Quantum Mechanics

Quantum
Mechanics
By René Yves RASOANAIVO
African Virtual university

Université Virtuelle Africaine
Universidade Virtual Africana
African Virtual University
Notice
This document is published under the conditions of the Creative Commons
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons
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http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/
License (abbreviated “cc-by”), Version 2.5.
Table of Contents
I. Quantum Mechanics_________________________________________ 3
II. Prerequisite Course or Knowledge_ _____________________________ 3
III. Time ____________________________________________________ 3
IV. Materials__________________________________________________ 3
V. Module Rationale_ __________________________________________ 4
VI. Content___________________________________________________ 4
6.1 Overview ____________________________________________ 4
6.2 Outline_ _____________________________________________ 4
6.3 Graphic Organizer _____________________________________ 5
VII. General Objective(s)_________________________________________ 6
VIII. Specific Learning Objectives___________________________________ 6
IX. Pre-assessment_ ___________________________________________ 7
X. Teaching and Learning Activities_______________________________ 14
XI. Glossary of Key Concepts____________________________________ 48
XII. List of Compulsory Readings_ ________________________________ 49
XIII. Useful Links_ _____________________________________________ 51
XIV. Synthesis of the Module_____________________________________ 64
XV. Summative Evaluation_______________________________________ 65
XVI. References_ ______________________________________________ 69
XVII. Main Author of the Module___________________________________ 71
XVII. File Structure _ ____________________________________________ 73

I. Quantum mechanics
par René Yves Rasoanaivo, Ph. D.
II. Prerequisites
In order to comprehend this module on quantum mechanics, the student must
have a thorough understanding of the following concepts :
• Principles of Newtonian mechanics
• The wave and its characteristics
• Diffraction of light waves
• Second order differential equations
• Linear algebra
• The potential energy of a harmonic oscillator
III. Time
The module is comprised of 5 units, distributed in the following number of
teaching hours :
1. Origin of quantum mechanics: 20 H
2. Wave-particle duality : 20 H
3. Schrödinger’s wave equations and applications : 30 H
4. General principles of quantum mechanics : 20 H
5. Hydrogen atom & hydrogenic : 30 H
IV. Materials
For all of the activities:
• Portable computer with internet connection and Microsoft Office
• Multimedia equipment
• Open-source mathematics software
• Open-source simulation software
V. Module Rationale
This module will allow students to gain an elevated appreciation and understan-
ding in the field of science:
• Discovery of new scientific knowledge of modern society.
• Acquisition of a new theory explaining scientific phenomena occurring at
the microscopic level, beyond the classical mechanics already familiar to
learners.
• Acquisition of scientific knowledge to begin basic research and, therefore,
to pursue further studies.
VI. Content
6.1 Overview
Brief Summary
The module describes the experimental findings that lead to a new concept and
a new scientific attitude towards physical phenomena at the microscopic level.
In addition, the module describes the formal terminology based on assumptions
derived from these experimental observations, such as Schrödinger's wave
mechanics and the fundamental principles of quantum mechanics. Examples of
applications (such as the study of a related one-dimensional study of a system of
two quantum states, and the study of the hydrogen atom) can aid in supporting
the results of abstract ideas which bring about the various formal theories of
quantum mechanics.
6.2 Outline
• Origin of quantum mechanics: Planck Postulate, blackbody radiation, pho-

toelectric effect, Compton effect,
• Wave-particle duality: Louis de Broglie’s hypothesis, the “particle” nature
of light,
• Schrödinger wave mechanics : Wave function, wave packets, statistical
interpretation, the Schrödinger equation and applications
• General principles of quantum mechanics: Linear and Hermitian operators
and their properties, physical quantities and observables,
• Hydrogen atom and hydrogenics: Bohr’s approach and the approach of
wave mechanics.
6.3 Graphical Representation :

Graphical Representation :
Planck Postulate:
The photon and quantification of radiation
Experimental observations:
Blackbody radiation, Photoelectric effect,
Compton effect
Louis de Broglie’s hypothesis
Wave nature of light and

particle nature of light
Wave function and wave packet
Schrödinger equation and solutions
Determination of stationary states of a bound system

crossing a potential barrier
Linear and Hermitian operators:

Properties and equation eigenvalues
Physical quantities; Observables:

Measure and average value
Stationary states of the hydrogen atom:

Bohr vs Schrödinger
VII. General Objective(s)
Successful completion of this module will allow the student to:
• Explain the origin of quantum mechanics

• Master the Schrödinger formalism
• Explain the various postulates of quantum mechanics
• Explain the stationary states of the hydrogen atom and hydrogenics
VIII. Specific Objectives of Learning Activities
Learning Activity Specific Objectives
1. Origin of quantum mechanics • Planck’s postulate

• Recall the result of the experiment
on blackbody radiation and the
equation that expresses the Wien’s
displacement law
• Describe the photoelectric
effect
• Einstein’s equation describing
the photoelectric effect
• Describe the Compton effect
• Recall the equation describing
the Compton effect
2. “Wave-particle” duality • Recall de Broglie’s hypothesis

• The particle nature of light
• The wave nature of light
3. Schrödinger wave machanics • Statistical interpretation of the

wave function
• Recall the significance of wave
packets
• Solve the Schrödinger equation
for a quantum system
4. General principles • Properties of linear and

of quantum mechanics Hermitian operators
• Calculate changes in
observables
• Calculate average values of
observables
• Recall the uncertainty principle
of observables
5. The hydrogen atom • Recall the results obtained

using Bohr’s postulate
• Recall the results obtained
using Schrödinger formalism
IX. Pre-assessment
Preliminary evaluation: Waves: characteristics and properties
Overview :
This activity allows the student to assess themselves in relation to the level re-
quired to begin the module and therefore identify the elements of physics and
mathematics he or she must review. The seventeen questions below cover three
main areas: the wave and its characteristics, Newtonian mechanics, and electro-
magnetism. They are designed to assess the learning prerequisites.
In addition, these prerequisites are necessary for the tutor to assess the level of
students and help them prepare for the learning activities developed in this module.
The tutor can save time and students can thus be more motivated
Questions :
In this series of questions, the student must check only one answer that he/she
deems to be the most accurate.
1. A wave is a physical phenomenon resulting from:

a. q movement of a disturbance on an elastic medium
b. q moving a material point on an elastic medium
c. q sliding of a solid on an elastic medium
2. A wave is called transverse if:
a. q the disturbance is parallel to the axis of propagation
b. q the disturbance is perpendicular to the axis of propagation
c. q the displacement of vibration is parallel to the axis of propagation
3. Sound is what type of wave?:
a. q transverse
b. q longitudal
c. q polarized
4. A wave is called periodic if:
a. q disturbance is repeated in equal time intervals
b. q disturbance is repeated in very long time intervals
c. q disturbance is repeated in short time intervals
5. The wavelength is defined as:

a. q the distance traveled by a progressive wave in a second
b. q the distance traveled by a progressive wave in a period
c. q the distance traveled by a progressive wave in a half period
6. The frequency of a wave is expressed as:
a. q second ; b. q Hertz ; c. q meter
7. The electromagnetic wave is due to the spread of:
a. q an electrical disturbance in a material medium
b. q a magnetic disturbance in a material medium
c. q an electromagnetic field
8. The speed of propagation of an electromagnetic wave in vacuum is:
a. q 3 x 10 6 m/s ; b. q 3 x 10 8 m/s ; c. q 3 x 10 8 km/s
9. If the frequency of an electromagnetic wave in vacuum is 600 kHz, its

wavelength is equal to:
a. q 500 m ; b. q 2000 m ; c. q 5 km
10. A standing wave results from:
a. q a superposition of two progressive waves of the same amplitude
b. q a superposition of two progressive waves of the same frequency
c. q a superposition of two progressive waves of different periods
11. If the frequency of the fundamental mode of a standing wave on a vibra-
ting string with fixed ends is equal to 100 Hz, those of other modes of
vibration are:
a. q greater than 2 Hz ; b. q below 2 Hz; c. q equal to 2 Hz
12. For a linear harmonic oscillator whose total mechanical energy is constant,
the elongation reaches its maximum when:
a. q potential energy is equal to zero
b. q kinetic energy is equal to zero
c. q potential energy equals the kinetic energy
13. The vector acceleration of a particle in uniform circular motion is:
a. q tangent to the circular path
b. q carried by the radius of the circular path
c. q is a zero vector
African Virtual University 10
14. The angular momentum of a particle in uniform circular motion is:

a. q directly proportional to the radius of the circular path
b. q inversely proportional to the radius of the circular path
c. q proportional to the square of the radius of the circular path
15. The potential energy of interaction between two static charges is:
a. q proportional to the distance separating the two charges
b. q inversely proportional to the distance separating the two charges
c. q inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating the two
charges
Correct Answers:
1. A wave is a physical phenomenon resulting from the displacement of a dis-

turbance on an elastic medium. Indeed, an elastic medium always tends to
retain its original shape. When this strain moves from one point to another
with a certain speed, one is faced with a wave.
Therefore the correct answer is a.
2. A wave moves along a certain direction or axis of propagation. If the

disruption or distortion of the elastic medium is perpendicular to this axis,
there is a transverse wave. However, if the deformation is parallel to this
axis, we have a longitudinal wave.
Therefore the correct answer is b.
3. Sound is a wave due to compression and decompression of air in a certain

direction. This is an example of a wave due to deformation parallel to the
axis of propagation. Therefore, it is a wave longitudinally.
The exact result is given by the answer b.
4. A disturbance that gives rise to a wave can be repeated several times. If this
repetition is on a periodic basis, that is, equal time intervals, there is a
periodic wave characterised by physical quantities such as time, frequency,
and wavelength.
5. The wavelength is a characteristic quantity of a periodic wave. By defi-

nition it corresponds to a distance traveled by the deformation during the
period of the wave.
6. The frequency of a wave is defined as the number of perturbations per

second. It is expressed in hertz or Hz.
7. We are in the presence of an electromagnetic wave when the variation of

an electromagnetic field, consisting of an electric field and magnetic field
variables, produced for example by an electrical oscillator, moves in space.
Therefore the correct answer is c.
8. According to Einstein’s theory, the speed of propagation of electromagne-

tic wave in vacuum is a universal size whose value is approximately equal
to 3 x 10 8 m / s. It is also the speed of light in vacuum.
The frequency of an electromagnetic wave, denoted by ν, is related to the wave-
length, denoted by λ, using the formula:
3x108 1
Since c = 3 x 10 8 m/s, we have : λ = = x103 = 500 m
6x10 5 2
10. When two waves meet, they can overlap or intervene, that is to say add or
destroy themselves to give birth to a standing wave. This phenomenon can
occur only if they have the same frequency.
11. A standing wave can occur in several ways which are characterized by
their frequencies. The fundamental mode is defined as the mode of vibra-
tion corresponding to the lowest frequency. Other modes of vibration have
greater frequencies.
12. The total mechanical energy of a linear harmonic oscillator is given by the
sum of kinetic and potential energy. Therefore, the decrease of one causes
increase of the other, to keep the sum constant. Moreover, the elongation
reaches its maximum when the oscillator can not continue its motion in the
same direction and is therefore obliged to continue in the opposite direc-
tion. At this moment, it must stop. Therefore, the speed or kinetic energy is
zero at this time.
13. Generally, a particle in circular motion has two acceleration vectors: one is
tangential to its trajectory and is thus called tangential acceleration, given
by the derivative of speed versus time; however, the other is perpendicular
to the path and given by the formula a = V2 / r, where v is velocity and
r the radius of the trajectory. The circular motion is called uniform if the
speed is constant so the tangential acceleration is zero. In this case, the
acceleration vector is reduced to its normal component that is precisely
driven by the ray.
r
14. By definition, the angular momentum L of a particle with circular motion
is given by the formula:

r
From this relation, the vector L is normal to the plane formed by the two vectors
. Particularly in the case of a uniform circular motion, the two
vectors are perpendicular. Therefore,
15. The interaction between two static charges q1 and q2 is described by the
Coulomb force inversely proportional to the square of the distance separa-
ting the two charges
 
The corresponding potential energy is given by the relation: F = − q V , V
being the potential created by one of the charges in space.
A simple calculation shows that the potential energy Ep = qV is inversely pro-
portional to r.
Therefore the correct answer is b
Remarks
If you have more than 75%, your interest in quantum physics is obvious,
and I encourage you to persevere in the field since I’m sure we will do good
work together. You will see that the study of optics is a very exciting field.
If you have between 50% and 75%, your result is very encouraging, and quan-
tum physics is not unknown to you. We have a lot of work to do throughout
this course, and I can assure you that this is a very exciting field that you have
chosen. Good luck.
If you have between 35% and 50%, this is far from a perfect mark. However, it seems
to me that you have the will to succeed in this field. It is this commitment that is nee-
ded. The field you have chosen is very exciting, but it is also a lot of hard work. To
begin, there is some catching up that you need to do, and then we can succeed together.
If you have less than 35%, you will have some serious work to do, since in addition
to this module, you should review your previous general physics course.
X. Teaching andLearning Activities
Learning Activity # 1
Title : Origin of Quantum Mechanics
Teaching hours
30H
Instructions
For this activity, if you have at least ¾ of the points you’ve done a good job,
you can continue.
If you have less than half the points you should review the readings proposed
and repeat the activity.
If you have more than half the points and less than ¾ of the points, you did
a good job, but you must strive for more.
Specific objectives
Following this activity, the student should be able to:

• Explain Planck’s postulate
• Apply Louis de Broglie’s equation
• Explain the Wien displacement
• Explain the photoelectric effect
• Explain the Compton effect
Activity summary
This activity addresses the physical phenomena observed experimentally that hi-
ghlight the limits of classical mechanics and confirms the hypothesis of quantum
mechanics based on Planck’s postulate.
Multimedia resources
Microsoft Excel
Useful links
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/deBroglieWavelength.html
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/PhotoelectricEffect.html
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9canique_quantique
Activity description
This activity is comprised of 11 exercises dealing with quantum effects: the pho-
toelectric effect, the Compton effect, and blackbody radiation. These topics are
expected to arouse the curiosity of the student and challenge the classical theory
in the microscopic world.
Evaluation
The 11 exercises are given under the form of multiple choice questions (MCQ).
The student should check the correct answer(s), and in the correct order (where
applicable).
Exercise 1 will count for 5% of the points, and the others will count for 9.5%.
Exercices
1. The expression of the momentum of a photon is :

a. q p = h λ ; b. q p = h / λ ; c. q p = c/λ
2. The energy of a photon, expressed in eV, the visible light of wavelength λ

= 634 nm is equal to:
a. q E = 1.95 eV ; b. q E = 19.5 eV ; c. q E = 0.195 eV
3. The wavelength, expressed in nm, of a photon of energy equal to 1 keV is

equal to:
a. q λ = 0.124 nm ; b. q λ = 1.24 nm ; c. q λ = 12.407 nm
4. A solid body heated to a very high temperature T emits radiation power

proportional to:
a. q T ; b. q T2 ; c. q T4
5. The spectrum of radiation emitted by a blackbody has a maximum at a

wavelength λm independent of body temperature:
a. q true ; b. q false
6. The spectrum of radiation from a blackbody at a temperature of T = 3500

K reaches a maximum at the wavelength λ m = 400nm. At what value of
the length will be the maximum if the temperature is raised to T = 5000 K
a. q λm = 420nm ; b. q λm = 340nm ; c q λm = 280nm
7. When illuminating a metal work function W = 5 eV with radiation wa-

velength λ = 700 nm, we immediately observe electrons near the metal
surface:
a. q True ; b. q False
8. The threshold frequency of a metal having a work function W = 2.5 eV is

equal to:
a. q ν = 6.04x1014 Hz ; b. q ν = 6.04x1016 Hz ; c. q ν = 6.04x1015 Hz
9. The kinetic energy of an electron taken from a metal having a work func-
tion W = 1.36 eV with a photon of wavelength λ = 520 nm, is equal to:
a. q 1.2 eV ; b q 1.02 eV ; c. q 0.146 eV
10. When an X-ray of wavelength λ = 15.12 pm is incident to a block of

carbon, we observe, in the direction perpendicular to the direction of the
incident X-ray, radiation of wavelength λ ‘equal to:
a. q 15.12 pm ; b. q 14.12 pm ; c. q 17.54 pm
11. A photon energy E = 10 MeV incident on a detector is distributed in

a direction forming an angle of 60 degrees from its initial direction with an
energy E ‘equal to:
a. q 10 MeV ; b. q 9.99 MeV ; c. q 11.4 MeV
Learning activities
- Each student must first read the course «Elements of modern physics» before
doing the exercises.
- The tutor will organize the group for collaborative work.
- Students will collaboratively discuss topics that were initially not understood
under the supervision of the tutor.
- When the tutor decides that the students have achieved an appropriate level
of understanding, they may begin the exercises.
- All groups address the same exercise at the same time under the supervision
of the tutor, who will set the duration.
- Each group will appoint a leader who will put the names of all group mem-
bers on the exercise before sending it by email attachment to the professor
of the course.
Correct answeres
1. The amount of movement by a photon is given by p = E/c, c being the

speed of light in vacuum and E the energy of a photon. According to
Planck’s postulate, E = hν, ν being the photon frequency. Therefore, p =
hν/c The wavelength λ is linked to the frequency by λ = c/ ν, therefore we
have p = h / λ
2. The energy of a photon is given by: E = h ν = h c / λ.

