Running head: ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 1

Facilitating Learning for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder Through Assistive

Technology

Catharina Gräbe

May 4, 2014
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 2

Abstract

Since the number of students diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is increasing

rapidly in the United States (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012), teachers need to

learn how to provide effective instruction for these students. Students with ASD often have

sensory and motor deficits that may inhibit traditional forms of learning (Liu, 2013). These

students also have difficulty communicating with others and may refrain from social interaction

(Greenspan & Wieder, 1997). Students with autism require individualized instruction because

they often have trouble focusing on learning tasks with others (Williams, Wright, Callaghan, and

Coughlan, 2002). However, the behavioral challenges that accompany ASD can cause tension

between teachers and students with ASD (Williams et al., 2002). Assistive technology can help

to reduce the anxiety that students with ASD may feel in social situations while accounting for

the sensory and motor deficiencies that often accompany ASD. In this manner, assistive

technology provides an effective method for individualizing education for students with ASD.

Keywords: autism spectrum disorder, assistive technology

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 3

Facilitating Learning for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders Through Assistive

Technology

The number of students with autism who are obtaining special education services in

school has increased drastically over the last few years. In the 2000 to 2001 school year,

approximately 94 thousand students with autism received special education services under IDEA

(U.S. Department of Education, 2013, Table 48). This number increased to approximately 417

thousand for the 2010 to 2011 school year (U.S. Department of Education, 2013, Table 48).

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a disorder that results from alterations in normal

brain development (Autism Speaks, 2014). According to the organization Autism Speaks (2014),

children who are diagnosed with ASD have trouble connecting and communicating with others.

They also become fixated with one type of behavior and engage in that behavior repeatedly

(Autism Speaks, 2014). Individuals with ASD vary widely in their intellectual abilities (Autism

Speaks, 2014). Approximately 40 percent of individuals with ASD are as intelligent or more

intelligent compared to an average member of the general population (Autism Speaks, 2014).

However, sensory and motor deficits are prevalent among individuals with ASD (Aspy &

Grossman, 2008). Autism manifests in many different ways. The different types of autism

include "autistic disorder, childhood disintegrative disorder, pervasive developmental disorder-

not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) and Asperger syndrome" (Autism Speaks, 2014, What Is

Autism?). These disorders are currently grouped into one ASD diagnosis (Autism Speaks, 2014).

Section 612 of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (2004) requires

that states must provide free appropriate public education (FAPE) to children who have special

needs. Some students are not able to attain an FAPE without assistive technology (AT). Section

300.5 of IDEA (2004) defines AT as any technological tool that helps children with disabilities
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 4

to conduct their daily lives. Section 300.105 of IDEA (2004) mandates that schools must provide

AT to students who require special devices in order to receive an appropriate education.

According to Boone and Higgins (2007), individuals who have autism may have a more

difficult time obtaining AT compared to individuals who are blind or deaf. For many years,

associations such as the American Council of the Blind and the National Association of the Deaf

have ensured that blind and deaf individuals have ready access to AT (Boone & Higgins, 2007).

Unfortunately, individuals with autism have not had as much support from professional

associations (Boone & Higgins, 2007).

Traditionally, organizations have focused on providing individuals with disabilities access

to instructional materials containing the exact same information just in a different format. For

example, the Accessible Instructional Materials Center of Virginia (AIM-VA) focuses primarily

on converting subject materials into understandable formats for the deaf and visually impaired

(Virginia Department of Education, 2008). The IDEA (2004) mandates that states must meet the

National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard (NIMAS). NIMAS ensures that

individuals with disabilities have access to an exact copy of the classroom materials in formats

that they can understand (U.S. Office of Special Education Programs, 2004). However, NIMAS

does not require that schools alter course materials and designs to meet the needs of cognitively

impaired individuals (U.S. Office of Special Education Programs, 2004). The U.S. Office of

Special Education Programs (2004) National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard

Report states that the professionals who constructed NIMAS "did not pursue a NIMAS that

would include accessibility features for individuals outside the narrow legal definition of an

individual with a print disability" (Limitations and Restrictions section, para. 5).

Students with autism require assistive technology that goes beyond providing exact copies
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 5

of the classroom material. Students with autism process information differently from their peers.

Thus, they need course materials that are structured and presented in formats that meet their

unique needs. Teachers can use assistive technology in novel ways to meet the diverse learning

needs of students with autism.

