Acknowledgement

We take sincere efforts to acknowledge the guidance and the advice of

all the people who have helped us in completing this project
successfully. We grab this opportunity to thank our revered principal
Mr.XYZ, for providing us with an opportunity to carry on with the
project . We are greatly obliged to Mr. , Head of Department,
Electronics Engineering for his guidance and constant encouragement
throughout the whole duration of our project. We express our
gratitude to our guide Mr. , Lecturer, Department of Electronics
Engineering, for his guidance and timely suggestions that helped us go
through the touch times in our project work.
Abstract
The main aim of this paper is to provide voice to voiceless people with the help of Smart Gloves.
With the proposed work, sign language is converted into speech using accelerometer and
microcontrollers. where it reduces the communication barrier between two communities using the
smart gloves.
 INTRODUTION

Communication is a process of exchanging ideas, thoughts, feelings and information in form of

verbal or non verbal message. According to recent survey in the world 7.6 million of the total
population suffers from deafness and dumbness. These people faces difficulties to convey there
messages within the society. The sign language is an important and only method of communication
for deaf-dumb persons, but most of the time the normal people find it difficult to understand this sign
language. Using sign language for each sign the respective voice output is obtained via MP3 module
and text message is obtained using LCD display additionally those people can operate home
appliance like fan and lights through hand gesture movement.
 Contents
1. Circuit diagram of the project
2. Circuit Connections
3. Working
4. Program
5. 3 Axis Accelerometer
6. RF Transmitter & Receiver
7. 16*2 LCD
8. 7805 Voltage regulator IC
9. LED
10. BC547 NPN transistor
11. BC557 PNP transistor
12. PN Junction Diode
13. PN Junction Theory
14. Bridge Rectifier

12. Step Down Transformer

13. Resistors
14. Capacitors
15. Reference
Block Diagram of the project
Circuit Diagram
 Working

In order to understand the working principle of this project, let us divide the project into
three parts.

The first part is getting data from the ADXL335 Accelerometer Sensor by the Arduino.
The Arduino continuously acquires data from the Accelerometer and based on the
predefined parameters, it sends a data to the RF Transmitter.

The second part of the project is the Wireless Communication between the RF
Transmitter and RF Receiver. The RF Transmitter, upon receiving data from Arduino
(through the Encoder IC), transmits it through the RF Communication to the RF
Receiver.

Finally, the third part of the project is decoding the Data received by the RF Receiver
and sending appropriate signals to the LCD Display, which will display the appropriate
commands on lcd.

Transmitter Section
The transmitter section of the robot consists of Arduino Nano board, MPU6050 Sensor,
HT-12E Encoder IC and an RF Transmitter. The communication between Arduino and
MPU6050 Sensor takes place through I2C Interface. Hence, the SCL and SDA pins of
the MPU6050 Sensor are connected to A5 and A4 pins of the Arduino Nano.

Additionally, we will be using the interrupt pin of the MPU6050 and hence, it is
connected to D2 of Arduino Nano.

HT-12E is an encoder IC that is often associated with RF Transmitter module. It

converts the 12-bit parallel data to serial data. The 12-bit data is divided into address
and data bits. A0 to A7 (Pin 1 to Pin8) are the address bits and they are used for secure
transmission of the data. These pins can be either left open or connected to ground
(Vss). In this circuit, Pin 1 to Pin 9 (A0 – A7 and Vss) of HT-12E are connected to
ground.

Pins 10 to 13 (AD8, AD9, AD10 and AD11) are the data pins of HT-12E. They receive
the 4 word parallel data from external source like a microcontroller (Arduino in this
case). They are connected to the pins D12, D11, D10 and D9 of Arduino respectively.

TE’ is the transmission enable pin and it is an active low pin. The data is transmitted as
long as the TE’ is low. Hence, Pin 14 (TE’) is also connected to ground.
The encoder IC has an internal oscillator circuit between the pins 16 and 15 (OSC1 and
OSC2). A 750KΩ resistor is connected between these pins to enable the oscillator. Dout
(Pin 17) is the serial data out pin. It is connected to the data in pin of the RF
Transmitter.

Both Arduino Uno and Accelerometer have 5V Regulator. Hence, all the VCC pins are
connected to a regulated 5V Supply.

Receiver Section
The receiver section of the robot consists of an RF Receiver, HT-12D Decoder IC &
LCD Display. HT-12D is the decoder IC that is often associated with RF Receiver. It
converts the serial data received by the RF link into parallel data. A0 to A7 (Pin 1 to Pin
8) are the address pins and must be matched with the address pins of the encoder.

Since the address pins of encoder (HT-12E) are grounded, the address pins of decoder
must also be grounded. Hence, pins 1 to 9 (A0 – A7 and Vss) are connected to ground.
The serial data from the RF Receiver is given to Din (Pin 14) of the decoder IC.

HT-12D has an internal oscillator and an external resistor of 33KΩ is connected

between OSC1 and OSC2 (Pins 16 and 15). Pin 17 (VT) indicates a valid transmission
of data and this pin will be high when a valid data is present on the data pins. An LED in
series with a 330Ω resistor is connected to this pin to indicate a valid data transmission.

Pins 10 to 13 (D8, D9, D10 and D11) of HT-12D are the parallel data out pins. They are
connected to the input pins of the LCD Display.

Working of Project
When the system is powered on, the transmitter part, which consists of Arduino,
Accelerometer, Encoder and RF Transmitter, will continuously monitor the output of
Accelerometer sensor.

This data is captured by the Arduino, which then transmits a corresponding data to the
Encoder, based on the orientation of the Accelerometer Sensor. The parallel data
received by the encoder is converted into serial data and this serial data is transmitted
by the RF Transmitter.

At the receiver section, the RF Receiver receives the serial data and transmits it to the
Decoder IC. The Decoder will convert the serial data to parallel data and this parallel
data is given to the LCD Display. Based on the data recived by different hand gestures
is printed on LCD display.

Program
 #include <LiquidCrystal.h>

LiquidCrystal lcd(8,9,10,11,12,13);

void setup()

lcd.begin(16,2);

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Welcome To");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("Govt Polytechnic");

delay(2000);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Saharanpur");

delay(2000);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Principal:");

delay(2000);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Dr. Sangeeta");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("Aggrawal");

delay(2000);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Electronics Engg.");
 lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("Dept.");

delay(2000);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Head Of Dept.");

delay(2000);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Mr Janardan");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("Prasad &");

delay(2000);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Mrs Ritu Jand");

delay(2000);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Project Guide:");

delay(2000);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Mr. Janardan");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("Prasad & ");

delay(2000);
 lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Mr. AS Ansari");

delay(2000);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Project Title:");

delay(2000);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Hand Gesture");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("Based Patient");

delay(1500);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Help System ");

delay(1500);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Made By:");

delay(2000);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Brijesh Yadav,");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("Vivekanand &");
 delay(2000);

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Vinay Kumar");

delay(2000);

lcd.clear();

pinMode(0,INPUT);

pinMode(1,INPUT);

pinMode(2,INPUT);

pinMode(3,INPUT);

void loop()

if(digitalRead(0)==LOW&&digitalRead(1)==LOW&&digitalRead(2)==LOW&&digitalRead(3)==LOW)

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("No Need");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("Of Anything");

delay(200);

lcd.clear();

else if(digitalRead(0)==HIGH&&digitalRead(1)==LOW&&digitalRead(2)==HIGH&&digitalRead(3)==LOW)

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Patient Need");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);
 lcd.print("A Glass Of Water");

delay(200);

lcd.clear();

else if(digitalRead(0)==LOW&&digitalRead(1)==HIGH&&digitalRead(2)==HIGH&&digitalRead(3)==LOW)

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Patient Need");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("Some Food");

delay(200);

lcd.clear();

else if(digitalRead(0)==LOW&&digitalRead(1)==HIGH&&digitalRead(2)==LOW&&digitalRead(3)==HIGH)

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Patient Need");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("To Go To Toilet");

delay(200);

lcd.clear();

else if(digitalRead(0)==HIGH&&digitalRead(1)==LOW&&digitalRead(2)==LOW&&digitalRead(3)==HIGH)

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Patient Need");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);
 lcd.print("A Cup Of Tes");

delay(200);

lcd.clear();

3 Axis Accelerometer
Accelerometers will communicate over an analog, digital, or pulse-width modulated connection
interface.
 Accelerometers with an analog interface show accelerations through varying voltage levels.
These values generally fluctuate between ground and the supply voltage level. An ADC on a
microcontroller can then be used to read this value. These are generally less expensive than
digital accelerometers.
 Accelerometers with a digital interface can either communicate
over SPI or I2C communication protocols. These tend to have more functionality and be less
susceptible to noise than analog accelerometers.
 Accelerometers that output data over pulse-width modulation (PWM) output square waves
with a known period, but a duty cycle that varies with changes in acceleration.

Power
Accelerometers are generally low-power devices. The required current typically falls in the micro (µ)
or milli-amp range, with a supply voltage of 5V or less. The current consumption can vary depending
on the settings (e.g., power saving mode versus standard operating mode). These different modes
can make accelerometers well suited for battery powered applications.
Make sure that proper logic levels are matched, especially with the digital interfaces.

How to Select an Accelerometer

When choosing which accelerometer to use, several features are important to consider including
power requirements and communication interfaces as discussed previously. Additional features for
consideration are below.

