Conference Paper Water Pollution Resultingfrom Mining Activity An Overview

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Water Pollution Resulting From Mining Activity: An Overview
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Proceedings of the 2018 Annual Conference of the School of Engineering & Engineering Technology, FUTA, 17-19 July, 2018
SEET’18
Proceedings of the 2018 Annual Conference of the School of
Engineering & Engineering Technology (SEET), The Federal
University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria, 17-19 July, 2018.
Engineering for Self-Relia nce
WATER POLLUTION RESULTING FROM MINING ACTIVITY: AN

OVERVIEW
Ugya, A. Y1., Ajibade, F. O.2 and Ajibade, T. F.2, 3

1
Department of Environmental Management, Kaduna State University, Kaduna State, Nigeria
2
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Federal University of Technology
Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
3
Department of Water Resources and Environmental Management, University of Brighton, UK
ugya88@kasu.edu.ng, foajibade@futa.edu.ng; temitope.otun@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Mining plays a vital role in national economic development and on the contrary mining
undesirably impact our environment. Mining has increased rapidly due to the development of
large-scale mines. This technique of mining disturbs large areas of land and water which need to
be restored. The environmental problems arising due to mining activities are natural land
degradation, air and water pollution with heavy metals, organic and inorganic waste, negative
impact on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, human health and socio-economic. Possibly, the
weightiest after effect of a mining is its effects on water resources. The impact of mining on
surface and groundwater is due to spill erosion, sedimentation, acid mine drainage, lowering of
water table, subsidence, disturbance on hydrological cycle and rainfall. Acid mine drainage is
regarded one of mining's most serious threats to water resources. A mine with acid drainage has
the capacity for long term damaging impacts on rivers, streams and aquatic life. This study is an
appraisal of mining impacts on water resources.
Keywords: Water Resources, Pollution, Mining, Heavy metals, Surface Water and Groundwater
INTRODUCTION
Water resources are very crucial for economic development maintained within acceptable levels
of global resource depletion and environmental pollution of human life. The dramatic increase in
population, urbanisation, industrial growth and agricultural activities has a substantial effect on
the demand of scarce water resources (Mhlongo et al., 2018). Water is indispensable to the
continued existence of biological organisms and ecosystems, and consequently to viable
development, especially food security (Mancosu et al., 2015; Ajibade et al., 2015; Bekchanov et
al., 2010). The living forces-forest, wild life and aquatic life are all dependent on water. To
sustain life, man needs fresh and potable water. The activities of mining deteriorate water
quality and quantity daily. These activities represent one of the most pollutant sources for human
communities or natural ecosystems. Mining refers to the process of extracting metals and
minerals from the earth (Hudson, 2012). Northey et al. (2016) reported that mining operations
SEET’18 ANNUAL CONFERENCE Page 703

have significant adverse water quality impacts. Mining is associated with risks such as: potential
flooding of pits, uncontrolled discharges and catastrophic collapse of water pollution control
dams. Industrial activities are the main source of environmental pollution, such as water
pollution with heavy metals, organic and inorganic waste, soil pollution with residues from
mining and non/ferrous metallurgy and air pollution produced by release of large amounts of
toxic gases into the atmosphere (Mohan and Ardelean, 1993). Mining activities could pollute the
surrounding environment through a range of pathways, including physical disturbance of the
landscape, spilling of mine tailings, emissions of dusts contain heavy metals into atmosphere,
and generation of large quantity of acidic drainage that contains heavy metals (Cheng et al.,
2009; Zhuang et al., 2009a, b).
Mining is a main economic activity in many developing countries (Sumi and Thomsen 2001,
Jhariya and Chourasia, 2010). Mining operation be it small or large scale, are inherently
disruptive to the environment, producing enormous quantities of waste that can have deleterious
impact for decades (Sumi and Thomsen 2001; Kitula, 2005). The risk of pollution from mining
sites lasts even after the cessation of mining activities. In all sites where mining activities exist,
the environmental problems are present. These problems manifest as degradation of forest and
loss of biodiversity, soil contamination, air pollution, surface and groundwater pollution, noise
and vibrations, deterioration of natural drainage system, natural land degradation, negative
impact on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, socio-economic and human health (Gavrilescu and
Olteanu, 2003; Rosca et al., 2002; Dasgupta, 2012; Mondal et al., 2014). The environmental
worsening caused by mining occurs mainly as a result of unsuitable and wasteful working
practices and rehabilitation measures (Jhariya and Chourasia, 2010; Mondal et al., 2014). Hence,
protecting water quality isof a high urgency environmental challenge at mining and mineral
processing sites. Therefore, this present paper reviews the history and impact of mining
activities on water resource.
BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ACTIVITIES OF MINING INDUSTRIES

