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The black stork (Ciconia nigra) is a large bird in the stork family, Ciconiidae. It
was first described by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae.
Black stork
Measuring on average 95 to 100 cm (37 to 39 in) from beak tip to end of tail with
a 145-to-155 cm (57-to-61 in) wingspan, the adult black stork has mainly black
plumage, with white underparts, long red legs and a long pointed red beak. A
widespread, but uncommon, species, it breeds in scattered locations across Europe
(predominantly in Spain, and central and eastern parts), and Asia to the Pacific
Ocean. It is a long-distance migrant, with European populations wintering in
tropical Sub-Saharan Africa, and Asian populations in the Indian subcontinent.
When migrating between Europe and Africa, it avoids crossing the Mediterranean
Sea and detours via the Levant in the east or the Strait of Gibraltar in the west. An
isolated, non-migratory, population occurs in Southern Africa.
Unlike the closely relatedwhite stork, the black stork is a shy and wary species. It
is seen singly or in pairs, usually in marshy areas, rivers or inland waters. It feeds
on amphibians, small fish and insects, generally wading slowly in shallow water
stalking its prey. Breeding pairs usually build nests in large forest trees—most
commonly deciduous but also coniferous—which can be seen from long
distances, as well as on large boulders, or under overhanging ledges in
In Kruger National Park, South Africa
mountainous areas. The female lays two to five greyish-white eggs, which
become soiled over time in the nest. Incubation takes 32 to 38 days, with both Conservation status
sexes sharing duties, andfledging takes 60 to 71 days.
The black stork is a member of the genus Ciconia, or typical storks, a group of seven extant species, characterised by straight bills
and mainly black and whiteplumage.[8] The black stork was long thought to be most closely related to thewhite stork (C. ciconia).[9]
However, genetic analysis via DNA–DNA hybridizationand mitochondrial cytochrome b DNA by Beth Slikas in 1997 found that it
was basal (an early offshoot) in the genus Ciconia.[10] Fossil remains have been recovered from Miocene beds on Rusinga and
[11]
Maboko Islands in Kenya, which are indistinguishable from the white and black storks.
Description
The black stork is a large bird, measuring between 95 and 100 cm (37 and 39 in) in
length with a 145-to-155 cm (57-to-61 in) wingspan,[12] and weighing around 3 kg
(6.6 lb).[13] Standing as tall as 102 cm (40 in),[14] it has long red legs, a long neck
and a long, straight, pointed red beak.[12] It bears some resemblance to Abdim's
stork (C. abdimii), which can be distinguished by its much smaller build,
predominantly green bill, legs and feet, and white rump and lower back.[12][15] The
plumage is black with a purplish green sheen, except for the white lower breast,
belly, armpits, axillaries and undertail coverts.[12][16] The breast feathers are long
Adult in a Dutch zoo
and shaggy, forming a ruff which is used in some courtship displays.[12] The black
stork has brown irises, and bare red skin around its eyes.[12][17] The sexes are
identical in appearance, except that males are larger than females on average.[12] Moulting takes place in spring, with the iridescent
sheen brighter in new plumage.[18] It walks slowly and steadily on the ground and like all storks, it flies with its neck
outstretched.[19]
The juvenile resembles the adult in plumage, but the areas corresponding to the adult black feathers are browner and less glossy. The
scapulars, wing and upper tail coverts have pale tips. The legs, bill and bare skin around the eyes are greyish green.[12] It could
possibly be confused with the juvenileyellow-billed stork, but the latter has paler wings and mantle, a longer bill and white under the
wings.[20]
Most of the black storks that summer in Europe migrate to Africa,[18] with those
from western Germany and points west heading south via the Iberian Peninsula and
the rest via Turkey and the Levant. Those flying via Spain spend winter in the
Falémé River basin of eastern Senegal, Guinea, southern Mauritania, Ivory Coast,
Sierra Leone and western and central Mali, while those flying via the Sinai end up in Black stork in flight
northern Ethiopia, the Kotto River basin in the Central African Republic, the
Mbokou river basin in Chad and northeastern Nigeria.[23] Black storks summering
in western Asia migrate to northern and northeastern India,[18] ranging mainly from Punjab south to Karnataka,[24] and Africa.[17]
They are occasional visitors to Sri Lanka.[25] Those summering further east in eastern Russia and China winter mainly in southern
China, and occasionally in Hong Kong, Myanmar, northern Thailand, and Laos.[18] They were first recorded in western Myanmar in
1998.[26]
The black stork prefers more wooded areas than the better-known white stork, and breeds in large marshy wetlands with interspersed
coniferous or broadleaved woodlands, but also inhabits hills and mountains with sufficient networks of creeks.[12] It usually inhabits
ponds, rivers, edges of lakes, estuaries and other freshwater wetlands.[17] The black stork does inhabit more agricultural areas in the
Caspian lowlands, but even here it avoids close contact with people.[12] Its wintering habitat in India comprises reservoirs or rivers
with nearby scrub or forest, which provide trees that black storks can roost in at night.[24] In southern Africa it is found in shallow
[22]
water in rivers or lakes, or swamps, but is occasionally encountered on dry land.