Range
Most accelerometers will have a selectable range of forces they can measure. These ranges can
vary from ±1g up to ±250g. Typically, the smaller the range, the more sensitive the readings will be
from the accelerometer. For example, to measure small vibrations on a tabletop, using a small-range
accelerometer will provide more detailed data than using a 250g range (which is more suited for
rockets).

The ADXL362 Triple Axis Accelerometer can measure ±2g, ±4g, and ±8g.

Additional Features
Some accelerometers include features such as tap detection (useful for low-power applications),
free-fall detection (used for Active Hard Drive Protection), temperature compensation (to increase
accuracy in dead reckoning situations ) and 0-g range sensing, which are other features to take into
consideration when purchasing an accelerometer. The need for these types of features on the
accelerometer will be determined by the application in which the accelerometer is incorporated.
There are also IMUs (Inertial Measurement Units) available, which can include accelerometers,
gyroscopes and even, occasionally, magnetometers into a single IC package or board. Some
examples of this include the MPU6050 and MPU9150. These are commonly used in motion tracking
applications and UAV guidance systems, where location and orientation of an object is important
 RF Transmitter & Receiver

The RF module, as the name suggests, operates at Radio Frequency. The

corresponding frequency range varies between 30 kHz & 300 GHz. In this RF system,
the digital data is represented as variations in the amplitude of carrier wave. This kind of
modulation is known as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK).

Transmission through RF is better than IR (infrared) because of many reasons. Firstly,

signals through RF can travel through larger distances making it suitable for long range
applications. Also, while IR mostly operates in line-of-sight mode, RF signals can travel
even when there is an obstruction between transmitter & receiver. Next, RF
transmission is more strong and reliable than IR transmission. RF communication uses
a specific frequency unlike IR signals which are affected by other IR emitting sources.

This RF module comprises of an RF Transmitter and an RF Receiver. The

transmitter/receiver (Tx/Rx) pair operates at a frequency of 434 MHz. An RF transmitter
receives serial data and transmits it wirelessly through RF through its antenna
connected at pin4. The transmission occurs at the rate of 1Kbps - 10Kbps.The
transmitted data is received by an RF receiver operating at the same frequency as that
of the transmitter.

The RF module is often used alongwith a pair of encoder/decoder. The encoder is used
for encoding parallel data for transmission feed while reception is decoded by a
decoder. HT12E-HT12D, HT640-HT648, etc. are some commonly used
encoder/decoder pair ICs.

Pin Diagram:

Pin Description:
RF Transmitter

Pin
Function Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Serial data input pin Data
3 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc
4 Antenna output pin ANT

RF Receiver

Pin
Function Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Serial data output pin Data
3 Linear output pin; not connected NC
4 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc
5 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc
6 Ground (0V) Ground
7 Ground (0V) Ground
8 Antenna input pin ANT
 16*2 LCD
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide
range of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly
used in various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven
segments and other multi segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical;
easily programmable; have no limitation of displaying special & even custom
characters (unlike in seven segments), animations and so on.
A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In
this LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers,
namely, Command and Data.
The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an
instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the
cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed on the
LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD. Click to learn
more about internal structure of a LCD.

Pin Diagram:

Pin Description:

Pin
Function Name
No

1 Ground (0V) Ground

2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc

3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE

4 Selects command register when low; and data register when high Register Select

5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register Read/write

6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given Enable

7 DB0

8 DB1

9 DB2

10 DB3
8-bit data pins
11 DB4

12 DB5

13 DB6

14 DB7

15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+

16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-

 7805 Voltage regulator IC
IC 7805 is a 5V Voltage Regulatorthat restricts the voltage output
to 5V and draws 5V regulated power supply. It comes with provision to add
heatsink.The 78xx (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx, MC78xx...) is a family of
self-contained fixedlinear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx
family is commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power
supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family,
the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the outputvoltage (for example,
the 7805 has a 5-volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx
line are positive voltage regulators: they produce a voltage that is positive
relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which
are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be
used in combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in the
same circuit.78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in
the TO-220 form factor, although they are available in surface-mount, TO -
92, and TO-3 packages. These devices support an input voltage anywhere
from around 2.5 volts over the intended output voltage up to a maximum of
35 to 40 volts depending on the model, and typically provide 1 or
1.5 amperes of current (though smaller or larger packages may have a lower
or higher current rating).
 Light-emitting diode

Blue, green, and red LEDs in 5 mm diffused case

Working principle Electroluminescence

Invented Oleg Losev (1927)[1]

James R. Biard (1961)[2]
Nick Holonyak (1962)[3]

First production October 1962

Pin configuration Anode and cathode

Electronic symbol
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is ap–n
junction diode, which emits light when activated.[4] When a suitable voltageis
applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holeswithin
the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
calledelectroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical
components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[5]

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,[6] the earliest LEDs

emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as
transmitting elements in remote-control circuits, such as those in remote
controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs
were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available
across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high
brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices,
replacing small incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric
readouts in the form of seven-segment displays, and were commonly seen in
digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and

task lighting. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources
including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical
robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now
used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising,general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes and lighted wallpaper.
As of 2015, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting remain somewhat more
expensive, and require more precise current and heat management, than
compact fluorescent lampsources of comparable output.

LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed,
while their high switching rates are also used in advanced communications
technology.
 BC547 NPN transistor
A BC547 transistor is a negative-positive-negative (NPN) transistor that is used for many purposes.
Together with other electronic components, such as resistors, coils, and capacitors, it can be used
as the active component for switches and amplifiers. Like all other NPN transistors, this type has
an emitter terminal, a base or control terminal, and a collector terminal. In a typical configuration, the
current flowing from the base to the emitter controls the collector current. A short vertical line, which
is the base, can indicate the transistor schematic for an NPN transistor, and the emitter, which is a
diagonal line connecting to the base, is an arrowhead pointing away from the base.
There are various types of transistors, and the BC547 is a bipolar junction transistor (BJT). There
are also transistors that have one junction, such as the junction field-effect transistor, or no junctions
at all, such as the metal oxide field-effect transistor (MOSFET). During the design and manufacture
of transistors, the characteristics can be predefined and achieved. The negative (N)-type material
inside an NPN transistor has an excess of electrons, while the positive (P)-type material has a lack
of electrons, both due to a contamination process called doping.
The BC547 transistor comes in one package. When several are placed in a single package, it is
usually referred to as a transistor array. Arrays are commonly used in digital switching. Eight
transistors may be placed in one package to make layout much easier, for example.
To make use of a transistor as an audio preamplifier, a direct current (DC) source is needed, such
as a 12-volt (V) power supply. In a common emitter configuration, the negative side of the power
supply is alternating current (AC)-coupled to the emitter via a capacitor. There is also a small
resistance connecting the power supply to the emitter. The power supply is then connected to the
collector via a resistor, which may be referred to as a limiting resistor. When the collector-to-emitter
current flows, there will be a voltage drop in the limiting resistor, and in the idle state, the collector
voltage is typically 6 V.
Transistor circuit design requires a thorough understanding of current-voltage ratings of various
components, such as transistors and resistors. One goal is to keep the components from burning up,
while another is to make the circuit work. Saving electricity is also important, such as in the case of
battery-operated devices.
A Bipolar NPN Transistor Configuration

(Note: Arrow defines the emitter and conventional current flow, “out” for a Bipolar NPN Transistor.)

The construction and terminal voltages for a Bipolar NPN Transistor

Loading product data.

are shown above. The voltage between the Base and Emitter ( VBE ), is positive at the Base and negative
at the Emitter because for an NPN transistor, the Base terminal is always positive with respect to the
Emitter. Also the Collector supply voltage is positive with respect to the Emitter ( VCE ). So for a bipolar
NPN transistor to conduct the Collector is always more positive with respect to both the Base and the
Emitter.

NPN Transistor Connection

Then the voltage sources are connected to an NPN transistor as shown. The Collector is connected to
the supply voltage VCC via the load resistor, RL which also acts to limit the maximum current flowing
through the device. The Base supply voltage VB is connected to the Base resistor RB, which again is used
to limit the maximum Base current.

So in a NPN Transistor it is the movement of negative current carriers (electrons) through the Base region
that constitutes transistor action, since these mobile electrons provide the link between the Collector and
Emitter circuits. This link between the input and output circuits is the main feature of transistor action
because the transistors amplifying properties come from the consequent control which the Base exerts
upon the Collector to Emitter current.

Then we can see that the transistor is a current operated device (Beta model) and that a large current
( Ic ) flows freely through the device between the collector and the emitter terminals when the transistor is
switched “fully-ON”. However, this only happens when a small biasing current ( Ib ) is flowing into the
base terminal of the transistor at the same time thus allowing the Base to act as a sort of current control
input.

The transistor current in a bipolar NPN transistor is the ratio of these two currents ( Ic/Ib ), called theDC
Current Gain of the device and is given the symbol of hfe or nowadays Beta, ( β ). The value of βcan be
large up to 200 for standard transistors, and it is this large ratio between Ic and Ib that makes the bipolar
NPN transistor a useful amplifying device when used in its active region as Ib provides the input
and Ic provides the output. Note that Beta has no units as it is a ratio.

