Instructional technology

“Instructional technology is the branch of education concerned with the scientific study
of instructional design and development. The main purpose of instructional designers is
to create engaging, effective learning experiences”.

“Instructional technology is a specific technology field that deals with creating resources
for learning.
The nature of instructional technology is traced back to academics like B.B. Seels and
R.C. Ritchie, who defined it as "the theory and practice of design, development,
utilization, management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning.”

Role of technology in education

The role of technology in education Learning with technology has become essential in
today’s schools. Worldwide, governments, education systems, researchers, school
leaders, teachers and parents consider technology to be a critical part of a child’s
education. In Australia, it is acknowledged that advances in technology have an
influence on the way people create, share, use and develop information in society, and
that young people need to be highly skilled in their use of information and
communications technologies (ICT). This educational aspiration is a cornerstone of the
Melbourne Declaration on Goals for Young Australians (MCEETYA, 2008) and ICT
competence is realised as one of the general capabilities in the Australian Curriculum
(ACARA, 2011). Developing students’ knowledge and skills related to ICT in the school
years provides an important grounding for later in life. It also provides equity of
opportunity, regardless of background. General social commentary and the popular
press tend to generalise about young people, their access to and use of technology.
Recent literature have challenged these assumptions and acknowledge that, although
students today may have been born into a technologically rich world, they may not be
avid and skilful users of technology (Bennett, Maton & Kervin, 2008). Further, there is
recognition that merely providing access to technology is not enough. Meaningful
development of technology based knowledge and skills is important for all students, in
order to avoid a phenomenon known as the ‘second-level digital divide’, whereby people
have drastically differentiated skills, which in turn influence how people participate in
society (OECD, 2010). The need to keep pace with society and prepare students for
their roles in society are just two reasons to use technology in education. Educators and
researchers point to the potential of technology to increase motivation and engagement
of learners, cater for different learning styles and improve learning outcomes. When we
talk about technology in teaching and learning, the word ‘integration’ is often used. The
idea of integrating technology into the curriculum came about through a concern that we
may have been teaching about and teaching how to use technology but not addressing
how students can apply technology related knowledge and skills. To address this
problem, there was a move to integrate technology into each key learning area. With
technology now being part of our everyday lives, it is time to rethink the concept of
integrating technology into the curriculum and instead aim to embed technology into
pedagogy, to support the learning process. This means that technology becomes an
integral part of the learning experience and an important consideration for teachers,
from the onset of preparing learning experiences through to teaching and learning with
students. The important role that technology plays in education gives teachers the
opportunity to design meaningful learning experiences that embed technology. This is
not a new area for teachers; we have always considered the tools and resources that
can best support learning activities for students. However, advances and accessibility of
technologies have made the possibilities seem almost endless. It is important not to use
technology for its sake, but rather to embed technology appropriately. Here, teachers
draw upon their expertise and experience in what to teach and how to teach it. A
teacher has many considerations and influences in designing learning experiences for
students, and the appropriate use of technology is but one of those considerations. Just
as teachers keep up to date with curriculum developments, new educational policies
and advances in the art and science of teaching practice, they keep up to date with the
technological tools that are available to them. This means that sometimes
experimentation and trialand-error are just as important as experience in what
influences teachers’ lesson plans. The role and expertise of teachers are critical
because teachers are at the front line of designing and delivering the learning
experience. It has been well argued that just making technology available in schools
does not mean that teachers will make use of the technology, nor will it necessarily be
used effectively (Cuban, 2003). This chapter provides some ideas for teachers in how
they can make meaningful use of technology in their teaching.

History of Instructional Technology

1963
Audiovisual communications is the branch of educational theory and practice concerned
with the design and use of messages which control the learning process. It undertakes:
(a) the study of the unique and relative strengths and weaknesses of both pictorial and
nonrepresentational messages which may be employed in the learning process for any
reason; and (b) the structuring and systematizing of messages by men and instruments
in an educational environment. These undertakings include planning, production,
selection, management, and utilization of both components and entire instructional
systems. Its practical goal is the efficient utilization of every method and medium of
communication which can contribute to the development of the learners’ full potential –
Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT).
1970
Instructional technology … is a systematic way of designing, carrying out, and
evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives,
based on research in human learning and communication and employing a combination
of human and non- human resources to bring about more effective instruction –
President‟s Commission on Instructional Technology (PCIT).