After disappearing from Belgium before the onset of the 20th century, it has returned to breed in the Belgian Ardennes, Luxembourg
and Burgundy, France, by 2000.[27] It appears to be increasing in numbers in Spain and Portugal, where the population was estimated
at 405 to 483 pairs in 2006.[21] The black stork is a rare vagrant to the British Isles, turning up in the warmer months—particularly in
spring—generally in the south and east. Sightings have become more common since the 1970s as its breeding range moves
northwards.[28] It has been recorded in Scotland six times between 1946 and 1983, including from Shetland, Orkney and the
Highlands, as well as the Scottish Borders (Peebles).[29] It is not abundant in the western parts of its distribution, but more densely
inhabits eastern Transcaucasia.[12] Further east, it has been recorded from locations across Iran, though little is known about its habits
there; breeding has been recorded from near Aliabad in Fars province, Khabr National Park in Kerman province, Karun river in
Khuzestan province, Qaranqu River in East Azarbaijan province, and Aliabad river in Razavi Khorasan province.[30] The population
has declined in Iran due to draining of wetlands.[31] East of the Ural Mountains, the black stork is patchily found in forested and
mountainous areas up to 60°‒63° N across Siberia to the Pacific Ocean. South of Siberia, it breeds in Xinjiang, northwestern China,
northern Mongolia south to theAltai Mountains, and northeastern China south to the vicinity of Beijing. In the Korean Peninsula, the
black stork is an uncommon summer visitor, no longer breeding in the south since 1966. Birds have been seen in the northeast but it
is not known whether they breed there. Similarly it has been seen in the summer in Afghanistan, but its breeding status is
uncertain.[18]
Migration
Migration takes place from early August to October, with a major exodus in September.[18] Some of the Iberian populations, and also
those in southern Africa, are essentially non-migratory [18] A broad-winged
, though they may wander freely in the non-breeding areas.
soaring bird, the black stork is assisted by thermals of hot air for long-distance flight, although is less dependent on them than is the
white stork.[32][33] Since thermals only form over land, the black stork, together with large raptors,[34] must cross the Mediterranean
at the narrowest points, and many black storks travel south through the Bosphorus,[18][33] as well as the Sinai and Gibraltar. The trip
is around 5,667 km (3,521 mi) via the western route and 7,000 km (4,300 mi) via the eastern route, with satellite tracking yielding an
average travel time of 37 and 80 days respectively.[23] The western route goes over the Rock of Gibraltar or over the Bay of
Gibraltar, generally on a southwesterly track that takes them to the central part of the strait, from where they reach Morocco.[34][35]
Many birds fly around the Sahara next to the coast.[35] About 10% of the western storks choose the passage Sicily – Cap Bon,
Tunisia.[34][36]
Spain contains several important areas—Monfragüe National Park, Sierra de Gredos
Regional Park, National Hunting Reserve in Cíjara, Natural Park of the Sierra
Hornachuelos and Doñana National Park—where black storks stop over on the
western migration route. Pesticide use has threatened birdlife in nearby Doñana.
