THESIS STATUS

Smart Grid: Integration of Renewable

Energy Sources and Improvement of
Demand Response

We hereby declare that the thesis is based on our original work except for quotations
and citations which have been duly acknowledged and we allow our thesis to be placed
at the NFC Institute of Engineering and Fertilizer Research Faisalabad with the
following conditions:

1. Thesis becomes the property of NFC Institute of Engineering and Fertilizer

Research Faisalabad

2. NFC Institute of Engineering and Fertilizer Research Faisalabad may make copies
of the thesis for academic purposes only.

Signature
1 FOAAD AHMAD
2 JUNAID AFZAL
3 UMAIR AHMED
4 WAJAHAT ALI

Date : __________________________

Department of Electrical Engineering

NFC Institute of Engineering & Fertilizer Research Faisalabad
 SMART GRID:

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

AND IMPROVEMENT OF DEMAND RESPONSE

The undersigned certify that they have read, and recommend to the Graduate Studies
Program for acceptance of this thesis for the fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree stated.

Signature: ______________________________________

Supervisor: Dr. Badar-ul-Islam

______________________________________

Signature: ______________________________________

External Examiner: "[Click Here to Enter Name]"

______________________________________

Signature: ______________________________________

Head of Department: "[Click Here to Enter Name]"

______________________________________

Date: ______________________________________
 SMART GRID:

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

AND IMPROVEMENT OF DEMAND RESPONSE

by

1 FOAAD AHMAD 2014-UET-IEFR-FD/ELECT-34

2 JUNAID AFZAL 2014-UET-IEFR-FD/ELECT-40
3 WAJAHAT ALI 2014-UET-IEFR-FD/ELECT-42
4 UMAIR AHMED 2014-UET-IEFR-FD/ELECT-89

Thesis

Submitted to the Graduate Studies Program

as a Requirement for the Degree of

B.SC. IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

NFC INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & FERTILIZER RESEARCH

FAISALABAD-PAKISTAN

SEP 2018
 DEDICATION

This thesis is wholeheartedly dedicated to our parents who have been the source of
inspiration for us, gave us the strength, and with their unwavering moral, spiritual,
emotional, and financial support made this project a reality.
To our siblings, friends, mentors, and classmates who contributed with their generous
efforts.
And finally, we dedicate this thesis to Allah Almighty. We thank You for Your
guidance and blessings and without it none of this would have been possible.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

“We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our Supervisor Dr.Badar ul
Islam for his unwavering support, guidance, and kindness in carrying out this project.

We sincerely extend our gratitude towards our co-supervisor Sir Qamar Uddin
Memon for his guidance, encouragement and helping hand in finishing the thesis.

Last, but not the least, we would like to thank our teachers, lab staff, friends, and
classmates for providing us the opportunity and extending their support on embarking
this project.”

vi
 ABSTRACT

“With the growing concern of energy usage and depletion of natural resources, there
is a need to shift the energy paradigms towards a better sustainable renewable energy
resources (RES), energy compliance and effective energy conservation. Also, the
climate issue becoming an important global concern, the carbon emission is a threat to
whole world. The advancement in the renewable energy power systems gives the
opportunity to address these problems. With the help of renewable energy sources like
solar and wind, clean energy will be harnessed to meet our needs. The traditional
electricity distribution grid with blind and manual operations need to be transformed
to a smart grid. This transformation is necessary to accommodate the renewable energy
sources (RES) for Distributed Generation (DG), meet the environmental objectives, and
implement an effective energy conservation techniques to cope with the ever-growing
need of energy. Once this energy is generated and dispatched, now there is a need to
utilize this energy effectively. Demand Response Management (DRM) is a part of smart
grid which effectively reduces the power usage on utility side along with the reduction
of electricity costs and consumer bills. This paper presents the study of integration of
renewable energy sources into the smart grid. It also explores different Demand
Response (DR) programs under smart grid paradigm targeted at distribution level.”

Index Terms – Smart Grid, Renewable Energy Sources (RES), Demand Response (DR)

vii
 In compliance with the terms of the Copyright this thesis has been reassigned by the
author to the legal entity of the NFC Institute of Engineering & Fertilizer Research
Faisalabad.

Due acknowledgement shall always be made of the use of any material contained in, or
derived from, this thesis.

© Department of Electrical Engineering, 2018

NFC Institute of Engineering & Fertilizer Research Faisalabad

All rights reserved.

viii
 TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES .....................................................................................................xii
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................... xiv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 3 TRANSITION TO SMART GIRD .................................................... 7
3.1 Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) .................................................... 3
3.2 Demand Response ........................................................................................ 3
3.3 Distributed Energy Resources (DER) ........................................................... 4
3.4 Energy Storage.............................................................................................. 4
3.5 Electric Transportation ................................................................................. 4
3.6 Communication Networks ............................................................................ 4
3.7 Cyber Security .............................................................................................. 5
CHAPTER 4 SMART GRID TECHNOLOGIES .................................................... 6
4.1 Renewable Energy Sources .......................................................................... 7
4.1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 7
4.1.2 Understanding the nature Renewable Energy Sources .................... 7
4.1.2.1 Variability ............................................................................. 7
4.1.2.2 Location ................................................................................ 8
4.1.3 Renewable Energy Sources in Pakistan ........................................... 8
4.1.3.1 Solar ...................................................................................... 9
4.1.3.2 Wind.................................................................................... 11
4.2 Distributed Generation................................................................................ 14
4.2.1 Distributed Generation in Pakistan................................................. 15
4.2.2 Smart Grid and Distributed Generation ......................................... 16
CHAPTER 5 ........................................................................................................... 17
INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES INTO SMART
GRID................................................................................................................. 17

ix
 5.1 Photovoltaic Systems integration to Utility Grid........................................ 18
5.2 Integration of Wind Turbine to the Grid..................................................... 21
5.3 Control of Renewable Energy Sources in Smart Grid ................................ 22
5.4 Benefits of Integrating Renewable Energy Sources ................................... 23
CHAPTER 6 ........................................................................................................... 25
DEMAND SIDE MANAGEMENT (DSM): INTELLIGENT ENERGY
SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................ 25
6.1 Energy Efficiency ....................................................................................... 27
6.1.1 Theoretical efficiency versus the actual efficiency ........................ 27
6.1.2 Timely Comparison of load consumption ...................................... 28
6.1.3 Energy Usage comparison among the consumers .......................... 28
6.1.4 Energy Usage comparison with the production indicators ............. 28
6.2 Time of Use (ToU) ..................................................................................... 29
6.3 Spinning Reserve ........................................................................................ 30
CHAPTER 7 DEMAND RESPONSE MANAGEMENT ...................................... 32
7. 1 Demand Response ..................................................................................... 33
7.2 Demand Response Programs ...................................................................... 36
7.2.1 Incentive Based Programs: ............................................................. 36
7.2.1.1 Direct Load Control (DLC) ................................................ 37
7.2.1.2 Interruptible Load ............................................................... 39
7.2.1.3 Demand Bidding or Buyback.............................................. 39
7.2.1.4 Emergency Demand Response Program ............................. 40
7.2.2 Price Based Programs..................................................................... 40
7.2.2.1 Time-of-Use (TOU) Pricing ............................................... 41
7.2.2.2 Critical Peak Pricing (CPP) ................................................ 43
7.2.2.3 Real Time Pricing (RTP) .................................................... 44
7.2.2.4 Inclining Block Rate (IBR) ................................................. 44
CHAPTER 8 HARDWARE DESIGN.................................................................... 46
8.1 Model Specifications .................................................................................. 47
8.1.1 Power Supply Circuit ..................................................................... 47
8.1.1.1 Step down transformer ........................................................ 48
8.1.1.2 Bridge rectifier .................................................................... 48

x
 8.1.1.3 Input filter ........................................................................... 48
8.1.1.4 Voltage Regulator ............................................................... 48
8.1.1.5 Output Filter ........................................................................ 48
8.1.1.6 Power Supply Output .......................................................... 49
8.1.1.7 Schematic ............................................................................ 49
8.1.2 CT and PT Circuit ....................................................................... 50
8.1.2.1 Components ........................................................................ 50
8.1.2.2 Schematic ............................................................................ 50
8.1.3 Relay Circuit ............................................................................... 51
8.1.3.1 Components ........................................................................ 51
8.1.3.2 Schematic ............................................................................ 51
8.1.4 Microcontroller circuit ................................................................ 52
8.1.4.1 Components ........................................................................ 52
8.1.4.2 Board ................................................................................... 52
8.1.4.3 Demand Response Management Program (Code) .............. 53
8.1.5 Solar Panel Circuit ...................................................................... 71
8.1.5.1 Solar Panel Specifications................................................... 71
8.1.5.2 Batteries .............................................................................. 71
8.1.6 Display Circuit ............................................................................ 71
8.1.6.1 Display Module ................................................................... 71
8.1.7 Demand Response Control Circuit ............................................. 71
8.1.8 Load Circuit ................................................................................ 71
8.2 Model Working ....................................................................................... 72
CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 73
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 74