Research

Increasing Prevalence of ASD in the United States

Teachers need to understand how to facilitate learning for students who have ASD. Due

to the increasing prevalence of ASD, every teacher will most likely encounter students who have

ASD. Research conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) indicates

that the diagnostic rate for autism has increased dramatically in the last decade. For more than

ten years, the CDC (2012) has collected data regarding ASD through an organization called the

Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network. In 2000, approximately

one in 150 children evaluated by the ADDM Network were affected by autism (CDC, 2012). In

2008, the ADDM Network evaluated the prevalence of ASD among eight-year-old children

living in fourteen regions of the United States (CDC, 2012). The children accounted for more

than eight percent of all eight year olds living in the United States (CDC, 2012). One in 88 of the

children were diagnosed with ASD (CDC, 2012). The rate of diagnosis increased to one in 68

children during the ADDM Network’s evaluation in 2010 (U.S. Department, 2014). Of the

children who were diagnosed in 2010, 43% had Autistic Disorder, 46% were diagnosed with an

Autism Spectrum Disorder or Pervasive Developmental Disorder, and 11% were diagnosed with

Asperger Disorder (U.S. Department, 2014). Approximately five times more boys than girls were

diagnosed with autism during the ADDM Network studies conducted in 2008 and 2010 (CDC,

2012; CDC, 2014).

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 6

Researchers do not currently know why the diagnosis rate for autism is increasing so

rapidly (CDC, 2012). Many different factors influence the development of autism (Autism

Speaks, 2014). Researchers predict that both environmental and biological factors influence the

development of ASD (CDC, 2012). Improved diagnostic procedures account for a portion of the

increase in the diagnostic rate of ASD (CDC, 2012).

Sensory and Motor Deficits Associated with ASD

Teachers can use assistive technology to help students overcome the sensory, motor, and

communication deficits associated with ASD. Children with ASD often have difficulty

responding to sensory stimuli. Liu (2013) evaluated the sensory and motor abilities of 32

elementary school children with ASD. Liu measured the children's sensitivity to various stimuli

using a questionnaire called the Short Sensory Profile (SSP). All of the children who participated

in the study scored in the "definite difference" (Liu, 2013, p. 202) range on the SSP. This score

means that "the children scored two standard deviations below the mean of age matched norms,

and performed like children in the lowest 2%, when compared to the scores in the normative

sample of children without disabilities" (Liu, 2013, p. 202). This study indicates that students

with ASD might experience significant delays with regards to processing information. Teachers

can use technology to overcome the sensory deficits associated with ASD. For example, teachers

can create videos that demonstrate how to perform certain tasks. They can alter the videos to

emphasize key information that a student should focus on.

Assistive technology can also help students with ASD to overcome motor difficulties. In

the study conducted by Liu (2013), most of the children with ASD had difficulty with motor

skills, and all of the children experienced deficiencies in fine motor skills. Since writing involves
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 7

a significant amount of fine motor skills, students with ASD may become frustrated if they have

to write extensively during class. Word processors may reduce frustration for these students.

Cognitive and Behavioral Challenges Associated with ASD

Children with ASD often do not focus well with others on learning tasks (Williams,

Wright, Callaghan, and Coughlan, 2002). Thus, most children with ASD have difficulty

succeeding in school unless they receive individual attention from an instructor (Williams et al.,

2002). Williams et al. (2002) state that even with individual attention "many children are unable

to benefit owing to non-compliance, lack of motivation, behavioral difficulties, and engagement

in stereotypical or ritualistic behaviors" (p. 72). Due to these learning challenges, teachers may

become frustrated or tired when working with students who have autism. Assistive technology

allows teachers to provide individualized instruction for students with ASD who have difficulty

engaging with others.

The anxiety and attention problems that are present in children with autism may lead to

behavioral concerns in the classroom. McCurdy and Cole (2014) assert, "Disruptive, off-task

behaviors exhibited by students with ASD often interrupt the instructional environment" (p.

884). Individuals with ASD are more likely to suffer from psychiatric problems than the general

public (Howlin, 1997). Depression and anxiety are the most prevalent psychiatric problems

among individuals with ASD (Howlin, 1997). In a study of 35 individuals with Asperger

syndrome Ghaziuddin, Weidmer-Mikhail, & Ghaziuddin (1998) found that 65% of the

individuals suffered from a psychiatric disorder. Thirteen of the research subjects suffered from

depression, and ten of the subjects had attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

(Ghaziuddin et al., 1998). Due to depression, students with autism may become withdrawn or
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 8

defiant (Ghaziuddin, Ghaziuddin, & Greden, 2002). These behavioral problems could strain

relationships between students with ASD and their teachers.

Assistive technology can help to ameliorate the cognitive and behavioral challenges

associated with ASD. In his article "Mainstream Technology Gives Lift to Assistive Learning,"

Dr. Matthew Lynch (2014), author of the book The Call to Teach: An Introduction to Teaching,

states that assistive technology has helped to reduce the number of students in special education

who drop out of school. Interacting with digital media can alleviate some of the social anxiety

that students with ASD may face in the classroom. In addition, teachers may become frustrated

or tired when working with students who have ASD, but digital devices do not.

