Automation in Construction 92 (2018) 59–67

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Automation in Construction
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/autcon

Utilization analysis methodology for fleet telematics of heavy earthwork T

equipment
⁎
Seung Soo Lee, Sang-il Park, Jongwon Seo
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, South Korea

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Fleet telematics aims to comprehensively control equipment groups through location tracking, maintenance
Earthwork control, and productivity monitoring of individual equipment based on real-time location and status transmitted
Fleet telematics to fleet control center from the equipment. Logistics industry, automobile industry, as well as transportation
Heavy construction equipment (land, sea, and air) industry are actively applying fleet telematics in order to efficiently and safely operate
Utilization time
multiple groups of equipment. Earthwork, a basic operation for any type of construction, depends heavily on
Mobile navigator
NMEA 0183
equipment. The productivity and safety of earthwork equipment are decided by effective management of the
equipment. Therefore, fleet telematics can also improve the earthwork operation as well. The goal of this re-
search is to develop a GPS only-based fleet telematics system for heavy earthwork equipment which can analyze
time log information of each equipment using GPS location data without utilizing any other on-board sensors
and CAN bus data. The earthwork site (loading and dumping area) and moving route, hazardous areas of the
project are all visualized on a map via geo-fencing technology considering the characteristics of earthwork
operation. Lastly, algorithms to analyze the utilization time of earthwork equipment using GPS location in-
formation are designed and their reliability are verified through field tests.

1. Introduction management program called “VisionLink® which utilizes web-based

Logistics and transportation industry has seen a large increase in the
use of fleet telematics that safely and efficiently performs fleet man-
agement with real time sharing of information regarding vehicle fleet
location, operational status as well as control and/or dispatch plan. The
technology has been developed and applied in the field
[9,13–15,21,27]. The capability of fleet telematics is not limited to
simple vehicle location tracking [26,30]. Its application has been ex-
panded to areas such as vehicle financing, vehicle maintenance, vehicle
diagnostics, driver management, fuel management, health and safety
management, dynamic vehicle scheduling, and more. These develop-
ments have shown significant profitability for the users [3,29,33].
Recently, effort to develop Fleet Telematics Systems (FTS) for
earthwork is increasingly made because the productivity and safety of
the earthwork operation depend on effective management of various
heavy earthwork equipment. Earthwave Technology Inc. develops and
provides a FTS called “Fleetwatcher,” suited for earthwork equipment
management. It installs a device named “black box” to vehicle fleet to
deliver information necessary for fleet management, including pro-
ductivity analysis, utilization, idle reduction, preventative main-
tenance, and asset management [33]. Caterpillar developed a fleet
browser interface that enables fleet management from a PC or a
smartphone. It offers functions such as location tracking, utilization,
machine life cycle costing, fuel level information, schedule manage-
ment, and more [7,11,24]. TOPCON and TSD developed “SiteLINK”
which is a FTS that combines performance data for equipment and
construction activities, fleet management, theft prevention and re-
porting in a single application [1,36].
Aside from the efforts to develop and commercialize FTS for heavy
earthwork equipment, there is also an on-going attempt to standardize
the telematics data. Since 2008, the Association of Equipment
Management Professionals (AEMP) has cooperated with Caterpillar,
Volvo CE, Komatsu, and John Deere to form a council, which proposed
standardized telematics data for heavy earthwork equipment for the
first time. The AEMP's telematics data standard (ISO/TS 15143-3) was
developed to allow end users to integrate key telematics data (operating
hours, location, fuel consumed, and odometer reading where applic-
able) into their existing fleet management reporting systems [23,24].
However, despite such efforts, there are still problems that need to
be resolved before FTS can be effectively applied to heavy earthwork
equipment. In particular, linking telematics data from various sources
to FTS functions [16,23,32,37,38] remains difficult due to the lack of