Instructional Technology is the Development (Research, Design, Production,

Evaluation, Support-Supply, Utilization) of Instructional Systems Components
(Messages, Men, Materials, Devices, Techniques, Settings) and the Management of
that development Organization, Personnel) in a systematic manner with the goal of
solving educational problems.

1982
Instructional technology] is concerned with improving the effectiveness and efficiency of
learning in educational contexts, regardless of the nature or substance of that learning.
…Solutions to instructional problems might entail social as well as machine
technologies.

1994
Instructional Technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization,
management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning – Association for
Educational Communications and Technology (AECT).
Seels, B. B., & Richey, R. C. (1994). Instructional technology: The definition and
domains of the field. Washington, DC: Association for Educational Communications and
Technology.

1995
The systemic and systematic application of strategies and techniques derived from
behavioral and physical sciences concepts and other knowledge to the solution of
instructional problems.

2013
Instructional technology includes practical techniques of instructional delivery that
systematically aim for effective learning, whether or not they involve the use of media. It
is a basic purpose of the field of instructional technology to promote and aid the
application of these known and validated procedures in the design and delivery of
instruction.

GOALS OF ISTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY:

Software Tools

Word processing, database, spreadsheet, telecommunications, presentation, authoring,

graphic paint programs. Teachers need to know how to use them, how to teach them to
students, and how and why to use them in the classroom.

Software Types

Drill and practice, tutorials or computer-based instruction, and simulations. Teachers

need to know what these are as well as why, when, and how to incorporate them into
their teaching.

Integrated Learning Systems

Also known as computer-managed instruction. Teachers need to know what this is, how
to use it, when to use it, with what grade levels and subject areas to use it, with what
students to use it, and its role in the educational process.

Equipment Use

Digital camera, scanner, camcorder, CD-writer, computer, modem, printer, VCR, LCD
projector, laser-disc player, and others. Teachers need to know how to use them and
how they can be used in the classroom.

Multimedia Integration
Create and find graphics, images, audio files, video files, and animations. Import these
multimedia objects into their presentations and learning materials. Understand how and
why the integration of multimedia helps them to teach and how it helps students to
learn.

Audio and Video Conferencing

Understand what these are and how to incorporate them into the educational process.
Understand various teaching methods that best utilize these tools. Understand how
these can affect how we learn.

Distance Education

Understand what it is, types of instructional delivery systems and media to be used (i.e.,
self-instructional manuals, slides, satellite, videotaped instruction, interactive TV, and
the Internet), how to design courses using distance education, the differences in this
type of learning and teaching, techniques for delivering instruction in this method, and
why and how this approach can be used at various grade levels.

Classroom Configurations

How to best equip and utilize technology in the classroom. How to use the technology in
the classroom. Classrooms need multimedia technology in each classroom. Teachers
need access to teaching computers, LCD projectors, scanners, and other equipment in
the classroom. Teachers need to be able to quickly use this equipment and access
software when needed. Teachers need to be able to access and display the Internet
and know how to utilize the Internet, software programs, presentation software,
videotapes, and so on, in their teaching methods. Classrooms also need software and
equipment available to their students.

Web Board

How to use it, how to set up discussion groups for students, how to post assignments
and readings, and how to use it for students to post their assignments. Teachers need
to understand how and why this technology can affect their teaching approach.

Web Pages

How to create web pages, how to use them in their teaching, and why they should use
them. Web pages can have many functions for displaying information and creating
student interaction. Web pages can also be used for helping students be more
independent learners.

The Internet
What it is, how to use it, and how to incorporate it into the teaching/learning process.
Teachers need to know how to search for information, how to critically analyze and
evaluate this information, how to use FTP (file transfer protocol), telnet, email, mailing
lists, and newsgroups. Teachers need to know how this powerful system can affect
what is learned and how learning can best occur.