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1. Smart Grid model ............................................................................................... 5

Fig. 2. Solar Map of Pakistan....................................................................................... 10
Fig. 3. Wind Map of Pakistan ...................................................................................... 12
Fig. 4. Integration of PV and CPV to DC grid [29] ..................................................... 19
Fig. 5. Integration of CV, CPV, and other RES to AC grid [30] ................................. 19
Fig. 6. Hybrid AC and DC Integration to the grid [31] ............................................... 21
Fig. 7. Integration of PMSG Generator to AC grid [32] .............................................. 22
Fig. 8. Demand Side Management ............................................................................... 26
Fig. 9. Energy Information System .............................................................................. 27
Fig. 10. TOU Pricing Technique.................................................................................. 29
Fig. 11. Spinning Reserves Diagram ........................................................................... 31
Fig. 12. Demand Response Mechanism Layout .......................................................... 34
Fig. 13. Demand Response Communication Infrastructure ......................................... 35
Fig. 14. Communication Architecture for DRAS ........................................................ 36
Fig. 15. DLC Device .................................................................................................... 38
Fig. 16. TOU Pricing ................................................................................................... 42
Fig. 17. Critical Peak Pricing ....................................................................................... 43

xii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Grid Comparison.............................................................................................. 2

Table 2. Solar Projects in Pakistan .............................................................................. 11
Table 3. Wind Projects in Pakistan .............................................................................. 13
Table 4. Pricing Programs Comparison ....................................................................... 45

xiii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AEDB Alternative Energy Development Board

AMI Advanced Metering Infrastructure
CPP Critical Peak Pricing
CPV Concentrated Photovoltaic
DER Distributed Energy Resources
DG Distributed Generation
DR Demand Response
DSO Distribution System Operator
DSM Demand Side Management
EISA Energy Independence and Security Act
EMS Energy Management System
GLFS Generation and Load Forecast System
PEVs Plug-in electric vehicles
PMD Pakistan Meteorological Department
PV Photovoltaic
NAMA Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
RES Renewable Energy Sources
RTP Real Time Pricing
RTU Remote Terminal Unit
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SEAs State Estimation Algorithms
TOU Time of Use
TSO Transmission System Operator
USNREL United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory

xiv
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Electric power system has undergone through a lot of profound changes in last two
decades. With the demand of electricity rising exponentially, the market has shifted
towards the more sustainable, reliable and cost effective power sources to meet the
demands. So far, power generation industry is being dominated by the fossil fuels. But
due to climatic changes, environmental concerns, oil crisis, and economic and political
constraints, the countries around the world are forced to change the imperatives of
power generation industry. These challenges have forced the nations to replace the
conventional resources to Renewable Energy Resources (RES) [1]. However, growing
use of renewable energy adds complexity to the power system and pose challenges
which limit their use in the system.
Conventionally, power generation and distribution has been one sided only, i.e. from
utilities to customers. Under the Smart Grid, it is now possible to make the power
system bilateral and decentralized by connecting the auxiliary sources, primarily
renewable energy sources, thus decreasing the load of the system [2]. The penetration
of renewable energy sources cannot be catered under the existing grid system. Only the
smart grid technologies can make the grid capable to handle the penetration of
renewable energy sources. In smart grid, there is a power and communication flow
between the consumers and producers. Such a power system having wind turbines, fuel
cells and photovoltaic systems constitute a Distributed Power Generation (DG) system.
With the growing penetration of renewable energy sources, the grid is transitioning
from the blindfolded to more intelligent and autonomous in delivering the power to
consumers. For the purpose of ensuring that grid is and self-sustainable and reliable,
the the grid needs to be replaced with intelligent and advanced automation technologies
[11]. The growing penetration of renewable sources of energy are followed by the
installation of solar panels, wind turbines, biomass plants and other renewable sources
equipment. The existing mechanical grid is less effective and cannot accommodate the
large scale renewable energy sources on the power system. Understanding these
constraints, it is now of crucial importance to improve the stability of the grid [12]. The
variability of renewable energy sources are dependent on the geographical location and
weather patterns. The topology of the terrain depicting on the maps and weather patterns
can be accessed from the meteorological department [17]. There has been lot of
developments in the strategic locations which are optimal for the installations of plant
for renewable energy sources as discussed in the previous chapter. Use of numerical
weather prediction model has been very beneficial to obtain the long term results. And
it can be used to achieve a 40-year climate variability analysis in case of wind [25]. The
information is needed for the development and installation of renewable energy
sources. The integration of RES to the AC or DC grid encompasses different integration
technique [18]. Under smart grid, the penetration and integration of RES becomes
easier. The distributed generation is the important part of the smart grid. Through
distributed generation, the RES integration lies both on the utility and consumer ends
[24]. Under distributed generation, the consumers also be the active consumers by
supplying the power to the main grid. Smart grid plays a major role in distributed
generation. Demand Response is an important element of smart grid which can
effectively reduce the power demand by rescheduling the users’ energy consumption. .
It is proved to be the most economical solution during the times of high demand [3].
The main objective of demand response programs are to curtail the energy demands
during the peak hours and shift this load to off-peak hours. The program, direct and
indirect, offer incentives to the consumers and encourages them to participate in the
demand response programs in order to reduce the demand. Since pricing in the most
influential indicator and consumers responsiveness towards the prices are more
dominant, therefore demand response programs makes use of this indicator in order to
reshape and reschedule the consumers’ energy consumption behaviors.

2
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

A smart grid is capable of transforming the power infrastructure into a revolutionized

modern smart power grid system. The old mechanical electric grid lack the advance
communication and automation structure [5]. The system is managed manually by the
operators. The system itself runs blind, unaware of the operation in the power grid. The
smart grid, however, uses the smart communication, monitoring technologies,
intelligent networks and automated devices [4]. These technologies can be implemented
in the power infrastructure at a generation, transmission or distribution level. With these
technologies users can easily interact with the utility company. The monitoring systems
at the control room monitors the energy consumption patterns of consumers. The smart
grid is self-sustained system with the functionality of self-healing in an event of
disturbance or failure [6]. The smart grid use Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI),
Remote terminal units (RTUs), SCADA system, and Energy Management System
(EMS) for the purpose of monitoring, data collection and handling, and decision
making [15].
With the large penetration of renewable energy sources being added to the grid, the grid
becomes more autonomous in delivering the power to consumers. However, to ensure
the reliability and sustainability of the smart, the whole power infrastructure needs to
be automated [11]. As the penetration of renewable energy keeps on increasing, with
the solar panels, wind turbines, biomass and other renewable sources, the traditional
mechanisms of the grid are becoming less effective and cannot cater the addition of
large scale renewable energy sources on the power system. Understanding these
constraints, it is now of crucial importance to improve the, reliability, stability and
efficiency of the grid [12]. The variability of renewable energy sources are dependent
on the geographical location and weather patterns. The topology of the terrain depicting
on the maps and weather patterns can be accessed from the meteorological department
[17]. There has been lot of developments in the strategic locations which are optimal

3
for the installations of plant for renewable energy sources as discussed in the previous
chapter. Use of numerical weather prediction model has been very beneficial to obtain
the long term results. And it can be used to achieve a 40-year climate variability analysis
in case of wind [25]. The information is needed for the development and installation of
renewable energy sources. The integration of RES to the AC or DC grid encompasses
different integration technique [18]. Under smart grid, the penetration and integration
of RES becomes easier. The distributed generation is the important part of the smart
grid. Through distributed generation, the RES integration lies both on the utility and
consumer ends [24]. The individual management of these sources makes the task of
integration much more feasible and fast paced. The use of smart grid allows the more
flexibility in accommodating the penetration of renewable energy sources. The flexible
management can easily be achieved by Demand Side Managemen [27]. The Alternative
Energy Development Board (AEDB) of Pakistan has been working towards the
development in renewable energy sources in order to increase the country’s
dependability on the renewable energy sources [20]. Photovoltaic systems and
Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) systems are two most commonly systems being
installed on the consumer sides under the distributed generation [28]. Besides,
generating the energy on the large scale, the systems are also used for other solar-
thermal applications for the heating purpose [29]. For the integration of wind power to
the AC and DC grid similar techniques are employed [31, 33].