Also, the current gain of the transistor from the Collector terminal to the Emitter terminal, Ic/Ie, is
called Alpha, ( α ), and is a function of the transistor itself (electrons diffusing across the junction). As the
emitter current Ie is the sum of a very small base current plus a very large collector current, the value of
alpha α, is very close to unity, and for a typical low-power signal transistor this value ranges from about
0.950 to 0.999

α and β Relationship in a NPN Transistor

By combining the two parameters α and β we can produce two mathematical expressions that gives the
relationship between the different currents flowing in the transistor.

The values of Beta vary from about 20 for high current power transistors to well over 1000 for high
frequency low power type bipolar transistors. The value of Beta for most standard NPN transistors can be
found in the manufactures data sheets but generally range between 50 – 200.

The equation above for Beta can also be re-arranged to make Ic as the subject, and with a zero base
current ( Ib = 0 ) the resultant collector current Ic will also be zero, ( β x 0 ). Also when the base current is
high the corresponding collector current will also be high resulting in the base current controlling the
collector current. One of the most important properties of the Bipolar Junction Transistor is that a small
base current can control a much larger collector current. Consider the following example.

NPN Transistor Example No1

A bipolar NPN transistor has a DC current gain, (Beta) value of 200. Calculate the base current Ibrequired
to switch a resistive load of 4mA.

Therefore, β = 200, Ic = 4mA and Ib = 20µA.

One other point to remember about Bipolar NPN Transistors. The collector voltage, ( Vc ) must be
greater and positive with respect to the emitter voltage, ( Ve ) to allow current to flow through the
transistor between the collector-emitter junctions. Also, there is a voltage drop between the Base and the
Emitter terminal of about 0.7v (one diode volt drop) for silicon devices as the input characteristics of an
NPN Transistor are of a forward biased diode.

Then the base voltage, ( Vbe ) of a NPN transistor must be greater than this 0.7V otherwise the transistor
will not conduct with the base current given as.
Where: Ib is the base current, Vb is the base bias voltage, Vbe is the base-emitter volt drop (0.7v)
andRb is the base input resistor. Increasing Ib, Vbe slowly increases to 0.7V but Ic rises exponentially.

NPN Transistor Example No2

An NPN Transistor has a DC base bias voltage, Vb of 10v and an input base resistor, Rb of 100kΩ. What
will be the value of the base current into the transistor.

Therefore, Ib = 93µA.

The Common Emitter Configuration.

As well as being used as a semiconductor switch to turn load currents “ON” or “OFF” by controlling the
Base signal to the transistor in ether its saturation or cut-off regions, Bipolar NPN Transistorscan also
be used in its active region to produce a circuit which will amplify any small AC signal applied to its Base
terminal with the Emitter grounded.

If a suitable DC “biasing” voltage is firstly applied to the transistors Base terminal thus allowing it to
always operate within its linear active region, an inverting amplifier circuit called a single stage common
emitter amplifier is produced.

One such Common Emitter Amplifier configuration of an NPN transistor is called a Class A Amplifier. A
“Class A Amplifier” operation is one where the transistors Base terminal is biased in such a way as to
forward bias the Base-emitter junction.

The result is that the transistor is always operating halfway between its cut-off and saturation regions,
thereby allowing the transistor amplifier to accurately reproduce the positive and negative halves of any
AC input signal superimposed upon this DC biasing voltage.

Without this “Bias Voltage” only one half of the input waveform would be amplified. This common emitter
amplifier configuration using an NPN transistor has many applications but is commonly used in audio
circuits such as pre-amplifier and power amplifier stages.

With reference to the Common Emitter Configuration shown below, a family of curves known as
theOutput Characteristics Curves, relates the output collector current, ( Ic ) to the collector voltage,
( Vce ) when different values of Base current, ( Ib ). Output characteristics curves are applied to the
transistor for transistors with the same β value.
A DC “Load Line” can also be drawn onto the output characteristics curves to show all the possible
operating points when different values of base current are applied. It is necessary to set the initial value
of Vce correctly to allow the output voltage to vary both up and down when amplifying AC input signals
and this is called setting the operating point or Quiescent Point, Q-point for short and this is shown
below.

Single Stage Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

Output Characteristics Curves of a Typical Bipolar Transistor

The most important factor to notice is the effect of Vce upon the collector current Ic when Vce is greater
than about 1.0 volts. We can see that Ic is largely unaffected by changes in Vce above this value and
instead it is almost entirely controlled by the base current, Ib. When this happens we can say then that
the output circuit represents that of a “Constant Current Source”.

It can also be seen from the common emitter circuit above that the emitter current Ie is the sum of the
collector current, Ic and the base current, Ib, added together so we can also say that Ie = Ic + Ib for the
common emitter (CE) configuration.

By using the output characteristics curves in our example above and also Ohm´s Law, the current flowing
through the load resistor, ( RL ), is equal to the collector current, Ic entering the transistor which in turn
corresponds to the supply voltage, ( Vcc ) minus the voltage drop between the collector and the emitter
terminals, ( Vce ) and is given as:

Also, a straight line representing the Dynamic Load Line of the transistor can be drawn directly onto the
graph of curves above from the point of “Saturation” ( A ) when Vce = 0 to the point of “Cut-off” (B )
when Ic = 0 thus giving us the “Operating” or Q-point of the transistor. These two points are joined
together by a straight line and any position along this straight line represents the “Active Region” of the
transistor. The actual position of the load line on the characteristics curves can be calculated as follows:
Then, the collector or output characteristics curves for Common Emitter NPN Transistors can be used
to predict the Collector current, Ic, when given Vce and the Base current, Ib. A Load Line can also be
constructed onto the curves to determine a suitable Operating or Q-point which can be set by adjustment
of the base current. The slope of this load line is equal to the reciprocal of the load resistance which is
given as: -1/RL

Then we can define a NPN Transistor as being normally “OFF” but a small input current and a small
positive voltage at its Base ( B ) relative to its Emitter ( E ) will turn it “ON” allowing a much large
Collector-Emitter current to flow. NPN transistors conduct when Vc is much greater than Ve.

In the next tutorial about Bipolar Transistors, we will look at the opposite or complementary form of
the NPN Transistor called the PNP Transistor and show that the PNP Transistor has very similar
characteristics to the bipolar NPN transistor except that the polarities (or biasing) of the current and
voltage directions are reversed.
 BC 557 PNP Transistor

The PNP Transistor is the exact opposite to the NPN Transistor device we looked at in the
previous tutorial. Basically, in this type of transistor construction the two diodes are reversed with
respect to the NPN type giving a Positive-Negative-Positive type of configuration, with the arrow
which also defines the Emitter terminal this time pointing inwards in the transistor symbol.

Also, all the polarities for a PNP transistor are reversed which means that it “sinks” current into its Base
as opposed to the NPN Transistor which “sources” current through its Base. The main difference between
the two types of transistors is that holes are the more important carriers for PNP transistors, whereas
electrons are the important carriers for NPN transistors.

Then, PNP transistors use a small base current and a negative base voltage to control a much larger
emitter-collector current. In other words for a PNP transistor, the Emitter is more positive with respect to
the Base and also with respect to the Collector.

The construction of a “PNP transistor” consists of two P-type semiconductor materials either side of an N-
type material as shown below.
A PNP Transistor Configuration

(Note: Arrow defines the emitter and conventional current flow, “in” for a PNP transistor.)

The construction and terminal voltages for an NPN transistor are shown above. The PNP Transistorhas
very similar characteristics to their NPN bipolar cousins, except that the polarities (or biasing) of the
current and voltage directions are reversed for any one of the possible three configurations looked at in
the first tutorial, Common Base, Common Emitter and Common Collector.

PNP Transistor Connection

The voltage between the Base and Emitter ( VBE ), is now negative at the Base and positive at the Emitter
because for a PNP transistor, the Base terminal is always biased negative with respect to the Emitter.

Also the Emitter supply voltage is positive with respect to the Collector ( VCE ). So for a PNP transistor to
conduct the Emitter is always more positive with respect to both the Base and the Collector.

The voltage sources are connected to a PNP transistor are as shown. This time the Emitter is connected
to the supply voltage VCC with the load resistor, RL which limits the maximum current flowing through the
device connected to the Collector terminal. The Base voltage VB which is biased negative with respect to
the Emitter and is connected to the Base resistor RB, which again is used to limit the maximum Base
current.
To cause the Base current to flow in a PNP transistor the Base needs to be more negative than the
Emitter (current must leave the base) by approx 0.7 volts for a silicon device or 0.3 volts for a germanium
device with the formulas used to calculate the Base resistor, Base current or Collector current are the
same as those used for an equivalent NPN transistor and is given as.

We can see that the fundamental differences between a NPN Transistor and a PNP Transistor is the
proper biasing of the transistors junctions as the current directions and voltage polarities are always
opposite to each other. So for the circuit above: Ic = Ie – Ib as current must leave the Base.

Generally, the PNP transistor can replace NPN transistors in most electronic circuits, the only difference
is the polarities of the voltages, and the directions of the current flow. PNP transistors can also be used
as switching devices and an example of a PNP transistor switch is shown below.
A PNP Transistor Circuit

The Output Characteristics Curves for a PNP transistor look very similar to those for an equivalent NPN
transistor except that they are rotated by 180 o to take account of the reverse polarity voltages and
currents, (that is for a PNP transistor, electron current flows out of the base and collector towards the
battery). The same dynamic load line can be drawn onto the I-V curves to find the PNP transistors
operating points.

Transistor Matching
 Complementary Transistors
You may think what is the point of having a PNP Transistor, when there are plenty of NPN Transistors
available that can be used as an amplifier or solid-state switch?. Well, having two different types of
transistors “PNP” and “NPN”, can be a great advantage when designing power amplifier circuits such as
theClass B Amplifier.