Technology to Improve Language Skills for Students with ASD

Many children with autism have difficulty using words to identify objects (Bosseler &

Massaro, 2003). Children with autism also frequently use verbs and adjectives incorrectly

(Bosseler & Massaro, 2003). Teachers must design methods to help students with ASD to

improve their language abilities because an understanding of vocabulary is essential for

academic achievement. According to Vermeer (2001), "After years of overvaluation of

morphological and syntactic skills, knowledge of words is now considered the most important

factor in language proficiency and school success" (p. 217). Computers can be very useful tools

for helping children with autism to build their vocabularies. Computers allow students to practice

at their own pace and on their own terms. In addition, computer programs can integrate different

types of stimuli to help a student remember a new word. For example, the computer could

combine written words, spoken words, and pictures together to teach new vocabulary. A student

is more likely to remember new words when provided with many types of information about the

words (Bosseler, & Massaro, 2003).

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 9

Teaching vocabulary to students with autism through animated tutors. A research

study by Bosseler and Massaro (2003) proved that students with ASD could acquire new

language skills by interacting with an animated language tutor. Bosseler and Massaro (2003)

evaluated the ability of a computer program called Language Wizard/Player to teach new

vocabulary to eight students with autism over a period of six months. The program combined

auditory and visual information to teach new vocabulary. This computer program included an

animated language tutor named Baldi. Baldi was designed to accurately imitate a real person's

facial expressions, mouth movements, and voice tone while speaking (Bosseler and Massaro,

2003). The students participating in Bosseler and Massaro’s (2003) study completed lessons with

the Language Wizard/Player program on a weekly basis for six months. During the lessons,

Baldi asked the students to complete certain activities, such as identifying objects and saying

new words. The program provided feedback for the students through pictures of smiling and

frowning faces.

Bosseler and Massaro (2003) discovered that the Language Wizard/Player program helped

the students in their study to learn and remember new words. During the study, the students

completed assessments before and after each lesson with the Language Wizard/Player program.

The students were able to answer significantly more vocabulary questions correctly after

completing lessons with the program. In addition, the students remembered approximately 85%

of the words they had learned during the experiment when they were tested 30 days after

completing the lessons. Thus, the study by Bosseler and Massaro (2003) provides evidence that

animated tutors can help students with autism to understand and remember new words.

When the students interacted with Baldi, the animated tutor, it was almost as if they were

interacting with a real person. They could look at the animated tutor to see how a person’s face
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 10

and mouth appear while forming words (Bosseler and Massaro, 2003). In this manner, the

animated tutor provided the students with extra visual cues regarding spoken words. In the past,

researchers have found that students with autism respond better to visual rather than auditory

cues (Hogdon 1995). Since students with ASD are often more capable of processing visual rather

than auditory information, they may benefit from learning through animated tutors. With

programs such as the Language Wizard/Player, a student with ASD can make the animated tutor

say words over and over until the student can remember the words. Unlike a real person, the

animated tutor will never get tired of repeating a word. Most of the students who participated in

the study by Bosseler and Massaro (2003) responded favorably to the animated tutor. They may

have enjoyed working with Baldi due to his inexhaustible patience.

Children with ASD often have trouble applying new abilities to different environments

(Handleman, 1979). By interacting with Baldi, the students learned new vocabulary in a

conversational manner. Thus, the tutor helped the students to associate words with social

contexts so that they could apply their new abilities in different environments. Bosseler and

Massaro (2003) examined whether the students could apply their new vocabulary words during

interactions with people in different settings. During this portion of the experiment, the students

were able to apply an average of 91% of the words they had learned in the new environments.

Since the students could apply most of the new words they had learned in various social

contexts, the research study shows that animated tutors can help students with autism to

overcome the obstacles they face when applying new skills in different settings.

When teachers incorporate programs such as the Language Wizard/Player program into

their lesson plans, they fulfill several of the standards outlined in the International Society for

Technology in Education (ISTE) (2008) National Educational Technology Standards for

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 11

Teachers (NETS-T). The Language Wizard/Player program allows teachers to meet the NETS-T

1, which states that teachers should “use their knowledge of subject matter, teaching and

learning, and technology to facilitate experiences that advance student learning” (ISTE, 2008).

When teachers use a virtual environment to teach vocabulary to students with ASD, they are

incorporating innovative methods into their lesson plans in order to optimize learning for their

students. Teachers can also meet the NETS-T 2 a by incorporating the Language Wizard/Player

program into their lessons. This standard states that teachers should “incorporate digital tools and

resources to promote student learning and creativity” (ISTE, 2008). When students engage with

the Language Wizard/Player program, they learn how to use technology to facilitate learning.

Thus, the students show an understanding of the National Educational Technology Standards for

Students (NETS-S) 6, which states that students should “demonstrate a sound understanding of

technology concepts, systems, and operations” (ISTE, 2007).