Software Review and Evaluation

How to select appropriate software for specific grade levels and content areas, how to
evaluate the effectiveness of this software, and what types of software are available.
Teachers need to be thoroughly familiar with many of the software options available and
understand when and how to use them in the classroom.

Integration of Technology

Teachers need to understand the three technological configurations available – additive,

integrated, and independent. They need to understand which configuration that they
would like to implement, why this one is best for them and their students, and how to
implement this method of integration. Teachers need to know how, when, and why to
use any technology in the classroom. Teachers need to be able to modify how they
teach in order to incorporate this technology.

Design and Create Instructional Materials

How to design and create various instructional materials for learners. Teachers need to
understand design principles, how to create instructionally effective materials, what
types of materials to create to best meet the learner needs, and how they can utilize
these materials in their teaching. Instructional materials that teachers need to know how
to create range from bulletin boards and transparencies to PowerPoint, HyperStudio,
and web-based materials.

Moral, Legal, and Ethical Issues

Teachers need to understand these issues and how they might affect what and how
they teach. These issues might be copyright and fair use issues to issues involving
access to information. Teachers need to be aware of society’s view on the use of
technology and how these issues might affect what they can do in the classroom.

New Software and Hardware

Teachers need to keep up with what types of instructional materials and tools that are
being developed and how these new materials might be useful to them as teachers.
They need to learn how to use these new materials and how to incorporate them into
their teaching.
Philosophical Questions and Issues

What is the role of technology in education? How should technology be used for
teaching and learning? When should it be used? What types of learners (learning styles,
ages, ability levels, gender, etc.) can best benefit from what types of technology? How
does technology affect what and how we teach? How does technology affect our
lifestyles and our whole educational system? Should we reconstruct education because
of technology? What should the educational system look like in the next few years
because of these advancements in technology?

Basic principles and models of instruction technology

Instruction technology entails the conscious and deliberate use of scientific and other
organized forms of information for the purpose of guaranteeing the effectiveness of the
education process. The discipline places great emphasis on the elaboration of
instructional objectives, the compatibility of the course material to the learner’s
preferences, and the frequency and objectivity of evaluation. The scientific foundation
primarily includes the achievements of behavioural sciences. Instead of the dual
interpretation Davies01 recommended a third approach, one based upon systemization.
Accordingly with the use of the two already existing approaches and the inclusion of
new elements a novel instruction technology can be elaborated. This approach can be
described as”the application of optimal strategies including modern organisation theory
complementing the given teaching and learning resources in order to achieve
pedagogical objectives” (Davies, 1972.). Furthermore, inspired by Bruner 02 Davies
asserts that instruction technology will lead to a new instructional theory. This
prescriptive and normative approach will facilitate:

 the optimal management of a learning environment in which the fulfilment of

previously determined objectives is guaranteed
 the formation of course material sequence and structure facilitating problem free
learning
 the distinction between the efficiency of the given instructional strategies along
with identifying and recommending educational media to be used on demand
both by teachers and students.

We believe that instruction technology models and instructional design and

development efforts share a crucial foundation, system-orientation. Consequently, the
effects and activities motivating learning are regarded as functionally connected specific
components of a dynamic system serving identical pedagogical goals. Consequently,
we can avoid placing an excessive or insufficient emphasis on audiovisual electronic
media, the role of ICT or the importance of the content or structure of the given
educational materials as compared to other parts of the system. Most models
constructed by educational researchers have shared characteristics.

Table Two: Defining features of the instructional system model

LEARNER LEARNING DEVELOPMENT INSTRUCTION

CHARACTERISTICS RESOURCES FUNCTIONS MANAGEMENT
Personality Content Research Organisation
Pre-existing Materials Planning Staff
knowledge
Motivation level Devices Production
Skills Methods Evaluation
Style Environment Supply
Instructors Application

The differentiated educational objective and criteria system means the elaboration of
the system of operational goals in addition to the general objectives. Said goals will be
presented in a taxonomical framework facilitating the selection of instructional
strategies, methods, and media, process design, and the preparation of a performance
evaluation system.

Formative evaluation or the application of cybernetic feedback in order to provide

continuous learning support and process regulation assures the optimalization of
system components and the improvement of the operation of the system.