Recall that: c = 2.998 x 108 m/s h = 6.63 x 10-34 J.s ; 1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J
1 nm = 10 - 9 m
Paying close attention to units, we find: E = 1.95 eV
3. The wavelength of a photon of energy E is given by: λ = hc / E
Where:
(6.63x10−34 )x(2.998x108 )
λ= = 12.407x10−10 m = 1.2407nm
3
10 x(1.602x10 −19 )

4. The power of radiation emitted by a solid body at temperature T is given
by the Stefan- Boltzmann law : P = εAσ T4 , ε is the emissivity of the solid,

A the surface area of the solid, and σ the Boltzmann constant.
5. Recall that the spectrum of radiation of a body is given by a curve re-

presenting the power P emitted according to the wavelength. This curve
actually passes through a maximum at a given length. This also shows that
the maximum moves in the direction of decreasing wavelength when the
temperature increases.
6. This phenomenon is known as Wien displacement, and is described by the

equation:

λm T = constant
For two different temperatures, we can write:
λm T = λ’m T’

Therefore, the desired wavelength is :

T 3500
λ 'm = ( )λm = ( )400 = 280 nm
T' 5000
7. Recall Einstein’s equation describing the photoelectric effect :
Eν = W + Ec
Where : Eν is the energy of an incident photon, W is the energy required

to extract an electron from the metal, and Ec is the kinetic energy of an
electron sample. So, to remove an electron from the metal, it is necessary
that the photon has energy Eν ≥ W .
Calculate Eν :
hc (6.63x10−34 )(2.998x108 )
Eν = = = 2.84x10−19 J = 1.77 eV

λ 700x10−9
Therefore the photon has enough energy to generate photoelectrons because its
energy is lower than W = 5 eV
8. Recall that the frequency threshold of a metal is the minimum frequency

that a photon must have to extract an electron from the metal. So it given
by the equation: h νs = W,
W (2.5)x(1.602x10−19 )
Thus : νs = = = 6.04x1014 Hz
h 6.63x10 −34

9. Start with the equation : hν = W + Ec d’où Ec = hν - W
(6.63x10−34 )(2.998x108 )
where : hν = = 3.822x10−19 J = 2.38 eV
520x10−9
Thus : Ec = 2.38 – 1.36 = 1.02 eV ;

10. Recall the equation governing the Compton effect is :
h
λ'= λ + (1− cos(θ))
mec

λ’ is the wavelength of the scattered photon, λ is the incident photon, θ
is the deflection angle of the scattered photon. Thus, if θ = 90 degrees we have
h
λ'= λ +
mec

Furthermore,
h 6.63x10−34
= = 2.427x10−12 m = 2.427 pm
mec (9.109x10−31)(2.998x108 )

Where : λ’ = 15.12 + 2.427 = 17.54 pm

11. Recall that the equation governing the Compton effect is :
h
λ'= λ + (1− cos(θ))
mec

λ’ is the wavelength of the scattered photon, λ is the incident photon, θ
is the deflection angle of the scattered photon.
hc
The lenth of a photon of energy E is given by λ=
E
First, we calculate the wavelength of an incident photon :
(6.63x10−34 ) ' 2.998x108 )

λ= = 12.407x10−10 m = 1.2407nm
3
10 (1.602x10 −19 )

Then :
h 6.63x10−34
= = 2.427x10−12 m = 0.002427 nm
m c (9.109x10−31)(2.998x108 )
e
Finally : λ’ = 1.2407 + 0.002427 ( 1 – cos (60)) = 1.2419 nm , where E’ = 9.99

MeV
The energy of the diffused photon is slightly less than that of the incident pho-
ton.
Self-evaluation
The students should note the mistakes that they have made while consulting the
correct answers to the exercises. They should review parts of the course that were
not well understood in order to prepare for future evaluations.
Tutor’s Guide
The tutor will correct group assignments, and will then place it in a study area
accessible to the students. The corrections should be accompanied by adequate
feedback. The grades obtained by each group are given to the members of that
group, and will count for 20% of the final grade of the module.
Learning Activity #2
Title : «Wave-Particle » Duality
Teaching Hours
30H
Instructions
you can continue.
Specific Objectives
Following this activity, the student should be able to:
• Explain the particle nature of light

• Explain Louis de Broglie’s hypothesis
• Explain the wave nature of a particle
• Explain Heisenberg’s principle
Activity Summary
This activity deals with hypotheses leading to Schrödinger’s wave mechanics,

the photon nature of light, de Broglie’s hypothesis, and finally, wave-particle
duality.
Multemedia Resources
Microsoft Excel
Useful Links
Activity Description
This activity consists of six exercises dealing with the origin of Schrödinger wave
mechanics: the particle nature of light, de Broglie’s hypothesis and, finally, the
«wave-particle” duality. These topics should enable the student to interpret the
future learning activities with greater ease.
Evaluation
The six exercises are given under the format of multiple choice questions (MCQ).
The student must check the correct answer(s), and in the correct order.
Each exercise counts for 16.5% of the total marks.
Exercices
1. The wavelenth associated with an electron of energy E = 100 eV is equal

to :
a. q 1.23nm ; b. q 12.3 nm ; c. q 123 nm
2. The wavelength associated with a 2 g ball with a velocity of 100 m/s is

equal to:
a. q 3.31x10-33 m ; b. q 3.31x10-30 m ; c. q 2.38x10-24 m
3. A mono-energetic electron beam is incident normally on a sheet of alumi-
num foil. On a fluorescent screen placed behind the foil, we observe:
a. q small, scattered bright spots
b. q bright concentric rings
c. q nothing
4. A neutron beam is incident on a crystalline solid where the distance

between Bragg planes is 1.2 A. The energy of the neutron diffracted from
the angle of 30 ° is equal to:
a. q 0.057 eV ; b. q 0.068 eV ; c. q 0.07 eV
5. According to Louis de Broglie’s hypothesis, the quantity of movement of

an electron confined to the interval[ 0, a ] of the x’Ox axis cannot have
discrete values given by:
a. q p = n( h/a ) ; b. q p = n ( a/h ) ; c. q p = n ( h/2a ), n being a
positive integer.
6. If the uncertainty of a proton accelerated in a laboratory is 400 m/s, that of

its position is:
a. q 7.88 nm ; b. q 9.70 nm ; c. q 112 nm
Learning Activities
- Each student must first read the courses «Elements of Modern Physics» and
“Schrödinger’s Wave Mechanics”
bers on the exercise before sending it by email attachment to the tutor of
the course.
Correct Answers
1. According to de Broglie’s hypothesis, the wavelength associated to a parti-

cle with movement “p”:
h
λ= , h being the Planck constant
p
For a particle with kinetic energy E, we have :
In this particular case : m = 9.901 x 10 – 31 kg ; E = 100 eV = 1.602 x 10-17 J
Therefore :
−31)x(1.602x10−17 ) = 5.40x10−24 kg.m / s

p = 2(9.109x10
6.63x10−34
Thus : λ = = 1.23x10−10 m = 12.3nm ;
5.40x10 −24

2. The ball’s movement is represented as : p = (2x10-3 ) (100) = 0.2 kg m/s
h 6.63x10−34
The wavelength of the ball is : λ = = = 3.31x10−33 m
p 0.2

Note that the wavelength is too small to be observed.
3. Experiments conducted by CJ Davisson and LH Germer in 1927 allowed

the U.S. to observe the diffraction of particles by crystals, thus demons-
trating the wave behavior of particles under the assumption of de Broglie.
In this particular case, they observed concentric rings characteristic of the
phenomenon of diffraction.
4. Recall the deviation angle θ and the wavelength λ of the incident wave
satisfy the relation:
n λ
sin(θ) = ,
2d
“n” being the order of diffraction and “d” the distance separating the Bragg
planes.
This equation permits the calculation of the wavelength λ knowing d and θ
For a given value of n. Take n = 1, hence θ = 30° corresponds to the first order
of diffraction, and:
λ = 2 d sin(θ)=2 (1.2) sin(30)=1.2 A

Now we can calculate the amount of movement :

h 6.63x10−34
p= = = 5.53x1024 kg m/s
λ 1.2x10−10

The energy of the neutron can be determined :
p2 (5.53x10−24 )2
E= = = 9.128x10−21J = 0.057 eV
2m 2(1.675x10−27 )

5. If the electron behaves as a wave with wavelength λ = h / p, and ife refer

to the results of wave propagation on a unidimensional elastic medium
with fixed ends, the interval [ 0, a] must have a width equal to an integer
multiple of the half-wavelength
a = n ( λ /2 ) , or λ = 2a / n. Therefore : p = n ( h/ 2a )
6. According to Heisenberg’s principle, the uncertainties Δx and Δp , (the

position and momentum of a particle, respectively), satisfy the inequality:
Δx Δp ≥ h/4π. Therefore:
h 1 6.63x10−34 1
Δx = = = 7.88nm
4π Δp 4π (1.67x10 27 )x(400)

Self Evaluation
The students should note the mistakes that they have made while consulting
the correct answers to the exercises.
They should review parts of the course that were not well understood in order
to prepare for future evaluations.
Tutor’s Guide
Title : Schrödinger Wave Mechanics
Teaching Hours
30H
Instructions
you can continue.
Specific Objectives
Upon completion of this module, the student should be able to:

• Explain the demonstration of the Schrödinger equation
• Explain the statistical interpretation of a wave function
• Explain the steady states of a quantum system
• Solve the Schrödinger equation for a one-dimensional system
Activity Summary
This activity deals with the wave function and its statistical interpretation, the
wave packet, the Schrödinger equation and its solutions. Some applications in
the case of one-dimensional systems are also discussed, especially for systems
connected to show the discrete nature of energy. Some mathematical elements are
necessary, however, so the student should read the book on the problems related
to initial conditions and boundary conditions mentioned below.
Multimedia Resources
Microsoft Excel
Useful Links
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89quation_de_Schr%C3%B6dinger
http://www-fourier.ujf-grenoble.fr/~faure/enseignement/meca_q/
This activity has nine years treating solutions of the Schrödinger equation and
the steady states of one-dimensional systems. These subjects should enable the
student to determine whether to use a formalism different from the classical theory
to describe and understand physical phenomena in the microscopic world.
Evaluation
The nine exercises are under the form of multiple choice questions (MCQ). The
student is required to check the correct answer(s), and in the correct order
Each exercise will count for 11% of the total marks.
Exercices
1. The amount of movement p of a free particle is linked to the wave vector k

of the wave associated to the particle by :
     
a. q  p = k / 2π ; b q.  p = k ; c. q  p = k / λ
2. One of the three formulas below cannot describe a particle :
a. q Φ(x) = Axe −α 2 x 2

b. q Φ(x) = Ax(4 − x)
c. q Φ(x) = A / (1− x)
3. The stationary wave function of a partical confined to the interval [0,a] on
x’Ox is written as:
2 nπ
Φn (x) = sin( x) , n = 1, 2, 3,…
a a
The energy corresponding to this particle is given by :
π 2 2 2 π 2 2 2 π 2 2 2
a. q En = n ; b. q En = n ; c. q En = n
8ma 2 2ma 2 4ma 2
  
4. The energy of a particle in a cube of side ‘a’ is given by :
π 2 2 2
a. q En = n ;
2ma 2

3π 2 2 2
b. q En = n ;
2ma 2

π 2 2 2
c. q En = (n1 + n2 2
2 + n3 )
2ma 2

5. The steady state of a particle confined to the region [-a , +a ] is described

by the function :
1 3π
Φ(x) = cos( x)
a 2a
The probability of a particle being present in the interval [0,a/3] is equal to :
a. q 1/2 ; b. q 1/3 ; c. q 1/4
6. Consider a particle located in a potential well V(x) given by :
V(x) = ∞ for x ≤ 0, V(x) = -Vo for 0< x ≤ a et V (x) = 0 for x > a

a. q The number of energy levels increases as the well width decreases
b. q The number of energy levels decreases with increasing well depth
c. q The number of energy levels increases as the well depth increases
7. We place ourselves in an axis oriented x’Ox A plane wave with a phase

given by
(kx – ωt) propagated in the direction of decreasing x.

a. q True ; b. q False
8. The group velocity Vg of a packet of waves and the phase velocity Vλ satis-
fies the relation:
dVϕ
a. q Vg = Vϕ + ;
dλ
1 dVϕ
b. q Vg = Vϕ − ;
λ dλ
dVϕ
c. q Vg = Vϕ − λ
dλ
9. Consider a potential ‘staircase’ of height V (see figure) . A particle of

energy E > V propagates from -∞ to + ∞.

(1 ) V (2 )
x ‘ O
r
Amplitude A1 of the incident wave from wave vector k1 and amplitude A2 of
r
the wave transmitted from wave vector k 2 satisfy:
A1 2k1
a. q = ;
A 2 k1 + k 2

A 2k1k 2
b. q 1 = ;
A 2 k1 + k 2

A1 k1
c. q =
A k1 + k 2
2
Learning Activities
- Each student must first read the courses «Problems with Initial and Boundary
Conditions» and “Schrödinger’s Wave Mechanics”
bers on the exercise before sending it by email attachment to the professor
of the course.
Correct Answers
1. Recall that :
r 2
The modulus of wave vector k is linked to the wavelength λ by : k=
ë
h
The amount of movement p and the wavelength satisfy : ë=
p
 h   h
After substituting λ , we obtain : p= k=k , where  = ,
 2�  2�
2. Recall : for a function Φ(x) to describe a particle, it must be defined for

every point in space considered. In this case, the function Φ(x) in c. does
not satisfy this criteria, as it is not at the point x = 1.
3. This wave function must satisfy the differential equation :
h2 d2
- Ö (x)=EnÖn (x)
2m dx 2 n
We replace Φn (x) in this equation by its expression :
h2 d2 h2 d2 2 n n2  2 2
- Ö (x) = - sin( x ) = ( ) Φn ( x )
2m dx 2 n 2m dx 2 a a 2ma 2
n2  2 � 2
Which gives : En = ,
 2ma 2
4. A particle in a box must satisfy the three-dimensional equation:
2 2
− ∇ Ψ(x,y,z) = E Ψ(x,y,z)
 2m
In which Ψ(x,y,z) obeys the following boundary conditions :
Ψ(0,y,z) = Ψ(a,y,z) = 0 ; Ψ(x,0,z) = Ψ(x,a,z) = 0 ; Ψ(x,y,0) = Ψ(x,y,a) =

0
since there is no probability of finding the particle outside of the box.
We apply the method of separation of variables Ψ(x,y,z) = X (x) Y(y) Z(z)
The three functions X(x), Y(y) et Z(z) will satisfy, respectively :
d2 2m
2
X(x) + ( 2 E x ) X(x) = 0, X(0)=X(a)=0
dx h
d2 2m
2
Y(y) + ( 2 E y ) Y(y) = 0, Y(0)=Y(a)=0
dx h
d2 2m
2
Z(z) + ( 2 Ez ) Z(z) = 0, Z(0)=Z(a)=0
dx h
With : Ex + Ey + Ez = E
The solutions are :
n� n� n�
Xn (x) = An sin( 1 x), Yn (y) = Bn sin( 2 y) , Zn (z)=Cn s in( 3 z)
1 1
a 2 2
a 3 3
a
With :
2 �2 2 2 �2 2 2 �2 2
Ex = En = n , Ey = En = n , Ez = En = n
 1
2ma 2 1 2
2ma 2 2 3
2ma 2 3
The positive integers n1 , n2 et n3 are not necessarily identical, and the final
result is:
2 �2
En ,n ,n = (n1 +n2 +n3 )
 1 2 3 2ma
2
5. The probability density of the presence of a particle is defined by:
1 3π
P(x) =| Φ(x) |2 = cos2 ( x)
a 2a
a/3 1 a/3 3� 1
And the probability is : ∫ P(x)dx = ∫ cos2 ( x)dx =
0 a 0 2a 3
6. The energy of a particle located inside a well potential has discrete values.
Each energy value corresponds to an energy level (red line in the figure
below). Moreover, the number of energy levels that wells can hold depends
on both the well width and depth.

V(x)
7. The expression of elongation of a plane wave whose phase is given by ( kx

– ωt ) is :
∅(x,t)=Ae i (kx − ω t )
A is the amplitude of the wave. The phase ( kx – ωt ) can also be written as :
φ( x, t ) = ( kx – ωt) = k ( x –(ω/k) t ) = k ( x – vt ), where v = ω/k
Suppose now that at the instant to the wave is at a position xo , and at the
instant t1 > to it is at a position x1 with the same elongation, i-e Ψ ( x1 , t1 )
= Ψ ( xo , to ) .
Therefore : φ(x1 , t1) = φ(xo , to )
And: ( x1 – v t1 ) = ( xo – v to ), where: x1 - xo = v ( t1 – to )
Since : t1 > to , we have x1 > xo , which signifies that the wave is moving
in a direction of increasing x.

8. By definition :
dù
The group velocity is given by : Vg =
dk
ù

The phase velocity is given by : V
Vϕ ==
 k
where : : modulus of the wave vector and
ù = 2ð � : pulsation
 = 2�ν : pulsation
The differential of Vφ :
dù ù dV 1 dù ù 1
dV = - dk = - = V -V
k k2 dk k dk k k g
dVϕ dVϕ
Thus : Vg = Vϕ + k = Vϕ − λ ,
dk dλ
9. In this exercise, we must solve the Schrödinger equation:
⎡  2 d2 ⎤
⎢− + V(x) ⎥ Ψ(x) = EΨ(x)
2m dx 2
 ⎣ ⎦
In region (1) , V(x) = 0, The solution is : Ø1(x)=A1eik1x +B1e-ik1x
In region (2) , V(x) = V, The solution is : Ø 2 (x)=A 2 eik 2 x
A1 is the amplitude of the incident wave ; A2 is that of the transmitted wave.