Speech-generating devices give voices to non-verbal students with ASD. Children with

ASD who have limited communication skills may have difficulty using words to express their

needs and desires. Approximately one fourth of people with ASD do not communicate with

spoken words (Autism Speaks, 2014). A child who has difficulty communicating may become

frustrated and resort to aggression or inappropriate behavior as a means of expression. Some

children who have difficulty speaking can learn to express themselves using sign language.

However, children with autism often experience delays with fine motor skills (Liu, 2013). Thus,

using intricate symbols to communicate with others may be challenging for children with autism.

Speech-generating devices (SGDs) provide an alternative means of communication for children

who have trouble speaking. SGDs are electronic devices that contain audio files of spoken

language (Franco et al., 2009). A person can active an audio file on the device by pressing a
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 12

button (Franco et al., 2009). Speech-generating devices have given students with ASD a means

of showcasing their knowledge.

Although SGDs are revolutionizing communication for non-verbal students, there is still a

lot of work to be done to improve and expand this type of technology. Currently, children do not

have many options regarding the type of voice that will be programmed into their SGDs

(Mohrmann, 2014). Mohrmann (2014) states in her article "Giving Shannon a voice of her own"

that the voices on SGDs often sound mechanical and may be synthesized from adult voices.

Mohrmann (2014) describes how researchers at the Nemours/Alfred I. duPont Hospital for

Children in Wilmington, Delaware are currently designing voices for SGDs that reflect the

identity of the children using SGDs. Instead of using automated sounds to create SGD voices, the

researchers are creating audio files of words spoken by real people. When they design voices for

children who can't speak, they also take recordings of the sounds that the student can make and

incorporate those sounds into the audio files. In this manner, they are able to create a voice that

reflects how the student would sound if they were able to speak. The researchers recently

designed such a voice for a non-verbal student named Shannon. Shannon used her SGD to say, "I

really like my new voice. I think everyone deserves to be heard and it feels great to have a voice

that matches who I am" (as cited in Mohrmann, 2014, para. 15).

SGDs can help non-verbal students with ASD to participate in classes with their peers.

Being able to participate fully in classes with their peers can help non-verbal students with ASD

to attain confidence and friendships. Christie Rodriguez (2014), a teacher who works with

students who have autism, observed how a non-verbal student with autism was able to participate

in a drama class by using an SGD. The student was very reluctant to engage in social

interactions, so Rodriguez (2014) designed a plan for the student to enroll in a drama class. The
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 13

student used an iPad containing speech-generating software to communicate his portion of the

skits and plays. Initially, the student attended the class very briefly accompanied by Rodriguez.

However, with time, he began using his iPad to read small portions of the class material. He

progressed to participating fully in the class and going up on the stage. He even attended the

class independently and made friends with the other drama students. After taking the drama

class, Rodriguez (2014) observed that the student gained confidence in social settings and

engaged more with others using his iPad.

Research studies have shown that SGDs can help to limit disruptive behaviors in class.

Franco et al. (2009) evaluated the efficiency of an SGD in helping a student with autism to

express his needs using appropriate spoken language. The student who participated in the study

was seven years old. At the time of the study, the student did not use any spoken words to

communicate and avoided interacting with the other students in his class. The student's

communication difficulties led to a problematic behavior pattern. He frequently pronounced the

"ee" sound in a loud and protracted manner as a means of expressing his desires. This behavior

disturbed the learning environment in his class.

Franco et al. (2009) taught the student how to communicate using the Go Talk SGD

manufactured by Dysphagia Plus, LLC. The researchers took photographs of objects and settings

that were familiar to the student. They loaded the photographs onto the Go Talk device and

linked the images to recordings of spoken words. The researchers observed how frequently the

student engaged in the problematic behavior pattern during activities conducted with and without

the SGD. Franco et al. (2009) discovered that the SGD drastically reduced the student's

problematic behavior. The researchers observed the students' behavior during certain school

activities that were representative of his individual education plan. When the student did not
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 14

have access to the SGD, he pronounced the "ee" sound for 60 to 80% of the time that he was

engaged in the activities. The amount of time that the student engaged in problematic behavior

dropped to 0 to 3% when he had access to the SGD. The study demonstrates that SGDs can

drastically reduce disruptive behavior in a classroom by providing non-verbal students with an

appropriate means of communication.

SGDs can help non-verbal students with ASD to communicate and interact with their

peers. Franco et al. (2009) discovered that the non-verbal student with ASD interacted much

more frequently with his peers while playing in the gymnasium and on the playground when he

had access to an SGD. Without the SGD, the student played with his peers and listened to his

teacher 0 to 10% of the time in the gymnasium and 0 to 3% of the time on the playground. When

the student had access to the SGD, his social interaction increased to 20 to 68% of the time in the

gymnasium and 50 to 83% of the time on the playground. The drastic increase in the amount of

time that the student spent socializing when he had access to an SGD suggests that SGDs can

help non-verbal students with ASD to connect with their peers.