Demand side management is defined as effectively managing the consumers’

energy demands and is categorized into the following. Energy efficiency, TOU,
Demand Response, and Spinning Reserves [35]. Demand response is an emerging
technology of smart grid which aims to promote the interaction between the end users
and between the consumers and utility for the sole purpose of load reduction and energy
conversation. During the peak hours consumers utilize more power which may cause
the stress on the grid leading to the potential failure and damage to the equipment [40].
The demand response program not only targets the load curtailment but it also ensures

4
the system efficiency by proper load management techniques which guarantees the
healthy power system.

DR programs are implemented using the mart grid technologies such as Advanced
Metering Infrastructure (AMI) which enables the two-way communications, bi-
directional data and power flow from utility to consumers and vice versa. The program
is initiated by broadcasting a price signal to the consumer by Distributor or
Transmission System Operator [45]. The signal is sent through AMI and
communication networks. The signal contains an instruction for electricity price, or the
time interval, for instance critical peak hour. The consumer response for that signal is
sent back to the operator where it is stored in the DR database and consumer energy
usage is monitored for that designated period of time [46]. The DR programs could be
incentive based where user gets the incentive for the load curtailment during the peak
hours [49]. The users sign a contract with the utility company prior to the program
initiation [50]. The smart pricing plays an important role in rescheduling the consumers’
energy consumption patterns according the availability and demand of power [41]. The
rescheduling of energy consumption patterns are done by direct and indirect load
management programs. Under direct load control (DLC) the company has the direct
control of consumer appliances and can turn them or off according to the energy
requirement. Consumers who participate in the DLC program benefit from incentives
like reduced electricity pricing during the certain hours or the provision of electricity at
subsidized rates [52]. Other direct programs include Interruptible load (IL) [53],
demand bidding [54], and emergency demand response programs in which users agree
to cut their energy usage on a very short notice [56]. The indirect program comprise of
pricing techniques which either encourage the users to curtail their energy consumption
in return for the rewards in from of subsidies and low prices during the certain hours
[42]. The willingness of consumer is very important for the participation in the demand
response programs to ensure its successful implementation [43]. Also called the smart
pricing [57], the price-based programs have different prices according to the time of

5
use, and energy demands from the consumers. The critical hours when all the loads are
running at full, the company sets the high prices tariff in order to discourage the
consumers in using the electricity. The off-peak hours have low electricity price. In this
way, the DR programs successfully shits the load from peak to off-peak hours [59].

6
 CHAPTER 3

TRANSITION TO SMART GIRD

Grids are the backbone of power industry. For the past few years, grids have been the
focus of technological innovation. Around the world, new technologies are being
incorporated in the existing infrastructure. This transition is primarily focused on
making the system smart, sandwiched between the layers of intelligent networks and
automated devices [4]. The traditional electric grid consists of a centralized power
station where power is unidirectional from utility grid to consumers. Also there is no
communication flow between the grid and consumers. The data acquisition system is
manual. The grid runs blind, unaware of the energy usage statistics on the line. Smart
grid uses technologies to instantly communicate information to match supply with
demand, involve in decision-making, and keep the system working at optimal efficiency
[5]. These technologies can be implemented at a generation, transmission or consumer
level. Just like a smart appliance at home, it can interact with the users and other digital
devices to communicate and involve in decision-making process by itself. The
monitoring systems monitor the each and every component for the grid to the
consumers. The system has the feature of adaptability, where it can adjust itself
according to varying situations. With advanced automation on the grid, the grid
becomes self-healing [6].

7
 Table 1. A brief comparison of Grid (5)

Existing Grid Smart Grid

Electromechanical Digital
One-Way Communication Two-Way Communication
Centralized Generation Distributed Generation
Hierarchical Network
Few Sensors Sensors Throughout
Blind Self-Monitoring
Manual Restoration Self-Healing
Failures and Blackouts Adaptive and Islanding
Manual Check/Test Remote Check/Test
Limited Control Pervasive Control
Few Customer Choices Many Customer Choices

By using the communication technologies in the smart grid, it becomes proficient in

delivering power in more efficient ways and can respond to extensive range of
procedures that occur anywhere in the power system. For instance, in case of failure of
distribution transformer, the distribution grid will automatically shift the power flow to
other line without any long interruptions in the power supply.
More specifically, the smart grid can be regarded as an electric system that uses
information, two-way, cyber-secure communication technologies, and computational
intelligence in an integrated fashion across electricity generation, transmission,
substations, distribution and consumption to achieve a system that is clean, safe,
reliable, efficient, and sustainable. This description covers the entire spectrum of the
energy system from the generation to the end points of consumption of the electricity
[7].
The smart grid concept started with the application of advanced metering infrastructure,
called the AMI, which aims to keep track of control the electricity demand. It also
improves the efficiency. And make the grid being able to heal itself in the events of
failures [8]. Or more precisely to keep track of the energy consumption on the consumer
side. The idea however evolved into a more technological-based structure which

2
encompasses several layers of intelligent systems monitoring the whole grid. The
emphasis is on environmental protection, including renewable energy sources, and
demand response.
The Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has developed a framework for the
interoperability of Smart grid systems and devices. Over the past years NIST has been
constantly working to develop and refine this framework. For the standardization of
smart grid, NIST focused on seven key functionalities [9].

3.1 Advanced Metering Infrastructure

Real-time data monitoring of energy usage is the main functionality of smart grid. The
infrastructure consists of hardware i.e. Meters and software responsible for the
monitoring of energy usage and, recording, and communicating the statistics from
distribution end to the main control grid [8]. Together, AMI creates a two-way
communication network where data is accessible to both the consumers and suppliers.
There has been lot of developments in the metering structure and meters are being
upgraded to necessitate the data-collection, handling, storage, communication and
decision making. These advanced meters are also used to implement dynamic pricing
based on the demand response.

3.2 Demand Response

Provides mechanisms to modify the energy use during the peak demand or when the
reliability of power is at risk. Demand response is essential for the balance of power
demand and supply. If energy consumption information is available in detailed profiles,
the consumers can use this information to modify their energy consumption patterns
and make decisions related to the investment in the energy sector [10]. This combine
would result in achieving the energy efficiency, saving of energy and resources.

3
3.3 Distributed Energy Resources

Comprise of electric generation and storage devices which are interconnected with the
main distribution system. DER systems mainly include the Renewable Energy Sources
(RES), which utilizes wide variety of generation and storage technologies. It can be
wind turbine or solar panels along with auxiliary equipment. DER systems can be used
as local generating unit, or participate in local ancillary services, or can be considered
as virtual power plants. The systems can be run combined or separately depending upon
the scheme the system is participating in. Advanced DER systems incorporate
‘mircogrids’ that can be separated from the main system in case of disruption and can
be combined with the main grid operation constituting a more resilient power system
[11].

3.4 Energy Storage

Storage of energy by direct or indirect means. The most common mass energy storage
technology used is pumped hydroelectric storage. New technologies need to be
invented that would benefit the grid.

3.5 Electric Transportation

This refers to transportation schemes powered by electricity. Plug-in electric vehicles

(PEVs) have gained the significance in last few years. The popularity is primarily due
to their environmentally friendly behavior, reduction in carbon footprint, and reduced
dependence on the petroleum fuel [12]. Vehicles powered by renewable energy sources
would benefit the economy on the whole.

3.6 Communication Networks

Both wired and wireless communication networks employed in the smart grid for the
communication purposes between the grid apparatuses. An effective communication
and coordination is important between the domains and sub-domains in the grid for the
proper flawless data exchange and decision making.

4
3.7 Cyber Security

With large electronic data accessible to multiple parties online, involved in the network,
the risk of data theft raises very serious concerns. Since the whole smart grid
infrastructure works online and its operations are dependent on the online servers; any
negligence in the data handling, which would otherwise lead to the misuse of bulk user
data and energy profiles, would jeopardize the whole grid operation [13]. And may lead
to failure of whole power grid.