Learner and learning centredness. On the one hand this means the acceptance and
adaptation of one of the pedagogical and psychological theories pertaining to the
learning process and its application to a given target population. The exploration of the
age specific features, actually pre-existing knowledge, learning motivations and styles of
learners is one of the foundations of the process design effort.
Designing the teaching and learning process This effort refers to the elaboration of the
content, sequence, and management system of the activities of students and teachers
(Until now, the Gagne-type approach including evoking attention-motivation-informing
students on the specific expectations-reviewing the required preliminary knowledge-
presenting new material-promoting student activity-feedback-promoting recording and
transfer processes-performance evaluation was used most frequently).

Developed instructional strategies and media The extent of development or elaboration

entails awareness of the usability indicators of the full range of strategies and of media
along with making decisions relevant to the given objectives, course materials, or
learner groups. In other words this is the media selection stage.

Criteria-based performance evaluation. This stage includes the assessment of student

performance according to an objective and criteria system derived from needs analysis
instead of responding to subjective and local norms.

Presently information technology provides a tremendous boost to instruction technology

especially by the Internet, the interactive multimedia, and the constructive learning
paradigm. The next phase of instructional research utilizes the achievements of
cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology became the leading approach in the 1960s
after the decline of the behaviourist school. Its focus is on the processes of human
cognition including such aspects as language, perception, sensory perception, thinking,
decision making or problem solving. The respective methodology retained the
strictness of behavioural objectivism, but it provides room for explaining such directly
unobservable concepts as mental representation.

The starting premise of discussing the information and communication technology

analysis of the teaching profession is a consensus fostered by previous educational
innovations. Achievements of contemporary technology, the new information and
communication technologies and the media, especially computerized network and
multimedia based telecommunications systems are not primarily designed to satisfy
pedagogical demands.

The determination of instruction oriented applications and the continuous identification

of opportunities are tasks yet to be solved by instruction technology.
All teaching, learning, and school-related activities should benefit the learner.
Consequently, during the design and implementation of any instructional system
component potentially including expectation, objective, course material, learning task,
methods, educational device, media, control, evaluation or an intentional pedagogical
effect the features of the given learner or learner group and the institutionalized learning
process have to be taken into consideration. These are essential design
parameters treated separately during the instruction and media development programs.

Learning in schools takes place in communities. During the learning support processes
relating to community, or differentiated work or individual learning a variety of
established, non media-dependent, technology, procedure, or method (feedback, group
organisation, explanation, discussion) can be used along with educational device and
resource-based activities including textbook reading, writing in exercise books,
performing experiments, computerized simulation, audiovisual demonstration, and the
use of multimedia programs. Instruction technology should not exclusively utilise new
media based solutions in public education.

Instruction technology research has to contribute to the development of support

systems and new information disseminating and skill development course materials for
evaluating the efficiency of media and media combinations along with the determination
of criteria for optimal learning.

The role of ICT competence is well illustrated in an instruction development and content
providing system model functioning as a system oriented dynamic model for
pedagogical practice. The components, operation, and connection of the model provide
adequate support for instruction design, development, and learning management at
curricular, course, topic, and competence development levels alike.

National level instructional design and regulation: Such criteria including the
requirements for high school graduation, the registers of textbooks and educational
devices, school building, infrastructural standards apply not only to teachers and
maintainers of schools, but parents and students as well. A prioritised task is teaching
the use of digital knowledge centres.

Instructor skills and aptitudes required for pedagogical process design due to the
increasing role of local programs and curricula have enjoyed increasing significance.
The collection and interinstitutional exchange of thematically arranged programs and
multimedia resources available on the Internet anticipate interaction entailing not only
retrievability but an uploading capability as well. In addition to the selection of
educational material or media the didactical and specialised methodological design and
digital compilation of information carriers requires new knowledge and skills.

The management of daily, concrete teaching and learning processes can be supported
by training session arrangement and methodological models, the recommendations for
printed materials and books facilitating independent learning and differentiation, and the
provision of on-line interactive audiovisual media materials.