When students with ASD use SGDs to communicate, they fulfill several of the criteria

outlined in the NETS-S. SGDs allow students to create new knowledge by providing them with a

method to communicate their ideas. By using SGDs to interact with others, students fulfill the

NETS-S 2. This standard states that students should “use digital media and environments to

communicate and work collaboratively” (ISTE, 2007). When using SGDs, students also learn

how to think creatively because they have to find ways to express their ideas using the auditory

files and images on their SGDs. In this manner, the students meet the NETS-S 6 b, which states

that students should “select and use applications effectively and productively” (ISTE, 2007).

Digital Prompting Systems for Students with ASD

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 15

Individuals with ASD may require prompts to learn appropriate behaviors (MacDuff,

Krantz and McClanahan, 2001). Prompts are stimuli that provide individuals with information

they need to respond appropriately in certain situations (MacDuff et al., 2001). Prompts can

include verbal commands, gestures, images, or written words. Another type of prompt occurs

when one individual shows another how to behave. This type of prompt is called modeling.

Many individuals with ASD have difficulty responding appropriately to external stimuli

(MacDuff et al., 2001). For example, when a person begins to cry during a conversation, most

people would respond by offering a hug or comforting words. An individual with autism may

have difficulty learning how to respond to a person who is crying. External prompts can help the

individual to know how to respond. Most individuals with autism do not learn immediately from

prompts (MacDuff et al., 2001). They may not adopt a new behavior after being prompted

several times. Instead, prompts should be reduced systematically until the person adopts a new

behavior (MacDuff et al., 2001). Teachers may not always have the time to provide the prompts

that a student needs. In addition, students may have difficulty learning independently if they have

to rely on the teacher for prompts. Thus, digital devices can be effective tools in providing

prompts for students with ASD.

Taber, Seltzer, Heflin, and Alberto (1999) conducted a study regarding the use of digital

media in helping a student with autism to complete his schoolwork. The student required

frequent prompts from his teacher to finish schoolwork. Taber et al. (1999) designed an auditory

prompting system to help the student focus his attention independently. The system consisted of

recordings of verbal prompts interspersed with music that the student could listen to on a

portable cassette player. The student learned how to operate the system independently. The

prompting system contained audio recordings of the teacher's verbal prompts. Taber et al. (1999)
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 16

inserted these prompts into music recordings. The music played for specific periods of time with

the verbal prompts interspersed throughout.

Taber et al. (1999) observed that the student required significantly fewer spoken

interventions from his teacher in order to stay focused on his work when he listened to the

auditory prompting system while completing his assignments. The digital prompting system

helped him to regulate his own behavior. Students who operate their own digital prompting

systems learn how to use digital tools to organize activities. When students learn how to use

technology to facilitate daily activities, they fulfill the NETS-S 6. This standard states that

students should “demonstrate a sound understanding of technology concepts, systems, and

operations” (ISTE, 2007).

In the modern classroom, teachers can create auditory prompting systems for their

students using software such as GarageBand. Teachers can use GarageBand (Apple Inc., 2014)

to create digital files of spoken cues interspersed with music that students can listen to on mobile

technology devices, such as MP3 players or smartphones. In today's culture, many children use

these devices on a regular basis. Thus, a child with autism will probably feel comfortable with

using such a device in the classroom. As schools are beginning to adopt Bring Your Own Device

(BYOD) policies, mobile technology has become increasingly prevalent among students in the

classroom.

Using Video Modeling to Facilitate Learning for Students with ASD

Teachers can use video modeling to help students with ASD to overcome communication

difficulties. Video modeling occurs when a child learns how to behave properly by watching a

video demonstration of the appropriate actions (Charlop-Christy, Le, & Freeman, 2000).

Through video modeling, teachers can emphasize visual cues that students need to focus on.
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 17

Since students with ASD often have trouble responding to auditory cues, visual representations

of appropriate behaviors may be more effective. Greenspan and Wieder (1997) examined the

symptoms present in 200 young children with ASD. They studied the children's medical records

every few months for two to eight years. Greenspan and Wieder (1997) discovered that 55% of

the children appeared unable to comprehend spoken words. All of the children in the study

showed delays in responding to verbal communication. However, most of the children had fewer

difficulties with visual-spatial activities compared to auditory communication. In fact, some of

the children were more advanced in visual-spatial skills compared to the general population of

children their age. The research study suggests that students with ASD may respond more

appropriately to pictures and images than to spoken words. Teachers can use video modeling to

create visual representations of appropriate behaviors.