Fig. 1. Smart Grid model

5
 CHAPTER 4

SMART GRID TECHNOLOGIES

The term smart grid is a computerized power system which has the capability to regulate
all the elements connected to it, in order to safely and effectively manage generation,
transmission, and distribution of power [14]. ]. Many countries are transitioning
towards smart grid including United States, Japan, China, Germany, Australia, and
India. Recently Pakistan has taken the initiative towards the smart grid technology with
the help of USAID by introducing the Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) on
distribution substations.
Further initiatives towards the future smart grid includes the Virtual Power Plants
(VPPs). Where Distributed generation located at different points and contribute to the
main utility grid.
To achieve the control of interconnected elements in the smart grid, the following
mechanisms are followed [15].
 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA);
 Remote Terminal Units (RTU);
 Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI);
 State Estimation Algorithms (SEAs);
 Generation and Load Forecast System (GLFS)

The AMI and RTUs are located on the strategic locations along the smart grid. These
systems collect the data and transmit it to SCADA system. The SCADA system
transmit this data to Energy Management System (EMS). EMS is involved in decision
making processes, the required actions for the best operation of smart grid by using the
algorithms.

6
Smart grid encompasses lot of technologies. Different technologies combine under the
banner of smart grid to make a grid work autonomously and integrate different evolving
technologies for efficient and effective power generation, transmission, distribution,
and utilization. These technologies deliver better operations when run with the smart-
grid enabled technologies. This section discusses the renewable energy sources i.e.
Photovoltaic and wind power technologies, distributed generation, their integration in
the system and their operation efficiencies, and demand response.

4.1 Renewable Energy Sources

4.1.1 Introduction

In the light of traditional challenges such as carbon emission and depletion of

natural resources, it imperative to shift the energy paradigms to renewable energy
sources. Renewable sources offer optimum and promising solution to the ever
increasing demand of energy and reduction of natural fuel reserves due to their
inexhaustible supplies and clean nature. However, the intermittent nature of these
renewable energy sources pose serious challenges and barriers in their integration to
the already existing system. Sources such as wind and solar unlike the fossil fuels
cannot be easily controlled with their increased penetration causing the regulation
problems.

4.1.2 Understanding the nature Renewable Energy Sources

Main features of renewable energy sources which effect their capacity to perform in
comparison with other power sources are

4.1.2.1 Variability

The hourly, daily, seasonal, and yearly variation of RES. Due to their intermittent
nature, the assessment of these variation is very important for the proper working and

7
harnessing of energy [16]. The studies on the integration of RES based upon the
variability is continued to be improving as the penetration level of these sources is
increasing. The studies of the behavior and patterns of resources are mostly based on
the past recorded data. Unfortunately, long-term recorded data is not present for all the
geographical locations around the globe. And it is almost impossible to obtain the on-
site meteorological data. But there has been lot of developments in the strategic
locations which are optimal for the installations of plant for renewable energy sources
as discussed in the previous chapter. Use of numerical weather prediction model has
been very beneficial to obtain the long term results. And it can be used to achieve a 40-
year climate variability analysis in case of wind. The data further optimized for daily,
monthly, and yearly variability can be used to develop the algorithms and tools for the
proper system analysis and design [17].

4.1.2.2 Location

The topology of a certain geographical location is very important for the installation of
generation plants. The terrain of a landscape is the key characteristic for adopting the
site for these resources. For instance, installing a PV panel in a humid and rainy area
would be useless as compared to the hot and arid zones where land sees the sun almost
throughout the year. For the installation of wind turbines, wind corridors are the best
sites where velocity of wind is optimal for the turbine. United States National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (USNREL) has done a significant research with NASA
and the local meteorological departments in developing the data and maps for solar and
wind sources.

4.1.3 Renewable Energy Sources in Pakistan

Pakistan holds an approximate area of 800,000 km2. Due to its geographical location in
the South Asian region on the map, Pakistan receives an abundant amount of sunlight,
wind and water. Since Pakistan is an agricultural country, there is also an abundant
amount of crop residue that can be used to harness the energy through biogas and
biomass. Harnessing these renewable sources is the only solution for the long term

8
energy crisis of Pakistan. The subsequent section explores the potential of renewable
energy sources in Pakistan.

4.1.3.1 Solar

The energy harnessed from the sunlight is called the solar energy. The energy can either
be directly converted to electricity through photovoltaic (PV) cells or into heat through
solar-thermal processes. So far, these two methods are being widely used. PV cells
convert the sunlight directly into electricity through photo ionization. Whereas solar-
thermal conversion process utilizes the heating effect of sunlight by using thermal
collectors to produce the steam which, in turn, runs the steam turbine. There has been
lot of development in PV technology is last few years. And solar has gained lot of
popularity. The worldwide capacity of solar, over last 5 years, has increased to 55%
with the growth rate of 28%, second to wind only [18].
According to United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory (USNREL),
Pakistan is situated on a belt where most of the days in year are long and sunny and
exposed to direct sunlight and insulation. Therefore, the region is perfect for the
development of solar energy.

9
 Fig. 2. Solar Map of Pakistan

On average, about 15.5 x 1014 kWh of radiation is received per year with 8-10 hours
of sunlight every day. The expected potential of solar energy is about 16 GW annually,
which is 40 times more than the existing power generation capacity [19]. According to
the survey, the Balochistan province has the highest solar potential as it receives 20
MJ/m2 of sunlight for the duration of 8-10 hours every day. The deserts of Thar,
Cholistan, Punjab and Sidh also has the solar potential. Most of the lands in these areas
are barren and cannot be used for the agriculture. Therefore, making it the most suitable
place for solar installations.
Despite these promising conditions and enormous potential, the country is still in the
earlier stages of harnessing the solar energy. In 2003, Government of Pakistan
established the Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB). The objective of the
board is to accelerate the development in renewable energy sources and further the
research process in order to increase the country’s dependability on the renewable
energy sources. Since its inception, the AEDB has provided the electricity to over 30
villages and 17,000 houses through solar panels [20]. The first ever mega project of its

10
kind was started by Government of Pakistan in 2015. Quaid-e-Azam solar park with
over 400,000 solar panels spread over 500 Acres of Southern Punjab. Initially the
project was expected to generate 100MW which later on upgraded to 400MW. The
capacity of the project, however, is expected to be increased to 1000MW [20].

Table 2. Solar Projects in Pakistan

Name Year of Generation

Nominal Practical Capacity
No. of Province Establishmen 2015
Power Power Factor
Plant t (MWh)

1 QSSPB Bahawalpur 2015 400 400 104,000 2.9

4.1.3.2 Wind

For centuries man has used the wind to harness its kinetic energy to grind the grains
and pump the water. The first wind mill was built in 1887 in Scotland to generate
electricity. Since then lot of developments have been made to use this resource to
harness the energy. Wind is the cleanest source of energy with no pollution at all. But
its intermittent nature and availability being dependent on the geographical location has
been the cause of barrier in utilizing its full potential. Today, however, the aggregated
power production from wind turbines exceed 400GW of energy worldwide with the
growth rate of over 25% in last five years [21]. The total aggregated wind capacity
doubles every 3 years and the capacity is expected to reach 900 GW by 2020 [18].
According to the study by the Wind Energy Council, the utilization of only one fifth of
available wind resource can easily meet the world energy needs by seven times.[19].
Over 83 countries including China, India, Europe, America, Germany, Spain, and
Pakistan are using the wind resource to generate power.
The technology consists of simple arrangement of wind turbine coupled with the
generator. The kinetic energy of wind rotates the turbine which converts it to electrical
energy.

11
Pakistan, in its effort to develop the renewable energy sources, has invested the heavy
resources in wind energy. Alternative Energy Development Board (AEBD) in
collaboration with National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), USAID, and
Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) has developed the country’s wind map
[20].

Fig. 3. Wind Map of Pakistan

The valuation has shown the considerable potential in wind resource in all provinces
especially in Sindh. The available wind power capacity is estimated to be 346 GW. The
Sind province is ascertained to have the higher capacity for the wind energy. The
average wind speed is about 7 m-s above 50 m elevation from the ground. The AEBD
has initiated lot of wind power projects in cooperation with Independent Power
Producers. The power density in the region is calculated to be 400 w/m2 [20]. Therefore,
the place becomes optimal for the wind turbines. The table below enlists some major
wind power projects in the Sindh province.

12
 Table 3. Wind Projects in Pakistan

Nominal Practical Generation

Name of Year of Capacity
No. Province Power Power 2015
Plant Establishment Factor
(MW) (MW) (MWh)

Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB)

Fauji
1 Fertilizer Sindh 2012 50 50 139,000 31.7
Company
Zorlu
2 Sindh 2012 56.4 56 156,000 31.6
Energy
Foundation
3 Wind Sindh 2015 50 50 26,000 5.9
Energy-I
Foundation
4 Wind Sindh 2015 50 50 56,000 12.8
Energy-II
TGF Wind
5 Sindh 2015 50 50 800,000 18.3
Farm
Master
Wind
6 Sindh 2016 49.5 49 101,000 23.7
Energy
Limited

Despite the significant potential in wind resource, the contribution of wind power to the
total energy supply is negligible. Although the contribution is estimated to be above
450 MW, but it is still less than 0.9% of total energy consumption. However, the
government has shown the considerable interest in the wind resource. And AEDB is
issuing the license to IPPs to further the installation of wind power projects across the
country.