In addition to the classic, community-based methods, educational devices, and

learning resources the management, organisation, and the maintenance of ICT based
independent and cooperative learning efforts along with an informatics-based learning
environment and continuous motivation for knowledge transfer requires new
pedagogical skills and competences.

The instruction development system model

Figure 2 Instruction development system model

Instruction development and content provision system model, pedagogical research,
instruction technology development, innovation, introduction, testing, management of
the teaching-learning process, textbooks, educational materials knowledge centres,
course material compilation, formative evaluation, multimedia, e-Learning, infrastructure
standard, media selection, method selection, individual learning, community based
learning, reading, general education, curriculum, program, lesson plan, task,
instructional event, evaluation, community-based learning, ideal, object-content
analysis, high school graduation requirements, organisational form, pre-existing
knowledge, survey, evaluation, grading, general educational level, national level, design
and control, efficiency test, feedback, pedagogical process design skills.

A frequent problem is identifying instructional technology with devices used within the
educational process, most often the computer. We must also accept that the general
acceptance and pedagogical benefits of ICT and the subsequent legitimacy of the
approach is dependent upon theoretically and experimentally justified teaching
knowledge and skills based on credible arguments, along with the development of an
adequate school infrastructure. The most important components of the learning
environment are educational devices, or as they have recently been called, learning
resources.

Since its inception instruction technology has been considered innovative, modern, and
progressive. Instruction technology professionals systematically searched for evidence
and arguments against traditional instruction. Debates at the beginning of the 1970s
emphasized that the ambiguous terminology frustrates communication even within the
discipline. Consequently, responding to the call of the Association for Educational
Communication and Technology the U.S. Office of Education and the National Center
for Education Statistics published a handbook with the aim of defining the crucial terms
and creating a unified professional terminology. Said publication titled Handbook of
Standard Terminology (1975.) defines over 1500 terms. Its main objective is making
learning easier via the systematic disclosure, development, arrangement, application,
and management of learning resources. Additional objectives include the elaboration
and development of instructional systems, the identification of existing and available
learning resources, and providing access for students to such resources, along with the
management of the required procedures and human resources. While this is not an
exhaustive list, the Dictionary of Education views instruction technology as ”the
application of scientific principles for the design and implementation of instruction
systems with special emphasis on exact and measurable objectives, the prevalence of
learner centered education over subject centredness, the recognition of the capability of
educational theories to augment practice along with the wide spread educational use of
audiovisual media.”

METHODS OF TEACHING
A teaching method comprises the principles and methods used by teachers to enable
student learning. These strategies are determined partly on subject matter to be taught
and partly by the nature of the learner. For a particular teaching method to be
appropriate and efficient it has to be in relation with the characteristic of the learner and
the type of learning it is supposed to bring about. Suggestions are there to design and
selection of teaching methods must take into account not only the nature of the subject
matter but also how students learn.In today's school the trend is that it encourages a lot
of creativity. It is a known fact that human advancement comes through reasoning. This
reasoning and original thought enhances creativity.

The approaches for teaching can be broadly classified into teacher centered and
student centered. In Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning, Teachers are the main
authority figure in this model. Students are viewed as “empty vessels” whose primary
role is to passively receive information (via lectures and direct instruction) with an end
goal of testing and assessment. It is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge and
information onto their students. In this model, teaching and assessment are viewed as
two separate entities. Student learning is measured through objectively scored tests and
assessments.In Student-Centered Approach to Learning, while teachers are the
authority figure in this model, teachers and students play an equally active role in the
learning process. The teacher's primary role is to coach and facilitate student learning
and overall comprehension of material. Student learning is measured through both
formal and informal forms of assessment, including group projects, student portfolios,
and class participation. Teaching and assessments are connected; student learning is
continuously measured during teacher instruction. Commonly used teaching methods
may include class participation, demonstration, recitation, memorization, or
combinations of these.

Ancient education

About 3000 BC, with the advent of writing, education became more conscious or self-
reflecting, with specialized occupations such as scribe and astronomer requiring
particular skills and knowledge. Philosophy in ancient Greece led to questions of
educational method entering national discourse.
In his literary work The Republic, Plato described a system of instruction that he felt
would lead to an ideal state. In his dialogues, Plato described the Socratic method, a
form of inquiry and debate intended to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas.