Charlop-Christy et al. (2000) examined the efficiency of video modeling in comparison

with real life modeling. In their study, Charlop-Christy et al. (2000) examined the efficacy of

video modeling and real life modeling in enforcing appropriate behavior for five children with

autism. The researchers discovered that four out of the five children required fewer video

demonstrations to master a desired skill compared to real life demonstrations.

Charlop-Christy et al. (2000) also assessed whether the children could complete tasks in a

variety of different situations. For example, one child learned how to answer questions regarding

a short story by watching a video. After acquiring the skill through video modeling, he had to

answer questions when different individuals read new stories to him. When the children watched

a video demonstrating a desired skill, they were able to demonstrate the skill in a variety of

settings. On the other hand, when the children observed the real life demonstrations of certain

skills, they could not demonstrate the skill in different settings. The videos may have helped the
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 18

children to think about skills in a broader fashion since the videos showed actions occurring

separately from the children's immediate surroundings (Charlop-Christy et al., 2000). The

research study conducted by Charlop-Christy et al. (2000) suggests that video modeling may be

more effective in helping students to acquire and implement new skills in their daily lives.

Video modeling can improve learning for students with ASD because videos can direct a

student’s focus toward key information. Children with autism do not always know how to direct

their attention. Schreibman and Lovaas (1973) discovered that children with autism may

disregard important information when confronted with a variety of stimuli. Schreibman and

Lovaas (1973) asked children with and without autism to differentiate the gender of clothed

dolls. The children with autism differentiated gender based on unusual factors. One child with

autism assigned gender based on the types of shoes worn by the dolls. In contrast, the children

without autism focused mainly on the differences in the dolls' heads.

Teachers can use videos to emphasize important information. For example, when

teaching a child how to answer questions about a story, the camera could focus on the relevant

words written on the storybook page instead of on the reader. In this way, the video directs the

child's focus to the appropriate sections of the book. Since children with autism have difficulty

communicating with people, they may feel less anxiety when learning a new behavior from a

video. While watching the video, the children could focus on the task at hand instead of worrying

about how to respond to social cues from another person.

Due to the learning difficulties that accompany autism, children with autism may

associate learning from others with negative emotions such as frustration or anger. Since videos

are not used as often in the learning setting as direct modeling, students with autism probably do

not have as many negative associations with videos as they have with direct instruction. Thus, a
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 19

child with autism may be more relaxed and focused when watching a video rather than watching

an instructor in person.

When teachers create videos to model appropriate behavior, they meet the NETS-T 2

because they use modern software and devices to facilitate learning for their students. The

NETS-T 2 states that teachers should use “contemporary tools and resources to maximize

content learning” (ISTE, 2008). Teachers also demonstrate the skills outlined in the NETS-T 3

when they incorporate video modeling into their lessons. The NETS-T 3 states that teachers

should “exhibit knowledge, skills, and work processes representative of an innovative

professional in a global and digital society” (ISTE, 2008).

Using PDAs to Improve Organizational Skills

Many individuals with autism show deficits in executive function abilities (Gentry,

Wallace, Kvarfordt, & Lynch, 2010). Executive function is a person's ability to organize and

control mental activities such as focusing attention, coordinating thoughts to complete an

activity, and retrieving information from memory (Woolfolk & Perry, 2012). Due to deficiencies

in executive function abilities, individuals with autism often need help with organizing their

actions and thoughts (Goldsmith & LeBlanc, 2004). Children with ASD often have difficulty

regulating their attention (Bryan & Gast, 2000). They may require assistance from adults to stay

focused on assignments or to move from one task to another (Bryan & Gast, 2000). Teachers can

use digital tools to help students with ASD to focus their attention and move efficiently from one

task to another.

Teachers can help students with ASD to organize their daily activities by creating activity

schedules for the students to use everyday. However, the students may not remember to look at

their schedules on a regular basis (Gentry et al., 2010). Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) allow
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 20

individuals to connect reminder signals to the activities on their daily schedules. If students with

ASD could create their own activity schedules on PDAs and connect alarms to the activities, they

may become more independent in conducting their daily tasks. Since PDAs appear very similar

to the types of mobile devices popular among modern students, students with ASD may feel

comfortable using these devices in class. In addition, PDAs are frequently used in the work

place. Thus, when students with ASD learn how to operate these devices, they gain valuable

organizational skills for their futures.

Gentry et al. (2010) conducted a study to determine if PDAs could help individuals with

autism to organize and complete activities. The researchers gave Palm® Zire 31 PDAs to twenty-

two study participants (Gentry et al., 2010). The participants were high school students with

autism. The researchers showed the study participants how to use their PDAs and asked the

participants to use their PDAs for eight weeks. During the initial training sessions, the

researchers showed the study participants how to use their PDAs to organize daily activities. The

students also learned how to add program their PDAs to emit signals when it was time to

complete an activity.

