes prepare the water for return to the
Skimming tank is a chamber arranged that the floating matter like environment. These processes may include disinfection using
grease, oil etc., rise and remain in the surface of the waste water until chlorination or UV light, discharging the water to a soil absorption
field, filtering through sand filters, drip irrigation, or
evapotranspiration.
SUBTYPES:
Activated Sludge
This is the most commonly used aerobic wastewater treatment option.
As the name suggests, it uses a liquid that closely resembles sludge. It
involves the degradation of organic waste and the removal of
nutrients from the wastewater using highly concentrated
microorganisms.
Aerated Lagoons
In this option, wastewater is treated in a shallow, large earthen basin
with mechanical aeration to supply oxygen. The oxygen promotes the
oxidation of wastewater and encourages the development and growth
of algae and bacteria used for the water treatment
Trickling Filter
In this method, wastewater is spread over a bed containing media
such as plastic substrate, rocks, and gravel. The media’s surface has
microorganisms that remove contaminants from the wastewater.
The water is then filtered through the media bed to eliminate the
microorganisms and other particles in the water. The usable water is
then collected into a groundwater or a collection tank.
PROS
Volatile solid reduction meets or exceeds that of anaerobic digestion.
The stabilized sludge is free of offensive odor and an excellent
fertilizer.
Supernatant BOD concentrations are lower than that of anaerobic
digestion.
Operation is relatively easy
Good process stability
High effluent quality
Smaller reactor sizes
CONS
Sensitivity to toxicity and influent fluctuation
Requires more monitoring
Usually requires downstream aerobic polishing prior to discharge
Uses a large amount of electrical energy
Results in large amounts of bio-solids, or sludge, which require
disposal
Inappropriate release of the nutrient-rich sludge into rivers or ponds
can cause algae overgrowth, or eutrophication, which kills fish and
other aquatic life
Higher capital cost
Inappropriate release of the nutrient-rich sludge into rivers or ponds
can cause algae overgrowth, or eutrophication, which kills fish and
other aquatic life.
AnAEROBiC TREATMENT
Anaerobic treatment is a process where wastewater or material
is broken down by microorganisms without the aid of dissolved
oxygen.
The process is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage
waste or to produce fuels.
An anaerobic organism or anaerobe is any organism that does not
require oxygen for growth.
Three Categories of anearobic bacteria:
During anaerobic digestion, the organic matter in the waste and
wastewaters is transformed to biogas, a mix of methane (CH4) and
carbon dioxide (CO2) and a nutrient rich sludge.
The nutrient-rich sludge can be composted and used as fertilising soil
amendment in agriculture.
Four key stages of anaerobic digestion
Hydrolisis
A chemical reaction where particulates are solubilized and
large polymers converted into simpler monomers;
2. Acidogenesis
A biological reaction where simple monomers are converted into
volatile fatty acids;
3. Acetogenesis
A biological reaction where volatile fatty acids are converted
into acetic acid, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
4. Methanogenesis
A biological reaction where acetates are converted
into methaneand carbon dioxide, while hydrogen is consumed.
PROS:
 Low sludge yield
 Lower electrical requirements
 Higher organic loading
 Energy production
 Good process stability
 Lower nutrient requirements
 Lower operating costs
CONS:
 Methanogenic archea are slow growing microbes
 Can produce odors if influent is high in sulfur and/or
methanogens are not healthy resulting in exhaust containing
volatile organic acids
 pH must be controlled along with monitoring of volatile fatty
acids
 Does not do well with dilute wastes and some materials that
are better treated via aerobic pathways (insoluble fats, oils,
grease)
 Does not remove ammonia-nitrogen
 Temperature must be maintained year round in target zone -
for most mesophilic digesters it is 35 - 40oC.
 Methane producing microbes require some micronutrients
that may be lacking this includes Fe, Co, Ni, Mo.
Group 5
Oxidation Ditch
An oxidation ditch is a modified activated sludge biological treatment
process that utilizes long solids retention times (SRTs) to remove
biodegradable organics. Oxidation ditches are typically complete mix
systems, but they can be modified to approach plug flow conditions.