Class-B amplifiers uses “Complementary” or “Matched Pair” (that is one PNP and one NPN connected
together) transistors in its output stage or in reversible H-Bridge motor control circuits were we want to
control the flow of current evenly through the motor in both directions.

A pair of corresponding NPN and PNP transistors with near identical characteristics to each other are
calledComplementary Transistors for example, a TIP3055 (NPN transistor) and the TIP2955 (PNP
transistor) are good examples of complementary or matched pair silicon power transistors. They both
have a DC current gain, Beta, ( Ic/Ib ) matched to within 10% and high Collector current of about 15A
making them ideal for general motor control or robotic applications.

Also, class B amplifiers use complementary NPN and PNP in their power output stage design. The NPN
transistor conducts for only the positive half of the signal while the PNP transistor conducts for negative
half of the signal.

This allows the amplifier to drive the required power through the load loudspeaker in both directions at the
stated nominal impedance and power resulting in an output current which is likely to be in the order of
several amps shared evenly between the two complementary transistors.

Identifying the PNP Transistor

We saw in the first tutorial of this transistors section, that transistors are basically made up of
two Diodes connected together back-to-back.

We can use this analogy to determine whether a transistor is of the PNP type or NPN type by testing
its Resistance between the three different leads, Emitter, Base and Collector. By testing each pair of
transistor leads in both directions with a multimeter will result in six tests in total with the expected
resistance values in Ohm’s given below.

 1. Emitter-Base Terminals – The Emitter to Base should act like a normal diode and conduct one
way only.

 2. Collector-Base Terminals – The Collector-Base junction should act like a normal diode and
conduct one way only.

 3. Emitter-Collector Terminals – The Emitter-Collector should not conduct in either direction.

Transistor Resistance Values for a PNP Transistor and a NPN Transistor

Between Transistor Terminals PNP NPN

Collector Emitter RHIGH RHIGH

Collector Base RLOW RHIGH

Emitter Collector RHIGH RHIGH

Emitter Base RLOW RHIGH

Base Collector RHIGH RLOW

Base Emitter RHIGH RLOW

Then we can define a PNP Transistor as being normally “OFF” but a small output current and negative
voltage at its Base ( B ) relative to its Emitter ( E ) will turn it “ON” allowing a much large Emitter-Collector
current to flow. PNP transistors conduct when Ve is much greater than Vc.

In other words, a Bipolar PNP Transistor will ONLY conduct if both the Base and Collector terminals are
negative with respect to the Emitter

In the next tutorial about Bipolar Transistors instead of using the transistor as an amplifying device, we
will look at the operation of the transistor in its saturation and cut-off regions when used as a solid-state
switch. Bipolar transistor switches are used in many applications to switch a DC current “ON” or “OFF”,
from LED’s which require only a few milliamps of switching current at low DC voltages, or motors and
relays which may require higher currents at higher voltages.
 PN Junction Diode

The effect described in the previous tutorial is achieved without any external voltage
being applied to the actual PN junction resulting in the junction being in a state of
equilibrium. However, if we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both
the N-type and the P-type materials and then connect them to a battery source, an
additional energy source now exists to overcome the potential barrier.

The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being
able to cross the depletion region from one side to the other. The behaviour of the PN
junction with regards to the potential barrier’s width produces an asymmetrical
conducting two terminal device, better known as the PN Junction Diode.

A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which
has the characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a
resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the
diode has an exponential current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we can not
described its operation by simply using an equation such as Ohm’s law.
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN
junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to
cross the junction as the width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is
decreased.

By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled
away from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has
the effect of increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself
allowing or blocking current flow through the diode.

Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse
voltage and narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is
due to the differences in the electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction
resulting in physical changes taking place. One of the results produces rectification as
seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage) characteristics.
Rectification is shown by an asymmetrical current flow when the polarity of bias
voltage is altered as shown below.

Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics.

But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device
we need to firstly bias the junction, ie connect a voltage potential across it. On the
voltage axis above, “Reverse Bias” refers to an external voltage potential which
increases the potential barrier. An external voltage which decreases the potential
barrier is said to act in the “Forward Bias” direction.

There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the
standard Junction Diode and these are:

 1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction

diode.
 2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-
type material and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode
which has the effect of Increasing the PN junction diode’s width.

 3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-

type material and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode
which has the effect of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.

Zero Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is

applied to the PN junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a
few holes (majority carriers) in the P-type material with enough energy to overcome
the potential barrier will move across the junction against this barrier potential. This is
known as the “Forward Current” and is referenced as IF

Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation
favourable and move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as
the “Reverse Current” and is referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes
back and forth across the PN junction is known as diffusion, as shown below.

Zero Biased PN Junction Diode

The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority
carriers across the junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers
(few free electrons in the P-region and few holes in the N-region) to drift across the
junction.

Then an “Equilibrium” or balance will be established when the majority carriers are
equal and both moving in opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current
flowing in the circuit. When this occurs the junction is said to be in a state of
“Dynamic Equilibrium“.

The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so this state of
equilibrium can be broken by raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an
increase in the generation of minority carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in
leakage current but an electric current cannot flow since no circuit has been connected
to the PN junction.
Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied

to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.

The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the
positive electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are
also attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode.

The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and
holes and presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high
potential barrier is created thus preventing current from flowing through the
semiconductor material.

Increase in the Depletion Layer due to Reverse Bias

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically
zero current flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage.
However, a very small leakage current does flow through the junction which can be
measured in micro-amperes, ( μA ).

One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a
sufficiently high enough value, it will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and
fail due to the avalanche effect around the junction. This may cause the diode to
become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current, and this shown
as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilising

circuits where a series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse
breakdown current to a preset maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage
output across the diode. These types of diodes are commonly known as Zener
Diodesand are discussed in a later tutorial.

Forward Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied
to the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this
external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7
volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be
overcome and current will start to flow.

This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction
giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the
opposite direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a
characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the “knee”
on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little increase
in the external voltage as shown below.

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the
depletion layer becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance
path through the junction thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at which
this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on the static I-V
characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.

Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing
very large currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias
voltage. The actual potential difference across the junction or diode is kept constant
by the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium and
approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.

Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it effectively
becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its
current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current specification causes the device
to dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for resulting in a very
quick failure of the device.

Junction Diode Summary

The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important
characteristics:

 Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge

carriers, Holes andElectrons.

 The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.

 A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-

type doping), so that it contains mobile charges which are primarily electrons.

 A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-

type doping), so that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.

 The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion
region.

 The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the
applied voltage.

 When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a

natural Potential Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is
approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for silicon diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for
germanium diodes.

 When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion

region reduces and the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full current to
flow.

 When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region
increases and the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current flow,
(only a very small leakage current).
We have also seen above that the diode is two terminal non-linear device whose I-V
characteristic are polarity dependent as depending upon the polarity of the applied
voltage, VD the diode is either Forward Biased, VD > 0 or Reverse Biased, VD < 0.
Either way we can model these current-voltage characteristics for both an ideal diode
and for a real diode.

Junction Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics

In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at the small signal diode sometimes
called a switching diode which is used in general electronic circuits. As its name
implies, the signal diode is designed for low-voltage or high frequency signal
applications such as in radio or digital switching circuits.

Signal diodes, such as the 1N4148 only pass very small electrical currents as opposed
to the high-current mains rectification diodes in which silicon diodes are usually used.
Also in the next tutorial we will examine the Signal Diode static current-voltage
characteristics curve and parameters.
 PN Junction Theory

The PN junction
In the previous tutorial we saw how to make an N-type semiconductor material by
doping a silicon atom with small amounts of Antimony and also how to make a P-
type semiconductor material by doping another silicon atom with Boron. This is all
well and good, but these newly doped N-type and P-type semiconductor materials do
very little on their own as they are electrically neutral.
However, if we join (or fuse) these two semiconductor materials together they behave
in a very different way merging together and producing what is generally known as a
“PN Junction“.
When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined
together a very large density gradient exists between both sides of the PN junction.
The result is that some of the free electrons from the donor impurity atoms begin to
migrate across this newly formed junction to fill up the holes in the P-type material
producing negative ions.
However, because the electrons have moved across the PN junction from the N-type
silicon to the P-type silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor ions ( ND ) on
the negative side and now the holes from the acceptor impurity migrate across the
junction in the opposite direction into the region where there are large numbers of free
electrons.
As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with negatively
charged acceptor ions ( NA ), and the charge density of the N-type along the junction
becomes positive. This charge transfer of electrons and holes across the PN junction is
known as diffusion. The width of these P and N layers depends on how heavily each
side is doped with acceptor density NA, and donor density ND, respectively.
This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons which have
crossed the junction
have a large enough electrical charge to repel or prevent any more charge carriers
from crossing over the junction. Eventually a state of equilibrium (electrically neutral
situation) will occur producing a “potential barrier” zone around the area of the
junction as the donor atoms repel the holes and the acceptor atoms repel the electrons.
Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential barrier,
the regions on either sides of the junction now become completely depleted of any
more free carriers in comparison to the N and P type materials further away from the
junction. This area around the PN Junction is now called the Depletion Layer.