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jseo@hanyang.ac.kr (J. Seo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2018.02.035
Received 10 June 2017; Received in revised form 4 February 2018; Accepted 23 February 2018
0926-5805/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S.S. Lee et al.
compatibility. Telematics data standard of the AEMP is related to per-
formance and condition of each equipment. In order to obtain such
data, relevant modules such as the equipment's engine, transmission,
and brakes need to be connected to the transponder unit via CAN-bus
protocol. However, it is often difficult to use this protocol on some of
the older equipment with manual controls. In addition, despite the fact
that most of equipment manufacturers, support CAN-bus data connec-
tion by using a standard communication protocol known as J1939
(developed by the Society of Automotive Engineers) [5,35], not all
manufacturers follow suit [31]. Some of manufacturer's equipment [6]
uses J-bus data connection based on J1708 or J1587 protocol [28].
Moreover, even if CAN-bus data can be connected, it is difficult to be
deployed in the field because the data transmitted are encrypted for
security purposes.
Out of multitude of functions of FTS for heavy earthwork equip-
ment, the two core functions are “asset management service”, which
performs preventative maintenance and diagnostic using heavy earth-
work equipment health condition information, and “productivity en-
hancement,” which monitors performance of the equipment fleet
during construction. In order for FTS to perform asset management, the
equipment's information such as engine oil pressure, oil temperature,
coolant temperature, engine error codes, and maximum fuel rate, need
to be provided through CAN-bus protocol [8,10,25,32]. Whereas, the
utilization time of equipment (idle and working time) becomes the most
important information in cases where productivity management of the
equipment fleet is the main focus. Utilization time information can be
used as a key information to improve the productivity of the project
with reducing equipment and labor cost by optimizing combination and
operation of equipment fleet. In order to analyze utilization time, most
of the commercialized FTS use engine's ignition event and odometer
reading analyzed by in-vehicle networking protocol (D2B; Domestic
Digital Bus, LIN; Local Interconnect Network, MOST; Media Oriented
Systems Transport, IDB-1384) [8]. In other words, engine status data
such as on/off and RPM changes, and odometer readings are connected
directly for interpretation of working and idle time for the commer-
cialized FTS. While these commercialized FTS can track working and
idle time based on engine status data, the developed FTS based solely
on GPS signal is able to track working/idle time and real time location
of a mixed fleet of equipment simultaneously by utilizing the algo-
rithms based on the working behaviors of a heavy equipment without
additional data collection from in-vehicle networking, which is very
advantageous for FTS both financially and technologically.
2. Research scope and methodology
This study introduces the development of a GPS only-based FTS that
can perform fleet management for heavy earthwork equipment such as
excavator, dozer, grader, dump truck that are used in earthwork. The
FTS in this study, called the Earthwork Fleet Telematics System (E-FTS)
is created with Web-GIS technology, [20], that can be managed by
accessing a GIS application server in web environment from any loca-
tion by utilizing Google Map and JAVA Script API technology. It can
manage information regarding the project, equipment, and geo-fence
and enables fleet management by providing location tracking, speed,
moving distance, and utilization time of each equipment in real time. In
particular, algorithms are designed so that it is possible to analyze the
utilization time of each equipment by using the moving distance and
the heading angle difference that are based on GPS location informa-
tion. Fig. 1 shows the system architecture of E-FTS developed in this
study.
E-FTS has been developed for two different types of earthwork
equipment. The first type of equipment is excavation equipment (or
loading equipment) that has to perform precise earth work, such as
excavator, grader, dozer, and roller. For this kind of equipment, ma-
chine guidance or control (MG or MC) technology [17,19] can be em-
ployed. In this case precise location and heading information from dual
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Automation in Construction 92 (2018) 59–67
D-GPS antennas installed on the equipment can be collected in real
time. In cases where MG or MC technology is not utilized, if the error
range of position and heading information is redefined, and a separate
dual D-GPS or simple mobile device with internal GPS and compass
sensor can be used for E-FTS in a much more economical way. The
second type of equipment is hauling equipment such as dump truck that
needs to minimize idle time by navigating an efficient route. Because
this type of hauling equipment does not require precise location in-
formation, a simple mobile device such as smart phone or tablet PC
with internal GPS can be utilized for E-FTS.
The collected location information of equipment is transmitted to
servers and is used to monitor location and analyze utilization time. For
utilization time analysis, each equipment is categorized into either
excavation equipment or hauling equipment. Then, the operation
heuristics and the moving behavior in working and idle status for each
type of equipment are analyzed. Algorithms were developed in order to
analyze utilization time using location information that is sent out in
real time. An android OS-based mobile navigation application was de-
veloped and linked to E-FTS to be used in hauling equipment. The
functionality of the developed E-FTS was tested in an actual earthwork
site.
The purpose of this study is to show that work performance man-
agement of earthwork equipment can be done solely by GPS-based lo-