Mining has produced vital products for life. Human progress is measured by technological
advancement in mining and metallurgy: human life moved through the Stone Age into the
Bronze Age, and much later the Iron Age (Selmier II, 2017). The industrial revolution was
intricately linked with advances in coal, copper, iron and tin mining; the Atomic Age was
partially determined through progress in how to mine and isolate radium, uranium and other
radioactive mined materials (Coulson, 2012, Lynch, 2004). Smartphones - the symbol of our
post-industrial period- could not exist in portable form without tantalum (coltan (Burt, 2016)), a
rare earth of which an estimated two-thirds of global mine production comes from the Great
Lakes Region of Africa (Bleiwas et al., 2015).
In relation to war and conquest, larger operations are developed through the process of mining
which frequently involved forced labor (Selmier II, (2017). Complexity in extraction and

downstream processing grew over the millennia of extracting, processing and shipping minerals
and later oil. The scale of ancient operations could be gigantic: Some 5000 years ago, Pharaohs
had mining excursions to the isolated Sinai with thousands of miners, troops, engineers and
managers. Engineering complexity was striking in Spain long ago in some 2000 years ago,
Romans sourced river water 60 miles from gold mining complexes for extensive hydraulicking
in the Rio Tinto area, exploiting resources which had been developed by Iberians and
Phoenicians over previous millennia. Such procedures which would later become the center of
environmental controversy and criticism were developed millennia ago, including not only
hydraulicking but also extensive stripmining in Sussex during Roman times, metallurgical
extraction using highly caustic materials, and harsh labor practices such as slavery in Cornwall
(Bromehead, 1940; Lynch, 2004; Whittick, 1932).
In the 1950s, inhabitants of the industrial town Minamata in Japan suffered many deaths and
disease which were attributed to eating fish contaminated with mercury from the nearby
chemical factory. This accident alerted public opinion regarding the need to regulate industrial
emissions. In the 1960s the metallurgical industry was severely blamed for its SO2 emissions.
The situation became intolerable and governments were faced with the dilemma offorcing the
shutdown of plants to protect the environment and pay the unemployed as a result of the
shutdown.In few cases workers went on strike protestingagainst environmentally unacceptable
working conditions in the plant (Bhaita, 2011). However, some plants are conscious of
environmental problems and do their best to abate pollution even at a high cost. The
Scandinavian countries are typical examples. Besides government legislation against pollution,
residents in many communities now protest against the erection of industrial plants in their
regions. Thus, while at one time, smoking chimneys were a welcome sign of prosperity and
meant prestige to a country, it is now considered a disaster by many. Pollution problems may be
evident in some cases such as emission of obnoxious smells or dumping of piles of waste. In
most cases, however, the problems are hidden and are revealed only to specialists and this
renders the problem very serious (Habashi, 2011). This chapter shows the contribution of mining
to pollution.
Mining and Water Pollution

Water is essential to life on Earth. A prerequisite of sustainable development must be to ensure
uncontaminated streams, rivers, lakes and oceans. Mining activities affect health via water
through: the method of extraction (for example health effects on children of panning for gold in
the Amazon or use of cyanide to leach heavy metals); contamination of local water sources, as
well as having harmful effects on the environment such as beach erosion from sand mining or by
longer term effects on reducing biodiversity or fish populations. The health effects may be far
away from the mining source, as demonstrated in studies of methylmercury poisoning in the
Amazon (Harada et al., 2001): mercury levels in head hair were studied in residents of three
fishing villages on the Tapajos River, an effluent of the Amazon, several hundred kilometres