13
4.2 Distributed Generation

Distributed generation (DG) refers to the generation of electricity, primarily through

the renewable sources, near the load center. Distribution generation could be from a
single unit through a solar panel or wind turbine, to serve a load for a home or office.
Or it could be a part of micro grid, a small grid connected to main utility grid. When
connected to the main grid, the distribution can help reduce the stress on main grid and
ensure clean supply of energy [22] and reduce the losses on transmission lines. The
main goal of smart grid is to increase the active participation of consumers. The
consumers need not to be only passive consumers, they can be active users as well.
With distribution generation programs the consumers generate enough energy not for
their own use but also contribute to the main grid when there is a surplus.
In common residential system, the distributed generation consists of
 Photovoltaic Solar Panels
 Small Wind Turbines
 Fuel Cells

For commercial and industrial system, the distributed generation mainly comprises of
large scale
 Photovoltaic Solar panels
 Wind Turbines
 Biomass
 Biogas
 Hydro power
 Fuel Cells
 Backup generators

14
4.2.1 Distributed Generation in Pakistan

Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP) has been working with the Alternative Energy
Development Board (AEDB) in deployment of renewable energy distributed generation
through nationally appropriate mitigation action (NAMA) [23]. NAMA issued the net-
metering regulations which permitted the consumers to generate their own electricity
for residential and commercial use. The authority encouraged the consumers to increase
their dependability on the solar panels and wind turbines to become self-sufficient in
meeting their energy demands and thus reduce the burden on the utility grid.
The project is working on expanding the renewable energy sources by providing the
subsidies and evading the taxes on the purchase of solar panels as to assist and
encourage the consumers to adopt the RES. Moreover, NAMA addressed the financial
and technical barriers for the distributed generation of electricity through solar in order
to pave the way for the long term makeover in the energy sector. The progression of
DG in Pakistan is still in early phase. The government has not allocated sufficient funds
to further the development of DG due to poor economy. However, the trend on the
residential level has seen the significant improvement. More and more consumers are
installing the panels to evade the unregulated load shedding and energy crisis.

15
4.2.2 Smart Grid and Distributed Generation

With the traditional electric grid, it is very challenging to manage the distributed
generation and pose lot of problems. The smart grid, however, offers the solution to all
technical issues related to the synchronism of DG with the smart grid. The following
table looks into all challenges posed by the DG and their solution in smart grid.

Table 4. DG challenges and their solution in smart grid [24]

Factors Challenges Solution

Smart grid offers the monitoring
DG can affect the protection device to monitor the flow of
Safety
scheme of power system. electricity and operating
conditions.
The system can provide the
While working in islanding mode,
Islanding immediate trip for the safety
DG can cause serious issues.
purposes.
Energy Voltage variation, Harmonics, Smart meters to detect and regulate
Quality Transient Voltages. the quality of power.
Distribution Management System
Overloading of distribution
Infrastructure (DMS) provides intelligent
network, feeders, transformers,
Management applications for the safe operation
service mains.
of DGs.
Increasing penetration of DG adds Smart grid offer tools to cater for
Operation
more complexity and problems for more penetration of DG and adjust
and Planning
the operation and planning. the system.

16
 CHAPTER 5

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES INTO SMART GRID

One of significant challenges of power system operation is to run a true supply-demand

system which needs to be reliable. Since most of the generation and almost all the
transmission is on AC, therefore, it becomes challenging to store this energy and extract
it in the peak demands. No matter how much power demand is calculated to meet the
supply, the amount of data extracted from the consumers’ energy profile can never be
enough to predict the exact energy demand [25]. Therefore the traditional power system
was designed to be based on controlled supply to meet the uncontrolled demand.
However, with the concerns of environmental pollution and depletion of natural
reserves, the energy profiles are being shifted to renewable energy systems. Renewable
energy sources have the benefits of increased sustainability, less impact on the
environment, no carbon emission, and reducing dependability on fossil fuels. With the
increasing penetration of renewable energy sources, the traditional grid needs to be
modified in order to accommodate these resources. The smart grid offers the optimal
solution to this penetration challenges [26].
The use of smart grid allows the more flexibility in accommodating the renewable
energy sources. The management can easily carter the expansion of renewable sources
as compared to the traditional grid. This can be accomplished by Demand Side
Management (DSM) or by storing the energy temporarily [27]. The most important
feature of smart grid is to make the controlled decision either on supply side or on
demand side. The right information is crucial for making the right decision. And this
can be done uniformly through a smart grid.

17
5.1 Photovoltaic Systems integration to Utility Grid

Photovoltaic systems utilize solar radiations to generate the electricity. More advanced
PV systems use optical dishes to concentrate the solar radiation on the panels. Such
systems are called Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) system [28]. CPVs are more
efficient than ordinary PVs and are employed to generate the electricity on the large
scale. In order to exploit the solar radiations, helical dishes are used. These dishes are
usually made of glass or polished surface and they effectively gather and concentrate
the solar radiation on a specific point. CPVs have been found more effective in solar-
thermal applications [29].
Photovoltaic and concentrated photovoltaic systems, when get connected to the utility
grid can cause problems such as poor voltage regulation and fluctuation, negative power
quality, poor power factor regulations and also cause the harmonics. When coupling
multiple energy sources at the generation level, the effective regulation of power quality
is very crucial. For the integration purpose of integration, a DC Bus is employed. PVs
and CPVs are coupled with MPPT to the BC Bus by employing the DC-DC converter.
The conventional technique was to store the energy in the batteries, where the
conventional DC-AC converters convert the DC power into AC power and added to the
AC bus. The more advanced technologies use the DC grid for the conversion purposes
and have been tested out for the more optimum quality, easy processing techniques, and
less conversion losses. Integration of PVs has been shown in the figure.

18
 Fig. 4. Integration of PV and CPV to DC grid [29]

Fig. 5. Integration of CV, CPV, and other RES to AC grid [30]

19
Figure 2.1 shows the integration of PV and CPV to the DC grid. With bi-directional
DC-DC converter connected to Battery bank. In this system, the grid is connected to
AC-DC converter. Both the grid and PV systems are connected to the DC bus feeding
the DC load. The DC system is exclusive for feeding the DC load only.
The figure 2.2 shows a detailed structure of integration of PV and CPV and other
renewable sources to the grid. PV and CPV are interfaced to MPPT DC-DC converter.
The bi directional DC-DC is used to charge and discharge the batteries according to the
working. The PV systems are interfaced to the DC bus bar. Which in further connected
to the inverter system and filter for conversion of DC to AC. The grid side control is
used to regulate between the DC-DC converter and DC-AC converter for feeding the
AC load [30].
The AC sources such as biomass generator, diesel generator, wind turbines, and AC
generators have two way ports. One port directly feeds the AC output to AC load bus
whereas the other port is connected to multiport AC-DC converter for the conversion
of AC to DC and store in battery banks. The load bus taking the load from AC sources
and DC sources feeds the AC load.

20
5.2 Integration of Wind Turbine to the Grid

Wind turbines serve as AC source. Unlike other ac generators wind turbines are
intermittent in nature with variable and fluctuating load generation depending on
availability of wind. However, like other renewable energy sources, it is the cleaner
source of energy. The integration of wind turbine to the grid is similar to other ac
generators. There are lot of schemes that can be employed while integration to the utility
grid. The scheme show in the figure consists of DC power mixing stage which takes
the input from wind turbine and PV and CPV systems through AC-DC and DC-DC
converter respectively. The DC power mixing stage is further connected to DC-AC
converter which feeds the AC load.

Fig. 6. Hybrid AC and DC Integration to the grid [31]

21
 Fig. 7. Integration of Synchronous Generator to AC grid [32]

Figure shows the integration of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator wind

turbine to an AC bus. The circuit is combined of AC-DC converter coupled with PMSG
wind turbine. And power inverter (DC-AC converter). Similar strategy can be adopted
for the multiple AC generators as shown the previous figure. But due to several AC
generators the reactive power gets added to the system. The additional VARs can add
the burden to the system resulting in low power factor (PF) [32]. Further, low pass filter
(LPF) is attached to the power inverter and connected to the coupling transformer which
in turn feeds the utility grid through AC. The control system mechanism serves as a
part of smart grid used to balance between the rectifier and inverter for the
compensation between the exact conversions [33].