Gentry et al. (2010) asked the study participants to complete the Canadian Occupational

Performance Measure (COPM) before and after the eight-week study interval. To complete the

COPM, "Each participant self-determines five areas of disability in everyday life tasks, rating

performance and satisfaction on a 1 to 10 scale" (Gentry et al., 2010, p. 103). When the students

evaluated their performance regarding the skills listed on the COPM, they scored an average of

2.82 out of 10 before using the PDAs. After using the PDAs for eight weeks, their average

performance score on the COPM increased to 6.64 out of ten. This data shows that the PDAs

helped the students to conduct their daily activities more effectively.

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 21

Gentry et al. (2010) discovered that the students enjoyed using their PDAs and were able

to operate these devices independently. When the eight-week study period ended, eighteen of the

students were able to use their PDAs to organize activities on their own. Only three of the

students needed help with their PDAs. However, they needed “less than one hour of assistance

per week" (Gentry et al., 2010, p. 105) to use the PDAs. The research indicates that PDAs could

allow students with ASD to become more independent students because the study participants

required very little help to operate their PDAs.

In a survey conducted at the conclusion of the study, all of the students indicated that

their PDAs had helped them with their every day lives, that they used their PDAs daily, and that

they wanted to keep using their PDAs (Gentry et al., 2010). The research study provides

evidence that PDAs could be very useful as assistive technology because all of the participants

were motivated to use their PDAs. Assistive technology is much more effective when students

are motivated to use the technology on a regular basis.

When students use PDAs to organize and complete daily activities, they demonstrate the

skills outlined in the NETS-S 4 b. This standard states that students should “plan and manage

activities to develop a solution or complete a project” (ISTE, 2007). Students also exemplify the

skills outlined in the NETS-S 6 “Technology Operations and Concepts” (ISTE, 2007) when they

use PDAs to improve their daily performance on tasks. In order to use their PDAs effectively,

students have to understand how the devices work and how to solve problems that may arise with

their devices.

Improving Social Skills Through Collaborative Virtual Learning Environments

Children with autism often have difficulty understanding social cues (Aspy & Grossman,

2008). They may not be able to discern unspoken communication, such as facial expressions and
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 22

voice tone (Aspy & Grossman, 2008). As a result, children with ASD may experience anxiety in

social environments. In a research study of 200 young children with ASD, Greenspan and

Wieder (1997) observed that the children had difficulty communicating with others and tended to

refrain from social interaction. Teachers can use virtual learning environments to teach important

social skills to students with ASD in a manner that causes less anxiety for these students. Virtual

environments are "computer-generated three-dimensional and highly realistic representations

that provide controlled and safe environments in which to teach skills that are associated with

some level of danger" (Cheng & Ye, 2010, p. 1068). Collaborative virtual environments (CVEs)

allow participants to engage in conversation with one another and manipulate items in the virtual

environment (Cheng & Ye, 2010). CVEs provide individuals with autism with opportunities to

practice essential social skills in a structured environment that simulates real life.

Cheng and Ye (2010) conducted a research study to determine if collaborative virtual

learning environment (CVLE) systems can increase social engagement for individuals with

autism. Three students, Ruby, George, and Eric participated in the study. The participants were

diagnosed with autism and experienced difficulty in engaging with others. Cheng and Ye (2010)

designed virtual representations of a classroom and an outside environment. In addition, they

created avatars for the participants. The researchers and the students' teacher interacted with the

participants in the CVLE by using avatars. The participants could demonstrate their emotions by

altering the facial expressions of their avatars. The students could select from a display of happy,

sad, surprised, and neutral facial expressions for their avatars.

Cheng and Ye (2010) created animated representations of twelve different social events.

The researchers selected the events based on the prevalence of behavioral problems that arise in

individuals with autism in certain situations. After watching the animated scenarios, the students
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 23

used their avatars to answer questions about the animations. The questions evaluated how well

the students understood the spoken and unspoken communication that occurred in the

animations. The researchers also asked the students to answer questions about emotions. The

students could answer the questions by changing their avatars' facial expression, typing in words,

or speaking out loud. The students received feedback for their answers so that they understood

which responses were correct.

Before beginning the experiment, the Cheng and Ye (2010) asked the students questions

regarding certain social situations. Ruby demonstrated an understanding of social behavior for

an average of 45.3% of the questions. After completing activities in the CVLE, Ruby responded

correctly to an average of 76% of the questions. George initially answered an average of 69.3%

of the questions correctly. His average score increased to 83.4% following the CVLE training

sessions. Eric had an initial average score of 56%. His average score increased to 74.6% during

the CVLE trainings. The research data indicates that the CVLE helped to increase the students’

abilities to comprehend social interactions.