To find the relation between the amplitudes, we have to impose the continuity
conditions and the conditions about the derivative at x = 0. This gives:
A2 2k1
After eliminating B1, we find the correct answer : = ;
A1 k1+k 2
Self Evaluation
correct answers to the exercises.
They should review parts of the course that were not well understood in order to
prepare for future evaluations.
Tutor’s Guide
Learning Activity # 4
Title : General Principles of Quantum Mechanics
Teaching Hours
30H
Instructions
you can continue.
Specific Objectives
Upon completion of this activity, the student should be able to :

• Explain properties of linear and Hermitian operators
• Identify the operators
• Perform calculations of switching operators
• Explain the theories of quantum mechanics
• Calculate average values of observables
Activity Summary
This course deals with general principles of mechanics by introducing the linear
and Hermitian operators. The student, however, should master the matrix algebra
and the properties of a vector space to, for example, perform the calculations of
average values of observables.
Microsoft Excel
Useful Links
http://www.phys.ens.fr/spip.php?article119
This activity has six exercises covering the properties of linear and Hermitian
operators, and theories of quantum mechanics. Proper illustrations are assessed
in particular to demonstrate a student ‘s understand these principles.
Evaluation
The five exercises are under the form of multiple choice questions (MCQ). The
student must check the correct answer(s), and in the correct order
Chaque compte 20% des points
Exercices
1. Consider the operators A, B and C : [A, [ B, C] + [B, [ C, A] + [C, [ A,

B] = 0
a. q True
b. q False
2. A(x) is a linear operator in the space of functions Ψn (x), n = 1,2,3,..
Therefore:
A(x) ( α1 Ψ1 (x) + α2 Ψ2 (x) ) = α1 A(x) Ψ1 (x) + α2 A(x) Ψ2 (x) ,
α1 and α2 are complex
a. q True
b. q False
3. We consider the canonical variables x and p :
a. q ⎡ x n ,p ⎤ = − i  n x n-1 ; b. q ⎡ x n ,p ⎤ = i  n x n-1
 ⎣ ⎦  ⎣ ⎦
4. H(p) is a Hermitian operator, a function of the observable momentum p. Its

average value is written as:
d
a. q < H >= ∫ Ψ (x)[H(i dx )Ψ(x)] dx
*
 Ω
d
b. q < H >= ∫ Ψ * (x)[H(-i )Ψ(x)] dx
dx
 Ω
d 2
c. q < H >= H(-i ∫ ) Ψ(x) dx
dx
 Ω
5. The average kinetic energy T (p) of a particle described by the wave func-
tion
2 n�
Ψ (x) = sin( x), x ∈ ⎡⎣0,a ⎤⎦ , n=1, 2, 3....
a a
n2 h2 � 2
a. q < T > =
4ma 2
n2 h2 � 2
b. q < T > =
2ma 2
n2 h2 � 2
c. q < T > =
2ma3
Learning Activities
- Each student must first read the courses «Quantum Mechanics» and “Linear
Operators”
the course..
Correct Answers
1. We develop the switches and then take the sum:

[A, [ B, C]] = A[ B, C] - [ B, C]A = ABC – ACB – BCA + CBA
[B, [ C, A]] = B[ C, A] - [ C, A]B = BCA – BAC – CAB + ACB
[C, [ A, B]] = C[ A, B] - [ A, B]C = CAB – CBA – ABC + BAC
2. This equation is nothing but the very definition of a linear operator. This
type of operator plays a particularly important role in quantum mechanics.
3. According to the principle of quantum mechanics, the canonically conju-

gate variables x and p satisfy the commutation relation [ x, p ] = iћ
To find the correct answer, we can either proceed by induction, or by pla-

cing [ xn , p ] on an arbitrary function F(x). The two methods give the same
result..
If we replace n by 1 in each equation, we find that :
choice b. gives [ x, p ] = iћ
choice a. gives [ x, p ] = - iћ

4. According to the principle of quantum mechanics, the action of the obser-

vable momentum p on a function F (x) is given by the following equation:
d
pF(x) = −i F(x) .
 dx
p2
5. The kinetic energy of a particle of mass m is generally written as T =
2m
If we use the result of the third exercise :
2 a nπ ⎡ 1 d nπ ⎤
< T > = ∫ sin( x) ⎢ (−i )2 sin( x) ⎥ dx
a 0 a ⎣ 2m dx a ⎦

2 a nπ ⎡⎢ d2
⎛ ⎞
2 nπ ⎤⎥
or : < T > = ⎜ − sin( x) sin( x) dx
a ⎜⎝ 2m ⎟⎠ ∫0
⎟
a ⎢ dx 2 a ⎥
 ⎣ ⎦
n2 h2 � 2
After some algebraic calculations, we obtain : < T > =
2ma 2
Self-evaluation
Tutor’s Guide
Title : Hydrogen Atom & Hydrogenics
Teaching Hours
30H
Instructions
you can continue.
Specific Objectives
After completing this activity, the student should be able to :

• Explain Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom
• Explain the limits of Bohr’s model
• Explain the results obtained with Schrödinger ‘s formalism
• Explain the stationary states of the hydrogen atom and hydrogenics
Activity Summary
This activity first deals with the description of the hydrogen atom obtained by the
Bohr model and the results achieved with Schrödinger’s formalism. The students,
however, should familiarize themselves with the advanced mathematical tools
such as the theory of orthogonal functions and solving differential equations with
non-constant coefficients.
Microsoft Excel
Useful Links
MITOPENCOURSEWARE. : http://ocw.mit.edu/
Les-Mathematiques.net : http://www.les-mathematique;net
Openlearninginitiative : http://www.cmu.edu/oli/courses/
This activity has six exercises covering the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom,
the properties of solutions of the Schrödinger equation for a central force, the
spectroscopic notation of quantum states of a hydrogen atom, and the radial part
of the wave function of the hydrogen atom.
Evaluation
The six exercises are given under the form of multiple choice questions (MCQ).
The student should check the correct answer(s), and in the correct order.
Exercises 1, 2 and 3 will count for 25%, 50%, and 25% of the marks res-
pectively.
Exercices
1. According to the theory of Bohr, the energy values of the electron in a

hydrogen atom is given by:
13.58
a. En =- eV ;
n
13.58
b. En =- eV ;
n2
13.58
c En = eV
n2
n being a positive integer : n = 1,2,3,…..∞
2. The energy of photon emitted by one atom Bohr making a transition state
with quantum number n = 5 to the state of quantum number n = 4 is equal
to:
a. q 0.55 eV b. q 0.68 eV c. q 0.30 eV
3. A Bohr atom initially in its ground state makes a transition to its first exci-
ted state after absorbing a photon. What is the wavelength of the photon
absorbed?
a. q 55 nm

b. q 122 nm

c. q 181nm
4. The largest wavelength of the Balmer series is equal to:
a. q 365 nm

b. q 434 nm

c. q 175nm
5. The frequency of radiation that can ionize the hydrogen atom in its ground
state is:
a. q 3.28x1015 Hz b. q 3.30x1010 Hz c.q 4.50x1013 Hz
6. The theory of core strength indicates that the different stationary states of
an atom are defined by three quantum numbers (n, l, m), where n is the
principal number, angular momentum, and m the magnetic quantum num-
ber. Which of the transitions listed below are possible
a. q (3,2,1) → (2,1,1) ; b. q (3,2,1) → (3,0,0) ; c. q (4,3,0) → (3,2,0)
7. According to wave mechanics, the radial wave function R (r) describing

the electron in the hydrogen atom in the ground state is written:
2r ε h2
R(r)= 3/2 e-4/a , a= o 2
a πme
The value of position ro that corresponds to the largest probability is :
a. qro = a/3 ; b. q ro = a/2 ; c. . q ro = a
Learning Activities
- Each student must first read the course on numerical methods before doing
the exercises.
the course.
Correct Answers
1. The energy of the electron in the hydrogen atom is the binding energy of
the electron so it must be negative. The result of Bohr’s theory gives an
energy inversely proportional to the square of the integer n, called the prin-
cipal quantum number of the steady state of the electron. :
13.58
En =- eV
n2
Generally, the unit used in the atomic domain is the electron, expressed in
volts or eV
2. Recall that: the photon energy emitted during the transition from one
steady state to another is given by:
E =E -E
ν n n'
En and En’ are respectively the energies of the implied states.
En
hv
t En’
Therefore the energy needed must be positive and is given by :
⎛ 1 1⎞
E ν = E 5 − E 4 = 13.58 ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ = 0.30 eV
⎝4 5 ⎠


3. The wavelength of the emitted photon is given by:
hc ⎛ 1⎞
= 13.58 ⎜ 1- 2 ⎟ = 10.18 eV d’où
λ ⎝ 2 ⎠

(4.136x10 −15 eV .s )(3x108 ms −1 )
λ=
10.18 eV
This gives : λ = 1.22 x 10-7 m = 122 nm,
4. The Balmer series is the spectrum emitted by the atom making a transition
from energy level n> 2 to Level 2. The wavelength range of this series is
given by :
1 ⎛ 1 1⎞
= 1.096x107 ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ , expressed in m-1
λ ⎝2 n ⎠
B
So, the largest wavelength of the Balmer series corresponds to the transition
from level n = 3 to level n = 2:
This gives λ = 434 nm
5. The ionization energy of the hydrogen atom is the energy needed to

remove the electron from the atom. If the atom is in its ground state, this
energy is E = 13.58 eV. Therefore, the frequency of radiation is related:
13.58 eV
ν= = 3.28x1015 Hz
4.136x10 eV .s
-15

6. The transition is governed by the selection rule : Δl = 1, – 1, Δm = 0, 1, -1
We must identify the transition thatdoes not satisfy this rule, and choice b.
corresponds to the forbidden transition for Δl = 2
7. By definition, the probability density of finding an electron is defined by:
2 4
P (r ) = R (r ) = 3 e −2 r / a r 2
a
d
This probability density passes a maximum if P(r) = 0
dr
d 4 r
Or , P(r)= 3 e-2r/a 2r(1- ) therefore we have 2 possible solutions : r =
dr a a
0 and r = a
The first solution corresponds to a minimum by the second cons is the maximum.
Note that a is other than the Bohr radius.
Self-evaluation
Tutor’s Guide
XI. Key Concepts
1. Blackbody:
It is an expression to present a body capable of absorbing all radiation.
2. Diffraction:
It is a physical phenomenon that can be observed when a light wave of a
certain wavelength passes through a hole, a slit or an obstacle. The same
phenomenon can be observed when a beam of electrons pass through a
metal foil, demonstrating the wave nature of particles
3. Radiation:
It is a term used to describe a wave that spreads or a moving particle beam
4. Spectrum
It is a term that refers to the distribution of radiation according to wave-
length or frequency
5. Wave:
It is present when a wave disturbance or vibration travels through an
elastic medium. However, the electromagnetic wave, due to the temporal
variation of an electric field and a magnetic field can propagate in vacuum
6. Wave:
It is a wave that moves in a certain direction with a certain speed
7. Standing wave:
This is the result of the superposition of two waves of same frequency. The
resulting wave does not move but remains stationary.
8. Quantum
It is the smallest amount of energy that a physical system can absorb or
emit.
9. Quantification:
It is the process of discretization of the value of a physical quantity. In par-
ticular, applying the formalism of quantum mechanics has quantified the
energy of an atom, in agreement with experimental observations.
10. Energy Level:
It is a term that describes a quantum state with a definite energy.
11. Wave function:
It is a mathematical quantity that represents the elongation of a wave. In
the Schrödinger theory, the wave function has more statistical significance:
the square modulus of a wave function is the probability density of finding
the particle which is associated with the wave function.
12. Wave packet
A group of waves or a superposition of waves of the same nature.
13. Operator:
It is a mathematical object which acts on a vector or an element of a vector
space to give another.
XII. List of Compulsory Readings
Readings # 1
Reference : RASOANAIVO, R-Y. (2007). Eléments de Physique Moderne,

Ecole Normale Supérieure, Université d’Antananarivo, Madagascar
Summary :This material deals with the experimental findings that led to new
concepts in physics. In particular, moving from Wien, the photoelectric effect,
Compton effect, and electron diffraction are described in detail. Planck’s postulate
on the quantification of radiation and the idea that Einstein helped to understand
the photoelectric effect are particularly discussed.
Justification :Reading this material should enable learners to discover the limits
of classical mechanics and understand the new concept introduced by quantum
mechanics namely the quantification of the radiation energy, E = hν, and the
behavior of wave particles such as electrons.
Readings # 2
Reference : RASOANAIVO, R-Y. (2007). Introduction à la Mécanique ondu-

latoire, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Université d’Antananarivo, Madagascar
Summary : This material describes the basics of quantum mechanics, in particu-
lar the concept of de Broglie wave duality and the «wave-particle» theory. The
comparison of the diffraction of light with electrons that shows the similarity
between the behavior of a wave and that of a particle is discussed. In addition,
the Heisenberg principle introduced to mark the difference between classical
mechanics and quantum mechanics.
Justification : Reading this material is essential since this is an important step
which takes us from classical mechanics to quantum mechanics.
Readings # 3
Reference : RASOANAIVO, R-Y. (2007). Mécanique ondulatoire de Schrödin-

ger, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Université d’Antananarivo, Madagascar
Summary : This course covers the wave mechanics of Schrödinger. Some exam-
ples of solution of the Schrödinger equation are presented for simple quantum sys-
tems. The emphasis is on the properties of a wave function and its significance.
Justification : This is the most important part of this module. Students learn to
handle a new formalism.
Readings # 4
Reference : RASOANAIVO, R-Y. (2007) , Problèmes aux conditions initiales

et aux conditions aux limites, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Université d’Antana-
narivo, Madagascar
Summary : This is a course in mathematics applied to physics that deals speci-
fically with the study of a linear system. Indeed, the temporal evolution of most
physical systems obeys a linear «motion equation». Generally, the problem is to
determine the state of a system at each time t, knowing the condition at the initial
instant t = 0. In addition, this course also addresses the problems with boundary
conditions. It gives examples of resolutions of second order linear differential
equations whose solutions are known at both ends of the space integration.
Justification : This course is essential because the problem of Schrödinger deals
with initial conditions, and the study of simple systems, such as determining the
stationary states of a particle in a box is a problem with limit conditions.
Readings # 5
Reference : RASOANAIVO, R-Y. (2007) , Principes Généraux de la Mécanique

Quantique , Ecole Normale Supérieure, Université d’Antananarivo, Madagascar
Summary : This material is divided into three parts:
• The first part of the material is devoted to the Bohr model of the hydrogen
atom.
• The second part deals with the theories of quantum mechanics in a formal
way, because it introduces the concept of linear operators and Hermitian
observables (to represent physical quantities). In addition, the material
covers, at the same time, some concepts of linear algebra
• The third part deals with the description of a particle exposed to a central
force. This leads to the problem of hydrogen.
Justification : This material is essential because it addresses both the fourth and
previous learning activities of the module.
XIII. Useful links
Link # 1 :
Title : Physics Portal

URL : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_portal
Screen Capture
Description:
This portal provides access to pages dedicated to different areas of physics
such as electromagnetics, mechanics, optics, etc ....
Justification:
This site allows learners to expand their knowledge in general physics.
Link #2
Title : Schrödinger Equation

URL : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation
Screen Capture
Description:
This free site briefly describes the wave mechanics of Schrödinger. The expla-
nation of the Schrödinger equation and solutions are developed in a simple and
understandable manner.
Justification:
The content of this site complements the courses developed in the required
readings mentioned in section 12 of this document.
Link #3
Title : Electromagnetism
URL : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetism
Screen Capture
Description:
This is a free site that students can visit at any time.
Justification:
This site dedicated to the electromagnetism can help students to develop their
learning about electromagnetism, and especially on electromagnetic waves.
Link #4
Title : Classical (Newtonian) Mechanics

URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanics
Screen Capture
Description:
Justification:
This site is dedicated to the mechanics of Newton, whose content provides an
overview on this field of physics. This is particularly necessary for students
who are willing to expand their engineering knowledge.
Link #5
Title :Cours de Mécanique Quantique

URL : http://www-fourier.ujf-grenoble.fr/~faure/enseignement/meca_q/
Screen Capture
Description:
This site from the Université Joseph Fourier of Grenoble can be visited for free
by students.
Justification:
The site is very interesting because it contains downloadable lecture notes and
even educational animations.
Link #6
Title :Quantum Mechanics
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics
Screen Capture
Description:
Justification:
The site gives a general description of quantum mechanics, and a little history
needed for students.
Link #7
Title : Application de la mécanique quantique

URL : http://www.phys.ens.fr/spip.php?article119
Screen Capture:
Description:
It is the site of the Department of Physics of the Ecole Normale Superieure in
Paris.
Justification:
The site presents a comprehensive range of courses that students can download
for free.
Link #8
Title : Introduction á la physique quantique

URL : http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/comprendre/dossiers/doc/t/physique/
d/introduction-a-la-physique-quantique_188/c3/221/p1/
Screen Capture
Description:
This is a site which provides students with a variety of scientific topics
Justification:
Reading: the important points of quantum mechanics are:
• Planck’s constant h, its numerical value and meaning
• Uncertainty of Heisenberg
• The concept of quantum vacuum
This reading allows the student to have an idea about the philosophy of quan-
tum mechanics. This is very important as the understanding of quantum me-
chanics requires a change of attitude to one that has been modeled by classical
mechanics.
Link # 9
Title :de Broglie

URL : http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/deBroglieWavelength.html
Screen Capture:
Description:
This is a site that offers various scientific topics.
Justification
The content enables students to supplement their knowledge.
Link #10
Title : Quantum physics wolfram

URL : http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/topics/QuantumPhysics.html
Screen Capture
Description
This is a site that offers various scientific topics: astrophysics, electromagne-
tism, modern physics, etc ....
Justification:
The students will find reading materials on the areas of interest to them.
Link # 11
Title : Scienceworld.Wolfram.com: Photoelectric effect

URL: http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/PhotoelectricEffect.html
Screen Capture
Description:
This is a site that offers various scientific topics: astrophysics, electromagnetism,
modern physics, etc ....
Justification:
This is a site dedicated specifically to the photoelectric effect, which is part of
the material covered in this module.
Link # 12
Title : Bohr Theory of Atome

URL : http://www.merlot.org/merlot/viewMaterial.htm?id=88647
Screen Capture
Description:
The Merlot website is a resource that specializes in multimedia education.
Justification:
This site is especially dedicated to the theory of the Bohr atom, which is part of
the content covered in the last activity of this module.
Link # 13
Title : Quantum physics online : Wave-particle duality