Preliminary treatment, such as bar screens and grit removal, normally
precedes the oxidation ditch. Primary settling prior to an oxidation
ditch is sometimes practiced, but is not typical in this design. Tertiary
filters may be required after clarification, depending on the effluent
requirements. Disinfection is required and reaeration may be
necessary prior to final discharge. Flow to the oxidation ditch is
aerated and mixed with return sludge from a secondary clarifier. A
typical process flow diagram for an activated sludge plant using an
oxidation ditch is shown in Figure 1.

An oxidation ditch may also be operated to achieve partial
denitrification. One of the most common design modifications for
enhanced nitrogen removal is known as the Modified Ludzack-
Ettinger (MLE) process. In this process, illustrated in Figure 2, an
anoxic tank is added upstream of the ditch along with mixed liquor
recirculation from the aerobic zone to the tank to achieve higher
levels of denitrification.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
 The main advantage of the oxidation ditch is the ability to
achieve removal performance objectives with low
operational requirements and operation and maintenance
costs.
 An added measure of reliability and performance over other
biological processes owing to a constant water level and
continuous discharge which lowers the weir overflow rate
and eliminates the periodic effluent surge common to other
biological processes.
 Long hydraulic retention time and complete mixing
minimize the impact of a shock load or hydraulic surge
 Produces less sludge than other biological treatment process
owing to extended biological activity during the activated
sludge process.
 Energy efficient operations result in reduced energy cost
compared with other biological treatment process.
Disadvantages
 Effluent suspended solids concentrations are relatively high
compared to other modifications of the activated sludge
process.
 Requires a larger land area than other activated sludge
treatment options. This can prove costly, limiting the
feasibility of oxidation ditches in urban, suburban, or other
areas where land acquisition cost are relatively high.
Cost
The basin volume and footprint required for oxidation ditch plants
have traditionally been very large compared with other secondary
treatment processes. Larger footprints result in higher capital costs,
especially in urbanized locations where available land is very
expensive. Vertical reactors, in which process flow travels downward
through the reactor, are generally more expensive than traditional
horizontal reactors. However, because they require less land than
more conventional horizontal reactors, they can significantly reduce
overall capital costs where land costs are high.
Construction
Oxidation ditches are commonly constructed using reinforced
concrete, although gunite, asphalt, butyl rubber, and clay have also
been used. Impervious materials, are usually used to prevent erosion.
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
Oxidation ditches require relatively little maintenance compared to
other secondary treatment processes. No chemicals are required in
most applications, but metal salts can be added to enhance
phosphorus removal.
Group 6
Rotating biological contactors (RBC) are a conventional aerobic
biological wastewater treatment unit. Conventional biological
treatment means activated sludge systems and fixed film systems
such as trickling filters, or RBC (NOLDE 1996). The advantage of all
these systems is that they are compact (i.e. in densely populated urban
settings) and that they efficiently reduce organic matter (JENSSEN
2004). However, they are high-tech and generally require skilled staff
for construction as well as for operation.
RBC can treat domestic black- or greywater and any other low- or
high-strength biodegradable wastewater (e.g. industrial wastewater
from food processors or paper mills). They have been found to be
particularly effective for decentralised applications (on the level of a
small to medium community or industry/institution), where electricity
and skilled staff are available (METCALF & EDDY Inc. 2003).
Treatment Process and Basic Design Principles
A series of circular lightweight rotating discs are mounted on a shaft
through which wastewater flows. The partially submerged discs rotate
through the wastewater slowly. The disks are most commonly made
of high-density plastic sheets (e.g. Polyethylene, polystyrene or
polyvinylchloride) and are usually ridged, corrugated, or lattice-like
to increase the specific surface area (NSFC 2004). The surface of the
disks provides an attachment site for bacteria and as the discs rotate, a
film of biomass grows on their surfaces (NSFC 2004; WSP 2008).