It has been the intent of many educators since, such as the Roman educator Quintilian,
to find specific, interesting ways to encourage students to use their intelligence and to
help them to learn.

Medieval education

Comenius, in Bohemia, wanted all children to learn. In his The World in Pictures, he
created an illustrated textbook of things children would be familiar with in everyday life
and used it to teach children. Rabelais described how the student Gargantua learned
about the world, and what is in it.

Much later, Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his Emile, presented methodology to teach

children the elements of science and other subjects. During Napoleonic warfare, the
teaching methodology of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi of Switzerland enabled refugee
children, of a class believed to be unteachable , to learn. He described this in his
account of an educational experiment at Stanz.

19th century - compulsory education

The Prussian education system was a system of mandatory education dating to the
early 19th century. Parts of the Prussian education system have served as models for
the education systems in a number of other countries, including Japan and the United
States. The Prussian model required classroom management skills to be incorporated
into the teaching process.

In compulsory education laws,children are required to attend school at certain

ages.School districts are also required to keep students safe while in their care.

20th century

Newer teaching methods may incorporate television, radio, internet, multi media, and
other modern devices. Some educators believe that the use of technology, while
facilitating learning to some degree, is not a substitute for educational methods that
encourage critical thinking and a desire to learn. Inquiry learning is another modern
teaching method. A popular teaching method that is being used by a vast majority of
teachers is hands on activities. Hands-on activities are activities that require movement,
talking, and listening, it activates multiple areas of the brain. "The more parts of your
brain you use, the more likely you are to retain information," says Judy Dodge, author of
25 Quick Formative Assessments for a Differentiated Classroom (Scholastic, 2009).

Howard Gardner identified a wide range of modalities in his Multiple Intelligences

theories. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter, based on
the works of Jung, focus on understanding how people's personality affects the way
they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other
within the learning environment.

Lecturing

The lecture method is just one of several teaching methods, though in schools it's
usually considered the primary one. The lecture method is convenient for the institution
and cost-efficient, especially with larger classroom sizes. This is why lecturing is the
standard for most college courses, when there can be several hundred students in the
classroom at once; lecturing lets professors address the most people at once, in the
most general manner, while still conveying the information that they feel is most
important, according to the lesson plan. While the lecture method gives the instructor or
teacher chances to expose students to unpublished or not readily available material, the
students plays a passive role which may hinder learning. While this method facilitates
large-class communication, the lecturer must make constant and conscious effort to
become aware of student problems and engage the students to give verbal feedback. It
can be used to arouse interest in a subject provided the instructor has effective writing
and speaking skills.

Demonstrating

Demonstrating, which is also called the coaching style or the Lecture-cum-

Demonstration method, is the process of teaching through examples or experiments.
The framework mixes the instructional strategies of information imparting and showing
how. For example, a science teacher may teach an idea by performing an experiment
for students. A demonstration may be used to prove a fact through a combination of
visual evidence and associated reasoning.

Demonstrations are similar to written storytelling and examples in that they allow
students to personally relate to the presented information. Memorization of a list of facts
is a detached and impersonal experience, whereas the same information, conveyed
through demonstration, becomes personally relatable. Demonstrations help to raise
student interest and reinforce memory retention because they provide connections
between facts and real-world applications of those facts. Lectures, on the other hand,
are often geared more towards factual presentation than connective learning.

One of the advantages of the demonstration method involves the capability to include
different formats and instruction materials to make the learning process engaging. This
leads to the activation of several of the learners' senses, creating more opportunities for
learning. The approach is also beneficial on the part of the teacher because it is
adaptable to both group and individual teaching. While demonstration teaching,
however, can be effective in teaching Math, Science, and Art, it can prove ineffective in
a classroom setting that calls for the accommodation of the learners' individual needs.

Collaborating

Collaboration allows students to actively participate in the learning process by talking

with each other and listening to others opinions. Collaboration establishes a personal
connection between students and the topic of study and it helps students think in a less
personally biased way. Group projects and discussions are examples of this teaching
method. Teachers may employ collaboration to assess student's abilities to work as a
team, leadership skills, or presentation abilities.