URL: http://www.merlot.org/merlot/viewMaterial.htm?id=88896
Screen Capture
Description:
The Merlot website is a resource that specializes in multimedia education.
Justification:
This site is especially dedicated to the wave function and wave packet, which are
part of the content of this module.
XIV. Synthsis Module
This module is designed for future physics teachers in secondary schools. The content
consists of five learning units, namely, «Origin of quantum mechanics,» « Wave –
Particle Duality «,» Schrödinger’s Wave Mechanics», «General Principles of Quan-
tum Mechanics» and «Hydrogen Atom and Hydrogenics». The students should be
meeting the objectives set as prerequisites, master the tools needed to monitor the
physics course during their training, and finally teach science in secondary school.
Each unit is a learning activity in which the student uses their knowledge in the
context of a formative evaluation, that is to say:
• The student must first read the material on the unit before doing the exer-
cises.
• The tutor organizes collaborative work for there to be exchanges between
students.
• Provision of relevant and useful links are available to students.
• Students are required to respond to questions while complying with ins-
tructions.
• Some correct answers to exercises are provided for students.
The unit entitled «Origin of quantum mechanics» includes mainly Planck’s
postulate and description of experiments that are at the origin of quantum me-
chanics, namely the study of blackbody radiation, the photoelectric effect and
the Compton effect.
The unit entitled «Wave-Particle Duality,» treats the de Broglie hypothesis and
the wave nature of particles, new concepts in physics that students must master
to understand the rest of the material.
The unit called «Schrödinger’s Wave Mechanics,» introduces students to the
concepts of the wave function and wave packet. The statistical interpretation of
the wave function and its properties are particularly addressed in the learning
activity. Solving the Schrödinger equation for simple cases is also discussed.
The unit, entitled «General Principles of Quantum Mechanics», explains to
students the general principles of quantum mechanics in a simple manner. The
study of linear operators is limited to the various relevant mathematical properties
only. The relationship between observable physical quantities are explained by
solving eigenvalue equations.
Finally, the unit, called «The Hydrogen Atom and Hydrogenics» concludes this mo-
dule. It discusses two models of the hydrogen atom: first, the Bohr model and its re-
sults, and the model of wave mechanics and its results. The comparison of these two
models should help students to better understand the contributions of quantum theory.
The explanations of the contents of this module are developed in works specially
designed for this module. Other relevant material is in open sites listed under
«Useful Links». Students must read them.
XV. Summative Evaluation
Exercices
1. The density of energy radiated by a blackbody in the infrared region is

proportional to:
a. r T ; b. r T2 ; c. r T4
T being the temperature.
2. The «work function» of the copper constituting the photocathode of a pho-

toelectric cell is 4.11 eV. When you light it with a radiation of wavelength
λ = 360 nm, there is no photoelectric effect.
a. r True ; b. r False
3. Radiation wavelength λ = 0085 A incident on a carbon target is deflected

40 °. The wavelength of the radiation deflected equals:
a. r 0.085 A ; b. r 0.09 A ; c. r 0.080 A
4. According to the theory of Bohr, the electron of a hydrogen atom follows

circular orbits that depend on an integer n = 1,2,3, ... .. In particular, the
radius of the second orbit:
a. r 0.512 nm ; b. r 0.212 nm ; c. r 0.612 nm
5. The sodium atom has an unpaired electron. The energy of the electron in
its ground state is:
a. r - 1.64 KeV ; b. r - 1.50 KeV ; c. r - 0.86 KeV
6. The radial wave function of the electron of a hydrogen atom in a state S of

the first excited level (n = 2) becomes
r
R(r) = N(1− )e−r / 2a , N is the normalization constant, and a constant
2a
The greater likelihood of finding an electron is at position:

a. r r = 2 a ; b. r r = 3 a ; c. r r = ( 3 + √5 ) a
Correct Answers
1. According to Planck’s law, the energy density of a body is written:
8πhν 3 1
U(T,ν) =
c 3
e hν /kT
−1
However, radiation in the infrared region has very long wavelengths or very small
frequencies, and in this case, we can write:
hi
ehν /kT = 1 + + ...
kT
8πν 2
Thus : u(T,ν)= kT
c3
2. If W denotes the work function of metal, the length threshold for there to
be a photoelectric effect is:
hc
ës = , that is to say, the wavelength of radiation required is less than this
W
threshold: λ < λs
hc (6.62 x10 −34 ) x(3 x108 )

In the case of copper : ës = = −19
= 2.828 x10 −7 m
W 4.11x(1.6 x10 )

Where λs = 282,8 nm, thus λ > λs . There cannot be a photoelectric effect.

3. In this case, we should observe a Compton effect. So the wavelength of

the radiation deflected must be different from that of the incident radiation.
The difference is given by:
h
λ= (1-cos(è)) , θ being the angle of deviation.
mc
When changing the parameters by their values, we must find: Δλ = 0.005

A. Therefore, the wavelength of the radiation is deflected λ = 0.085 +
0.005 = 0.09 A
4. Recall that in the theory of Bohr, the radius of the orbits of the electron is
given by:
aoh2 (8.85 x10 −12 )(6.63 x10 −34 )2

rn = 2
n2 = −31 −19 2
n2 = 5.309 x10 −11 n2
me (3.14159)(9.11x10 )(1.60 x10 )
en m
Therefore, the radius of an orbit is proportional to the square of the integer n.
For n = 2, we have r2 = 0.212 nm
5. Sodium is a hydrogenic, that is to say that in the Bohr model, the energy is
equal to:
13.6
En = Z2 (- ) , Z being the number of protons
n2
For sodium, Z = 11, and if the atom is in the fundamental state, n = 1. Thus we
have :
E1 = (11)2 (-13.6) = 1.64 103 eV = 1.64 KeV , Therefore the correct answer is a.
6. The density of probability of occurrence is given by : P( r ) = |R( r )|2 r2 .
d
This density is a maximum at position r which satisfies : P(r) = 0
dr
Therefore, we must calculate the derivative of P( r ) :
d r r r2
P(r) = N2 (1− )(2 − 3 + )re−r /a
dr 2a a 2a2

Thus simplifies to r =2a and r = ( 3 + √5 ) a

XVI. References
1. F . Miller, Jr. , College Physics 4th edition, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
Inc. (1977)
2. John J. O’Dwyer, College Physics 3th edition, Brooks/Cole Publishing
Company (1990)
3. J. Breithaupt, Understanding Physics 4th edition, Stanley Thornes Publish-
ers Ltd (2000)
4. W. Brown, T. Emery, M. Gregory, R. Hackett, C. Yates, Advanced Physics,
Longman Group Limited ( 1995 )
5. J. L. Basdevant, Mécanique Quantique, Ecole Polytéchnique et Edition
Marketing (1986)
6. B. Held, Exercices corrigés de physique atomique, Masson, Paris (1992)
7. Alonso V, Quantum Mechanics : Principles and Applications, Addison-
Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. (1973)
8. A. Messiah, Quantum Mechanics, vol I, North Holland Publishing Company,
Holland, and John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1966)
9. S. Flügge, Practical Quantum Mechanics, Springer-Verlag New York Hei-
delberg Berlin (1974)
10. R. Gautreau, W. Savin, Theory and Problems of Modern Physics, Shaum’s
Outline Series in Science, McGraw-Hill Book Company (1978)
11. RASOANAIVO, R-Y. (2007). Eléments de Physique Moderne, Ecole
Normale Supérieure, Université d’Antananarivo, Madagascar
12. RASOANAIVO, R-Y. (2007). Introduction à la Mécanique ondulatoire,
13. RASOANAIVO, R-Y. ( 2007). Problèmes aux conditions initiales et
aux conditions aux limites, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Université d’An-
tananarivo, Madagascar
14. RASOANAIVO, R-Y. (2007). Mécanique ondulatoire de Schrödinger,
15. RASOANAIVO, R-Y. (2007). Opérateurs linéaires, Ecole Normale Su-
périeure, Université d’Antananarivo, Madagascar
16. RASOANAIVO, R-Y. (2007). Les polynômes orthogonaux, Ecole Nor-
male Supérieure, Université d’Antananarivo, Madagascar
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89quation_de_Schr%C3%B6dinger
http://www.phys.ens.fr/spip.php?article119
http://ocw.mit.edu/
http://www.les-mathematique;net
http://www.cmu.edu/oli/courses/
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portail:Physique
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lectromagn%C3%A9tisme
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9canique_newtonienne
http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/comprendre/dossiers/doc/t/physique/d/in-
troduction-a-la-physique-quantique_188/c3/221/p1/
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/topics/QuantumPhysics.html
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/PhotoelectricEffect.html
http://www.merlot.org/merlot/viewMaterial.htm?id=88647
http://www.merlot.org/merlot/viewMaterial.htm?id=88896
XVII. Main Author of the Module
Name
Rasoanaivo, René Yves

Ph. D. in Nuclear Physics
Directeur de l’Ecole Normale Supérieure d’Antananarivo, Madagascar
Professeur de Physique et de Mathématiques Appliquées
Adresse: BP 881, ENS, Antananarivo, Madagascar
Tel: +261 33 12 595 83;
e-mail : rasoanaivor@yahoo.fr
Education
• 1971–1974 Université de Madagascar, Antananarivo

• Master of Physical Sciences
• 1975 – 82 Physics Department, University of Connecticut, Storrs, C.T.,
USA
• Masters of Sciences
• Ph. D in Nuclear Physics :
Doctorate Thesis: Study of methods of discretization of the n-p continuum in the
elastic Deuteron-Nucleus scattering
Professional Experience
1978–1980 Physics Department, University of Connecticut, C.T., USA

Teaching Assistant
• In charge of Physics laboratory
1980 – 1982 Physics Department, University of Connection, C.T., USA
Research Assistant with Professeur George H. Rawitscher
• Development of FORTRAN program for the Résolution d’un système
d’équations intégro-différentielles décrivant une réaction nucléaire
1982–1983 Physics Department, University of Connection, C.T., USA
Post-Doctorate with Professeur Yukap Hahn
• Calculation of Dielectronic Recombination Rates (Physique Atomique)
1983 – present, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Université d’Antananarivo
Teacher
• Teaching physics, mathematics, and information technology
• Framing of memories of Master of Physics and CAPEN
• 1988 Physics Department, University of Connection, C.T., USA
Post-Doctorate with Professeur George H. Rawitscher
• Calculation of efficient section of (N,N), under Fulbright program
• 1990 Physics Department, University of Connection, C.T., USA
Post-Doctorate with Professeur George H. Rawitscher
• Etude de l’interaction nucléon-nucléon, under Afgrad program
Positions of responsibility Ecole Normale Supérieure, Antananarivo
• 1985-87 Chef du Centre d’Etude et de Recherche de Physique-Chimie
• 1995 – 2002 Membre du Conseil Scientifique, Président du Conseil
d’Ecole
• 2002 - present, Directeur de l’Ecole Normale Supérieure d’Antanana-
rivo
XVIII. File Structure

Name of EXCEL file : Evaluation of students in quantum mechanics
Evaluation table : quantum mechanics

Course : quantum mechanics Academic year
Professor : Rasoanaivo René Yves
Last First A. 1 A. 2 A. 3 A. 4 A. 5 Eval Total Average
name name /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /100 /20 Result
low, should redo unsuc-
0 0 0 0 0 0 cessful activity
0 cessful activity
0 cessful activity
0 cessful activity
0 cessful activity
0 cessful activity
0 cessful activity
0 cessful activity
0 cessful activity
0 cessful activity
0 cessful activity
0 cessful activity
0 cessful activity
0 cessful activity
QUANTUM MECHANICS
Required Readings
Source: Wikipedia.org
1
Table of Contents
Quantum mechanics ................................................................................................................................... 4
Overview ................................................................................................................................................. 5
History..................................................................................................................................................... 6
Quantum mechanics and classical physics........................................................................................... 7
Theory ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
Mathematical formulation .............................................................................................................. 10
Interactions with other scientific theories ...................................................................................... 11
Example ................................................................................................................................................ 13
Attempts at a unified field theory ....................................................................................................... 13
Relativity and quantum mechanics .................................................................................................... 14
Applications .......................................................................................................................................... 15
Philosophical consequences ................................................................................................................. 17
De Broglie–Bohm theory .......................................................................................................................... 18
Overview ............................................................................................................................................... 18
Two-slit experiment ......................................................................................................................... 19
The Theory ........................................................................................................................................... 20
The ontology ..................................................................................................................................... 20
Guiding equation .............................................................................................................................. 21
Schrödinger's equation .................................................................................................................... 21
The Born Rule .................................................................................................................................. 21
The conditional wave function of a subsystem .............................................................................. 22
Extensions ............................................................................................................................................. 23
Spin .................................................................................................................................................... 23
Curved space .................................................................................................................................... 24
Quantum field theory....................................................................................................................... 24
Exploiting nonlocality ...................................................................................................................... 24
Relativity ........................................................................................................................................... 25
Results ................................................................................................................................................... 25
Measuring spin and polarization .................................................................................................... 25
Measurements, the quantum formalism, and observer independence ........................................ 26
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle................................................................................................. 28
2
Quantum entanglement, Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox, Bell's theorem, and nonlocality . 28
Classical limit ................................................................................................................................... 29
Quantum trajectory method ........................................................................................................... 29
Occam's razor criticism ................................................................................................................... 30
Derivations ............................................................................................................................................ 31
History................................................................................................................................................... 33
Pilot-wave theory ............................................................................................................................. 33
De Broglie–Bohm theory ................................................................................................................. 33
Bohmian mechanics ......................................................................................................................... 34
Causal interpretation and ontological interpretation ................................................................... 34
Schrödinger equation................................................................................................................................ 35
The Schrödinger equation ................................................................................................................... 35
General quantum system ................................................................................................................. 36
Single particle in a potential ............................................................................................................ 36
Time independent equation ............................................................................................................. 36
Historical background and development ........................................................................................... 37
Derivation ............................................................................................................................................. 38
Short heuristic derivation ................................................................................................................ 38
Versions................................................................................................................................................. 40
Time dependent equation ................................................................................................................ 40
Time independent equation ............................................................................................................. 41
Nonlinear equation........................................................................................................................... 42
Properties .............................................................................................................................................. 42
Local conservation of probability ................................................................................................... 42
Relativity ............................................................................................................................................... 43
Solutions ................................................................................................................................................ 43
3
Quantum mechanics
Fig. 1: Probability densities corresponding to the wavefunctions of an electron in a hydrogen