The PN junction

The total charge on each side of a PN Junction must be equal and opposite to maintain
a neutral charge condition around the junction. If the depletion layer region has a
distance D, it therefore must therefore penetrate into the silicon by a distance of Dpfor
the positive side, and a distance of Dn for the negative side giving a relationship
between the two of Dp.NA = Dn.ND in order to maintain charge neutrality also called
equilibrium.
PN Junction Distance

As the N-type material has lost electrons and the P-type has lost holes, the N-type
material has become positive with respect to the P-type. Then the presence of impurity
ions on both sides of the junction cause an electric field to be established across this
region with the N-side at a positive voltage relative to the P-side. The problem now is
that a free charge requires some extra energy to overcome the barrier that now exists
for it to be able to cross the depletion region junction.
This electric field created by the diffusion process has created a “built-in potential
difference” across the junction with an open-circuit (zero bias) potential of:

Where: Eo is the zero bias junction voltage, VT the thermal voltage of 26mV at room
temperature, ND and NA are the impurity concentrations and ni is the intrinsic
concentration.
A suitable positive voltage (forward bias) applied between the two ends of the PN
junction can supply the free electrons and holes with the extra energy. The external
voltage required to overcome this potential barrier that now exists is very much
dependent upon the type of semiconductor material used and its actual temperature.
Typically at room temperature the voltage across the depletion layer for silicon is
about 0.6 – 0.7 volts and for germanium is about 0.3 – 0.35 volts. This potential
barrier will always exist even if the device is not connected to any external power
source, as seen in diodes.
The significance of this built-in potential across the junction, is that it opposes both
the flow of holes and electrons across the junction and is why it is called the potential
barrier. In practice, a PN junction is formed within a single crystal of material rather
than just simply joining or fusing together two separate pieces.
The result of this process is that the PN junction has rectifying current–voltage (IV or
I–V) characteristics. Electrical contacts are fused onto either side of the
semiconductor to enable an electrical connection to be made to an external circuit.
The resulting electronic device that has been made is commonly called a PN junction
Diode or simply Signal Diode.
Then we have seen here that a PN junction can be made by joining or diffusing
together differently doped semiconductor materials to produce an electronic device
called a diode which can be used as the basic semiconductor structure of rectifiers, all
types of transistors, LED’s, solar cells, and many more such solid state devices.
In the next tutorial about the PN junction, we will look at one of the most interesting
applications of the PN junction is its use in circuits as a diode. By adding connections
to each end of the P-type and the N-type materials we can produce a two terminal
device called a PN Junction Diode which can be biased by an external voltage to
either block or allow the flow of current through it.
 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

This method may be suitable for low power applications it is unsuitable to

applications which need a “steady and smooth” DC supply voltage. One method to
improve on this is to use every half-cycle of the input voltage instead of every other
half-cycle. The circuit which allows us to do this is called a Full Wave Rectifier.

Like the half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit produces an output voltage or
current which is purely DC or has some specified DC component. Full wave rectifiers
have some fundamental advantages over their half wave rectifier counterparts. The
average (DC) output voltage is higher than for half wave, the output of the full wave
rectifier has much less ripple than that of the half wave rectifier producing a smoother
output waveform.

In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half of the
cycle. A multiple winding transformer is used whose secondary winding is split
equally into two halves with a common centre tapped connection, (C). This
configuration results in each diode conducting in turn when its anode terminal is
positive with respect to the transformer centre point C producing an output during
both half-cycles, twice that for the half wave rectifier so it is 100% efficient as shown
below.

Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load
resistance (RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. When
point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point C, diode D1 conducts in the
forward direction as indicated by the arrows.

When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C,
diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor Ris
in the same direction for both half-cycles. As the output voltage across the resistorR is
the phasor sum of the two waveforms combined, this type of full wave rectifier circuit
is also known as a “bi-phase” circuit.
As the spaces between each half-wave developed by each diode is now being filled in
by the other diode the average DC output voltage across the load resistor is now
double that of the single half-wave rectifier circuit and is about 0.637Vmax of the peak
voltage, assuming no losses.

Where: VMAX is the maximum peak value in one half of the secondary winding
andVRMS is the rms value.

The peak voltage of the output waveform is the same as before for the half-wave
rectifier provided each half of the transformer windings have the same rms voltage
value. To obtain a different DC voltage output different transformer ratios can be
used. The main disadvantage of this type of full wave rectifier circuit is that a larger
transformer for a given power output is required with two separate but identical
secondary windings making this type of full wave rectifying circuit costly compared
to the “Full Wave Bridge Rectifier” circuit equivalent.

The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave
rectifier circuit above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single
phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop
“bridge” configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of this
bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby
reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of
the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.
The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes
conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the
supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased
and the current flows through the load as shown below.

The Positive Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but
diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing
through the load is the same direction as before.

The Negative Half-cycle

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed
across the load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave
rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax.

Typical Bridge Rectifier

However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes
instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2 x 0.7
= 1.4V ) less than the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the
supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply or 120Hz for a 60Hz supply.)

Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave bridge
rectifier, pre-made bridge rectifier components are available “off-the-shelf” in a range
of different voltage and current sizes that can be soldered directly into a PCB circuit
board or be connected by spade connectors.
The image to the right shows a typical single phase bridge rectifier with one corner
cut off. This cut-off corner indicates that the terminal nearest to the corner is the
positive or +ve output terminal or lead with the opposite (diagonal) lead being the
negative or -ve output lead. The other two connecting leads are for the input
alternating voltage from a transformer secondary winding.

The Smoothing Capacitor

We saw in the previous section that the single phase half-wave rectifier produces an
output wave every half cycle and that it was not practical to use this type of circuit to
produce a steady DC supply. The full-wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a
greater mean DC value (0.637 Vmax) with less superimposed ripple while the output
waveform is twice that of the frequency of the input supply frequency. We can
therefore increase its average DC output level even higher by connecting a suitable
smoothing capacitor across the output of the bridge circuit as shown below.

Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a
smooth DC output voltage. Generally for DC power supply circuits the smoothing
capacitor is an Aluminium Electrolytic type that has a capacitance value of 100uF or
more with repeated DC voltage pulses from the rectifier charging up the capacitor to
peak voltage.

However, their are two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable
smoothing capacitor and these are its Working Voltage, which must be higher than the
no-load output value of the rectifier and its Capacitance Value, which determines the
amount of ripple that will appear superimposed on top of the DC voltage.

Too low a capacitance value and the capacitor has little effect on the output
waveform. But if the smoothing capacitor is sufficiently large enough (parallel
capacitors can be used) and the load current is not too large, the output voltage will be
almost as smooth as pure DC. As a general rule of thumb, we are looking to have a
ripple voltage of less than 100mV peak to peak.

The maximum ripple voltage present for a Full Wave Rectifier circuit is not only
determined by the value of the smoothing capacitor but by the frequency and load
current, and is calculated as:

Bridge Rectifier Ripple Voltage

Where: I is the DC load current in amps, ƒ is the frequency of the ripple or twice the
input frequency in Hertz, and C is the capacitance in Farads.
The main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that it has a smaller AC ripple
value for a given load and a smaller reservoir or smoothing capacitor than an
equivalent half-wave rectifier. Therefore, the fundamental frequency of the ripple
voltage is twice that of the AC supply frequency (100Hz) where for the half-wave
rectifier it is exactly equal to the supply frequency (50Hz).

The amount of ripple voltage that is superimposed on top of the DC supply voltage by
the diodes can be virtually eliminated by adding a much improved π-filter (pi-filter) to
the output terminals of the bridge rectifier. This type of low-pass filter consists of two
smoothing capacitors, usually of the same value and a choke or inductance across
them to introduce a high impedance path to the alternating ripple component

Another more practical and cheaper alternative is to use an off the shelf 3-terminal
voltage regulator IC, such as a LM78xx (where “xx” stands for the output voltage
rating) for a positive output voltage or its inverse equivalent the LM79xx for a
negative output voltage which can reduce the ripple by more than 70dB (Datasheet)
while delivering a constant output current of over 1 amp.

In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at the Zener Diode which takes
advantage of its reverse breakdown voltage characteristic to produce a constant and
fixed output voltage across itself.
Step Down Transformer

Step down transformers are designed to reduce electrical

voltage. Their primary voltage is greater than their
secondary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps down"
the voltage applied to it. For instance, a step down
transformer is needed to use a 110v product in a country
with a 220v supply.

Step down transformers convert electrical voltage from one

level or phase configuration usually down to a lower level.
They can include features for electrical isolation, power distribution, and control and instrumentation
applications. Step down transformers typically rely on the principle of magnetic induction between
coils to convert voltage and/or current levels.

Step down transformers are made from two or more coils of insulated wire wound around a core
made of iron. When voltage is applied to one coil (frequently called the primary or input) it
magnetizes the iron core, which induces a voltage in the other coil, (frequently called the secondary
or output). The turns ratio of the two sets of windings determines the amount of voltage
transformation.

An example of this would be: 100 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary, a ratio of 2 to
1.

Step down transformers can be considered nothing more than a voltage ratio device.

With step down transformers the voltage ratio between primary and secondary will mirror the "turns
ratio" (except for single phase smaller than 1 kva which have compensated secondaries). A practical
application of this 2 to 1 turns ratio would be a 480 to 240 voltage step down. Note that if the input
were 440 volts then the output would be 220 volts. The ratio between input and output voltage will
stay constant. Transformers should not be operated at voltages higher than the nameplate rating,
but may be operated at lower voltages than rated. Because of this it is possible to do some non-
standard applications using standard transformers.