Collaborative discussions can take a variety of forms, such as fishbowl discussions.

After some preparation and with clearly defined roles, a discussion may constitute most
of a lesson, with the teacher only giving short feedback at the end or in the following
lesson.

Some examples of collaborative learning tips and strategies for teachers are build trust,
establish group interactions,keeps in mind the critics, include different types of learning,
use real-world problems, consider assessment, create a pre-test and post-test, use
different strategies,help students use inquiry and use technology for easier learning.

Classroom discussion

The most common type of collaborative method of teaching in a class is classroom

discussion. It is also a democratic way of handling a class, where each student is given
equal opportunity to interact and put forth their views. A discussion taking place in a
classroom can be either facilitated by a teacher or by a student. A discussion could also
follow a presentation or a demonstration. Class discussions can enhance student
understanding, add context to academic content, broaden student perspectives,
highlight opposing viewpoints, reinforce knowledge, build confidence, and support
community in learning. The opportunities for meaningful and engaging in-class
discussion may vary widely, depending on the subject matter and format of the course.
Motivations for holding planned classroom discussion, however, remain consistent. An
effective classroom discussion can be achieved by probing more questions among the
students, paraphrasing the information received, using questions to develop critical
thinking with questions like "Can we take this one step further?;" "What solutions do you
think might solve this problem?;" "How does this relate to what we have learned
about..?;" "What are the differences between ... ?;" "How does this relate to your own
experience?;" "What do you think causes .... ?;" "What are the implications of .... ?"

It is clear from “the impact of teaching strategies on learning strategies in first-year

higher education cannot be overlooked nor over interpreted, due to the importance of
students' personality and academic motivation which also partly explain why students
learn the way they do”[13] that Donche agrees with the previous points made in the
above headings but he also believes that student's personalities contribute to their
learning style.

Debriefing

The term “debriefing” refers to conversational sessions that revolve around the sharing
and examining of information after a specific event has taken place. Depending on the
situation, debriefing can serve a variety of purposes.[14] It takes into consideration the
experiences and facilitates reflection and feedback. Debriefing may involve feedback to
the students or among the students, but this is not the intent. The intent is to allow the
students to "thaw" and to judge their experience and progress toward change or
transformation. The intent is to help them come to terms with their experience. This
process involves a cognizance of cycle that students may have to be guided to
completely debrief. Teachers should not be overly critical of relapses in behaviour.
Once the experience is completely integrated, the students will exit this cycle and get on
with the next.

Debriefing is a daily exercise in most professions. It might be in psychology, healthcare,

politics or business. This is also accepted as an everyday necessity.

Classroom Action

Classroom Action Research is a method of finding out what works best in your own
classroom so that you can improve student learning. We know a great deal about good
teaching in general (e.g. McKeachie, 1999; Chickering and Gamson, 1987; Weimer,
1996), but every teaching situation is unique in terms of content, level, student skills and
learning styles, teacher skills and teaching styles, and many other factors. To maximize
student learning, a teacher must find out what works best in a particular situation. Each
teaching and research method, model and family is essential to the practice of
technology studies. Teachers have their strengths and weaknesses, and adopt
particular models to complement strengths and contradict weaknesses. Here, the
teacher is well aware of the type of knowledge to be constructed. At other times,
teachers equip their students with a research method to challenge them to construct
new meanings and knowledge. In schools, the research methods are simplified,
allowing the students to access the methods at their own levels.

REFERENCES:

1. 02 Bruner, J. R.: Toward a Theory of Instruction. Harvard University Press,

Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1966.
2. 01 Davies, I. K. (1971). The Management of Learning. McGraw-Hill Book

Company, London. 256 l. (1976). Objectives in Curriculum Design. McGraw-Hill

Book, Maidenhead England. 77 l.
3. Seels, B. B. & Richey, R. C. (1994). Instructional technology: The
definition and domains of the field. Bloomington, IN: Association for Educational
Communications and Technology.
4. From Wikipedia “Methods of teching”
5. Kurt, S. "Educational Technology: An Overview," in Educational Technology,
November 18, 2015.