atom possessing definite energy levels (increasing from the top of the image to the bottom: n = 1,
2, 3, ...) and angular momentum (increasing across from left to right: s, p, d,...). Brighter areas
correspond to higher probability density in a position measurement. Wavefunctions like these are
directly comparable to Chladni's figures of acoustic modes of vibration classical physics and are
indeed modes of oscillation as well: they possess a sharp energy and thus a keen frequency. The
angular momentum and energy are quantized, and only take on discrete values like those shown
(as is the case for resonant frequencies in acoustics).
Quantum mechanics (QM) is a set of scientific principles describing the known behavior of
energy and matter that predominate at the atomic and subatomic scales. QM gets its name from
the notion of a quantum, and that quantum value is the Planck constant. The wave–particle
duality of energy and matter at the atomic scale provides a unified view of the behavior of
particles such as photons and electrons. While the notion of the photon as a quantum of light
energy is commonly understood as a particle of light that has an energy value governed by the
Planck constant, which is quantized for an electron is the angular momentum it can have as it is
bound in an atomic orbital. When not bound to an atom, an electron's energy is no longer
quantized, but it displays, like any other massive particle, a Compton wavelength. While a
photon does not have mass, it does have linear momentum. The full significance of the Planck
constant is expressed in physics through the abstract mathematical notion of action.
The mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics is abstract and its implications are often
non-intuitive. The centerpiece of this mathematical system is the wavefunction. The
wavefunction is a mathematical function of time and space that can provide information about
the position and momentum of a particle, but only as probabilities, as dictated by the constraints
imposed by the uncertainty principle. Mathematical manipulations of the wavefunction usually
involve the bra-ket notation, which requires an understanding of complex numbers and linear
4
functionals. Many of the results of QM can only be expressed mathematically and do not have
models that are as easy to visualize as those of classical mechanics. For instance, the ground state
in quantum mechanical model is a non-zero energy state that is the lowest permitted energy state
of a system, rather than a more traditional system that is thought of as simple being at rest with
zero kinetic energy.
[] Overview
Main article: Introduction to quantum mechanics
The word quantum is Latin for "how great" or "how much".[1] In quantum mechanics, it refers to
a discrete unit that quantum theory assigns to certain physical quantities, such as the energy of an
atom at rest (see Figure 1). The discovery that particles are discrete packets of energy with wave-
like properties led to the branch of physics that deals with atomic and subatomic systems which
is today called quantum mechanics. It is the underlying mathematical framework of many fields
of physics and chemistry, including condensed matter physics, solid-state physics, atomic
physics, molecular physics, computational physics, computational chemistry, quantum
chemistry, particle physics, nuclear chemistry, and nuclear physics. The foundations of quantum
mechanics were established during the first half of the twentieth century by Werner Heisenberg,
Max Planck, Louis de Broglie, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, Erwin Schrödinger, Max Born, John
von Neumann, Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli, David Hilbert, and others.[2] Some fundamental
aspects of the theory are still actively studied.[3]
Quantum mechanics is essential to understand the behavior of systems at atomic length scales
and smaller. For example, if classical mechanics governed the workings of an atom, electrons
would rapidly travel towards and collide with the nucleus, making stable atoms impossible.
However, in the natural world the electrons normally remain in an uncertain, non-deterministic
"smeared" (wave–particle wave function) orbital path around or through the nucleus, defying
classical electromagnetism.[4]
Quantum mechanics was initially developed to provide a better explanation of the atom,
especially the spectra of light emitted by different atomic species. The quantum theory of the
atom was developed as an explanation for the electron's staying in its orbital, which could not be
explained by Newton's laws of motion and by Maxwell's laws of classical electromagnetism.
In the formalism of quantum mechanics, the state of a system at a given time is described by a
complex wave function (sometimes referred to as orbitals in the case of atomic electrons), and
more generally, elements of a complex vector space.[5] This abstract mathematical object allows
for the calculation of probabilities of outcomes of concrete experiments. For example, it allows
one to compute the probability of finding an electron in a particular region around the nucleus at
a particular time. Contrary to classical mechanics, one can never make simultaneous predictions
of conjugate variables, such as position and momentum, with accuracy. For instance, electrons
may be considered to be located somewhere within a region of space, but with their exact
positions being unknown. Contours of constant probability, often referred to as "clouds", may be
drawn around the nucleus of an atom to conceptualize where the electron might be located with
5
the most probability. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle quantifies the inability to precisely
locate the particle given its conjugate.[6]
The other exemplar that led to quantum mechanics was the study of electromagnetic waves such
as light. When it was found in 1900 by Max Planck that the energy of waves could be described
as consisting of small packets or quanta, Albert Einstein further developed this idea to show that
an electromagnetic wave such as light could be described by a particle called the photon with a
discrete energy dependent on its frequency. This led to a theory of unity between subatomic
particles and electromagnetic waves called wave–particle duality in which particles and waves
were neither one nor the other, but had certain properties of both. While quantum mechanics
describes the world of the very small, it also is needed to explain certain macroscopic quantum
systems such as superconductors and superfluids.
Broadly speaking, quantum mechanics incorporates four classes of phenomena that classical
physics cannot account for: (I) the quantization (discretization) of certain physical quantities, (II)
wave–particle duality, (III) the uncertainty principle, and (IV) quantum entanglement. Each of
these phenomena is described in detail in subsequent sections.
[] History
Main article: History of quantum mechanics
The history of quantum mechanics began with the 1838 discovery of cathode rays by Michael
Faraday, the 1859 statement of the black body radiation problem by Gustav Kirchhoff, the 1877
suggestion by Ludwig Boltzmann that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete,
and the 1900 quantum hypothesis by Max Planck.[7] Planck's hypothesis stated that any energy is
radiated and absorbed in quantities divisible by discrete "energy elements", such that each energy
element E is proportional to its frequency ν:
where h is Planck's action constant. Planck insisted that this was simply an aspect of the
processes of absorption and emission of radiation and had nothing to do with the physical reality
of the radiation itself.[8] However, at that time, this appeared not to explain the photoelectric
effect (1839), i.e. that shining light on certain materials can eject electrons from the material. In
1905, basing his work on Planck's quantum hypothesis, Albert Einstein postulated that light itself
consists of individual quanta.[9]
In the mid-1920s, developments in quantum mechanics quickly led to it becoming the standard
formulation for atomic physics. In the summer of 1925, Bohr and Heisenberg published results
that closed the "Old Quantum Theory". Light quanta came to be called photons (1926). From
Einstein's simple postulation was born a flurry of debating, theorizing and testing, and thus, the
entire field of quantum physics, leading to its wider acceptance at the Fifth Solvay Conference in
1927.
6
[] Quantum mechanics and classical physics
Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to a very high degree of
accuracy. Thus, the current logic of correspondence principle between classical and quantum
mechanics is that all objects obey laws of quantum mechanics, and classical mechanics is just a
quantum mechanics of large systems (or a statistical quantum mechanics of a large collection of
particles). Laws of classical mechanics thus follow from laws of quantum mechanics at the limit
of large systems or large quantum numbers.[10] However, chaotic systems do not have good
quantum numbers, and quantum chaos studies the relationship between classical and quantum
descriptions in these systems.
The main differences between classical and quantum theories have already been mentioned
above in the remarks on the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox. Essentially the difference boils
down to the statement that quantum mechanics is coherent (addition of amplitudes), whereas
classical theories are incoherent (addition of intensities). Thus, such quantities as coherence
lengths and coherence times come into play. For microscopic bodies the extension of the system
is certainly much smaller than the coherence length; for macroscopic bodies one expects that it
should be the other way round.[11] An exception to this rule can occur at extremely low
temperatures, when quantum behavior can manifest itself on more macroscopic scales (see Bose-
Einstein condensate).
This is in accordance with the following observations:
Many macroscopic properties of classical systems are direct consequences of quantum behavior
of its parts. For example, the stability of bulk matter (which consists of atoms and molecules
which would quickly collapse under electric forces alone), the rigidity of solids, and the
mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical and magnetic properties of matter are all results of
interaction of electric charges under the rules of quantum mechanics.[12]
While the seemingly exotic behavior of matter posited by quantum mechanics and relativity
theory become more apparent when dealing with extremely fast-moving or extremely tiny
particles, the laws of classical Newtonian physics remain accurate in predicting the behavior of
large objects—of the order of the size of large molecules and bigger—at velocities much smaller
than the velocity of light.[13]
[] Theory
There are numerous mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics. One of the
oldest and most commonly used formulations is the transformation theory proposed by
Cambridge theoretical physicist Paul Dirac, which unifies and generalizes the two earliest
formulations of quantum mechanics, matrix mechanics (invented by Werner Heisenberg)[14][15]
and wave mechanics (invented by Erwin Schrödinger).[16]
In this formulation, the instantaneous state of a quantum system encodes the probabilities of its
measurable properties, or "observables". Examples of observables include energy, position,
7
momentum, and angular momentum. Observables can be either continuous (e.g., the position of a
particle) or discrete (e.g., the energy of an electron bound to a hydrogen atom).[17] Generally,
quantum mechanics does not assign definite values to observables. Instead, it makes predictions
using probability distributions; that is, the probability of obtaining possible outcomes from
measuring an observable. Oftentimes these results are skewed by many causes, such as dense
probability clouds[18] or quantum state nuclear attraction.[19][20] Naturally, these probabilities will
depend on the quantum state at the "instant" of the measurement. Hence, uncertainty is involved
in the value. There are, however, certain states that are associated with a definite value of a
particular observable. These are known as eigenstates of the observable ("eigen" can be
translated from German as inherent or as a characteristic).[21] In the everyday world, it is natural
and intuitive to think of everything (every observable) as being in an eigenstate. Everything
appears to have a definite position, a definite momentum, a definite energy, and a definite time
of occurrence. However, quantum mechanics does not pinpoint the exact values of a particle for
its position and momentum (since they are conjugate pairs) or its energy and time (since they too
are conjugate pairs); rather, it only provides a range of probabilities of where that particle might
be given its momentum and momentum probability. Therefore, it is helpful to use different
words to describe states having uncertain values and states having definite values (eigenstate).
3D confined electron wave functions for each eigenstate in a Quantum Dot. Here, rectangular
and triangular-shaped quantum dots are shown. Energy states in rectangular dots are more ‗s-
type‘ and ‗p-type‘. However, in a triangular dot the wave functions are mixed due to
confinement symmetry.
For example, consider a free particle. In quantum mechanics, there is wave-particle duality so the
properties of the particle can be described as the properties of a wave. Therefore, its quantum
state can be represented as a wave of arbitrary shape and extending over space as a wave
function. The position and momentum of the particle are observables. The Uncertainty Principle
states that both the position and the momentum cannot simultaneously be measured with full
precision at the same time. However, one can measure the position alone of a moving free
particle creating an eigenstate of position with a wavefunction that is very large (a Dirac delta) at
8
a particular position x and zero everywhere else. If one performs a position measurement on such
a wavefunction, the result x will be obtained with 100% probability (full certainty). This is called
an eigenstate of position (mathematically more precise: a generalized position eigenstate
(eigendistribution)). If the particle is in an eigenstate of position then its momentum is
completely unknown. On the other hand, if the particle is in an eigenstate of momentum then its
position is completely unknown.[22] In an eigenstate of momentum having a plane wave form, it
can be shown that the wavelength is equal to h/p, where h is Planck's constant and p is the
momentum of the eigenstate.[23]
Usually, a system will not be in an eigenstate of the observable we are interested in. However, if
one measures the observable, the wavefunction will instantaneously be an eigenstate (or
generalized eigenstate) of that observable. This process is known as wavefunction collapse, a
debatable process.[24] It involves expanding the system under study to include the measurement
device. If one knows the corresponding wave function at the instant before the measurement, one
will be able to compute the probability of collapsing into each of the possible eigenstates. For
example, the free particle in the previous example will usually have a wavefunction that is a
wave packet centered around some mean position x0, neither an eigenstate of position nor of
momentum. When one measures the position of the particle, it is impossible to predict with
certainty the result.[25] It is probable, but not certain, that it will be near x0, where the amplitude
of the wave function is large. After the measurement is performed, having obtained some result
x, the wave function collapses into a position eigenstate centered at x.[26]
Wave functions can change as time progresses. An equation known as the Schrödinger equation
describes how wave functions change in time, a role similar to Newton's second law in classical
mechanics. The Schrödinger equation, applied to the aforementioned example of the free
particle, predicts that the center of a wave packet will move through space at a constant velocity,
like a classical particle with no forces acting on it. However, the wave packet will also spread out
as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more uncertain. This also has the
effect of turning position eigenstates (which can be thought of as infinitely sharp wave packets)
into broadened wave packets that are no longer position eigenstates.[27] Some wave functions
produce probability distributions that are constant or independent of time, such as when in a
stationary state of constant energy, time drops out of the absolute square of the wave function.
Many systems that are treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such "static"
wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcited atom is pictured classically as a
particle moving in a circular trajectory around the atomic nucleus, whereas in quantum
mechanics it is described by a static, spherically symmetric wavefunction surrounding the
nucleus (Fig. 1). (Note that only the lowest angular momentum states, labeled s, are spherically
symmetric).[28]
The time evolution of wave functions is deterministic in the sense that, given a wavefunction at
an initial time, it makes a definite prediction of what the wavefunction will be at any later
time.[29] During a measurement, the change of the wavefunction into another one is not
deterministic, but rather unpredictable, i.e., random. A time-evolution simulation can be seen
here.[1]
9
The probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics thus stems from the act of measurement. This is
one of the most difficult aspects of quantum systems to understand. It was the central topic in the
famous Bohr-Einstein debates, in which the two scientists attempted to clarify these fundamental
principles by way of thought experiments. In the decades after the formulation of quantum
mechanics, the question of what constitutes a "measurement" has been extensively studied.
Interpretations of quantum mechanics have been formulated to do away with the concept of
"wavefunction collapse"; see, for example, the relative state interpretation. The basic idea is that
when a quantum system interacts with a measuring apparatus, their respective wavefunctions
become entangled, so that the original quantum system ceases to exist as an independent entity.
For details, see the article on measurement in quantum mechanics.[30]
[] Mathematical formulation
Main article: Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics

See also: Quantum logic
In the mathematically rigorous formulation of quantum mechanics, developed by Paul Dirac[31]

and John von Neumann[32], the possible states of a quantum mechanical system are represented
by unit vectors (called "state vectors") residing in a complex separable Hilbert space (variously
called the "state space" or the "associated Hilbert space" of the system) well defined up to a
complex number of norm 1 (the phase factor). In other words, the possible states are points in the
projectivization of a Hilbert space, usually called the complex projective space. The exact nature
of this Hilbert space is dependent on the system; for example, the state space for position and
momentum states is the space of square-integrable functions, while the state space for the spin of
a single proton is just the product of two complex planes. Each observable is represented by a
maximally-Hermitian (precisely: by a self-adjoint) linear operator acting on the state space. Each
eigenstate of an observable corresponds to an eigenvector of the operator, and the associated
eigenvalue corresponds to the value of the observable in that eigenstate. If the operator's
spectrum is discrete, the observable can only attain those discrete eigenvalues.
The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schrödinger equation, in which the
Hamiltonian, the operator corresponding to the total energy of the system, generates time
evolution.
The inner product between two state vectors is a complex number known as a probability
amplitude. During a measurement, the probability that a system collapses from a given initial
state to a particular eigenstate is given by the square of the absolute value of the probability
amplitudes between the initial and final states. The possible results of a measurement are the
eigenvalues of the operator - which explains the choice of Hermitian operators, for which all the
eigenvalues are real. We can find the probability distribution of an observable in a given state by
computing the spectral decomposition of the corresponding operator. Heisenberg's uncertainty
principle is represented by the statement that the operators corresponding to certain observables
do not commute.
The Schrödinger equation acts on the entire probability amplitude, not merely its absolute value.
Whereas the absolute value of the probability amplitude encodes information about probabilities,
10
its phase encodes information about the interference between quantum states. This gives rise to
the wave-like behavior of quantum states.
It turns out that analytic solutions of Schrödinger's equation are only available for a small
number of model Hamiltonians, of which the quantum harmonic oscillator, the particle in a box,
the hydrogen molecular ion and the hydrogen atom are the most important representatives. Even
the helium atom, which contains just one more electron than hydrogen, defies all attempts at a
fully analytic treatment. There exist several techniques for generating approximate solutions. For
instance, in the method known as perturbation theory one uses the analytic results for a simple
quantum mechanical model to generate results for a more complicated model related to the
simple model by, for example, the addition of a weak potential energy. Another method is the
"semi-classical equation of motion" approach, which applies to systems for which quantum
mechanics produces weak deviations from classical behavior. The deviations can be calculated
based on the classical motion. This approach is important for the field of quantum chaos.
An alternative formulation of quantum mechanics is Feynman's path integral formulation, in

which a quantum-mechanical amplitude is considered as a sum over histories between initial and
final states; this is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of action principles in classical
mechanics.
[] Interactions with other scientific theories
The fundamental rules of quantum mechanics are very deep. They assert that the state space of a
system is a Hilbert space and the observables are Hermitian operators acting on that space, but
do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators, or if it even exists. These must be chosen
appropriately in order to obtain a quantitative description of a quantum system. An important
guide for making these choices is the correspondence principle, which states that the predictions
of quantum mechanics reduce to those of classical physics when a system moves to higher
energies or equivalently, larger quantum numbers. In other words, classical mechanics is simply
a quantum mechanics of large systems. This "high energy" limit is known as the classical or
correspondence limit. One can therefore start from an established classical model of a particular
system, and attempt to guess the underlying quantum model that gives rise to the classical model
in the correspondence limit.
Unsolved problems in physics
In the correspondence
limit of quantum
mechanics: Is there a
preferred interpretation
of quantum mechanics?
How does the quantum
description of reality,
which includes elements
such as the
"superposition of states"
11
and "wavefunction
collapse", give rise to
the reality we perceive?
When quantum mechanics was originally formulated, it was applied to models whose
correspondence limit was non-relativistic classical mechanics. For instance, the well-known
model of the quantum harmonic oscillator uses an explicitly non-relativistic expression for the
kinetic energy of the oscillator, and is thus a quantum version of the classical harmonic
oscillator.
Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics with special relativity involved the replacement of
the Schrödinger equation with a covariant equation such as the Klein-Gordon equation or the
Dirac equation. While these theories were successful in explaining many experimental results,
they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming from their neglect of the relativistic creation
and annihilation of particles. A fully relativistic quantum theory required the development of
quantum field theory, which applies quantization to a field rather than a fixed set of particles.
The first complete quantum field theory, quantum electrodynamics, provides a fully quantum
description of the electromagnetic interaction.
The full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic
systems. A simpler approach, one employed since the inception of quantum mechanics, is to treat
charged particles as quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a classical electromagnetic
field. For example, the elementary quantum model of the hydrogen atom describes the electric
field of the hydrogen atom using a classical Coulomb potential. This "semi-classical"
approach fails if quantum fluctuations in the electromagnetic field play an important role, such as
in the emission of photons by charged particles.
Quantum field theories for the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force have been
developed. The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is called quantum
chromodynamics, and describes the interactions of the subnuclear particles: quarks and gluons.
The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their quantized forms, into
a single quantum field theory known as electroweak theory, by the physicists Abdus Salam,
Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg. These three men shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1979 for this work.[33]
It has proven difficult to construct quantum models of gravity, the remaining fundamental force.
Semi-classical approximations are workable, and have led to predictions such as Hawking
radiation. However, the formulation of a complete theory of quantum gravity is hindered by
apparent incompatibilities between general relativity, the most accurate theory of gravity
currently known, and some of the fundamental assumptions of quantum theory. The resolution of
these incompatibilities is an area of active research, and theories such as string theory are among
the possible candidates for a future theory of quantum gravity.
In the 21st century classical mechanics has been extended into the complex domain and complex
classical mechanics exhibits behaviours very similar to quantum mechanics.[34]
12
[] Example
Main article: Particle in a box
The particle in a 1-dimensional potential energy box is the most simple example where restraints
lead to the quantization of energy levels. The box is defined as zero potential energy inside a
certain interval and infinite everywhere outside that interval. For the 1-dimensional case in the x
direction, the time-independent Schrödinger equation can be written as:[35]
The general solutions are:
or, from Euler's formula,
The presence of the walls of the box determines the values of C, D, and k. At each wall (x = 0
and x = L), ψ = 0. Thus when x = 0,
and so D = 0. When x = L,
C cannot be zero, since this would conflict with the Born interpretation. Therefore sin kL = 0,
and so it must be that kL is an integer multiple of π. Therefore,
The quantization of energy levels follows from this constraint on k, since
[] Attempts at a unified field theory
13
Main article: Grand unified theory
As of 2010 the quest for unifying the fundamental forces through quantum mechanics is still
ongoing. Quantum electrodynamics (or "quantum electromagnetism"), which is currently the
most accurately tested physical theory,[36] has been successfully merged with the weak nuclear
force into the electroweak force and work is currently being done to merge the electroweak and
strong force into the electrostrong force. Current predictions state that at around 1014 GeV the
three aforementioned forces are fused into a single unified field,[37] Beyond this "grand
unification", it is speculated that it may be possible to merge gravity with the other three gauge
symmetries, expected to occur at roughly 1019 GeV. However - and while special relativity is
parsimoniously incorporated into quantum electrodynamics - the expanded general relativity,
currently the best theory describing the gravitation force, has not been fully incorporated into
quantum theory.
[] Relativity and quantum mechanics