from the gold mining areas. Many had high mercury levels in addition to symptoms suggesting
neurotoxic disease. Further, 0.064 ppt is the EPA recommended surface water human health
criterion for waters inhabited by fish for human consumption. Consumption of contaminated fish
is one of the major routes of human exposure (USEPA, 2002). While there have been
improvements to mining practices in recent years, significant environmental risks remain.
Negative impacts can vary from the sedimentation caused by poorly built roads during
exploration through to the sediment, and disturbance of water during mine construction. Water
pollution from mine waste rock and tailings may need to be managed for decades, if not
centuries, after closure. These impacts depend on a variety of factors, such as the sensitivity of
local terrain, the composition of minerals being mined, the type of technology employed, the
skill, knowledge and environmental commitment of the company, and finally, our ability to
monitor and enforce compliance with environmental regulations. One of the problems is that
mining has become more mechanized and therefore able to handle more rock and ore material
than ever before. Therefore, mine waste has multiplied enormously. As mining methods are
developed to make it more profitable to mine low grade ore, even more waste will be generated
in the future.
Types of Water Pollution from Mining

There are four main types of mining impacts on water quality.
Acid Mine Drainages

Acid mine drainage (AMD) or acid rock drainage (ARD) is considered as one of the major
contaminants of water in several nations of the world that have historic or current mining
activities (Simate and Ndlovu. According to Mulopo (2015), acid mine drainage is also
characterised by high total dissolved solids (TDS), high sulphates and high levels of heavy
metals, particularly iron, manganese, nickel and cobalt. The acronym AMD is usually used (than
ARD) because the process occurs mainly at mining sites. It occurs in both operating and
abandoned polymetallic sulphide mining sites (Johnson and Hallberg, 2005; Sheoran and
Sheoran, 2006) – in tunnels, mine workings, open pits, waste rock piles, and mill tailings
(Blowes et al., 2003; Johnson and Hallberg, 2005; Sheoran and Sheoran, 2006). When large
quantities of rock containing sulphide mineralsare excavated from an open pit or opened up in
an underground mine, it reacts with water andoxygen to create sulphuric acid. When the water
reaches a certain level of acidity, a naturally occurring type of bacteria called Thiobacillus
ferroxidans may kick in, accelerating the oxidationand acidification processes, leaching even
more trace metals from the wastes. The acid will leach from the rock as long as its source rock is
exposed to air and water and until the sulphides are leached out – a process that can last
hundreds, even thousands of years. Acid is carried off the minesite by rainwater or surface
drainage and deposited into nearby streams, rivers, lakes and groundwater. AMD severely
degrades water quality, and can kill aquatic life and make water virtually unusable
(Environmental Mining Council of BC. 2000).

The types of mine waste problems are numerous, but the most difficult one to address is the acid
mine drainage (AMD) that emanates from both surface and underground workings, waste and
development rock, and tailings piles and ponds (Durkin and Herrmann, 1994). Surface impacts
are mostly from tailings and rock dumps and adversely affect both groundwater and surface
water quality. Underground impacts are generally characterized by the inflow of water into the
underground workings and the subsequent dewatering of the aquifer (Banister et al., 2002).
Elaborate pumping systems employed in the beginning of the 20th century to increase profits
resulted in the modification of the water table, appearance of sinkholes, and elevated levels of
water, air, and soil pollution (Adler and Rascher, 2007; IIED, 2002). The rebound of water
levels after mine closure can lead to contaminated groundwater being discharged (Johnson and
Hallberg, 2005). The primary management issues for underground gold mine closure therefore
include long term decant risk, acid mine drainage, water pumping and treatment and allocation
of responsibility especially in light of the interconnectedness of the mines (Pulles et al., 2005).
Acid mine drainage probably presents the single most important factor in dealing with tailings
and waste rock and their impact on the environment (Ritcey, 2005). Due to the more
disaggregated (and more concentrated, in the case of tailings) nature of the acid-generating
minerals in the waste materials, AMD that flows from them may be more aggressive than that
which discharges from the mine itself. Another consideration here is the potential long-term
pollution problem, as production of AMD may continue for many years after mines are closed
and tailings dams decommissioned (Johnson and Hallberg, 2005). Acid mine drainage is
produced when sulfide-bearing material is exposed to oxygen and water. The production of
AMD usually, but not exclusively – occurs in iron 619 sulfide-aggregated rocks. Although this
process occurs naturally, mining promotes AMD formation simply by increasing the quantity of
sulphides exposed (Akcil and Koldas, 2006).
Releases of AMD have low pH, high electrical conductivity, elevated concentrations of iron,
aluminium and manganese and raised concentrations of toxic heavy metals (Plate 1). The acid
produced dissolves salts and mobilizes heavy metals from mine workings. Dark, reddish-brown
water and pH values as low as 2.5 persist at the site (Akcil and Koldas, 2006). AMD is not only
associated with surface and groundwater pollution, but is also responsible for the degradation of
soil quality, for harming aquatic sediments and fauna, and for allowing heavy metals to seep into
the environment (Adler and Rascher, 2007).