Single phase step down transformers 1 kva and larger may also be reverse connected to step-down
or step-up voltages. (Note: single phase step up or step down transformers sized less than 1 KVA
should not be reverse connected because the secondary windings have additional turns to
overcome a voltage drop when the load is applied. If reverse connected, the output voltage will be
less than desired.)
 Resistors

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a

circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage
levels within circuits. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal
levels, biasactive elements, and terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power
resistors, that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used as part of motor
controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have
resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors
can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing
devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuitsand are ubiquitous
in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various
compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are
manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the
resistance will fall within a manufacturing tolerance.

Two typical schematic diagram symbols are as follows:

(a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and (c) potentiometer

IEC resistor symbol

The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies. The European notation BS
1852 avoids using a decimal separator, and replaces the decimal separator with the SI prefix symbol
for the particular value. For example, 8k2 in a circuit diagram indicates a resistor value of 8.2 kΩ.
Additional zeros imply tighter tolerance, for example 15M0. When the value can be expressed
without the need for an SI prefix, an "R" is used instead of the decimal separator.
For example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 Ω, and 18R indicates 18 Ω. The use of a SI prefix symbol or the
letter "R" circumvents the problem that decimal separators tend to "disappear" when photocopying a
printed circuit diagram.

Resistors, ( R ) are the most fundamental and commonly used of all the electronic components, to
the point where they are almost taken for granted. There are many different Types of
Resistor available for the electronics constructor to choose from, from very small surface mount
chip resistors up to large wirewound power resistors.

The principal job of a resistor within an electrical or electronic circuit is to “resist” (hence the
nameResistor), regulate or to set the flow of electrons (current) through them by using the type of
conductive material from which they are composed. Resistors can also be connected together in various
series and parallel combinations to form resistor networks which can act as voltage droppers, voltage
dividers or current limiters within a circuit.

A Typical Resistor
Resistors are what are called “Passive Devices“, that is they contain no source of power or amplification
but only attenuate or reduce the voltage or current signal passing through them. This attenuation results
in electrical energy being lost in the form of heat as the resistor resists the flow of electrons through it.

Then a potential difference is required between the two terminals of a resistor for current to flow. This
potential difference balances out the energy lost. When used in DC circuits the potential difference, also
known as a resistors voltage drop, is measured across the terminals as the circuit current flows through
the resistor.

Most types of resistor are linear devices that produce a voltage drop across themselves when an
electrical current flows through them because they obey Ohm’s Law, and different values of resistance
produces different values of current or voltage. This can be very useful in Electronic circuits by controlling
or reducing either the current flow or voltage produced across them we can produce a voltage-to-current
and current-to-voltage converter.

There are many thousands of different Types of Resistor and are produced in a variety of forms
because their particular characteristics and accuracy suit certain areas of application, such as High
Stability, High Voltage, High Current etc, or are used as general purpose resistors where their
characteristics are less of a problem.

Some of the common characteristics associated with the humble resistor are; Temperature Coefficient,
Voltage Coefficient, Noise, Frequency Response, Power as well as a resistorsTemperature Rating,
Physical Size and Reliability.

In all Electrical and Electronic circuit diagrams and schematics, the most commonly used symbol for a
fixed value resistor is that of a “zig-zag” type line with the value of its resistance given in Ohms, Ω.
Resistors have fixed resistance values from less than one ohm, ( <1Ω ) to well over tens of millions of
ohms, ( >10MΩ ) in value.

Fixed resistors have only one single value of resistance, for example 100Ω’s but variable resistors
(potentiometers) can provide an infinite number of resistance values between zero and their maximum
value.

Standard Resistor Symbols

The symbol used in schematic and electrical drawings for a Resistor can either be a “zig-zag” type line or
a rectangular box.

All modern fixed value resistors can be classified into four broad groups;

 Carbon Composition Resistor – Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage values

 Film or Cermet Resistor – Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage values

 Wire-wound Resistor – Metallic bodies for heatsink mounting, very high wattage ratings

 Semiconductor Resistor – High frequency/precision surface mount thin film technology

There are a large variety of fixed and variable resistor types with different construction styles available for
each group, with each one having its own particular characteristics, advantages and disadvantages
compared to the others. To include all types would make this section very large so I shall limit it to the
most commonly used, and readily available general purpose types of resistors.

Composition Types of Resistor

Carbon Resistors are the most common type of Composition Resistors. Carbon resistors are a cheap
general purpose resistor used in electrical and electronic circuits. Their resistive element is manufactured
from a mixture of finely ground carbon dust or graphite (similar to pencil lead) and a non-conducting
ceramic (clay) powder to bind it all together.
 Carbon Resistor
The ratio of carbon dust to ceramic (conductor to insulator) determines the overall resistive value of the
mixture and the higher the ratio of carbon, the lower the overall resistance. The mixture is moulded into a
cylindrical shape with metal wires or leads are attached to each end to provide the electrical connection
as shown, before being coated with an outer insulating material and colour coded markings to denote its
resistive value.

Carbon Resistor

The Carbon Composite Resistor is a low to medium type power resistor which has a low inductance
making them ideal for high frequency applications but they can also suffer from noise and stability when
hot. Carbon composite resistors are generally prefixed with a “CR” notation (eg, CR10kΩ ) and are
available in E6 ( ± 20% tolerance (accuracy) ), E12 ( ± 10% tolerance) and E24 ( ± 5% tolerance)
packages with power ratings from 0.125 or 1/4 of a Watt up to 5 Watts.

Carbon composite resistor types are very cheap to make and are therefore commonly used in electrical
circuits. However, due to their manufacturing process carbon type resistors have very large tolerances so
for more precision and high value resistances, film type resistors are used instead.

Film Type Resistors

The generic term “Film Resistor” consist of Metal Film, Carbon Film and Metal Oxide Film resistor types,
which are generally made by depositing pure metals, such as nickel, or an oxide film, such as tin-oxide,
onto an insulating ceramic rod or substrate.
 Film Resistor
The resistive value of the resistor is controlled by increasing the desired thickness of the deposited film
giving them the names of either “thick-film resistors” or “thin-film resistors”.

Once deposited, a laser is used to cut a high precision spiral helix groove type pattern into this film. The
cutting of the film has the effect of increasing the conductive or resistive path, a bit like taking a long
length of straight wire and forming it into a coil.

This method of manufacture allows for much closer tolerance resistors (1% or less) as compared to the
simpler carbon composition types. The tolerance of a resistor is the difference between the preferred
value (i.e, 100 ohms) and its actual manufactured value i.e, 103.6 ohms, and is expressed as a
percentage, for example 5%, 10% etc, and in our example the actual tolerance is 3.6%. Film type
resistors also achieve a much higher maximum ohmic value compared to other types and values in
excess of 10MΩ (10 Million Ω´s) are available.

Film Resistor

Metal Film Resistors have much better temperature stability than their carbon equivalents, lower noise
and are generally better for high frequency or radio frequency applications. Metal Oxide Resistors have
better high surge current capability with a much higher temperature rating than the equivalent metal film
resistors.

Another type of film resistor commonly known as a Thick Film Resistor is manufactured by depositing a
much thicker conductive paste of CERamic and METal, called Cermet, onto an alumina ceramic
substrate. Cermet resistors have similar properties to metal film resistors and are generally used for
making small surface mount chip type resistors, multi-resistor networks in one package for pcb’s and high
frequency resistors. They have good temperature stability, low noise, and good voltage ratings but low
surge current properties.

Metal Film Resistors are prefixed with a “MFR” notation (eg, MFR100kΩ) and a CF for Carbon Film
types. Metal film resistors are available in E24 (±5% & ±2% tolerances), E96 (±1% tolerance)
and E192(±0.5%, ±0.25% & ±0.1% tolerances) packages with power ratings of 0.05 (1/20th) of a Watt up
to 1/2 Watt. Generally speaking Film resistors are precision low power components.

Wirewound Types of Resistor

Another type of resistor, called a Wirewound Resistor, is made by winding a thin metal alloy wire
(Nichrome) or similar wire onto an insulating ceramic former in the form of a spiral helix similar to the film
resistor above.

Wirewound Resistor
These types of resistor are generally only available in very low ohmic high precision values
(from 0.01 to 100kΩ) due to the gauge of the wire and number of turns possible on the former making
them ideal for use in measuring circuits and Whetstone bridge type applications.

They are also able to handle much higher electrical currents than other resistors of the same ohmic value
with power ratings in excess of 300 Watts. These high power resistors are moulded or pressed into an
aluminium heat sink body with fins attached to increase their overall surface area to promote heat loss
and cooling.

These special types of resistor are called “Chassis Mounted Resistors” because they are designed to be
physically mounted onto heatsinks or metal plates to further dissipate the generated heat. The mounting
of the resistor onto a heatsink increases their current carrying capabilitie.

Another type of wirewound resistor is the Power Wirewound Resistor. These are high temperature, high
power non-inductive resistor types generally coated with a vitreous or glass epoxy enamel for use in
resistance banks or DC motor/servo control and dynamic braking applications. They can even be used as
low wattage space or cabinet heaters.

The non-inductive resistance wire is wound around a ceramic or porcelain tube covered with mica to
prevent the alloy wires from moving when hot. Wirewound resistors are available in a variety of resistance
and power ratings with one main use of power wirewound resistor is in the electrical heating elements of
an electric fire which converts the electrical current flowing through it into heat with each element
dissipating up to 1000 Watts, (1kW) of energy.