Main articles: Quantum gravity and Theory of everything
Even with the defining postulates of both Einstein's theory of general relativity and quantum
theory being indisputably supported by rigorous and repeated empirical evidence and while they
do not directly contradict each other theoretically (at least with regard to primary claims), they
are resistant to being incorporated within one cohesive model.[38]
Einstein himself is well known for rejecting some of the claims of quantum mechanics. While
clearly contributing to the field, he did not accept the more philosophical consequences and
interpretations of quantum mechanics, such as the lack of deterministic causality and the
assertion that a single subatomic particle can occupy numerous areas of space at one time. He
also was the first to notice some of the apparently exotic consequences of entanglement and used
them to formulate the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox, in the hope of showing that quantum
mechanics had unacceptable implications. This was 1935, but in 1964 it was shown by John Bell
(see Bell inequality) that Einstein's assumption was correct, but had to be completed by hidden
variables and thus based on wrong philosophical assumptions. According to the paper of J. Bell
and the Copenhagen interpretation (the common interpretation of quantum mechanics by
physicists since 1927), and contrary to Einstein's ideas, quantum mechanics was
 neither a "realistic" theory (since quantum measurements do not state pre-existing

properties, but rather they prepare properties)
 nor a local theory (essentially not, because the state vector determines simultaneously
the probability amplitudes at all sites, ).
The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox shows in any case that there exist experiments by which
one can measure the state of one particle and instantaneously change the state of its entangled
partner, although the two particles can be an arbitrary distance apart; however, this effect does
not violate causality, since no transfer of information happens. These experiments are the basis
14
of some of the most topical applications of the theory, quantum cryptography, which has been on
the market since 2004 and works well, although at small distances of typically 1000 km.
Gravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between general
relativity and quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those applications. However, the lack
of a correct theory of quantum gravity is an important issue in cosmology and physicists' search
for an elegant "theory of everything". Thus, resolving the inconsistencies between both theories
has been a major goal of twentieth- and twenty-first-century physics. Many prominent physicists,
including Stephen Hawking, have labored in the attempt to discover a theory underlying
everything, combining not only different models of subatomic physics, but also deriving the
universe's four forces —the strong force, electromagnetism, weak force, and gravity— from a
single force or phenomenon. One of the leaders in this field is Edward Witten, a theoretical
physicist who formulated the groundbreaking M-theory, which is an attempt at describing the
supersymmetrical based string theory.
[] Applications
Quantum mechanics has had enormous success in explaining many of the features of our world.
The individual behaviour of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of matter—electrons,
protons, neutrons, photons and others—can often only be satisfactorily described using quantum
mechanics. Quantum mechanics has strongly influenced string theory, a candidate for a theory of
everything (see reductionism) and the multiverse hypothesis. It is also related to statistical
mechanics.
Quantum mechanics is important for understanding how individual atoms combine covalently to
form chemicals or molecules. The application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is known as
quantum chemistry. (Relativistic) quantum mechanics can in principle mathematically describe
most of chemistry. Quantum mechanics can provide quantitative insight into ionic and covalent
bonding processes by explicitly showing which molecules are energetically favorable to which
others, and by approximately how much.[39] Most of the calculations performed in computational
chemistry rely on quantum mechanics.[40]
15
A working mechanism of a Resonant Tunneling Diode device, based on the phenomenon of
quantum tunneling through the potential barriers.
Much of modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant. Examples
include the laser, the transistor (and thus the microchip), the electron microscope, and magnetic
resonance imaging. The study of semiconductors led to the invention of the diode and the
transistor, which are indispensable for modern electronics.
Researchers are currently seeking robust methods of directly manipulating quantum states.
Efforts are being made to develop quantum cryptography, which will allow guaranteed secure
transmission of information. A more distant goal is the development of quantum computers,
which are expected to perform certain computational tasks exponentially faster than classical
computers. Another active research topic is quantum teleportation, which deals with techniques
to transmit quantum states over arbitrary distances.
Quantum tunneling is vital in many devices, even in the simple light switch, as otherwise the
electrons in the electric current could not penetrate the potential barrier made up of a layer of
oxide. Flash memory chips found in USB drives use quantum tunneling to erase their memory
cells.
QM primarily applies to the atomic regimes of matter and energy, but some systems exhibit
quantum mechanical effects on a large scale; superfluidity (the frictionless flow of a liquid at
temperatures near absolute zero) is one well-known example. Quantum theory also provides
accurate descriptions for many previously unexplained phenomena such as black body radiation
and the stability of electron orbitals. It has also given insight into the workings of many different
biological systems, including smell receptors and protein structures.[41] Even so, classical physics
often can be a good approximation to results otherwise obtained by quantum physics, typically
in circumstances with large numbers of particles or large quantum numbers. (However, some
open questions remain in the field of quantum chaos.)
16
[] Philosophical consequences
Main article: Interpretation of quantum mechanics
Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive results of quantum mechanics have provoked
strong philosophical debate and many interpretations. Even fundamental issues such as Max
Born's basic rules concerning probability amplitudes and probability distributions took decades
to be appreciated.
The Copenhagen interpretation, due largely to the Danish theoretical physicist Niels Bohr, is the
interpretation of quantum mechanics most widely accepted amongst physicists. According to it,
the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics predictions cannot be explained in terms of some
other deterministic theory, and does not simply reflect our limited knowledge. Quantum
mechanics provides probabilistic results because the physical universe is itself probabilistic
rather than deterministic.
Albert Einstein, himself one of the founders of quantum theory, disliked this loss of determinism
in measurement (this dislike is the source of his famous quote, "God does not play dice with the
universe."). Einstein held that there should be a local hidden variable theory underlying quantum
mechanics and that, consequently, the present theory was incomplete. He produced a series of
objections to the theory, the most famous of which has become known as the Einstein-Podolsky-
Rosen paradox. John Bell showed that the EPR paradox led to experimentally testable
differences between quantum mechanics and local realistic theories. Experiments have been
performed confirming the accuracy of quantum mechanics, thus demonstrating that the physical
world cannot be described by local realistic theories.[42] The Bohr-Einstein debates provide a
vibrant critique of the Copenhagen Interpretation from an epistemological point of view.
The Everett many-worlds interpretation, formulated in 1956, holds that all the possibilities
described by quantum theory simultaneously occur in a multiverse composed of mostly
independent parallel universes.[43] This is not accomplished by introducing some new axiom to
quantum mechanics, but on the contrary by removing the axiom of the collapse of the wave
packet: All the possible consistent states of the measured system and the measuring apparatus
(including the observer) are present in a real physical (not just formally mathematical, as in other
interpretations) quantum superposition. Such a superposition of consistent state combinations of
different systems is called an entangled state.
While the multiverse is deterministic, we perceive non-deterministic behavior governed by

probabilities, because we can observe only the universe, i.e. the consistent state contribution to
the mentioned superposition, we inhabit. Everett's interpretation is perfectly consistent with John
Bell's experiments and makes them intuitively understandable. However, according to the theory
of quantum decoherence, the parallel universes will never be accessible to us. This
inaccessibility can be understood as follows: Once a measurement is done, the measured system
becomes entangled with both the physicist who measured it and a huge number of other particles,
some of which are photons flying away towards the other end of the universe; in order to prove
that the wave function did not collapse one would have to bring all these particles back and
measure them again, together with the system that was measured originally. This is completely
17
impractical, but even if one could theoretically do this, it would destroy any evidence that the
original measurement took place (including the physicist's memory).
De Broglie–Bohm theory
The de Broglie–Bohm theory, also called the pilot-wave theory, Bohmian mechanics, and the
causal interpretation, is an interpretation of quantum theory. As in quantum theory, it contains
a wavefunction - a function on the space of all possible configurations. Additionally, it also
contains an actual configuration, even in situations where nobody observes it. The evolution over
time of the configuration (that is, of the positions of all particles or the configuration of all fields)
is defined by the wave function via a guiding equation). The evolution of the wavefunction over
time is given by Schrödinger's equation.
The de Broglie–Bohm theory is explicitly non-local. The velocity of any one particle depends on
the value of the wavefunction, which depends on the whole configuration of the universe.
This theory is deterministic. Relativistic variants require a preferred frame. Variants which
handle spin and curved spaces are known. It can be modified to handle quantum field theory.
Bell's theorem was inspired by Bell's discovery of the work of David Bohm and his subsequent
wondering if the obvious non-locality of the theory could be removed.
This theory gives rise to a measurement formalism, analogous to thermodynamics for classical
mechanics, which yields the standard quantum formalism generally associated with the
Copenhagen interpretation. The measurement problem is resolved by this theory since the
outcome of an experiment is registered by the configuration of the particles of the experimental
apparatus after the experiment is completed. The familiar wavefunction collapse of standard
quantum mechanics emerges from an analysis of subsystems and the quantum equilibrium
hypothesis.
The theory has a number of equivalent mathematical formulations and has been presented under
a number of different names.
[] Overview
De Broglie–Bohm theory is based on the following:
We have a configuration q of the universe, described by coordinates qk, which is an element of

the configuration space Q. The configuration space is different for different versions of pilot
wave theory. For example, this may be the space of positions of N particles, or, in case of
field theory, the space of field configurations φ(x). The configuration evolves according to the
guiding equation
18
.
Here, ψ(q,t) is the standard complex-valued wavefunction known from quantum theory, which
evolves according to Schrödinger's equation
This already completes the specification of the theory for any quantum theory with Hamilton
operator of type .
If the configuration is distributed according to | ψ(q,t) | 2 at some moment of time t, this holds for
all times. Such a state is named quantum equilibrium. In quantum equilibrium, this theory will
agree with the results of standard quantum mechanics.
[] Two-slit experiment
The Bohmian trajectories for an electron going through the two-slit experiment.
The double-slit experiment is an illustration of wave-particle duality. In it, a beam of particles

(such as photons) travels through a barrier with two slits removed. If one puts a detector screen
on the other side, the pattern of detected particles shows interference fringes characteristic of
waves; however, the detector screen responds to particles. The system exhibits behaviour of both
waves (interference patterns) and particles (dots on the screen).
If we modify this experiment so that one slit is closed, no interference pattern is observed. Thus,
the state of both slits affects the final results. We can also arrange to have a minimally invasive
detector at one of the slits to see which slit the particle went through. When we do that, the
interference pattern disappears.
19
The Copenhagen interpretation states that the particles are not localised in space until they are
detected, so that, if there is no detector on the slits, there is no matter of fact about what slit has
the particle passed through. If one slit has a detector on it, then the wavefunction collapses due to
that detection.
In de Broglie–Bohm theory, the wavefunction travels through both slits, but each particle has a
well-defined trajectory and passes through exactly one of the slits. The final position of the
particle on the detector screen and the slit through which the particle passes by is determined by
the initial position of the particle. Such initial position is not controllable by the experimenter, so
there is an appearance of randomness in the pattern of detection. The wave function interferes
with itself and guides the particles in such a way that the particles avoid the regions in which the
interference is destructive and are attracted to the regions in which the interference is
constructive, giving rise to the interference pattern on the detector screen.
To explain the behavior when the particle is detected to go through one slit, one needs to
appreciate the role of the conditional wavefunction and how it gives rise to the collapse of the
wavefunction; this is explained below. The basic idea is that the environment registering the
detection effectively separates the two wave packets in configuration space.
[] The Theory
[] The ontology
The ontology of de Broglie-Bohm theory consists of a configuration of the universe

and a pilot wave . The configuration space Q can be chosen differently, as in
classical mechanics and standard quantum mechanics.
Thus, the ontology of pilot wave theory contains as the trajectory we know from
classical mechanics, as the wave function of quantum theory. So, at every moment
of time there exists not only a wave function, but also a well-defined configuration of the whole
universe. The correspondence to our experiences is made by the identification of the
configuration of our brain with some part of the configuration of the whole universe ,
as in classical mechanics.
While the ontology of classical mechanics is part of the ontology of de Broglie–Bohm theory, the
dynamics is very different. In classical mechanics, the acceleration of the particles are given by
forces. In de Broglie–Bohm theory, the velocities of the particles are given by the wavefunction.
In what follows below, we will give the setup for one particle moving in followed by the
setup for N particles moving in 3 dimensions. In the first instance, configuration space and real
space are the same while in the second, real space is still , but configuration space becomes
. While the particle positions themselves are in real space, the velocity field and
wavefunction are on configuration space which is how particles are entangled with each other in
this theory.
20
Extensions to this theory include spin and more complicated configuration spaces.
We use variations of for particle positions while ψ represents the complex-valued

wavefunction on configuration space.
[] Guiding equation
For a single particle moving in , the particle's velocity is given
For many particles, we label them as for the kth particle and their velocities are given by
The key fact to notice is that this velocity field depends on the actual positions of all of the N
particles in the universe. As explained below, in most experimental situations, the influence of
all of those particles can be encapsulated into an effective wavefunction for a subsystem of the
universe.
[] Schrödinger's equation
The one particle Schrödinger equation governs the time evolution of a complex-valued
wavefunction on . The equation represents a quantized version of the total energy of a
classical system evolving under a real-valued potential function V on :
For many particles, the equation is the same except that ψ and V are now on configuration space,
.
This is the same wavefunction of conventional quantum mechanics.
[] The Born Rule
21
In Bohm's original papers [Bohm 1952] , he discusses how de Broglie–Bohm theory gives rise to
the usual measurement results of quantum mechanics. The key idea is that this is true if the
positions of the particles satisfy the statistical distribution given by | ψ | 2. And that distribution is
guaranteed to be true for all time under the guiding equation if the initial distribution of the
particles satisfies | ψ | 2.
For a given experiment, we can postulate this as being true and verify experimentally that it does
indeed hold true, as it does. But, as argued in Dürr et al.,[1] one needs to argue that this
distribution for subsystems is typical. They argue that | ψ | 2 by virtue of its equivariance under
the dynamical evolution of the system, is the appropriate measure of typicality for initial
conditions of the positions of the particles. They then prove that the vast majority of possible
initial configurations will give rise to Born rule (i.e., | ψ | 2) statistics for measurement outcomes.
In short, in a universe governed by the de Broglie–Bohm dynamics, Born rule behavior is
typical.
The situation is thus analogous to the situation in classical statistical physics. A low entropy
initial condition will, with overwhelmingly high probability, evolve into a higher entropy state:
behavior consistent with the second law of thermodynamics is typical. There are, of course,
anomalous initial conditions which would give rise to violations of the second law. However,
absent some very detailed evidence supporting the actual realization of one of those special
initial conditions, it would be quite unreasonable to expect anything but the actually observed
uniform increase of entropy. Similarly, in the de Broglie–Bohm theory, there are anomalous
initial conditions which would produce measurement statistics in violation of the Born rule (i.e.,
in conflict with the predictions of standard quantum theory). But the typicality theorem shows
that, absent some particular reason to believe one of those special initial conditions was in fact
realized, Born rule behavior is what one should expect.
It is in that qualified sense that Born rule is, for the de Broglie–Bohm theory, a theorem rather
than (as in ordinary quantum theory) an additional postulate.
[] The conditional wave function of a subsystem
In the formulation of the De Broglie–Bohm theory, there is only a wave function for the entire
universe (which always evolves by the Schrödinger equation). However, once the theory is
formulated, it is convenient to introduce a notion of wave function also for subsystems of the
universe. Let us write the wave function of the universe as ψ(t,qI,qII), where qI denotes the
configuration variables associated to some subsystem (I) of the universe and qII denotes the
remaining configuration variables. Denote, respectively, by QI(t) and by QII(t) the actual
configuration of subsystem (I) and of the rest of the universe. For simplicity, we consider here
only the spinless case. The conditional wave function of subsystem (I) is defined by:
ψI(t,qI) = ψ(t,qI,QII(t)).
It follows immediately from the fact that Q(t) = (QI(t),QII(t)) satisfies the guiding equation that
also the configuration QI(t) satisfies a guiding equation identical to the one presented in the
formulation of the theory, with the universal wave function ψ replaced with the conditional wave
22
function ψI. Also, the fact that Q(t) is random with probability density given by the square
modulus of implies that the conditional probability density of QI(t) given QII(t) is given
by the square modulus of the (normalized) conditional wave function (in the
terminology of Dürr et al.[2] this fact is called the fundamental conditional probability formula).
Unlike the universal wave function, the conditional wave function of a subsystem does not
always evolves by the Schrödinger equation, but in many situations it does. For instance, if the
universal wave function factors as:
ψ(t,qI,qII) = ψI(t,qI)ψII(t,qII)
then the conditional wave function of subsystem (I) is (up to an irrelevant scalar factor) equal to
ψI (this is what Standard Quantum Theory would regard as the wave function of subsystem (I)).
If, in addition, the Hamiltonian does not contain an interaction term between subsystems (I) and
(II) then ψI does satisfy a Schrödinger equation. More generally, assume that the universal wave
function ψ can be written in the form:
ψ(t,qI,qII) = ψI(t,qI)ψII(t,qII) + φ(t,qI,qII),
where φ solves Schrödinger equation and φ(t,qI,QII(t)) = 0 for all t and qI. Then, again, the
conditional wave function of subsystem (I) is (up to an irrelevant scalar factor) equal to ψ I and if
the Hamiltonian does not contain an interaction term between subsystems (I) and (II), ψ I satisfies
a Schrödinger equation.
The fact that the conditional wave function of a subsystem does not always evolve by the
Schrödinger equation is related to the fact that the usual collapse rule of Standard Quantum
Theory emerges from the Bohmian formalism when one considers conditional wave functions of
subsystems.
[] Extensions
[] Spin
To incorporate spin, the wavefunction becomes complex-vector valued. The value space is called
spin space; for a spin-1/2 particle, spin space can be taken to be . The guiding equation is
modified by taking inner products in spin space to reduce the complex vectors to complex
numbers. The Schrödinger equation is modified by adding a Pauli spin term.
23
where μk is the magnetic moment of the kth particle, is the appropriate spin operator acting
on the kth particle's spin space, , and are, respectively, the

magnetic field and the vector potential in (all other functions are fully on configuration
space), ek is the charge of the kth particle, and is the inner product in spin space ,
For an example of a spin space, a system consisting of two spin 1/2 particle and one spin 1
particle has a wavefunctions of the form . That is, its spin
space is a 12 dimensional space.
[] Curved space
To extend de Broglie–Bohm theory to curved space (Riemannian manifolds in mathematical