Plate 1: Acid Mine Drainage of Rio Tinto River (Zettler et al., 2003)
AMD follows the same flow pathways as water; therefore AMD can best be controlled by
controlling water entry into the site of acid formation by diversion of surface water away
from the residue storage areas, prevention of groundwater infiltration into the mine workings,
prevention of hydrological seepage into the affected areas and controlled placement of acid-
generating waste (Akcil and Koldas, 2006). Diversions most commonly consist of ditches,
which are difficult to maintain for long periods of time. Groundwater discharge areas should
be avoided as isolation and interception of contaminated groundwater is very difficult to
achieve. Under-drains can be installed in locations of the dumps, and the infiltration by
meteoric water can be further retarded through the use of sealing layers (Akcil and Koldas,
2006).
Heavy Metal Contamination and Leaching

Heavy metals are natural constituents of the earth's crust, and some of them (e.g., Cu and Zn)
are indispensable for normal metabolic functions in vegetal, organisms, and homo sapiens
(McLennan, 1999; Saracoglu et al., 2009). Heavy metal pollution is caused when such metals
as arsenic, cobalt, copper, cadmium, lead, silver and zinc contained in excavated rock or
exposed in an underground mine come in contactwith water. Metals are leached out and
carried downstream as water washes over the rock surface. Although metals can become
mobile in neutral pH conditions, leaching is particularly accelerated in the low pH conditions
such as are created by Acid Mine Drainage. Contaminations of surface and ground water
bodies have particularly been experienced in mining communities (Davies et al., 1994; Manu
et al., 2004; Kuma and Younger 2004; Obiri 2007). Mining has played a significant role in
the socioeconomic life of the world for the past hundred years (Akabzaa et al., 2005).
However, mining in recent times has become unpopular as it is regarded as a significant

source of Mercury, Leadand heavy metal contamination of the environment owing to

activities such as mineral exploitation, ore transportation, smelting and refining, disposal of
the tailings and waste waters around mines (Essuman et al., 2007; Hanson et al., 2007; Obiri
2007; Singh, et al., 2007). Weathering of the heaped waste materials results in the release of
toxic chemicals into the environment especially, into aquatic bodies. Such harmful metals
released from mine tailings include mercury, arsenic, lead and cadmium among others and It
has been suggested that many of the worst heavy metal pollution problems in the world
resulted from the poorly regulated small-scale operations (e.g., artisanal mining) (Harris and
McCartor, 2011; Scholz, 2017; Xiao et al., 2017). Heavy metal pollution within mining
communities has been extensively studied (Adimado and Amegbey 2003; Akabzaa et al.
2005; Essumang et al., 2007; Hilson 2002; Manu et al., 2004; Obiri 2007; Yidana et al.,
2007; Li et al., 2014; Li et al., 2015; Xiao et al., 2017; Sun et al., 2018).
Surface and groundwater pollution is one of the noteworthy impacts of mining activities
(Hudson, 2012) as depicted in Figure 1. The mining sector uses large quantities of water,
though some mines do reuse their water intake. Mining throws sulphide-containing minerals
into the air, where they oxidize and react with water to form sulphuric acid (Mehta, 2002;
Hudson, 2012). This, together with various trace element impacts groundwater, both from the
surface and underground mines (Hudson, 2012). It is vital to examine the impact of heavy
metals on water because these metals have an adverse impact to the environment and
ecosystem under natural conditions (Chibuike and Obiora, 2014; Moore and Ramamoorthy,
1984) as shown in Table 1.
Figure 1: Surface and Groundwater by Mining Operation (MINEO consortium, 2000)