cation information without the link to in-vehicle networking protocol.
Also, because E-FTS is developed in form of web-based open platform,
anyone can perform fleet management anywhere.
3. Location data protocol and streaming method
Because E-FTS uses location data transmitted from GPS from each
equipment for fleet management, design of utilization plan regarding
location data protocol based on each equipment type was conducted
before E-FTS development. For excavation equipment, precise location
data from GPS controller linked to dual high precision DGPS antennas is
transmitted to E-FTS and for communication, NMEA 0183 standards,
designated by National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA), is used
for data protocol. The NMEA 0183 standard defines electrical signal
requirements, data transmission protocol and time, and specific sen-
tence formats for a 4800-baud serial data bus [4,18]. This standard is in
printable ASCII form and may include information such as position,
speed, depth, frequency allocation, etc. Out of many data formats
suggested by the NMEA 0183 standards, this study used GGA format to
collect information on location (longitude and latitude) and time, and
HDT format to transmit heading information to use in location tracking
and utilization analysis. Fig. 2 shows example of devices installed on
excavator to stream NMEA data from GPS controller to E-FTS server and
example of NMEA data.
A router capable of utilizing public network (4G) was installed on
the equipment in order to stream NMEA data of DGPS from GPS con-
troller to server. Power inverter was also installed to make sure a
constant voltage is supplied. In cases where a public network is used, IP
address changes flexibly depending on the base station connected;
therefore, a Dynamic DNS (Domain Name System) [2] was set up to
ensure reliable connection between server, HDT, and GGA data is
maintained.
For the hauling equipment, internal GPS from mobile device
transmits operating information and the navigation application of the
mobile device provides an optimized moving route from E-FTS server.
4. Utilization analysis algorithm using GPS location data
Utilization Analysis Algorithm (UAA) is designed in order to allow
E-FTS to perform fleet management considering productivity by ana-
lyzing working time and idle time using location information link alone
without the linkage with heavy earthwork equipment's in-vehicle net-
working protocol, providing engine's ignition event and odometer
S.S. Lee et al.
Fig. 1. The system architecture of E-FTS.
reading data. Because the heavy earthwork equipment is categorized
into either excavation equipment or hauling equipment, the heuristics
on operating behavior at working and idle state of different equipment
types are analyzed differently. The algorithms were designed from
analysis of moving distance and rotation angle using location in-
formation that occurred during a certain period of time during utili-
zation state.
4.1. UAA design for excavation equipment
Excavation equipment such as excavator, dozer, grader, and roller
frequently change location during operation. Even excavators, which
often operate on a fixed location, rotate their body in order to excavate
and load. Therefore, working status and idle status can be determined
by analyzing the GGA and HDT data, which can be used to calculate the
maximum moving distance and rotation angle from initial state in a
given time frame.
However, for utilization status, the parameters for moving distance
and rotation angle, as well as time interval need to be established.
These parameters are called “judgment” parameters. If the time interval
is too short, excavator that operates on a fixed location without changes
in rotation angle may be determined to be idle. Therefore, the time
interval for judgment, using an excavator as standard, is decided to be
the time an excavator takes to complete one cycle (excavate, turn, load,
turn). Referencing the 2017 Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and
Transport standard of construction estimate, 30 s, which is that the
Fig. 2. NMEA 0183 streaming method from DGPS on heavy earthwork equipment.
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Automation in Construction 92 (2018) 59–67
cycle that would take the longest time (excavator's bucket capacity:
2.0 m3 and rotation angle for loading: 180°) is set up as the default
value [22]. Idle time refers to time that equipment remains at a
standstill, even if the engine is on. Thus, the objective is to analyze the
heading and moving distance that stems from error in DGPS for ex-
cavator that is at standstill and use such analysis as judgment criteria.
Table 1 shows the error range in heading angle and location coordinate
for excavator at standstill for approximately an hour.
The judgment criteria for the utilization status of excavation
equipment was determined with the default value of whether the
maximum displacement exceeds 1.9 cm or maximum rotation angle
exceed 0.21°within 30 s. At this point, it would be determined as
working time. However, these variables that serve as judgment criteria
can vary according to the field environment, GPS performance, as well
as characteristics of the equipment. Therefore, it will need to be opti-
mized through multiple experiments or the optimized variable for each
scenario needs to be suggested. The design of UAA for excavation
equipment is shown in Fig. 3.
The UAA determination process follows the results from Table 1.
The initial values are set at time interval: 30 s, moving distance: 1.9 cm,
heading variance angle: 0.21. The database group for judgment collects
and uses the data streamed from DGPS for 30 s. In order to convert the
moving distance into metric system, time, latitude, longitude of GGA
data from World Geodetic System's WGS84 coordinate system is cate-
gorized and transformed into UTM (Universal transverse Mercator)
coordinate system [12]. Then, within the database group, the initial
S.S. Lee et al. Automation in Construction 92 (2018) 59–67