parlance), one simply notes that all of the elements of these equations make sense, such as
gradients and Laplacians. Thus, we use equations that have the same form as above. Topological
and boundary conditions may apply in supplementing the evolution of Schrödinger's equation.
For a de Broglie–Bohm theory on curved space with spin, the spin space becomes a vector
bundle over configuration space and the potential in Schrödinger's equation becomes a local self-
adjoint operator acting on that space.[3]
[] Quantum field theory
In Dürr et al.,[4][5] the authors describe an extension of de Broglie–Bohm theory for handling
creation and annihilation operators. The basic idea is that configuration space becomes the
(disjoint) space of all possible configurations of any number of particles. For part of the time, the
system evolves deterministically under the guiding equation with a fixed number of particles.
But under a stochastic process, particles may be created and annihilated. The distribution of
creation events is dictated by the wavefunction. The wavefunction itself is evolving at all times
over the full multi-particle configuration space.
[] Exploiting nonlocality
Valentini[6] has extended the de Broglie–Bohm theory to include signal nonlocality that would
allow entanglement to be used as a stand-alone communication channel without a secondary
classical "key" signal to "unlock" the message encoded in the entanglement. This violates
orthodox quantum theory but it has the virtue that it makes the parallel universes of the chaotic
inflation theory observable in principle.
Unlike de Broglie–Bohm theory, Valentini's theory has the wavefunction evolution also depend
on the ontological variables. This introduces an instability, a feedback loop that pushes the
24
hidden variables out of "sub-quantal heat death". The resulting theory becomes nonlinear and
non-unitary.
[] Relativity
Pilot wave theory is explicitly nonlocal. That means, relativistic variants of pilot wave theory
need a preferred foliation. While this is in conflict with the standard interpretation of relativity,
the preferred foliation, if unobservable, does not lead to any empirical conflicts with relativity.
There has been work in developing relativistic versions of de Broglie–Bohm theory. See Bohm
and Hiley: The Undivided Universe, and [2], [3], and references therein. A quantum field theory
treatment is given in [4] and [5]. Another approach is given in the work of Dürr et al.[7] in which
they use Bohm-Dirac models and a Lorentz-invariant foliation of space-time.
[] Results
Below are some highlights of the results that arise out of an analysis of de Broglie–Bohm theory.
Experimental results agree with all of the standard predictions of quantum mechanics in so far as
the latter has predictions. However, while standard quantum mechanics is limited to discussing
experiments with human observers, de Broglie–Bohm theory is a theory which governs the
dynamics of a system without the intervention of outside observers (p. 117 in Bell[8]).
The basis for agreement with standard quantum mechanics is that the particles are distributed
according to | ψ | 2. This is a statement of observer ignorance, but it can be proven[1] that for a
universe governed by this theory, this will typically be the case. There is apparent collapse of the
wave function governing subsystems of the universe, but there is no collapse of the universal
wavefunction.
[] Measuring spin and polarization
According to ordinary quantum theory, it is not possible to measure the spin or polarization of a
particle directly; instead, the component in one direction is measured; the outcome from a single
particle may be 1, meaning that the particle is aligned with the measuring apparatus, or -1,
meaning that it is aligned the opposite way. For an ensemble of particles, if we expect the
particles to be aligned, the results are all 1. If we expect them to be aligned oppositely, the results
are all -1. For other alignments, we expect some results to be 1 and some to be -1 with a
probability that depends on the expected alignment. For a full explanation of this, see the Stern-
Gerlach Experiment.
In de Broglie–Bohm theory, the results of a spin experiment cannot be analyzed without some
knowledge of the experimental setup. It is possible[9] to modify the setup so that the trajectory of
the particle is unaffected, but that the particle with one setup registers as spin up while in the
other setup it registers as spin down. Thus, for the de Broglie–Bohm theory, the particle's spin is
not an intrinsic property of the particle—instead spin is, so to speak, in the wave function of the
particle in relation to the particular device being used to measure the spin. This is an illustration
25
of what is sometimes referred to as contextuality, and is related to naive realism about
operators.[10]
[] Measurements, the quantum formalism, and observer independence
De Broglie–Bohm theory gives the same results as quantum mechanics. It treats the
wavefunction as a fundamental object in the theory as the wavefunction describes how the
particles move. This means that no experiment can distinguish between the two theories. This
section outlines the ideas as to how the standard quantum formalism arises out of quantum
mechanics. References include Bohm's original 1952 paper and Dürr et al.[1]
[] Collapse of the wavefunction
De Broglie–Bohm theory is a theory that applies primarily to the whole universe. That is, there is
a single wavefunction governing the motion of all of the particles in the universe according to the
guiding equation. Theoretically, the motion of one particle depends on the positions of all of the
other particles in the universe. In some situations, such as in experimental systems, we can
represent the system itself in terms of a de Broglie–Bohm theory in which the wavefunction of
the system is obtained by conditioning on the environment of the system. Thus, the system can
be analyzed with Schrödinger's equation and the guiding equation, with an initial | ψ | 2
distribution for the particles in the system (see the section on the conditional wave function of a
subsystem for details).
It requires a special setup for the conditional wavefunction of a system to obey a quantum
evolution. When a system interacts with its environment, such as through a measurement, then
the conditional wavefunction of the system evolves in a different way. The evolution of the
universal wavefunction can become such that the wavefunction of the system appears to be in a
superposition of distinct states. But if the environment has recorded the results of the experiment,
then using the actual Bohmian configuration of the environment to condition on, the conditional
wavefunction collapses to just one alternative, the one corresponding with the measurement
results.
Collapse of the universal wavefunction never occurs in de Broglie–Bohm theory. Its entire
evolution is governed by Schrödinger's equation and the particles' evolutions are governed by the
guiding equation. Collapse only occurs in a phenomenological way for systems that seem to
follow their own Schrödinger's equation. As this is an effective description of the system, it is a
matter of choice as to what to define the experimental system to include and this will affect when
"collapse" occurs.
[] Operators as observables
In the standard quantum formalism, measuring observables is generally thought of as measuring

operators on the Hilbert space. For example, measuring position is considered to be a
measurement of the position operator. This relationship between physical measurements and
Hilbert space operators is, for standard quantum mechanics, an additional axiom of the theory.
The de Broglie–Bohm theory, by contrast, requires no such measurement axioms (and
26
measurement as such is not a dynamically distinct or special sub-category of physical processes
in the theory). In particular, the usual operators-as-observables formalism is, for de Broglie–
Bohm theory, a theorem.[11] A major point of the analysis is that many of the measurements of
the observables do not correspond to properties of the particles; they are (as in the case of spin
discussed above) measurements of the wavefunction.
In the history of de Broglie–Bohm theory, the proponents have often had to deal with claims that
this theory is impossible. Such arguments are generally based on inappropriate analysis of
operators as observables. If one believes that spin measurements are indeed measuring the spin
of a particle that existed prior to the measurement, then one does reach contradictions. De
Broglie–Bohm theory deals with this by noting that spin is not a feature of the particle, but rather
that of the wavefunction. As such, it only has a definite outcome once the experimental apparatus
is chosen. Once that is taken into account, the impossibility theorems become irrelevant.
There have also been claims that experiments reject the Bohm trajectories [6] in favor of the
standard QM lines. But as shown in [7] and [8], such experiments cited above only disprove a
misinterpretation of the de Broglie–Bohm theory, not the theory itself.
There are also objections to this theory based on what it says about particular situations usually
involving eigenstates of an operator. For example, the ground state of hydrogen is a real
wavefunction. According to the guiding equation, this means that the electron is at rest when in
this state. Nevertheless, it is distributed according to | ψ | 2 and no contradiction to experimental
results is possible to detect.
Operators as observables leads many to believe that many operators are equivalent. De Broglie–
Bohm theory, from this perspective, chooses the position observable as a favored observable
rather than, say, the momentum observable. Again, the link to the position observable is a
consequence of the dynamics. The motivation for de Broglie–Bohm theory is to describe a
system of particles. This implies that the goal of the theory is to describe the positions of those
particles at all times. Other observables do not have this compelling ontological status. Having
definite positions explains having definite results such as flashes on a detector screen. Other
observables would not lead to that conclusion, but there need not be any problem in defining a
mathematical theory for other observables; see Hyman et al.[12] for an exploration of the fact that
a probability density and probability current can be defined for any set of commuting operators.
[] Hidden variables
De Broglie–Bohm theory is often referred to as a "hidden variable" theory. The alleged

applicability of the term "hidden variable" comes from the fact that the particles postulated by
Bohmian mechanics do not influence the evolution of the wavefunction. The argument is that,
because adding particles does not have an effect on the wavefunction's evolution, such particles
must not have effects at all and are, thus, unobservable, since they cannot have an effect on
observers. There is no analogue of Newton's third law in this theory. The idea is supposed to be
that, since particles cannot influence the wavefunction, and it is the wavefunction that determines
measurement predictions through the Born rule, the particles are superfluous and unobservable.
27
Such an argument, however, arises from a fundamental misunderstanding of the relation between
the ontology posited by the de Broglie–Bohm theory and the world of ordinary observation. In
particular, the particles postulated by the de Broglie–Bohm theory are anything but "hidden"
variables: they are what the cats and trees and tables and planets and pointers we see are made
of! It is the wavefunction itself which is "hidden" in the sense of being invisible and not-directly-
observable.
Thus, for example, when the wavefunction of some measuring apparatus is such that its pointer
is superposed between pointing to the left and pointing to the right, what accounts for the fact
that scientists, when they look at the apparatus, see the pointer pointing to the left (say) is the fact
that the de Broglie–Bohmian particles that make up the pointer are actually pointed towards the
left. While the exact details of how humans process such information and what it is based on is
beyond the scope of the de Broglie–Bohm theory, the basic idea of any particle ontology is that if
the particles in the theory appear where they seem to be from human observations, then it is
considered a successful prediction.
[] Heisenberg's uncertainty principle
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that when two complementary measurements are
made, there is a limit to the product of their accuracy. As an example, if one measures the
position with an accuracy of Δx, and the momentum with an accuracy of Δp, then
If we make further measurements in order to get more information, we disturb the system and
change the trajectory into a new one depending on the measurement setup; therefore, the
measurement results are still subject to Heisenberg's uncertainty relation.
In de Broglie–Bohm theory, there is always a matter of fact about the position and momentum of
a particle. Each particle has a well defined trajectory. Observers have limited knowledge as to
what this trajectory is (and thus of the position and momentum). It is the lack knowledge of the
particle's trajectory that accounts for the uncertainty relation. What one can know about a particle
at any given time is described by the wavefunction. Since the uncertainty relation can be derived
from the wavefunction in other interpretations of quantum mechanics, it can be likewise derived
(in the epistemic sense mentioned above), on the de Broglie–Bohm theory.
To put the statement differently, the particles' positions are only known statistically. As in
classical mechanics, successive observations of the particles' positions refine the experimenter's
knowledge of the particles' initial conditions. Thus, with succeeding observations, the initial
conditions become more and more restricted. This formalism is consistent with the normal use of
the Schrödinger equation.
For the derivation of the uncertainty relation, see Heisenberg uncertainty principle, noting that it
describes it from the viewpoint of the Copenhagen interpretation.
[] Quantum entanglement, Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox, Bell's theorem,

and nonlocality
28
De Broglie–Bohm theory highlighted the issue of nonlocality: it inspired John Stewart Bell to
prove his now-famous theorem,[13] which in turn led to the Bell test experiments.
In the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox,[14] the authors point out that quantum mechanics allows
the creation of pairs of particles in an entangled quantum state. They describe a thought-
experiment one could perform on such a pair, the results of which they interpreted as indicating
that quantum mechanics is an incomplete theory.
Decades later John Bell proved Bell's theorem (see p. 14 in Bell[8]), in which he showed that, if
they are to agree with the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics, all such "hidden-
variable" completions of quantum mechanics must either be nonlocal (as the Bohm interpretation
is) or give up the assumption that experiments produce unique results (see counterfactual
definiteness and many-worlds interpretation). In particular, Bell proved that any local theory
with unique results must make empirical predictions satisfying a statistical constraint called
"Bell's inequality".
Alain Aspect performed a series of Bell test experiments that test Bell's inequality using an EPR-
type setup. Aspect's results show experimentally that Bell's inequality is in fact violated—
meaning that the relevant quantum mechanical predictions are correct. In these Bell test
experiments, entangled pairs of particles are created; the particles are separated, traveling to
remote measuring apparatus. The orientation of the measuring apparatus can be changed while
the particles are in flight, demonstrating the apparent non-locality of the effect.
The de Broglie–Bohm theory makes the same (empirically correct) predictions for the Bell test
experiments as ordinary quantum mechanics. It is able to do this because it is manifestly
nonlocal. It is often criticized or rejected based on this; Bell's attitude was: "It is a merit of the de
Broglie–Bohm version to bring this [nonlocality] out so explicitly that it cannot be ignored." [15]
The de Broglie–Bohm theory describes the physics in the Bell test experiments as follows: to
understand the evolution of the particles, we need to set up a wave equation for both particles;
the orientation of the apparatus affects the wavefunction. The particles in the experiment follow
the guidance of the wavefunction. It is the wavefunction that carries the faster-than-light effect of
changing the orientation of the apparatus. An analysis of exactly what kind of nonlocality is
present and how it is compatible with relativity can be found in Maudlin.[16] Note that in Bell's
work, and in more detail in Maudlin's work, it is shown that the nonlocality does not allow for
signaling at speeds faster than light.
[] Classical limit
Bohm's formulation of de Broglie–Bohm theory in terms of a classical-looking version has the

merits that the emergence of classical behavior seems to follow immediately for any situation in
which the quantum potential is negligible, as noted by Bohm in 1952. Modern methods of
decoherence are relevant to an analysis of this limit. See Allori et al.[17] for steps towards a
rigorous analysis.
[] Quantum trajectory method
29
Work by Robert Wyatt in the early 2000s attempted to use the Bohm "particles" as an adaptive
mesh that follows the actual trajectory of a quantum state in time and space. In the "quantum
trajectory" method, one samples the quantum wavefunction with a mesh of quadrature points.
One then evolves the quadrature points in time according to the Bohm equations of motion. At
each time-step, one then re-synthesizes the wavefunction from the points, recomputes the
quantum forces, and continues the calculation. (Quick-time movies of this for H+H2 reactive
scattering can be found on the Wyatt group web-site at UT Austin.) This approach has been
adapted, extended, and used by a number of researchers in the Chemical Physics community as a
way to compute semi-classical and quasi-classical molecular dynamics. A recent (2007) issue of
the Journal of Physical Chemistry A was dedicated to Prof. Wyatt and his work on
"Computational Bohmian Dynamics".
Eric Bittner's group at the University of Houston has advanced a statistical variant of this
approach that uses Bayesian sampling technique to sample the quantum density and compute the
quantum potential on a structureless mesh of points. This technique was recently used to estimate
quantum effects in the heat-capacity of small clusters Nen for n~100.
There remain difficulties using the Bohmian approach, mostly associated with the formation of
singularities in the quantum potential due to nodes in the quantum wavefunction. In general,
nodes forming due to interference effects lead to the case where This results in
an infinite force on the sample particles forcing them to move away from the node and often
crossing the path of other sample points (which violates single-valuedness). Various schemes
have been developed to overcome this; however, no general solution has yet emerged.
These methods, as does Bohm's Hamilton-Jacobi formulation, do not apply to situations in which
the full dynamics of spin need to be taken into account.
[] Occam's razor criticism
Both Hugh Everett III and Bohm treated the wavefunction as a physically real field. Everett's
many-worlds interpretation is an attempt to demonstrate that the wavefunction alone is sufficient
to account for all our observations. When we see the particle detectors flash or hear the click of a
Geiger counter then Everett's theory interprets this as our wavefunction responding to changes in
the detector's wavefunction, which is responding in turn to the passage of another wavefunction
(which we think of as a "particle", but is actually just another wave-packet).[18] No particle (in
the Bohm sense of having a defined position and velocity) exists, according to that theory. For
this reason Everett sometimes referred to his approach as the "pure wave theory". Talking of
Bohm's 1952 approach, Everett says:
“
Our main criticism of this view is on the grounds of simplicity - if one desires to hold
the view that ψ is a real field then the associated particle is superfluous since, as we
have endeavored to illustrate, the pure wave theory is itself satisfactory.[19] ”
30
In the Everettian view, then, the Bohm particles are superfluous entities, similar to, and equally
as unnecessary as, for example, the luminiferous ether was found to be unnecessary in special
relativity. This argument of Everett's is sometimes called the "redundancy argument", since the
superfluous particles are redundant in the sense of Occam's razor.[20].
Many authors have expressed critical views of the de Broglie-Bohm theory, by comparing it to
Everett's many worlds approach. Many (but not all) proponents of the de Broglie-Bohm theory
(such as Bohm and Bell) interpret the universal wave function as physically real. According to
some authors, if the (never collapsing) wave function is taken to be physically real, then it is
natural to interpret the theory as having the same many worlds as Everett's theory. In the
Everettian view the role of the Bohm particle is to act as a "pointer", tagging, or selecting, just
one branch of the universal wavefunction (the assumption that this branch indicates which wave
packet determines the observed result of a given experiment is called the "result assumption"[18]);
the other branches are designated "empty" and implicitly assumed by Bohm to be devoid of
conscious observers.[18] H. Dieter Zeh comments on these "empty" branches:
It is usually overlooked that Bohm‘s theory contains the same ―many worlds‖ of
“ dynamically separate branches as the Everett interpretation (now regarded as
―empty‖ wave components), since it is based on precisely the same . . . global wave
function . . .[21] ”
David Deutsch has expressed the same point more "acerbically"[18]:
pilot-wave theories are parallel-universe theories in a state of chronic denial.[22]

“ ”
According to Brown & Wallace[18] the de Broglie-Bohm particles play no role in the solution of
the measurement problem. These authors claim[18] that the "result assumption" (see above) is
inconsistent with the view that there is no measurement problem in the predictable outcome (i.e.
single-outcome) case. These authors also claim[18] that a standard tacit assumption of the de
Broglie-Bohm theory (that an observer becomes aware of configurations of particles of ordinary
objects by means of correlations between such configurations and the configuration of the
particles in the observer's brain) is unreasonable. This conclusion has been challenged by pilot
wave advocates, with a number of suggested resolutions; either deny that the wavefunction is as
objectively real as the particles[20] or dispute whether the Everettarian prescription is complete
(e.g. can probabilities be derived from the wavefunction?)[20]
[] Derivations
De Broglie–Bohm theory has been derived many times and in many ways. Below are five
derivations all of which are very different and lead to different ways of understanding and
extending this theory.
31
 Schrödinger's equation can be derived by using Einstein's light quanta hypothesis:
and de Broglie's hypothesis: .
The guiding equation can be derived in a similar fashion. We assume a plane wave:
. Notice that . Assuming that for the
particle's actual velocity, we have that . Thus, we have the guiding

equation.
Notice that this derivation does not use Schrödinger's equation.
 Preserving the density under the time evolution is another method of derivation. This is
the method that Bell cites. It is this method which generalizes to many possible
alternative theories. The starting point is the continuity equation for