Cheng and Ye (2010) observed that the CVLE sessions helped the students to improve

their social skills. Before completing the CVLE sessions, Ruby had difficulty engaging with

others in a social setting. She had trouble comprehending body language and facial expressions.

When the researchers spoke to her, she made very infrequent eye contact and had trouble

listening to the researchers. After working through the CVLE sessions, she began to respond

more appropriately to the interactions between characters in the CVLE. She was able to

recognize the meaning behind facial expressions, body language, and interactions between

characters in the CVLE. The CVLE also improved her ability to connect with others through eye

contact and listening skills. At the beginning of the study, George had difficulty speaking and
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 24

regulating his emotions during interactions with others. The CVLE sessions helped him to

improve his social skills and comprehension of social interactions. The CVLE sessions helped

the third participant, Eric, to interact more appropriately in social settings by improving his

listening and eye contact skills. Since the CVLE sessions were effective in increasing the

participants’ use of appropriate social behaviors, virtual environments could help students with

ASD to engage more appropriately with their peers and teachers.

Teachers demonstrate several of the skills outlined in the NETS-T when they interact

with their students in CVLE systems. Teachers fulfill the NETS-T 2 b when they create virtual

learning environments for their students. The NETS-T 2 b states that teachers should “customize

and personalize learning activities to address students’ diverse learning styles” (ISTE, 2008).

When teachers interact with their students in CVLE systems, they demonstrate the skills outlined

in the NETS-T 1 d. This standard states that teachers should “model collaborative knowledge

construction” (ISTE, 2008).

Students also fulfill several of the NETS-S when they interact with others in collaborative

virtual environments. During activities in CVLE systems, students communicate with others to

create new knowledge. In this manner, they fulfill the NETS-S 2 a, which states that students

should “use digital media and environments to communicate and work collaboratively” (ISTE,

2007). When students interact with one another in CVLE environments, they demonstrate the

skills outlined in the NETS-S 5 b. This standard states that students should “exhibit a positive

attitude toward using technology that supports collaboration, learning, and productivity” (ISTE,

2007).

Conclusion
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 25

Since the number of students diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is

increasing rapidly in the United States (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012),

teachers need to learn how to provide effective instruction for these students. Students with ASD

often have sensory and motor deficits that may inhibit traditional forms of learning (Liu, 2013).

These students also have trouble communicating with others and may refrain from social

interaction (Greenspan & Wieder, 1997). Students with ASD require individualized instruction

because they may have trouble focusing on learning tasks with others (Williams et al., 2002).

The behavioral challenges that accompany ASD can cause tension between teachers and students

with ASD (Williams et al., 2002). Assistive technology can help to reduce the anxiety that

students with ASD may feel in social situations while accounting for the sensory and motor

deficiencies that often accompany ASD. In this manner, assistive technology provides an

effective method for individualizing education for students with ASD.

Assistive technology can be especially useful in helping to reduce the language deficit

that is prevalent among students with ASD. Bosseler and Massaro (2003) demonstrated that

students with ASD can improve their vocabularies by engaging in activities with an animated

tutor. By interacting with an animated tutor, the students learned how to use technology to

facilitate their learning. Speech-generating devices (SGDs) allow non-verbal students with ASD

to engage in constructive communication with others. Rodriguez (2014) provided an example of

how these devices can help students with ASD to develop confidence and social skills. The

research study by Franco et al. (2009) provides evidence that SGDs can reduce problematic

behavior in classrooms while encouraging students with ASD to interact with others. These

devices encourage students to think creatively as they find new ways to express themselves

through the images and audio files on their SGDs.

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 26

Students with ASD may require prompts in order to learn new skills (MacDuff et al.,

2001). In addition, individuals with autism often require assistance to complete daily tasks due to

executive function deficits (Bryan & Gast, 2000). Assistive technology can provide the prompts

that students with ASD need to succeed academically. In addition, students can use digital

prompting systems to become more independent learners. Taber et al. (1999) demonstrated that

auditory prompting systems can help students with ASD to focus on their work independently.

Gentry et al. (2010) discovered that PDAs can help students with ASD to become more

independent in organizing and completing daily tasks.

Students with ASD often have difficulty responding to verbal cues (Greenspan & Wieder,

1997). In addition, students with ASD may not know how to direct their attention. Video

modeling can help to overcome these learning deficits. Charlop-Christy et al. (2000)

demonstrated that video modeling can help students with ASD to learn and apply new skills

more effectively than real life modeling.

Students with ASD may have trouble understanding social cues such as body language

(Aspy & Grossman, 2008). By interacting with others in virtual environments, students with

ASD can gain important social skills in a safe and controlled environment. Cheng and Ye (2010)

discovered that collaborative virtual learning environment can help students with ASD to gain an

understanding of social interactions and display appropriate behaviors in social settings. The

research demonstrates that assistive technology can revolutionize learning for students with

ASD.
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 27

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