Table 1: Impact of Heavy Metals on Human Health and Waters

Heavy Impact References
Metal To humans To waters
Lead Affects the central and peripheral Acute toxicity to Stoica, et al., (2003)
nervous system; circulatory and plants, animals and
digestive systems; kidneys microorganisms
Mercury Causes brain damage leading to Chronic effects Branescu, et al., (2007)
blindness; mental abnormalities;
acute intoxications affecting
digestive system and kidneys,
death
Cadmium Induces respiratory and kidney Poisonous to flora Branescu, et al., (2007)
disorders; cancer and fauna;
decalcification
bodies
Copper Affects the liver, kidneys and Toxic plants Palamaru, et al., (1997)
eyes; neurological disturbances
Iron Affects heart and liver; causes the Palamaru, et al., (1997)
disease called siderosis
Chromium Is irritant to skin and mucous; Poisonous to marin Xia and Liu, (2004)
induces circulatory disorders; plankton and fish
allergic reactions; affects the
nervous system; cancer
Nickel Induces allergic reactions; affects high toxicity to Palamaru, et al., (1997)
lung and kidney tissue; cancer plants,
approximately 8
times more toxic
than Zinc
Arsenic Vomiting; cardiac dysfunction; Affect the plant Xia and Liu, (2004)
skin cancer growth
Zinc Epigastric pains; affects the Changes in physical Palamaru, et al., (1997)
central nervous system, muscles and physicochemical
and cardiovascular system properties; reduces
the biological
activity
Manganese Motor and mental disorders; Xia and Liu, (2004)
Parkinson
Source: Jucan et al., 2016

Processing Chemicals Pollution

This kind of pollution occurs when chemical agents (such as cyanide or sulphuric acid used by
mining companies to separate the target mineral from the ore) spill, leak, or leach from the mine
site into nearby water bodies. These chemicals can be highly toxic to humans and wildlife.
Erosion and Sedimentation

Mineral development disturbs soil and rock in the course of constructing and maintaining roads,
open pits, and waste impoundments. In the absence of adequate prevention and control
strategies, erosion of the exposed earth may carry substantial amounts of sediment into streams,
rivers and lakes. Excessive sediment can clog riverbeds and smother watershed vegetation,
wildlife habitat and aquatic organisms.
Surface mining activities disturb large tracts of land and produce greatly increased downstream
sediment loads.Production of sediments from surface mined areas can be 100 to 2000 times that
from a forested area and more than 10 times that from grazing lands (Curtis, 1971;
Environmental Protection Agency, 1976). In addition to being a major source of water pollution,
these high sediment loads can result in: reduction in the agricultural potential of an area, storage
capacity losses in downstream reservoirs, increased flooding due to reduced river channel
capacities, geomorphic changes in stream structure and increased turbidity and associated
changes in all riverine life forms.
Soil erosion and sediment transport depend on the following factors:

a) climatic conditions,
b) soil and spoil erositivity,
c) overland slope and slope length,
d) ground cover,
e) soil conservation control practices,
f) catchment drainage characteristics.
Open-cast mining activities tend to change radically.Several of these factors and severe sediment
production could occur in the following locations :
a) topsoil stockpiles,
b) spoil piles,
c) waste dumps,
d) bare topsoil areas,
e) steep outslopes,
f) ramps,
g) haul roads.

Scalping, blasting, material handling, heavy vehicular travel over replaced spoils, and topsoiling
activities generally produce compacted areas of soil and spoil materials with a high colloidal
content. The runoff potential from these areas is increased due to a reduction in infiltration and,
if fine silts and colloidal particles are transported into major water courses, the impact of the
increased sediment production might occur hundreds of kilometres downstream of the mine
location. Colloidal particles require a very long detention time in an impoundment before they
will settle out of suspension and frequently deposition does not occur until the sediment laden
flows discharge into large water supply dams (Andy et al., 1984).
Impacts of Mining Projects on Soil Quality

Mining can contaminate soils over a large area. Agricultural activities near a mining project may
be particularly affected. According to a study commissioned by the European Union: “Mining
operations routinely modify the surrounding landscape by exposing previously undisturbed
earthen materials. Erosion of exposed soils, extracted mineral ores, tailings, and fine material in
waste rock piles can result in substantial sediment loading to surface waters and drainage ways.
In addition, spills and leaks of hazardous materials and the deposition of contaminated
windblown dust can lead to soil contamination.
Human health and environmental risks from soils generally fall into two categories: (1)
contaminated soil resulting from windblown dust, and (2) soils contaminated from chemical
spills and residues. Fugitive dust can pose substantial environmental problems at some mines.
The inherent toxicity of the dust depends upon the proximity of environmental receptors and
type of ore being mined. High levels of arsenic, lead, and radionucleides in windblown dust
usually pose the greatest risk. Soils contaminated from chemical spills and residues at mine sites
may pose a direct contact risk when these materials are misused as fill materials, ornamental
landscaping, or soil supplements (MINEO Consortium 2000).
Impacts on Public Health