Table 1
Error range of heading angle and location coordinate of excavator in standstill.

Fig. 3. UAA design for excavation equipment.

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S.S. Lee et al.
Fig. 4. The principles of Ray Casting Algorithm.
Table 2
Error range of the GPS location data of a mobile device during standstill.
coordinate value is measured and the difference in distance between the
initial coordinate and the successive coordinates updated every 30 s is
estimated to define the largest value. For heading value, the initial
heading angle is measured and the difference in angle between the
initial heading angle and the successive angles updated every 30 s is
used to determine the largest value. The calculated maximum moving
variance distance and maximum heading variance angle is compared
with the judgment criteria of the algorithm (moving variance distance:
1.9 cm, heading variance angle: 0.21) and if any value was greater than
the judgment criteria, that 30 s is considered as the working time.
4.2. UAA design for hauling equipment
For hauling equipment like dump truck, the operation type can be
categorized into loading, moving, and dumping. Loading is when the
hauling equipment stops near an excavation equipment and loads the
material. In this process, the moving distance does not change, but it is
still considered as working status. Moving is the process where the
hauling equipment transports the load through the moving route and
the movement within the dumping area and excavation area is included
as well. Dumping involves the hauling equipment unloading the load on
to the dumping area. While dumping is typically performed in standstill
status, some small movement may occur to dispose leftover load.
Considering these heuristics of hauling equipment, algorithm's judg-
ment criteria can be summarized as follows.
1) If the equipment is determined to be moving within the excavation
area, moving route area, and dumping area according to geo-fence
data, it is considered working time.
2) If the equipment is in standstill at the excavation area according to
geo-fence data, but is within the excavation range of excavation
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Automation in Construction 92 (2018) 59–67
equipment, then it is considered to be under loading process and
therefore in working status. However, if the equipment is in stand-
still in any other situation, it is considered to be in idle status.
3) While the equipment is in standstill in dumping area according to
geo-fence data, if the equipment is within the designated dumping
boundary of the dumping area designated by the system, then it is
considered to be in working status. However, any area outside is
considered to be in waiting and therefore in idle status.
To design an algorithm that meets the above conditions, the fol-
lowing must be met: 1) judgment of in which geo-fence (excavation
area, loading area, and moving route) the hauling equipment is located,
2) judgment of whether the hauling equipment is located within the
working area of the excavation equipment, and 3) judgment of whether
the hauling equipment is at a standstill for the set period of time that is
required.
First, the excavation range of excavation equipment and location of
hauling equipment can be shown in the shape of a polygon on a GIS
map. In this case, to determine entry or exit status from polygon shaped
area data, Ray Casting Algorithm can be used. Ray Casting Algorithm is
sometimes also known as the crossing number algorithm or the even-
odd rule algorithm, and is known as early as 1962 [34]. The way of
finding whether the certain point is inside or outside a simple polygon
is to test how many times a ray, starting from the point and going in any
fixed direction, intersects the edges of the polygon. If the point is on the
outside of the polygon, the ray will intersect its edge an even number of
times, and if the point is on the inside of the polygon, then it will in-
tersect the edge an odd number of times (Fig. 4).
Secondly, the location information of the hauling equipment in this
study is linked with E-FTS to be transmitted from the GPS in the mobile
device acts as the navigator. Depending on the precision level of the
S.S. Lee et al.
Fig. 5. UAA design for hauling equipment.
GPS, error can occur in determining whether or not the equipment has
halted, or whether the equipment entered or exited the area. Therefore,
there is a need to analyze the error range and incorporate it into the
algorithm. The error range was measured by placing a mobile device in
a dump truck in standstill, and the results are shown in Table 2.
The results indicated that GPS in mobile device showed at most
11.37 m of error compared to the initial state in 30 min in standstill.
Because this can significantly affect the reliability of analysis from the
algorithm, approximately 12 m was added to the area necessary for
each judgment and for hauling equipment, the location data's standard
was set as the initial data of 30 s. Lastly, if the moving distance greater
than 12 m occurs, it would be recorded as moving. Fig. 5 summarizes
the information above and shows the algorithm design for UAA for
hauling Equipment.
For the algorithm above to be applied, the excavation area, moving
route area, loading area, and designated dumping boundary must be
registered in the GIS map of E-FTS. If the equipment shows displace-
ment over 12 m in 30 s according to the GPS value from the mobile
device, it is determined as the working time. However, if the equipment
is out of the designated area, then it is determined as idle time, even if it
is moving because of maintenance, rest, and other reasons. If the