Further south, Lake Faguibine in Mali is another stopover point but it has been
affected by drought in recent years.[37]
Behaviour
A wary species, the black stork avoids contact with people.[17] It is generally found
alone or in pairs, or in flocks of up to a hundred birds when migrating,[38] or over
winter.[17]
The black stork has a wider range of calls than the white stork, its main call being a
chee leee, which sounds like a loud inhalation. It makes a hissing call as a warning
Red line: Migration border
or threat.[39] Displaying males produce a long series of wheezy raptor-like squealing
Orange arrow: Western migration
calls rising in volume and then falling.[40] It rarely indulges in mutual bill-clattering Yellow arrow: Eastern migration
when adults meet at the nest.[41] Adults will do so as part of their mating ritual or Blue: Winter location
[39]
when angered. The young clatter their bills when aroused.
The up-down display is used for a number of interactions with other members of the species. Here a stork positions its body
horizontally and quickly bobs its head up from down-facing to around 30 degrees above horizontal and back again, while displaying
the white segments of its plumage prominently, and this is repeated several times. The display is used as a greeting between birds,
[38]
and—more vigorously—as athreat display. The species' solitary nature means that this threat display is rarely witnessed.
Breeding
The black stork breeds between April and May in the Northern Hemisphere,[18] with
eggs usually laid in late April.[42] In southern Africa, breeding takes place in the
months between September and March, possibly to take advantage of abundant
water prey rendered easier to catch as the rivers dry up and recede—from April and
May in Zimbabwe, Botswana and northern South Africa, and as late as July further
south.[22]
Pairs in courtship have aerial displays that appear to be unique among the storks.
Paired birds soared in parallel, usually over the nest territory early in the mornings Black stork nesting in Prague Zoo
or late afternoons with one bird splaying the white undertail coverts to the sides of
the narrowed black tail and the pair calls to each other. These courtship flights are
difficult to see due to the densely forested habitat in which they breed.[43] The nest
is large, constructed from sticks and twigs, and sometimes also large branches, at an
elevation of 4–25 m (13–82 ft).[1][18] The black stork prefers to construct its nest in
forest trees with large canopies where the nest canbe built far from the main trunk—
generally in places far from human disturbance.[1][18] For the most part, deciduous
trees are chosen for nesting sites, though conifers are used as well.[12] A 2003 field
Play media
study in Estonia found that the black stork preferred oak (Quercus robur), European
Ringed black stork foraging in a ditch
aspen (Populus tremula), and to a lesser extent Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), and in the Netherlands
ignored Norway spruce (Picea abies), in part due to the canopy structure of the trees.
Trees with nests averaged around 25.6 ± 5.2 metres (84 ± 17 ft) high and had a
diameter at breast height of 66 ± 20 centimetres (26.0 ± 7.9 in). Furthermore, 90% of the trees chosen were at least 80 years old,
highlighting the importance of conserving old-growth forests.[44] A 2004 field study of nesting sites in Dadia-Lefkimi-Soufli
National Park in north-eastern Greece found that it preferred the Calabrian pine (Pinus brutia), which had large side branches that
allowed it to build the nest away from the trunk, as well as black pine (Pinus nigra)
and to a lesser extent Turkey oak (Quercus cerris). It chose the largest trees in an
area, generally on steeper ground and near streams. Trees chosen were on average
over 90 years old.[45] In the Iberian peninsula it nests in pine and cork oak (Quercus
suber).[21]
In steeply mountainous areas such as parts of Spain, South Africa and theCarpathian
Mountains it nests on cliffs, on large boulders, in caves and under overhanging
ledges.[12] The black stork's solitary nests are usually at least 1 km (0.6 mi) apart, Black stork foraging
even where the species is numerous.[38] Although newly constructed nests may be
significantly smaller, older nests can be 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) in diameter. In southern
Africa, the black stork may occupy the nests of other bird species such as hamerkop (Scopus umbretta) or Verreaux's eagle (Aquila
verreauxi) and commonly reuses them in successive years.[1] They are repaired with earth and grass, and lined with leaves, moss,
grass, animal fur, paper, clay and rags.[18][42]
In a clutch, there are two to five, or rarely even six large oval grey-white eggs,