This biofilm is alternately exposed to either the air or the wastewater
as it rotates. The oxygen necessary for the growth of these
microorganisms is obtained by adsorption from the air as the biofilm
on the disk is rotated out of the liquid (CRITES &
TCHOBANOGLOUS 1998; SANIMAS 2005). As the biofilm passes
through the liquid phase, nutrients and organic pollutants are taken
up. All oxygen, nutrients and organic pollutants are necessary for the
growth of the microorganism and the conversion of the organic matter
to CO2. Nitrogen is removed by nitrification and subsequent
denitrification transforming it to gaseous N2, which is released to the
air. The process is optimised by adjusting the speed of rotation and
the depth of submergence (METCALF & EDDY Inc. 2003). In some
designs, air is added to the bottom of the tank to provide additional
oxygen in case of high-strength influents (CRITES &
TCHOBANOGLOUS 1998).
The submerging level varies from 40 to 80 % (CRITES &
TCHOBANOGLOUS 1998) and a usual rotating speed is 1 to 2 rpm
(U.S.EPA 1980). The common disc diameter is between 0.6 and 3 m
(SANIMAS 2005).
The degradation process is similar to the one in a trickling filter with
a high rate of recirculation (CRITES & TCHOBANOGLOUS 1998).
The higher contact time in RBCs due to rotation allows up to 8 to 10
times higher levels of treatment than in trickling filters (WSP 2008).
Also because the rotation allows both optimum wetting and oxygen
supply, RBCs are generally more reliable than other fixed-film
processes. Additionally, the disc design is made in such a way that
large amounts of biofilm can attach, which means that there is a large
amount of biological mass present to degrade the pollutants (WSP
2007). The large amount of biomass and the stability of contact also
results in an improved stability and a reduced susceptibility to
changes in hydraulic or organic loading compared to conventional
activated sludge processes (WSP 2007).
The performance of RBC systems depends on the design, the
temperature, the concentration of the pollutants, the rotating velocity
and the hydraulic retention time. RBCs can achieve biological oxygen
demand (BOD) reductions of 80 to 90 % (SANIMAS 2005; WSP
2007; WSP 2008). The removal of nitrogen (which is mostly present
as ammonia) by nitrification and subsequent denitrification is also
high, because both aerobic nitrifying bacteria and anaerobic
denitrifying bacteria can simultaneously live in the attached biofilm
(HOCHHEIMER 1998), depending on weather they are situated on
the bottom of the film, close to the disc support (and thus in anaerobic
or anoxic conditions) or at the top of the film exposed to the air.
Some other microorganisms which can transform ammonia (NH3) in
one single step to gaseous N2 under anaerobic conditions have also
been discovered in biofilms growing on RBC. These bacteria were
called annamox and resulted in the development of innovative aerobic
ammonia removal and wastewater treatment processes.
Little is known about the removal of phosphorus in RBCs, but it can
be presumed that large parts of the phosphorus present is either
accumulated in the biofilm or in the settled and collected sludge.
RBCs can be arranged in a variety of ways depending on specific
effluent characteristics and the secondary clarifier design (e.g.
specifically for BOD removal or nitrification, NSFC 2004).
Excess biomass sloughs off the discs by the shearing forces exerted as
the discs rotate, combined with the force of gravity (WSP 2008). The
rotation movement helps to keep sloughed solids in suspension so
they can be carried to a clarifier (gravity settler) for secondary
settling. The collected sludge in the clarifier requires further treatment
(WSP 2008) for stabilisation, such as anaerobic digestion,
composting, constructed wetlands, ponds or drying. Very often in
small installations, accumulated sludge is also directed back to the
septic tank for storage and partial digestion (U.S.EPA 1980).
Effluents from RBC do not contain high levels of nutrients and are
therefore not particularly interesting for agriculture, although they
constitute a source of water. However, due to reduced removal of
microorganisms (1 to 2 log units, U.S. EPA 2002), RBC effluents
require a further treatment, such as sand filtration, constructed
wetlands or another form of disinfection (e.g. chemical disinfection or
UV disinfection).
RBCs are usually designed on the basis of hydraulic and organic
loadings derived from pilot plants and other full-scale installation
(WSP 2007). Hydraulic retention times (HRTs) generally lye within
some hours up to two days.