hauling equipment is in a standstill state in the excavation area and
loading area, or if the hauling equipment is in standstill within the
excavation range (also 12 m added) or in designated dumping area, it is
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Automation in Construction 92 (2018) 59–67
considered to be in working status. Any other circumstances are con-
sidered idle time. Lastly, even if the equipment is located within the
moving route and is in standstill, E-FTS is set up to consider this as idle
time due to traffic lights or congestion.
5. Case-study
5.1. Development of E-FTS for heavy earthwork equipment
By constructing the designed algorithms, Web-GIS based E-FTS
for heavy earthwork equipment is developed. The development
utilized Google Map application and JAVA scripts API (Application
Programming Interface) and is designed operate through web server.
Also, a mobile navigator application for android OS was developed for
real time connection with the E-FTS to communicate the equipment's
location data, control center's message, optimal moving route in-
formation, and real time productivity related data.
E-FTS is developed to execute fleet management according to pro-
ject units. Therefore, the user registers the project and the relevant
information (project name, address, owner, architect, constructor,
construction manager, a panoramic photograph of the field, etc.). Next,
using the geo-fencing function within the project, the user draws a poly-
line to input the area information in the shape of a polygon. The system
is set up to recognize the project area, loading area (excavation area),
S.S. Lee et al.
Table 3
Development of the E-FTS for heavy earthwork equipment.
dumping area, designated dumping boundary, moving path, danger
area, and other information, and the user can add more to the map.
Then, the equipment used in the project can be registered. In this E-FTS,
equipment is categorized into excavator, dozer, roller, grader, and
dump truck. The equipment used in a prior project is saved in the da-
tabase and can be accessed. Table 3 shows information regarding Web-
GIS based E-FTS of this study.
5.2. Case-study
In order to verify the developed E-FTS and UAA, a case-study was
conducted. The construction site was an underground road way con-
struction located in Gyeonggi-Do Namyangju-Si Byulnae-Dong, and the
project related data and E-FTS specifications are in accordance with
Table 4.
The earthwork operation lasted 8 h from 7:30 AM to 4:30 PM (lunch
time excluded). The objective for the test was to analyze the reliability
of the UAA result values by comparing the utilization time analyzed by
E-FTS and the actual utilization time from the actual operation proce-
dure. One observer was allocated for the excavator and each dump
truck. Table 5 shows the time log analysis of each equipment during the
operation (analysis of 8 h).
The result showed an average of 91.75% accuracy from UAA com-
pared to actual, empirical data. Also, excavator (error 3.2%) was esti-
mated to be more accurate compared to dump truck (8.5% ~ 12%). The
excavator's idle time ratio was higher than the dump truck due to the
fact that too few dump trucks were deployed compared to the travel
distance. In addition, the excavator's working time was calculated to be
0.13 h less, but this can be derived from judgment parameter error.
Moreover, the reason why excavator showed higher accuracy compared
to dump truck is because precise location and heading value from DGPS
improved its analysis accuracy. In the case of the dump truck, an
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Automation in Construction 92 (2018) 59–67
approximate average of 10% error was calculated. This is determined to
be caused by the fact that the GPS reliability of mobile device is rela-
tively low and due to loss of GPS signal in the tunnel (approximately
500 m) in the moving route which was interpreted as idle time.
Additionally, the dump truck experienced multiple instances where it
had to halt due to traffic congestion during transport. If the displace-
ment falls below 12 m during 30 s, which is the UAA judgment criteria,
it is all counted as idle time; thus, this may have led to the difference in
system compared to human record. In the case of dump truck 1, it had
to deviate from designated route to refuel and E-FTS correctly analyzed
it as idle time.
The error range of excavator's working and idle time was very ac-
ceptable because the error range is about 15 min out of 8 h working day
which would not make significant difference in productivity analysis.
The error range of dump trucks' working and idle time is about 10%.
We, however, observed the GPS signal loss in the tunnel section, which
was considered as the idle time within the system. The idle time taken
during this signal loss should have been considered as the working time.
The error range of dump trucks' working and idle time can be estimated
about 4.0–5.0% after the consideration of the GPS signal loss during the
test. More field tests and refinement should be performed to check the
reliability of E-FTS and UAA under various conditions.
6. Conclusion
This study discusses the development of E-FTS for the purposes of
performing fleet management of heavy earthwork equipment.
Previously, analyzing utilization time of each equipment was incon-
venient and expensive because the engine data from the equipment
needed to be directly linked to the mixed fleet telematics. This study
demonstrates a solution by introducing the algorithms and the system
structure that can analyze reliable utilization time from the GPS based
S.S. Lee et al. Automation in Construction 92 (2018) 59–67