Because the wire of standard wire wound resistors is wound into a coil inside the resistors body, it acts
like an inductor causing them to have inductance as well as resistance. This affects the way the resistor
behaves in AC circuits by producing a phase shift at high frequencies especially in the larger size
resistors. The length of the actual resistance path in the resistor and the leads contributes inductance in
series with the “apparent” DC resistance resulting in an overall impedance path of Z Ohms.

Impedance ( Z ) is the combined effect of resistance ( R ) and inductance ( X ), measured in ohms and for
a series AC circuit is given as, Z 2 = R 2 + X 2.
When used in AC circuits this inductance value changes with frequency (inductive reactance,XL = 2πƒL)
and therefore, the overall value of the resistor changes. Inductive reactance increases with frequency but
is zero at DC (zero frequency). Then, wirewound resistors must not be designed or used in AC or
amplifier type circuits where the frequency across the resistor changes. However, special non-inductive
wirewound resistors are also available.

Wirewound Resistor

Wirewound resistor types are prefixed with a “WH” or “W” notation (eg WH10Ω) and are available in
the WH aluminium clad package (±1%, ±2%, ±5% & ±10% tolerance) or the W vitreous enamelled
package (±1%, ±2% & ±5% tolerance) with power ratings from 1W to 300W or more.
Resistance Color Code
Capacitor
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminalelectrical component used
to store electrical energy temporarily in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary
widely, but all contain at least twoelectrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e.
an insulator that can store energy by becoming polarized). The conductors can be thin films, foils or
sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase
the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics
include glass, ceramic, plastic film, air,vacuum, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely
used as parts ofelectrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal
capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic
field between its plates.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached across
a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collect on
one plate and negative charge −Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been attached to a
capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor. However, if a
time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, its capacitance. Capacitance is

defined as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential difference V between
them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V).
Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to about 1 mF (10−3 F).

The larger the surface area of the "plates" (conductors) and the narrower the gap between them, the
greater the capacitance is. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount
of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductanceand resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating
current to pass. Inanalog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant
circuits they tune radios to particularfrequencies. In electric power transmission systems, they
stabilize voltage and power flow.
Capacitor History
In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania, Germany, found that charge could be stored
by connecting a high-voltage electrostatic generator by a wire to a volume of water in a hand-held
glass jar.[2] Von Kleist's hand and the water acted as conductors, and the jar as a dielectric (although
details of the mechanism were incorrectly identified at the time). Von Kleist found that touching the
wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained from an electrostatic
machine. The following year, the Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek invented a similar
capacitor, which was named theLeyden jar, after the University of Leiden where he worked.[3] He
also was impressed by the power of the shock he received, writing, "I would not take a second shock
for the kingdom of France."[4]

Daniel Gralath was the first to combine several jars in parallel into a "battery" to increase the charge
storage capacity. Benjamin Franklin investigated the Leyden jar and came to the conclusion that the
charge was stored on the glass, not in the water as others had assumed. He also adopted the term
"battery",[5][6] (denoting the increasing of power with a row of similar units as in a battery of cannon),
subsequently applied to clusters of electrochemical cells.[7] Leyden jars were later made by coating
the inside and outside of jars with metal foil, leaving a space at the mouth to prevent arcing between
the foils.[citation needed] The earliest unit of capacitance was the jar, equivalent to about 1.11nanofarads.[8]

Leyden jars or more powerful devices employing flat glass plates alternating with foil conductors
were used exclusively up until about 1900, when the invention of wireless (radio) created a demand
for standard capacitors, and the steady move to higher frequencies required capacitors with
lower inductance. More compact construction methods began to be used, such as a flexible
dielectric sheet (like oiled paper) sandwiched between sheets of metal foil, rolled or folded into a
small package.

Early capacitors were also known as condensers, a term that is still occasionally used today,
particularly in high power applications, like automotive systems. The term was first used for this
purpose by Alessandro Volta in 1782, with reference to the device's ability to store a higher density
of electric charge than a normal isolated conductor.[9]

Since the beginning of the study of electricity non conductive materials

like glass, porcelain, paper and mica have been used as insulators. These materials some decades
later were also well-suited for further use as the dielectric for the first capacitors. Paper
capacitors made by sandwiching a strip of impregnated paper between strips of metal, and rolling
the result into a cylinder were commonly used in the late 19century; their manufacture started in
1876,[10] and they were used from the early 20th century as decoupling capacitors in
telecommunications (telephony). Porcelain was the precursor in case of all capacitors now belonging
to the family of ceramic capacitors. Even in the early years of Marconi`s wireless transmitting
apparatus porcelain capacitors were used for high voltage and high frequency application in
the transmitters.

On receiver side the smaller mica capacitors were used for resonant circuits. Mica dielectric
capacitors were invented in 1909 by William Dubilier. Prior to World War II, mica was the most
common dielectric for capacitors in the United States,[10]see Ceramic capacitor#History

Charles Pollak (born Karol Pollak), the inventor of Aluminum electrolytic capacitors, found out that
that the oxide layer on an aluminum anode remained stable in a neutral or alkaline electrolyte, even
when the power was switched off. In 1896 he filed a patent for an "Electric liquid capacitor with
aluminum electrodes" based on his idea of using the oxide layer in a polarized capacitor in
combination with a neutral or slightly alkaline electrolyte, see Electrolytic capacitor#History.

With the development of plastic materials by organic chemists during the Second World War, the
capacitor industry began to replace paper with thinner polymer films. One very early development in
film capacitors was described in British Patent 587,953 in 1944,[10] see Film capacitor#History

Solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors were invented by Bell Laboratories in the early 1950s as a
miniaturized and more reliable low-voltage support capacitor to complement their newly
invented transistor, see Tantalum capacitor#History.

Last but not least the electric double-layer capacitor (now Supercapacitors) were invented. In 1957
H. Becker developed a "Low voltage electrolytic capacitor with porous carbon electrodes".[10][11][12] He
believed that the energy was stored as a charge in the carbon pores used in his capacitor as in the
pores of the etched foils of electrolytic capacitors. Because the double layer mechanism was not
known by him at the time, he wrote in the patent: "It is not known exactly what is taking place in the
component if it is used for energy storage, but it leads to an extremely high capacity"
 Theory of Capacitor operation

A capacitor consists of two conductorsseparated by a non-conductive region.[13]The non-conductive

region is called thedielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples
of dielectric media are glass, air, paper,vacuum, and even a semiconductordepletion
region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and
isolated, with no netelectric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors
thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces,[14] and the dielectric develops an
electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that onecoulomb of charge on each
conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.[15]

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:[13]

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors
attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for a
given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large capacitance.

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary.
In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Hydraulic analogy

In the hydraulic analogy, a capacitor is analogous to a rubber membrane sealed inside a pipe. This
animation illustrates a membrane being repeatedly stretched and un-stretched by the flow of water,
which is analogous to a capacitor being repeatedly charged and discharged by the flow of charge.

In the hydraulic analogy, charge carriers flowing through a wire are analogous to water
flowing through a pipe. A capacitor is like a rubber membrane sealed inside a pipe. Water
molecules cannot pass through the membrane, but some water can move by stretching the
membrane. The analogy clarifies a few aspects of capacitors:
 The current alters the charge on a capacitor, just as the flow of water changes the
position of the membrane. More specifically, the effect of an electric current is to
increase the charge of one plate of the capacitor, and decrease the charge of the other
plate by an equal amount. This is just as when water flow moves the rubber membrane,
it increases the amount of water on one side of the membrane, and decreases the
amount of water on the other side.
 The more a capacitor is charged, the larger its voltage drop; i.e., the more it "pushes
back" against the charging current. This is analogous to the fact that the more a
membrane is stretched, the more it pushes back on the water.
 Charge can flow "through" a capacitor even though no individual electron can get from
one side to the other. This is analogous to the fact that water can flow through the pipe
even though no water molecule can pass through the rubber membrane. Of course, the
flow cannot continue in the same direction forever; the capacitor will
experience dielectric breakdown, and analogously the membrane will eventually break.
 The capacitance describes how much charge can be stored on one plate of a capacitor
for a given "push" (voltage drop). A very stretchy, flexible membrane corresponds to a
higher capacitance than a stiff membrane.
 A charged-up capacitor is storing potential energy, analogously to a stretched
membrane.
 Types of Capacitors

There are a very, very large variety of different types of

capacitor available in the market place and each one has its own set
of characteristics and applications, from very small delicate
trimming capacitors up to large power metal-can type capacitors
used in high voltage power correction and smoothing circuits.

The comparisons between the the different types of capacitor is generally

made with regards to the dielectric used between the plates. Like resistors,
there are also variable types of capacitors which allow us to vary their
capacitance value for use in radio or “frequency tuning” type circuits.
Commercial types of Capacitor are made from metallic foil interlaced with
thin sheets of either paraffin-impregnated paper or Mylar as the dielectric
material. Some capacitors look like tubes, this is because the metal foil
plates are rolled up into a cylinder to form a small package with the
insulating dielectric material sandwiched in between them.
Small capacitors are often constructed from ceramic materials and then
dipped into an epoxy resin to seal them. Either way, capacitors play an
important part in electronic circuits so here are a few of the more “common”
types of capacitor available.