2
the density ρ = | ψ | . This equation describes a probability flow along a current. We take
the velocity field associated with this current as the velocity field whose integral curves
yield the motion of the particle.
 A method applicable for particles without spin is to do a polar decomposition of the

wavefunction and transform Schrödinger's equation into two coupled equations: the
continuity equation from above and the Hamilton–Jacobi equation. This is the method
used by Bohm in 1952. The decomposition and equations are as follows:
Decomposition: Note corresponds to the

probability density .
Continuity Equation:
Hamilton–Jacobi Equation:
The Hamilton–Jacobi equation is the equation derived from a Newtonian system with
potential and velocity field The potential V is the classical

potential that appears in Schrödinger's equation and the other term involving R is the
quantum potential, terminology introduced by Bohm.
This leads to viewing the quantum theory as particles moving under the classical force
modified by a quantum force. However, unlike standard Newtonian mechanics, the initial
velocity field is already specified by which is a symptom of this being a first-order

theory, not a second-order theory.
32
 A fourth derivation was given by Dürr et al.[1] In their derivation, they derive the velocity
field by demanding the appropriate transformation properties given by the various
symmetries that Schrödinger's equation satisfies, once the wavefunction is suitably
transformed. The guiding equation is what emerges from that analysis.
 A fifth derivation, given by Dürr et al.[4] is appropriate for generalization to quantum field
theory and the Dirac equation. The idea is that a velocity field can also be understood as a
first order differential operator acting on functions. Thus, if we know how it acts on
functions, we know what it is. Then given the Hamiltonian operator H, the equation to
satisfy for all functions f (with associated multiplication operator ) is
where (v,w) is the local Hermitian inner product

on the value space of the wavefunction.
This formulation allows for stochastic theories such as the creation and annihilation of
particles.
[] History
De Broglie–Bohm theory has a history of different formulations and names. In this section, each
stage is given a name and a main reference.
[] Pilot-wave theory
This was the theory which de Broglie presented at the 1927 Solvay Conference.[23] At the
conference, Wolfgang Pauli pointed out that it did not deal properly with the case of inelastic
scattering. De Broglie was persuaded by this argument, and abandoned this theory. Later, in
1932, John von Neumann published a paper,[24] claiming to prove that all hidden-variable
theories are impossible. This clearly applied to de Broglie's theories.
This stage applies to many spin-less particles, and is deterministic, but lacks an adequate theory
of measurement. An analysis of de Broglie's presentation is given in Bacciagaluppi et al.[25][26]
Around this time Erwin Madelung[27] also developed a hydrodynamic version of Schrödinger's
equation which is incorrectly considered as a basis for the density current derivation of de
Broglie–Bohm theory. The Madelung equations, being quantum Euler equations (fluid
dynamics), differ phylosophically from the de Broglie–Bohm theory[28] and are the basis of the
hydrodynamic interpretation of quantum mechanics.
[] De Broglie–Bohm theory
This was described by Bohm's original papers 'A Suggested Interpretation of the Quantum
Theory in Terms of "Hidden Variables" I and II' [Bohm 1952]. It extended the original Pilot
Wave Theory to incorporate a consistent theory of measurement, and to address a criticism of
33
Pauli that de Broglie did not properly respond to; it is taken to be deterministic (though Bohm
hinted in the original papers that there should be disturbances to this, in the way Brownian
motion disturbs Newtonian mechanics). This stage is known as the de Broglie–Bohm Theory in
Bell's work [Bell 1987] and is the basis for 'The Quantum Theory of Motion' [Holland 1993].
This stage applies to multiple particles, and is deterministic.
The de Broglie–Bohm theory is an example of a hidden variables theory. Bohm originally hoped
that hidden variables could provide a local, causal, objective description that would resolve or
eliminate many of the paradoxes of quantum mechanics, such as Schrödinger's cat, the
measurement problem and the collapse of the wavefunction. However, Bell's theorem
complicates this hope, as it demonstrates that there can be no local hidden variable theory that is
compatible with the predictions of quantum mechanics. The Bohmian interpretation is causal but
not local.
Bohm became dissatisfied with the conventional interpretation of quantum mechanics, pointing
out that, although it requires one to give up "the possibility of even conceiving what might
determine the behaviour of an individual system at a quantum level", it does not prove that this
requirement is necessary. Indeed, it was his understanding, given to him by Einstein, of the
flawed nature of von Neumann's proof that inspired his papers.
Bohm's paper was largely ignored by other physicists; it was not supported by Albert Einstein
(who was also dissatisfied with the prevailing orthodoxy and had discussed Bohm's ideas with
him before publication). Bohm eventually abandoned it.
The cause was taken up by John Bell. In "Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics"
[Bell 1987], several of the papers refer to hidden variables theories (which include Bohm's). Bell
showed that Pauli's and von Neumann's objections amounted to showing that hidden variables
theories are nonlocal, and that nonlocality is a feature of all quantum mechanical systems.
[] Bohmian mechanics
This term is used to describe the same theory, but with an emphasis on the notion of current
flow. In particular, it is often used to include most of the further extensions past the spin-less
version of Bohm. While de Broglie–Bohm theory has Lagrangians and Hamilton-Jacobi
equations as a primary focus and backdrop, with the icon of the quantum potential, Bohmian
mechanics considers the continuity equation as primary and has the guiding equation as its icon.
They are mathematically equivalent in so far as the Hamilton-Jacobi formulation applies, i.e.,
spin-less particles. The papers of Dürr et al. popularized the term.
All of non-relativistic quantum mechanics can be fully accounted for in this theory.
[] Causal interpretation and ontological interpretation
34
Bohm developed his original ideas, calling them the Causal Interpretation. Later he felt that
causal sounded too much like deterministic and preferred to call his theory the Ontological
Interpretation. The main reference is 'The Undivided Universe' [Bohm, Hiley 1993].
This stage covers work by Bohm and in collaboration with Vigier and Hiley. Bohm is clear that
this theory is non-deterministic (the work with Hiley includes a stochastic theory). As such, this
theory is not, strictly speaking, a formulation of the de Broglie–Bohm theory. However, it
deserves mention here because the term "Bohm Interpretation" is ambiguous between this theory
and the de Broglie–Bohm theory.
Schrödinger equation
For a non-technical introduction to the topic, please see Introduction to quantum mechanics.
Two forms of the Schrödinger equation
In physics, specifically quantum mechanics, the Schrödinger equation is an equation that

describes how the quantum state of a physical system changes in time. It is as central to quantum
mechanics as Newton's laws are to classical mechanics.
In the standard interpretation of quantum mechanics, the quantum state, also called a
wavefunction or state vector, is the most complete description that can be given to a physical
system. Solutions to Schrödinger's equation describe not only molecular, atomic and subatomic
systems, but also macroscopic systems, possibly even the whole universe. The equation is named
after Erwin Schrödinger, who constructed it in 1926.[1]
The most general form is the time-dependant Schrödinger equation, which gives a description of
a system evolving with time. For systems in a stationary state, the time-independent Schrödinger
equation is sufficient. Approximate solutions to the time-independent Schrödinger equation are
commonly used to calculate the energy levels and other properties of atoms and molecules
Schrödinger's equation can be mathematically transformed into Werner Heisenberg's matrix

mechanics, and into Richard Feynman's path integral formulation. The Schrödinger equation
describes time in a way that is inconvenient for relativistic theories, a problem which is not as
severe in matrix mechanics and completely absent in the path integral formulation.
[] The Schrödinger equation
35
The Schrödinger equation takes several different forms, depending on the physical situation. This
section presents the equation for the general case and for the simple case encountered in many
textbooks.
[] General quantum system
For a general quantum system:[2]
where
 Ψ is the wave function; the probability amplitude for different configurations of

the system at different times,
 is the energy operator (here, i is the imaginary unit and is the reduced
Planck constant),
 is the Hamiltonian operator.
[] Single particle in a potential
For a single particle with potential energy V, the Schrödinger equation takes the form:[3]
where
 is the kinetic energy operator, where m is the mass of the particle.

 is the Laplace operator. In three dimension, the Laplace operator is
, where x, y, and z are the Cartesian coordinates of space.

 is the time-independent potential energy at the position r.
 is the probability amplitude for the particle to be found at position r at
time t.
[] Time independent equation
The time independent equation, again for a single particle with potential energy V takes the
form:[4]
36
This equation describes the standing wave solutions of the time-dependent equation, which are
the states with definite energy.
[] Historical background and development

Main article: Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schrödinger equation
Following Max Planck's quantization of light (see black body radiation), Albert Einstein
interpreted Planck's quantum to be photons, particles of light, and proposed that the energy of a
photon is proportional to its frequency, one of the first signs of wave–particle duality. Since
energy and momentum are related in the same way as frequency and wavenumber in special
relativity, it followed that the momentum p of a photon is proportional to its wavenumber k.
Louis de Broglie hypothesized that this is true for all particles, even particles such as electrons.
Assuming that the waves travel roughly along classical paths,[clarification needed] he showed that they
form standing waves for certain discrete frequencies. These correspond to discrete energy levels,
which reproduced the old quantum condition.[clarification needed][5]
Following up on these ideas, Schrödinger decided to find a proper wave equation for the
electron. He was guided by William R. Hamilton's analogy between mechanics and optics,
encoded in the observation that the zero-wavelength limit of optics resembles a mechanical
system—the trajectories of light rays become sharp tracks which obey Fermat's principle, and
analog of the principle of least action.[6] A modern version of his reasoning is reproduced in the
next section. The equation he found is:
Using this equation, Schrödinger computed the Hydrogen spectral series by treating a hydrogen
atom's electron as a wave Ψ(x, t), moving in a potential well V, created by the proton. This
computation accurately reproduced the energy levels of the Bohr model.
However, by that time, Arnold Sommerfeld had refined the Bohr model with relativistic
corrections.[7][8] Schrödinger used the relativistic energy momentum relation to find what is now
known as the Klein–Gordon equation in a Coulomb potential (in natural units):
37
He found the standing waves of this relativistic equation, but the relativistic corrections
disagreed with Sommerfeld's formula. Discouraged, he put away his calculations and secluded
himself in an isolated mountain cabin with a lover.[9]
While at the cabin, Schrödinger decided that his earlier non-relativistic calculations were novel
enough to publish, and decided to leave off the problem of relativistic corrections for the future.
He put together his wave equation and the spectral analysis of hydrogen in a paper in 1926.[10]
The paper was enthusiastically endorsed by Einstein, who saw the matter-waves as an intuitive
depiction of nature, as opposed to Heisenberg's matrix mechanics, which he considered overly
formal.[11]
The Schrödinger equation details the behaviour of ψ but says nothing of its nature. Schrödinger
tried to interpret it as a charge density in his fourth paper, but he was unsuccessful.[12] In 1926,
Just a few days after Schrödinger's fourth and final paper was published, Max Born successfully
interpreted ψ as a probability amplitude.[13] Schrödinger, though, always opposed a statistical or
probabilistic approach, with its associated discontinuities—much like Einstein, who believed that
quantum mechanics was a statistical approximation to an underlying deterministic theory— and
never reconciled with the Copenhagen interpretation.[14]
[] Derivation
[] Short heuristic derivation
Schrödinger's equation can be derived in the following short heuristic way.[citation needed]
[] Assumptions
1. The total energy E of a particle is
This is the classical expression for a particle with mass m where the total energy E is the
sum of the kinetic energy T, and the potential energy V (which can vary with position,
and time). p and m are respectively the momentum and the mass of the particle.
2. Einstein's light quanta hypothesis of 1905, which asserts that the energy E of a photon is
proportional to the frequency ν (or angular frequency, ω = 2πν) of the corresponding
electromagnetic wave:
3. The de Broglie hypothesis of 1924, which states that any particle can be associated with a
wave, and that the momentum p of the particle is related to the wavelength λ (or
wavenumber k) of such a wave by:
38
Expressing p and k as vectors, we have
4. The three assumptions above allow one to derive the equation for plane waves only. To
conclude that it is true in general requires the superposition principle, and thus, one must
separately postulate that the Schrödinger equation is linear.
[] Expressing the wave function as a complex plane wave
Schrödinger's idea was to express the phase of a plane wave as a complex phase factor:
and to realize that since
then
and similarly since
and
we find:
so that, again for a plane wave, he obtained:
39
And, by inserting these expressions for the energy and momentum into the classical formula we
started with, we get Schrödinger's famed equation, for a single particle in the 3-dimensional case
in the presence of a potential V:
[] Versions
There are several equations which go by Schrödinger's name:
[] Time dependent equation
This is the equation of motion for the quantum state. In the most general form, it is written:[15]
Where is a linear operator acting on the wavefunction Ψ. For the specific case of a single
particle in one dimension moving under the influence of a potential V.[15]
and the operator can be read off:
For a particle in three dimensions, the only difference is more derivatives:
and for N particles, the difference is that the wavefunction is in 3N-dimensional configuration
space, the space of all possible particle positions.[16]
40
This last equation is in a very high dimension, so that the solutions are not easy to visualize.
[] Time independent equation
This is the equation for the standing waves, the eigenvalue equation for . In abstract form, for
a general quantum system, it is written:[15]
For a particle in one dimension,
But there is a further restriction—the solution must not grow at infinity, so that it has a either a
finite L2-norm (if it is a bound state) or a slowly diverging norm (if it is part of a continuum):[17]
For example, when there is no potential, the equation reads:[18]
which has oscillatory solutions for E > 0 (the Cn are arbitrary constants):
and exponential solutions for E < 0
The exponentially growing solutions have an infinite norm, and are not physical. They are not
allowed in a finite volume with periodic or fixed boundary conditions.
For a constant potential V the solution is oscillatory for E > V and exponential for E < V,
corresponding to energies which are allowed or disallowed in classical mechanics. Oscillatory
solutions have a classically allowed energy and correspond to actual classical motions, while the
exponential solutions have a disallowed energy and describe a small amount of quantum
bleeding into the classically disallowed region, to quantum tunneling. If the potential V grows at
infinity, the motion is classically confined to a finite region, which means that in quantum
mechanics every solution becomes an exponential far enough away. The condition that the
41
exponential is decreasing restricts the energy levels to a discrete set, called the allowed
energies.[citation needed]
[] Nonlinear equation
The nonlinear Schrödinger equation is the partial differential equation (in natural units)
for the complex field ψ.
This equation arises from the Hamiltonian
with the Poisson brackets
It must be noted that this is a classical field equation. Unlike its linear counterpart, it never
describes the time evolution of a quantum state.
[] Properties
The Schrödinger equation has certain properties.
[] Local conservation of probability
The probability density of a particle is . The probability flux is defined as [in

units of (probability)/(area × time)]:
The probability flux satisfies the continuity equation:
42
where is the probability density [measured in units of (probability)/(volume)]. This
equation is the mathematical equivalent of the probability conservation law.
For a plane wave:
So that not only is the probability of finding the particle the same everywhere, but the probability
flux is as expected from an object moving at the classical velocity p/m. The reason that the
Schrödinger equation admits a probability flux is because all the hopping is local and forward in
time.
[] Relativity
Main article: Relativistic wave equations
The Schrödinger equation does not take into account relativistic effects; as a wave equation, it is
invariant under a Galilean transformation, but not under a Lorentz transformation. But in order to
include relativity, the physical picture must be altered.
The Klein–Gordon equation uses the relativistic mass-energy relation:
to produce the differential equation:
which is relativistically invariant.
[] Solutions
Some general techniques are:
 Perturbation theory
 The variational method
 Quantum Monte Carlo methods
 Density functional theory
 The WKB approximation and semi-classical expansion
In some special cases, special methods can be used:
43
 List of quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions
 Hartree-Fock method and post Hartree-Fock methods
 Discrete delta-potential method
44

Quantum Mechanics

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Quantum

By René Yves RASOANAIVO

African Virtual university

II. Prerequisite Course or Knowledge_ _____________________________ 3

III. Time ____________________________________________________ 3

V. Module Rationale_ __________________________________________ 4

VII. General Objective(s)_________________________________________ 6

VIII. Specific Learning Objectives___________________________________ 6

IX. Pre-assessment_ ___________________________________________ 7

X. Teaching and Learning Activities_______________________________ 14

XI. Glossary of Key Concepts____________________________________ 48

XII. List of Compulsory Readings_ ________________________________ 49

XIII. Useful Links_ _____________________________________________ 51

XIV. Synthesis of the Module_____________________________________ 64

XV. Summative Evaluation_______________________________________ 65

XVI. References_ ______________________________________________ 69

XVII. Main Author of the Module___________________________________ 71

XVII. File Structure _ ____________________________________________ 73

• Origin of quantum mechanics: Planck Postulate, blackbody radiation, pho-

6.3 Graphical Representation :

Louis de Broglie’s hypothesis

Wave nature of light and

Wave function and wave packet

Schrödinger equation and solutions

Determination of stationary states of a bound system

Linear and Hermitian operators:

Physical quantities; Observables:

Stationary states of the hydrogen atom:

VII. General Objective(s)

Successful completion of this module will allow the student to:

• Explain the origin of quantum mechanics

VIII. Specific Objectives of Learning Activities

Learning Activity Specific Objectives

1. Origin of quantum mechanics • Planck’s postulate

2. “Wave-particle” duality • Recall de Broglie’s hypothesis

3. Schrödinger wave machanics • Statistical interpretation of the

4. General principles • Properties of linear and

5. The hydrogen atom • Recall the results obtained

Preliminary evaluation: Waves: characteristics and properties

1. A wave is a physical phenomenon resulting from:

5. The wavelength is defined as:

9. If the frequency of an electromagnetic wave in vacuum is 600 kHz, its

14. The angular momentum of a particle in uniform circular motion is:

1. A wave is a physical phenomenon resulting from the displacement of a dis-

2. A wave moves along a certain direction or axis of propagation. If the

3. Sound is a wave due to compression and decompression of air in a certain

5. The wavelength is a characteristic quantity of a periodic wave. By defi-

6. The frequency of a wave is defined as the number of perturbations per

7. We are in the presence of an electromagnetic wave when the variation of

8. According to Einstein’s theory, the speed of propagation of electromagne-

X. Teaching andLearning Activities

Following this activity, the student should be able to:

1. The expression of the momentum of a photon is :

2. The energy of a photon, expressed in eV, the visible light of wavelength λ

3. The wavelength, expressed in nm, of a photon of energy equal to 1 keV is

4. A solid body heated to a very high temperature T emits radiation power

5. The spectrum of radiation emitted by a blackbody has a maximum at a

6. The spectrum of radiation from a blackbody at a temperature of T = 3500

a. q λm = 420nm ; b. q λm = 340nm ; c q λm = 280nm

7. When illuminating a metal work function W = 5 eV with radiation wa-

8. The threshold frequency of a metal having a work function W = 2.5 eV is

a. q ν = 6.04x1014 Hz ; b. q ν = 6.04x1016 Hz ; c. q ν = 6.04x1015 Hz

10. When an X-ray of wavelength λ = 15.12 pm is incident to a block of