Table 4
Test conditions for the E-FTS applied field.

Table 5
FTS field test result analysis.

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S.S. Lee et al.
location information of a wide variety of equipment types and makes.
For UAA design, the earthwork equipment is categorized into excava-
tion (or loading) equipment and hauling equipment according to the
heuristic characteristics of the operation. Furthermore, the range of
error for the installed GPS is analyzed and incorporated into the algo-
rithm to improve reliability. In addition, the Ray Casting Algorithm is
used to determine the entry and exit information from a certain area to
calculate the improved utilization time with detailed working activities.
Lastly, to analyze the reliability of the developed E-FTS and algorithms,
a field adaptability test was conducted. As a result, excavation equip-
ment showed approximately 3.2% error, and hauling equipment
showed approximately 10%. In order to improve hauling equipment's
reliability, the GPS from a mobile device should improve its precision,
resolve areas with frequent signal loss such as tunnels, and solidify the
standard of criteria for idle time from stopping due to traffic conges-
tions. Also, the optimized judgment parameters considering the various
levels of precision of GPS and heading sensors should be applied to the
algorithm to ensure more reliable analysis.
From this study, effective and economical fleet management for
heavy earthwork equipment fleet is achieved. This opens up the pos-
sibility of an open platform for future FTS development and progression
as prototype technology can be expected.
Acknowledgment
This work is supported by the “Korea Agency for Infrastructure
Technology Advancement (KAIA),” grant funded by the Ministry of
Land, Infrastructure, and Transport (Grant: 17SCIP-B079689-04).
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