Dielectric Capacitor

Dielectric Capacitors are usually of the variable type were a continuous

variation of capacitance is required for tuning transmitters, receivers and
transistor radios. Variable dielectric capacitors are multi-plate air-spaced
types that have a set of fixed plates (the stator vanes) and a set of movable
plates (the rotor vanes) which move in between the fixed plates.
The position of the moving plates with respect to the fixed plates determines
the overall capacitance value. The capacitance is generally at maximum
when the two sets of plates are fully meshed together. High voltage type
tuning capacitors have relatively large spacings or air-gaps between the
plates with breakdown voltages reaching many thousands of volts.

Variable Capacitor Symbols

As well as the continuously variable types, preset type variable capacitors

are also available calledTrimmers. These are generally small devices that
can be adjusted or “pre-set” to a particular capacitance value with the aid of
a small screwdriver and are available in very small capacitance’s of 500pF or
less and are non-polarized.

Film Capacitor

Film Capacitors are the most commonly available of all types of capacitors,
consisting of a relatively large family of capacitors with the difference being
in their dielectric properties. These include polyester (Mylar), polystyrene,
polypropylene, polycarbonate, metalised paper, Teflon etc. Film type
capacitors are available in capacitance ranges from as small as 5pF to as
large as 100uF depending upon the actual type of capacitor and its voltage
rating. Film capacitors also come in an assortment of shapes and case styles
which include:
 • Wrap & Fill (Oval &Round) – where the capacitor is wrapped in a
tight plastic tape and have the ends filled with epoxy to seal them.
 • Epoxy Case (Rectangular &Round) – where the capacitor is encased
in a moulded plastic shell which is then filled with epoxy.
 • Metal Hermetically Sealed (Rectangular &Round) – where the
capacitor is encased in a metal tube or can and again sealed with
epoxy.
with all the above case styles available in both Axial and Radial Leads.
Film Capacitors which use polystyrene, polycarbonate or Teflon as their
dielectrics are sometimes called “Plastic capacitors”. The construction of
plastic film capacitors is similar to that for paper film capacitors but use a
plastic film instead of paper. The main advantage of plastic film capacitors
compared to impregnated-paper types is that they operate well under
conditions of high temperature, have smaller tolerances, a very long service
life and high reliability. Examples of film capacitors are the rectangular
metalised film and cylindrical film & foil types as shown below.

Radial Lead Type

Axial Lead Type

The film and foil types of capacitors are made from long thin strips of thin
metal foil with the dielectric material sandwiched together which are wound
into a tight roll and then sealed in paper or metal tubes.

Film Capacitor

These film types require a much thicker dielectric film to reduce the risk of
tears or punctures in the film, and is therefore more suited to lower
capacitance values and larger case sizes.
Metalised foil capacitors have the conductive film metalised sprayed directly
onto each side of the dielectric which gives the capacitor self-healing
properties and can therefore use much thinner dielectric films. This allows
for higher capacitance values and smaller case sizes for a given capacitance.
Film and foil capacitors are generally used for higher power and more
precise applications.

Ceramic Capacitors

Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally called, are

made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver
and are then stacked together to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance
values a single ceramic disc of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic capacitors
have a high dielectric constant (High-K) and are available so that relatively
high capacitance’s can be obtained in a small physical size.
 Ceramic Capacitor
They exhibit large non-linear changes in capacitance against temperature
and as a result are used as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors as they are
also non-polarized devices. Ceramic capacitors have values ranging from a
few picofarads to one or two microfarads, ( μF ) but their voltage ratings are
generally quite low.
Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto their
body to identify their capacitance value in pico-farads. Generally the first
two digits indicate the capacitors value and the third digit indicates the
number of zero’s to be added. For example, a ceramic disc capacitor with the
markings 103 would indicate 10 and 3 zero’s in pico-farads which is
equivalent to 10,000 pF or 10nF.
Likewise, the digits 104 would indicate 10 and 4 zero’s in pico-farads which
is equivalent to 100,000 pFor 100nF and so on. So on the image of the
ceramic capacitor above the numbers 154 indicate 15 and 4 zero’s in pico-
farads which is equivalent to 150,000 pF or 150nF or 0.15uF. Letter codes
are sometimes used to indicate their tolerance value such as: J = 5%, K =
10% or M = 20% etc.

Electrolytic Capacitors

Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used when very large capacitance

values are required. Here instead of using a very thin metallic film layer for
one of the electrodes, a semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly
or paste is used which serves as the second electrode (usually the cathode).
The dielectric is a very thin layer of oxide which is grown electro-chemically
in production with the thickness of the film being less than ten microns. This
insulating layer is so thin that it is possible to make capacitors with a large
value of capacitance for a small physical size as the distance between the
plates, d is very small.
 Electrolytic Capacitor
The majority of electrolytic types of capacitors are Polarised, that is the DC
voltage applied to the capacitor terminals must be of the correct polarity, i.e.
positive to the positive terminal and negative to the negative terminal as an
incorrect polarisation will break down the insulating oxide layer and
permanent damage may result.
All polarised electrolytic capacitors have their polarity clearly marked with a
negative sign to indicate the negative terminal and this polarity must be
followed.
Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used in DC power supply circuits due
to their large capacitance’s and small size to help reduce the ripple voltage
or for coupling and decoupling applications. One main disadvantage of
electrolytic capacitors is their relatively low voltage rating and due to the
polarisation of electrolytic capacitors, it follows then that they must not be
used on AC supplies. Electrolytic’s generally come in two basic
forms; Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors and Tantalum Electrolytic
Capacitors.

Electrolytic Capacitor

1. Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors

There are basically two types of Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitor, the
plain foil type and the etched foil type. The thickness of the aluminium oxide
film and high breakdown voltage give these capacitors very high capacitance
values for their size.
The foil plates of the capacitor are anodized with a DC current. This
anodizing process sets up the polarity of the plate material and determines
which side of the plate is positive and which side is negative.

The etched foil type differs from the plain foil type in that the aluminium
oxide on the anode and cathode foils has been chemically etched to increase
its surface area and permittivity. This gives a smaller sized capacitor than a
plain foil type of equivalent value but has the disadvantage of not being able
to withstand high DC currents compared to the plain type. Also their
tolerance range is quite large at up to 20%. Typical values of capacitance for
an aluminium electrolytic capacitor range from 1uF up to 47,000uF.
Etched foil electrolytic’s are best used in coupling, DC blocking and by-pass
circuits while plain foil types are better suited as smoothing capacitors in
power supplies. But aluminium electrolytic’s are “polarised” devices so
reversing the applied voltage on the leads will cause the insulating layer
within the capacitor to become destroyed along with the capacitor. However,
the electrolyte used within the capacitor helps heal a damaged plate if the
damage is small.
Since the electrolyte has the properties to self-heal a damaged plate, it also
has the ability to re-anodize the foil plate. As the anodizing process can be
reversed, the electrolyte has the ability to remove the oxide coating from the
foil as would happen if the capacitor was connected with a reverse polarity.
Since the electrolyte has the ability to conduct electricity, if the aluminium
oxide layer was removed or destroyed, the capacitor would allow current to
pass from one plate to the other destroying the capacitor, “so be aware”.

2. Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors

Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors and Tantalum Beads, are available in
both wet (foil) and dry (solid) electrolytic types with the dry or solid
tantalum being the most common. Solid tantalum capacitors use manganese
dioxide as their second terminal and are physically smaller than the
equivalent aluminium capacitors.
The dielectric properties of tantalum oxide is also much better than those of
aluminium oxide giving a lower leakage currents and better capacitance
stability which makes them suitable for use in blocking, by-passing,
decoupling, filtering and timing applications.
Also, Tantalum Capacitors although polarised, can tolerate being
connected to a reverse voltage much more easily than the aluminium types
but are rated at much lower working voltages. Solid tantalum capacitors are
usually used in circuits where the AC voltage is small compared to the DC
voltage.
However, some tantalum capacitor types contain two capacitors in-one,
connected negative-to-negative to form a “non-polarised” capacitor for use
in low voltage AC circuits as a non-polarised device. Generally, the positive
lead is identified on the capacitor body by a polarity mark, with the body of a
tantalum bead capacitor being an oval geometrical shape. Typical values of
capacitance range from 47nF to 470uF.

Aluminium & Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitor

Electrolytic’s are widely used capacitors due to their low cost and small size
but there are three easy ways to destroy an electrolytic capacitor:

 • Over-voltage – excessive voltage will cause current to leak through

the dielectric resulting in a short circuit condition.
 • Reversed Polarity – reverse voltage will cause self-destruction of the
oxide layer and failure.
 • Over Temperature – excessive heat dries out the electrolytic and
shortens the life of an electrolytic capacitor.
In the next tutorial about Capacitors, we will look at some of the main
characteristics to show that there is more to the Capacitor than just voltage
and capacitance.
 Reference
1. http://www.buildcircuit.com
2. http://www.wikihow.com
3. http://www.alldatasheets.com
4 http://www.wikipedia.org.

5.http://www.google.co.in

6.http://www.fadooengineers.com

Books:
Electronic Circuits by Sedra & Smith (Oxford University Press)

M. D. Felder, J. C. Mason, and B. L. Evans, \E_cient ITU-compliant dual-tone multiple-

frequency detectionusing the non-uniform discrete Fourier transform." IEEE Signal
Processing Letters, To Appear.