5.3 Control of Renewable Energy Sources in Smart Grid

Smart grid technologies such as advanced metering infrastructure (AMI), sensing

technology, information infrastructure, and advance control system can effectively
manage the renewable energy sources in the system and balance the demand and supply.
In a grid, older and renewable energy sources have different degree of control
mechanism. Each element of a grid need an individual control system to better
coordinate with the other elements, making the system work in synchronism. The
enabling of smart grid technologies can effectively reduce the barriers in integration of
renewable energy sources giving system a better and controlled structure [25]. In most
cases, these barriers are technical in nature. With the increasing penetration of
renewable energy sources, the system does become more complex. But with smart grid,

22
it is very easy to manage and control the grid. As it add more flexibility for the active
and reactive power flow in either direction.
AMI and other communication protocols help the consumers to participate in demand
response programs and distributed storage schemes which results in higher flexibility
for the renewable energy sources penetration and cost-effective integration [34].
Technologies like automated integration systems combined with advanced
communication systems, when merged with inverters and converters, offer precise
control of distributed management.
Without smart grid technologies, it is very difficult to obtain a balanced load profile
along the consumer lines. With more and more renewable energy sources added to the
system, it becomes almost impossible to ensure the reliability of power system.
Furthermore, technologies, like demand response, enable the consumers to contribute
to the load balancing schemes, making it easier for the whole power system to work
under effective and reliable environment.

5.4 Benefits of Integrating Renewable Energy Sources

Renewable energy sources range from small scale generating units to large sale
generation plants. Working in coordination with the conventional sources, the large
scale plants can reduce the peak load on the system. Whereas, small units can feed the
residential localities individually. On the whole, these small units can add up to take a
substantial amount of load on the system. Together both systems create a bi-directional
flow of power. In distributed generation system, a small standalone unit operating in
islanding mode, can feed the power to adjacent locality when the need of power arises.
This adds to the energy security of overall system eliminating all the reasons for the
power outages and failures.
Distributed generation also eliminates the need for additional infrastructure to meet the
growing energy demands which would require the further investment of funds, thus
adding the value to the economy.
Renewable energy sources are environmental friendly. With conventional energy
sources being replaced with the renewable energy sources, there would be a substantial
decrease in the carbon emission. According to the Pacific Northwest National

23
Laboratory, with the penetration of 25% of wind energy in United States, there was a
5% reduction in the electricity consumption, and 5% reduction in the carbon emission
[25].

24
 CHAPTER 6

DEMAND SIDE MANAGEMENT (DSM): INTELLIGENT ENERGY SYSTEMS

The classical energy systems are unidirectional, with limited numbers of generating
units keeping the demand and supply balanced all the time. This balance is the most
crucial component of the power system. With the traditional grid being simple, the
balancing the rather easy. However, with more sophistication added to the grid, the
management of load becomes complex. With smart grid, communication infrastructure,
and new embedded technologies, the system can now be perceived as smart system,
capable of handling the grid on its own.
Demand Side Management (DSM) refers to management of load on the consumption
side. Although, the generation and distribution also needs the optimization, it is the
demand side which needs the most attention. DSM includes everything that’s
manageable on the demand side. Ranging from replacing the old incandescent bulbs
with led to installation of smart load forecasting and management system. Distribution
generation also comes under the banner of DSM. As it promotes the local generation of
energy to be consumed by local load and avoids the long distance transport of
electricity. It is easier and economically viable to work on the demand side management
rather installing a new power plant for the power needs.
The DSM can be categorized into the following [35]
1. Energy Efficiency (EE)
2. Time of Use (ToU)
3. Demand Response (DR)
4. Spinning Reserve (SR)

25
 Fig. 8. Demand Side Management

Energy Efficiency is the measure of how efficient the energy system is. It includes all
the passive elements, electric appliances in the household which consume the energy.
EE sets all the measures that ensure the efficient use of energy. This includes the
insulation of building, replacing old ventilation systems for proper heating and cooling
of building. Replacing the old electric appliances with new smart appliance which save
the energy.
Time of Use (ToU) refers to the tariff that limits the use of energy of customers on
specific periods with a higher price. ToU encourages the users to adjust their
consumption patterns to minimize the cost and optimize the energy system. This helps
the system avoid too much stress during the peak hours.
DR refers to the procedures which influence the consumption behavior of consumers.
It proposes such programs as to motivate the users to curtail their energy consumption
during the peak hours to shave the peak curve of the load and avoid the stresses on
power system.
Spinning reserve is considered as the secondary energy component of a power system.
It is part of power regulation. Load can be considered as virtual spinning reserve if they
have optimum power control with respect to the frequency. Device consumes low
power if frequency is dropped.

26
6.1 Energy Efficiency

A major proportion of energy gets wasted due to loose connections, faulty components,
disorganized control, dirty filters, leakages, and cheap technologies used in the
household appliances. It is important to discern all the weak areas where the energy
gets wasted. Increasing the efficiency of power system requires information and insight
of all the processes involved in the system. Such a system is called Energy Information
System (EIS). EIS includes the following domains [36].
1. Data Acquisition System (DAS) consists of sensors, networks, gateways, and
other communication systems to collect the data.
2. A server with a database to collect, store, and analyze the given data according
to the specified algorithms.
3. User interface for the visualizing and monitoring the data.

Fig. 9. Energy Information System

The calculations are based on the following mechanisms.

6.1.1 Theoretical efficiency versus the actual efficiency

This feature compares the base value of a load to the peak value. The marginal
difference between the two shows the waste of power in the corresponding unit. It could
be a power plant or a appliance consuming the power [36]. The calculations are
effective for the both domains.

27
6.1.2 Timely Comparison of load consumption

The timely record of the load consumption gives the estimation of energy usage. Often
the load is kept on, running through all night and energy gets wasted. The record would
show the unusual energy consumption at the consumers end and can be easily
addresses.

6.1.3 Energy Usage comparison among the consumers

Particularly suitable for the similar sites like industrial zones and commercial markets.
The energy consumption between the consumers can give an estimation of base, peak,
and optimum energy required to run the sites.

6.1.4 Energy Usage comparison with the production indicators

Does the energy consumption is equal to the production indicators along with the
environmental impacts. For instance, solar panels are more effective during the summer
as compared to the winter. Likewise, energy consumption in the summers is much
greater than in winters.

28
6.2 Time of Use (ToU)

ToU indicates the consumption of energy with respect to the time of the day. The
demand of energy at any respective period could be minimum, moderate, or maximum.
Time of Use is actually correlated with the charges of electricity according to their
demand, peak hour, and availability [37]. And specifically comes under the domain of
DR but can also be generally discussed in the Demand Side Management. The critical
Time of Use would be subject to the higher charges per kilo watt of electricity and thus
the costly factor of ToU would encourage the consumers to curtail their energy
consumption [38].
With ToU data of consumers available, the information about the overall energy
consumption can easily be calculated. Therefore this factor plays a vital role in
forecasting the electricity demand of consumers.

Fig. 10. TOU Pricing Technique

The following chart shows the energy consumption of consumers from Highest (On-
Peak) to the lowest (Off-Peak). The 24 hours data of energy usage shows the highest
energy consumption from 12 noon to 6 p.m. With mid-peaks occurring between the
interval of 8 a.m. to 12 noon and 6 p.m. to 11 p.m. The Off-Peak shows the time where
energy is consumed the lowest with slight variation of hours occurring between 11 p.m.
to 8 a.m.

29
From the figure it is easy to predict the On-Peak hours and Off-peak hours to adjust the
power generation according to the energy needs. With energy usage data readily
available at hand, power producers and decision makers can prevent the system from
overloading and preventing the unexpected power outages. Moreover, the data plays an
important role in designing the Demand Response schemes between the On-Peak and
Off-Peak hours. ToU has been discussed with detail in the Demand Reponses chapter.

6.3 Spinning Reserve

Spinning reserve is defined as the excess capacity of generators which are online but
are not operating at their full potential. With the sudden increase of energy demand,
these reserve readily start operating at full load. Here, spinning reserve, under the
section of DSM is referred to the term ‘frequency-response reserve’. In an event of
frequency drop, due to the outage of generator in case of excessive load, the spinning
reserve are required to compensate for the frequency drop. The drop in frequency
effects the distributed generation and likely to trip off. For this reason, the increase in
spinning reserve is required to prevent the system tripping and ensure the continuous
supply of power [39].
On demand side the frequency response means that the load can be reduced when
frequency drops and likewise it can be increased when the frequency is increased [35].
Spinning reserve actually respond to the fluctuation of the frequency. For instance, if a
large generating unit is suddenly disconnected from the system, the frequency will be
dropped. In order to compensate this drop, a separate spinning reserve needs to be
activated.
The above figure shows the response of spinning reserve with the fluctuation in the
frequency of wind power. In case of imbalance due to some disturbance, primary
reserve will reinstate the power balance so that the frequency of the system remains
stable and does not affect the load. The secondary reserve is activated shortly after the
primary reserve to bring the system back to its steady state.