EIAs of mining projects often underestimate the potential health risks of mining projects.
Hazardous substances and wastes in water, air, and soil can have serious, negative impacts on
public health. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a “state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity.”(WHO, 1946)
The term ‘hazardous substances’ is broad and includes all substances that can be harmful to
people and/or the environment. Because of the quantity, concentration, or physical, chemical or
infectious characteristics, hazardous substances may (1) cause or contribute to an increase of
mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or incapacitating illness; or (2) pose a substantial
present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored,
transported, disposed of, or otherwise managed.

Impact on Water Quantity

Mining can deplete surface and groundwater supplies. Groundwater withdrawals may damage or
destroy streamside habitat many miles from the actual mine site. In Nevada, the driest state in
the United States of America, the Humboldt River is being drained to benefit gold mining
operations along the Carlin Trend. Mines in the northeastern Nevada desert pumped out more
than 580 billion gallons of water between 1986 and 2001 – enough to feed New York City’s taps
for more than a year. Groundwater withdrawn from the Santa Cruz River Basin in Southern
Arizona for use at a nearby copper mine is lowering the water table and drying up the river
(SDWF, 2017).
Alleviation Measure for the Control of Mining Activities on Water Resource

The utilization of water in mining areas is very precarious. Mining activities will almost always
have an impact on water environment through direct or indirect contact of either the surface or
groundwater. Therefore, industries must invest in ensuring that water is not contaminated or
where contamination does occur, they invest in treatment or containment within appropriate
reservoirs, pipelines, canals or other storage facilities. Mining industries must encourage
adopting practices and technologies which are environment friendly. The practice that must be
followed by the industries is as follows as highlighted by Jhariya et al., (2016):
i. Resource conservation and management by scientific way with minimum waste;
ii. Finding substitutes of the mineral widely used at present;
iii. Proper recycling of used metals.
iv. Adoption of environmental friendly technologies.
v. Efficient and efficient use of energy.
vi. Afforestation and preservation of biological diversity.
vii. Government should not permit mining operation in ecologically sensitive areas.
viii. Follow Acts, Rules and Regulation made by Ministry of Environment, Forest and
climate change.
CONCLUSION
Mining is posing a very critical and significant menace to the ecosystem health and nearby
habitats, together with fauna and flora, and also microfauna in river basins and for the water
cycle. Mining activities lead to surface and groundwater pollution, so proper mitigation
approach should be developed to improve and develop effective removal techniques. Industry is
now doing its best to improve working conditions, abate pollution, and safegauard the
environment by getting community involvement and increasing the level of awareness of her
employees. The impacts of mining and other problems related with mine closure and mine water
management cannot be easily addressed over the short term and may have devastating
consequences for more than just ecosystems. This research thereby recommends that thorough
EIA should be done before any site could be used for mining activities and Illegal mining should
be stopped.

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Conference Paper Water Pollution Resultingfrom Mining Activity An Overview

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Water Pollution Resulting From Mining Activity: An Overview

Conference Paper · July 2018

Ugya AY Fidelis O. Ajibade

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WATER POLLUTION RESULTING FROM MINING ACTIVITY: AN

Ugya, A. Y1., Ajibade, F. O.2 and Ajibade, T. F.2, 3

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BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ACTIVITIES OF MINING INDUSTRIES

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Mining and Water Pollution

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Types of Water Pollution from Mining

Acid Mine Drainages

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Heavy Metal Contamination and Leaching

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source of Mercury, Leadand heavy metal contamination of the environment owing to

Figure 1: Surface and Groundwater by Mining Operation (MINEO consortium, 2000)

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Table 1: Impact of Heavy Metals on Human Health and Waters

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Processing Chemicals Pollution

Erosion and Sedimentation

Soil erosion and sediment transport depend on the following factors:

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Impacts of Mining Projects on Soil Quality

Impacts on Public Health

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Impact on Water Quantity

Alleviation Measure for the Control of Mining Activities on Water Resource

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