which become soiled during incubation.[18] They can be 64–70 mm (2.5–2.8 in)
long and 50–53 mm (2.0–2.1 in) wide, averaging about 68 mm (2.7 in) in length and
52 mm (2.0 in) in width.[46] The eggs are laid with an interval of two days.[18]
Hatching is asynchronous,[18] and takes place at the end of May.[42]
Incubation takes 32 to 38 days, with both sexes sharing duties, which commence
after the first or second egg is laid.[18] The young start flying by the end of July.[42]
Fledging takes 60 to 71 days, after which the young joins the adults at their feeding
grounds.[18] However, for another two weeks, the young continue to return to the Egg, Collection Museum Wiesbaden
nest, to be fed and to roost at night.[18]
At least one adult remains in the nest for two to three weeks after hatching to protect the young. Both parents feed the young by
regurgitating onto the floor of the nest.[18] Black stork parents have been known to kill one of their fledglings, generally the weakest,
in times of food shortage to reduce brood size and hence increase the chance of survival of the remaining nestlings. Stork nestlings do
not attack each other, and their parents' method of feeding them (disgorging large amounts of food at once) means that stronger
siblings cannot outcompete weaker ones for food directly, hence parental infanticide is an efficient way of reducing brood size. This
behaviour has only rarely been observed in the species, although the shyness of the species and difficulties in studying its nesting
[47]
habits mean that it might not be an uncommon phenomenon.
Ringing recovery studies in Europe suggests that nearly 20% of chicks reach the breeding stage, around 3 years, and about 10% live
[48]
beyond 10 years and about 5% beyond 20 years. Captive individuals have lived for as long as 36 years.
Feeding
The black stork mainly eats fish,[1] including small cyprinids, pikes, roaches, eels, budds, perches, burbots, sticklebacks and muddy
loaches (Misgurnus and Cobitis).[49] It may feed on amphibians, small reptiles, crabs, mammals and birds, and invertebrates such as
snails,[1] molluscs,[42][49] earthworms, and insects like water beetles and their larvae.[49][42]
Foraging for food takes place mostly in fresh water, though the black stork may look for food on dry land at times.[18] The black
stork wades patiently and slowly in shallow water, often alone or in a small group if food is plentiful. It has been observed shading
the water with its wings while hunting.[38] In India, it often forages in mixed species flocks with the white stork, woolly-necked stork
(Ciconia episcopus), demoiselle crane (Grus virgo) and bar-headed goose (Anser indicus). The black stork also follows large
[24]
mammals such as deer and livestock, presumably to eat the invertebrates and small animals flushed by their presence.
Parasites
More than 12 species of parasitichelminth have been recorded from black storks with Cathaemasia hians and Dicheilonema ciconiae
reported to be the most dominant. The juvenile black stork, although having a less diverse helminth population, is parasitized more
frequently than the adult.[50] A new species of Corynebacterium—C. ciconiae—has been isolated from the trachea of healthy black
storks, and is thought to be part of the natural flora of the species.[51] A diverse array of predatory mesostigmatid mites—particularly
the genera Dendrolaelaps and Macrocheles—have been recovered from black stork nests. Their role is unknown, though they could
prey on parasitic arthropods.[52]
Hunters threaten the black stork in some countries of southern Europe and Asia,[1] such as Pakistan, and breeding populations may
have been eliminated there.[18] The black stork vanished from the Ticino River valley in northern Italy, with hunting a likely
contributor. In 2005, black storks were released into the Parco Lombardo del Ticino in an attempt to re-establish the species there.[27]
Notes
a. The universally accepted starting point of modern taxonomy for animals is set at 1758, with the publishing of
Linnaeus' 10th edition of Systema Naturae, although scientists had been coining names in the previous century .[3]
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Cited texts
Cramp, Stanley, ed. (1977). Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa: The Birds of the
Western Palearctic. Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks. Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-857358-6.
External links
Ageing and sexing (PDF) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
"Black stork media". Internet Bird Collection.
Black stork photo galleryat VIREO (Drexel University)
Audio recordings of Black storkon Xeno-canto.
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