30
Fig. 11. Spinning Reserves Diagram

31
 CHAPTER 7

DEMAND RESPONSE MANAGEMENT

Demand response has two purposes. To avoid the high electricity prices and prevent
overburdening the grid. During the peak hours consumers utilize more power which
may cause the overburdening leading to the potential failure [40]. It is an important
characteristic of smart grid which shapes the energy consumption patterns of consumers
by offering various programs which help and encourage the consumers to curtail their
energy demands during critical hours. Utilizing the two-way communication feature in
the smart grid, the DR programs involves in the decision making processes by initiating
the various schemes which ensures the proper demand and supply balance from grid to
consumers. The DR is the rescheduling of consumption of consumers’ electricity in for
the fluctuating power demand and varying electricity prices [41]. The aim of each
program is to reduce the peak demand in peak hours or shift to the peak demand to off-
peak hours. The demand response feature of smart grid enables the producers and
consumers to exchange information about the electricity usage and price through a
system of Advanced Metering Infrastructure and mutually involve in decision making
process. On the consumers’ side, the incentive are provided for curtailing the electricity
usage during the peak hours. Consumers participating in the DR programs are given
incentives such as low electricity price during the certain hours [42]. With sufficient
incentives, the consumers are willing to trade-off between their comfort and electricity
bills. The participation of both the entities is important in the demand response
programs to ensure its successful implementation and balancing the demand and supply
through real-time pricing [43]. The Demand Response Management (DRM) can be
categorized into main areas: Company Oriented and User Orientated. There has been
lot of development in the demand response management programs and their success
primarily depends on the type of users targeted i.e. residential, commercial, industrial,
or commercial. Whether it is company oriented or user oriented, the aim is always the
cost effective generation, low priced electricity and power supply and demand. The

32
company-oriented program focus on the cost effective generation and offering the
electricity at most economic price. Whereas user-oriented program helps users
maximize the effectiveness of electricity consumption through energy management
systems [44]. And cooperate with the company and respond to the various demand
response programs to help make the power supply and demand balanced at all the times.
Up to now, various smart grid demand response programs have successful been tried
out in various countries like China, America, Germany, Canada, and India. Lot of other
pilot programs and researches are under way to help evolve the demand response
programs. In Pakistan, due to lack of smart grid technologies there has not been any
deployment of demand response programs. But lot of paper work has been produced,
which would help the smart grid technologies take an effective head start, once the
smart grid is fully introduced.

7. 1 Demand Response

A signal is broadcasted to the utility consumer by Distributor (DSO) [45]. The

signal is dispatched through advanced metering infrastructure and communication
networks. The DR signal is sent to the DR database to which all the clients are
connected. The signal might contain an instruction for electricity management, for
instance load shedding, or a new set price for specific interval during the peak or off-
peak hours. The signal could be instantaneous requiring immediate action on the
consumer side. Or the deadline could be a delayed referring to the situation for the next
24 hours. The signal is first sent to the DR database where intelligent systems calculate
and manage as to which clients the data is sent further, since different clients have
different energy profiles [46]. And also record the responsive signal feedback from the
consumers and deliver it to the system operators. A typical layout of Demand response
mechanism is given below.

33
 Fig. 12. Demand Response Mechanism Layout

Various Automated demand response programs have been developed and

implemented successfully. OpenADR is developed by Demand Response Research
Center at Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory [41]. The program is an open source
software for testing of DR programs. The main components of OpenADR are
 Demand Response Automation Server (DRAS)
 Clients
 Communication Infrastructure i.e Internet

The DRAS serves as a database and control center for sending, receiving and managing
the clients and DR signals. It serves as a gateway between the clients and program
operators for communication as well implementing the DR programs. The clients are
consumers to which DR programs are made accessible by the operators. The clients can
subscribe to various DR programs according to their own convenience. The DR
programs could comprise of “critical peak pricing”, “TOU rates”, or “Demand Bidding”
programs. And consumers participating in any DR programs choose the relevant
program which is communicated to and managed by the DRAS. The communication
infrastructure comprise of network servers with online data communication.

34
 Fig. 13. Demand Response Communication Infrastructure

Fig. 13 shows a network of communication infrastructure through which DRAS

communicate with the consumers. The consumers are connected through a separate
consumer line and Corporate LAN is connecting the business and industry to the server
through an internet connection. The connectivity in the smart grid is mostly wireless
with 4G technologies giving the faster response and communication is made easy.
DRAS is composed of modem server which is connected to the GSM/4G. The ALU
unit performs the required calculations and GUI gives the user an easy mode to interface
with the machines.
The communication architecture is categorized into Wide Area Network (WAN),
Filed Area Network, and Home Area network. In Home Area network all the appliances
in the home are interconnected with each appliance’s power consumption being
monitored and communicated to Field Area Network. The FAN covers all the
residential, commercial, and industrial consumers. And connects it to the DRAS
through Wide Area Network [47]. The AMI is installed at all the ports in all the
networks. From home appliances to Industrial heavy machine, every appliance is
connected to the AMI. The advanced meters keep track of all energy consumptions, big
or small, on the consumer end.

35
 Fig. 14. Communication Architecture for DRAS

7.2 Demand Response Programs

Demand response programs can be described as the pricing techniques designed for
the consumers according to various schedules, the aim of which is to achieve the proper
balanced demand and supply. The tariffs are designed for the consumers based on their
energy consumption profiles, encourage them to cut their energy usage during the peak
hours in order to increase the efficiency and reliability of power system [48].

The demand response program can be divided into two categories.

7.2.1 Incentive Based Programs:

Incentive based programs are also called event based programs. These programs
offer its participating consumers, incentives and rewards in return for their load
reduction during the peak hours [49]. The consumers’ willingness to participate in the
program is optional. And consumers who are willing to participate in the program sign

36
a contract with the company for the direct access and an approval to fully participate in
the program by curtailing their energy consumption upon the request of utility
company. The operator of DR programs have full or some degree of control over the
consumers’ load and can remotely turn it on or off. During the application of program,
a set of instructions for demand reduction is sent to the consumers over the network.
The instructions are read by the smart meter and the consumer and they respond to that
signal. In case the consumer fails to respond to the sent instruction, the operator in the
utility can exercise the control over the consumer load consumption by remotely
shutting down the equipment or cutting the power for the designated amount of time as
agreed by the both entities in the contract [50].

The incentive based demand response can be triggered due to lot of conditions. For
instance in case of on peak hours when the demand for energy is huge, or in the event
of some fault when the load needs to be shifted to the healthy feeders, the demand for
the energy may rise exponentially and utility initiate the program according to the
energy requirement. There are several programs under the incentive based demand
response program.

7.2.1.1 Direct Load Control (DLC)

Under Direct load control (DLC) the utility company can exercise a full control
over the load of its consumers. There is a network of Advanced Metering Infrastructure
(AMI) and other smart grid technologies, which gives the company full access in order
to turn on or off any or all the appliances during on-peak hours in order to balance the
demand and supply. Due to the technological advancements, many companies have
started introducing the DLC devices which gives the remote control access of
consumers’ appliances to the company. The direct load control technique gives the
company an effective control in order to clip the peak and high demand during the peak
hours of the day [51].

The direct load control program is an incentive based program and consumers
willingly give complete access of their loads to the company. The whole system
comprises of advanced metering infrastructure and other smart grid technologies. The

37
consumers who are willing to participate in the program are dictated with terms and
conditions the company can exercise under the Direct Load Control. Consumers who
participate in the DLC program benefit from incentives like reduced electricity pricing
during the certain hours or the provision of electricity at subsidized rates [52]. The
equipment for direct load control consists of switches for air conditioners, ventilators,
heaters, thermostats, and Energy Management System (EMS) devices. All the devices
communicate with one another over the communication network like wireless or wired
communication technologies.