Even though RBCs are resistant to shock loading, long-term high
organic loading may cause anaerobic conditions, resulting in odour
and poor treatment performance (U.S.EPA 1980).
Recirculation is not normally practised in package fixed-film systems
since it adds to the degree of complexity and is energy and
maintenance intensive. However, recirculation may be desirable in
certain applications where minimum wetting rates are required for
optimal performance (U.S.EPA 1980).
Units may be installed at or below ground depending upon site
topography and other adjacent treatment processes. Access to all
moving parts and controls is required, and proper venting of the units
is paramount, especially if natural ventilation is being used to supply
oxygen (U.S.EPA 1980).
RBCs are often covered with a fibreglass housing to protect the disks
from sunlight, wind, rain and low temperatures as performance of
RCS drops considerably at air temperatures below 12°C (U.S.EPA
2002; NSFC 2004).
Costs Considerations
Observed costs for RBCs are highly variable depending on climate
and location. Generally, RBCs involve high capital costs as not all
materials may be locally available and motor and special material for
rotation is required. Another cost factor may be manufacture and
implementation, which requires skilled experts (SANIMAS 2005).
Operation and maintenance costs are also relatively high, because
operation requires a continuous electricity supply and supervision
requires semi-skilled labour (U.S.EPA 1980) and professional
operator (SANIMAS 2005).
Operation and Maintenance
During operation, the system must be supervised by professional
operators (SANIMAS 2005). Maintenance includes lubrication of
moving parts, motors and bearings; replacing seals, motors, servicing
bearings; and cleaning the attached-growth media (spray-washing of
discs and purging of settled sludge) (METCALF & EDDY Inc. 2003;
WSP 2007). The discs may be also checked for debris accumulation,
ponding and excessive or not sufficient biomass accumulation
(U.S.EPA 2002).
Although fixed film units such as RBC and trickling filters are
operation- and maintenance-intensive, they do not require seeding
with bacterial cultures (as do anaerobic processes such as anaerobic
baffled reactors, septic tanks, upflow anaerobic sludge blanket
reactors or anaerobic digesters) and the start-up phase is therefore
considerably shorter. However, it takes 6 to 12 weeks for the biofilm
to establish for a good treatment performance (U.S.EPA 2002).
Health Aspects
For correct operation, RBCs are covered and thus protected from
contact with humans or animals. However, excess sludge as well as
the effluent require post-treatment to remove pathogenic
microorganisms.In any case (i.e. for operation and maintenance)
direct contact with the biomass growing on the discs, the effluent or
the sludge should be avoided.For discharge or reuse, a treatment unit
allowing further pathogen removal should be considered as
mentioned above.
Applicability
RBCs can achieve a high removal of biodegradable organic pollutants
form domestic black- or greywater as well as from high-strength
industrial wastewater (e.g. from dairies, bakeries, food processors,
pulp, paper mills, WSP 2008).
A great variety of applications are known, either as post-treatment for
activated sludge processes in conventional domestic wastewater
treatment plants, or for decentralized application at the level of small
to medium-sized communities, industries or institutions (WSP 2007;
WSP 2008).
They are adapted for urban areas mostly: land requirements are low,
but continuous and consequent energy supply as well as semi-skilled
labour are indispensable.
Some of the material may be locally available, however, the system
can only be planned and implemented by experts (SANIMAS 2005)

Advantages
High contact time and high effluent quality (both BOD and nutrients)
High process stability, resistant to shock hydraulic or organic loading
Short contact periods are required because of the large active surface
Low space requirement
Well drainable excess sludge collected in clarifier
Process is relatively silent compared to dosing pumps for aeration
No risk of channelling
Low sludge production
Disadvantages
Continuous electricity supply required (but uses less energy than
trickling filters or activated sludge processes for comparable
degradation rates)
Contact media not available at local market
High investment as well as operation and maintenance costs
Must be protected against sunlight, wind and rain (especially against
freezing in cold climates)
Odour problems may occur
Requires permanent skilled technical labour for operation and
maintenance

In Out
Blackwater, Brownwater Faecal Sludge, Fertigation Water