Fig. 15. DLC Device

The above figure shows the LCR 6000 series DLC switch. The device can be
attached to any electric equipment and is wirelessly controlled by the utility company.
In an event of load reduction, the company can remotely switch on or off the equipment
through this DLC switch. Although these devices are new in the market. But they are
gaining lot of popularity among the utility companies. And companies are taking
initiatives in installing these devices at consumers’ peripheries.

38
7.2.1.2 Interruptible Load

Under Interruptible load (IL) scheme consumers willingly cut the curtailable load
whenever there is power shortage. In IL consumers sign an interruptible load contract
with the power company to cut its energy consumption during the peak hours or in
emergency situation when there is a burden on the grid and grid reliability is in jeopardy
[53]. The consumers under this scheme enjoy the benefits of low priced electricity
which is given as a reward or incentive during the specific hours of the day. The utility
company benefits from the reduced demand during the peak hours which helps the
company to maintain the reliability and efficiency of power grid.

The pricing and timing programs under IL vary with the consumers since it mostly
depends on the type of load. The residential consumer might it find it much beneficial
as compared to the industrial consumers since they have more energy consumption and
contribute to the significant reduction in the electricity by cutting their energy usage.
However, the program is not designed for industrial consumers only. It is offered to the
wide range of consumers including the residential, commercial, and agricultural load.
The contract for the Interruptible load might be temporary based on few days or weeks
only. Or it could be a long term contract lasting for several months. The program can
also be initiated during the emergency conditions. The prices and the incentives for the
participation in the program are decided during the time of the contract and remain as
such unless the company decides otherwise [54].

In return for the cooperation with the utility company under IL, the consumers
receive attractive discounts on their electricity bills. The company also rewards its
customers by offering free electricity or at the very cheap rates during certain periods
if the participants fulfill the companies load curtailment demands upon request.

7.2.1.3 Demand Bidding or Buyback

During the times of contingencies when the wholesale prices of electricity are
higher, consumers offer the bid for the load curtailment. The bids are settled according
the number of consumers participating in the bids and amount of time they agree to cut

39
their energy usage during the specified interval of time [55]. These programs are mostly
offered to large consumers with load consumption more than 1 megawatts. The small
consumers can also participate in this program through a third party which aggregates
the individual consumers and participate in the bidding. These programs are based on
the biddings of consumers. The price of electricity is decided according to the
consumers bidding in the wholesale market. Consumers bid on the electricity price and
successful bidder gets the quoted price as the designated electricity price. Likewise, the
bidding is made on the curtailment of electricity consumption where consumers agree
to curtail their demand by some percentage and in return get the subsidized electricity.
The consumers who bid on the voluntary load reductions during the peak hours are
offered with rebates and discounts. If the bidder fails to keep the conditions of bidding,
the utility company may pose penalties. Some companies also offer the demand bidding
programs without any risks to encourage the consumers to participate in the bidding
programs, usually the industrial consumers.

7.2.1.4 Emergency Demand Response Program

In this program consumers would have reduce their load on the very short notice
[56]. In case of emergencies, the company might request their consumer who are
already participating in the emergency demand response program to curtail their
electricity consumption on a very short notice. In return, the company offers the
incentives and benefits to the successful participants in form of concessions in the
electricity bills or electricity at cheap price.

7.2.2 Price Based Programs

Price based programs are also called smart pricing programs [57]. Unlike the
traditional flat pricing, which is fixed throughout the day, week or month, the smart
pricing provides the user with different electricity prices at different times. When there
is high demand of electricity during the peak hours, the electricity price goes up. During
this time the consumers would be reluctant to use the more electricity since it would
mean the high electricity bills. The consumers are discouraged by the high prices of

40
electricity since it creates financial burden. During the off peak hours, the electricity
prices are lower. The cheap prices would encourages the consumers to utilize more
electricity in order to balance the supply and demand.

There are different categories in priced based demand response programs which are
discussed below.

7.2.2.1 Time-of-Use (TOU) Pricing

Time of Use pricing also called as the TOU pricing technique is most widely used
pricing technique in price based demand response program. In time of use pricing the
utility company sets different prices for different time intervals for the constant time
periods between the specific hours of the day with a fixed dedicated price for the
electricity unit during that period [58]. The periods might vary throughout the
consumption plan and contain different prices for the peak and off-peak hours during
the winter and summer seasons. The company plans the TOU pricing for the whole year
and communicates to its consumers who are participating in the program.

The demand is mostly during the summers when air conditioners and fans are all
functional. And utility company faces the load management problem during the peak
hours of the summers. During these times the company insists on the consumers to
participate in the Time of Use pricing program. Besides, the load curtailment and
energy management program, the company also benefits from the high electricity bills
paid by the consumers who utilize more electricity during the peak hours of the day
[48].

41
 Fig. 16. TOU Pricing

The TOU pricing could be dedicated to one day. Or it could comprise of a weekly,
monthly or yearly schedule. Since the load burden is usually in the summers and during
the peak hours only. Therefore, the programs are mostly daily or weekly basis. The
utility company has the right to shift the prices between the intervals of the day. Which
mostly depends on the consumers consumption patterns. The company would dictate
the rates based on the real time consumption of its consumers. The above figure shows
the weekly TOU pricing scheme. The hours are set as the peak, off peak and super off
peak. During the peak hours, the electricity prices are highest and lowest during the off
peak hours. As seen in the diagrams, the consumption pattern of weekdays in different
from the weekends. During weekends the company has different schedule for the super
off peak, peak, and off peak hours.

42
7.2.2.2 Critical Peak Pricing (CPP)

The structure of the critical peak pricing is similar to the TOU pricing except that
it contains the period with very high electricity rates. During the critical hours when the
there is a very serious shortage of electricity and load management becomes a serious
problem, the CPP is initiated [59]. The super high prices during this time discourages
the consumers even more to curtail their electricity needs. Since the pricing is the most
important factor to shape the users energy consumption behavior, the CPP results in the
significant load reduction.

The critical period is employed during that the part of the day when the energy
demand is the highest. The program could last for the span of few hours or more. But
it usually is employed during the super-peak hours of the day when the demand for
energy hikes exponentially. Since during this period, the system is running at its full
potential. And the energy consumption is high. Therefore it is called the critical period.
And thus the pricing term named as critical pricing.

Fig. 17. Critical Peak Pricing

43
7.2.2.3 Real Time Pricing (RTP)

Real time pricing is also called the dynamic pricing. This pricing program varies at
the regular intervals of the day. The intervals usually comprise of 15 minutes to 60
minutes. Once the interval are fixed by the company, the price of electricity will vary
according to that fixed timer. The prices in dictated an hour ahead, called hour-ahead
pricing (HAP). Or day ahead, called the day-ahead pricing (DAP) [60]. The prices
released are based on the load consumption of the consumers.

The real time pricing program gives the information about the actual cost of
electricity at any given interval of the day. The prices vary from hour to hour and
consumers have to pay the fixed price which is set during that part of the day. Moreover,
RTP lets its consumers adjust their energy usage according to the variation of prices.
They are likely to use less energy during the high prices in the peak hours. And would
be more likely to use the electricity during the cheap rates. Thus shifting the load from
peak hours to off-peak hours, which is the main objective of demand response
programs.

7.2.2.4 Inclining Block Rate (IBR)

Inclining block rate is a two block tariff. The upper block refers to the maximum
threshold of electricity consumption which can be consumed. The lower block refers to
the minimum threshold of energy consumption limit [61]. If a consumer crosses the
upper threshold he has to pay more prices per kWh which has been consumed after
reaching the threshold. In IBR the more energy is consumed, the higher per kWh rates
are charged. The company sets the upper block according to its target consumers and
they are expected to consume the electricity within the specified limits or block.
Consumers who utilize energy more than the block limit have to pay the extra charges
which are usually high. Therefore, in order to prevent from the high electricity bills, the
consumers manage their energy usage according to the inclining blocks. IBR
encourages its users to manage their energy needs and spread it evenly throughout the
day it order to avoid the extra charges and help balance the demand and supply of power
in the grid.

44
Table 5. Pricing Programs Comparison

45
 CHAPTER 8

HARDWARE DESIGN

The model of the project is based on the smart gird technologies. The efforts have
been made to design and simulate the model which illustrates the actual smart grid. The
key features which have been considered while developing the model are

- Integration of Renewable Energy Source to the gird

- Implementation of Demand Response Programs

A smart grid has been designed which consists of Transmission and distribution
system. The four loads which are attached are named as residential load, commercial,
industrial, and agriculture load. The loads are depicted by the LED bulbs. The energy
consumption on each load is monitored by the intelligent system, which is done by
using the Arduino Uno microcontroller board. The board monitors the energy profiles
(voltage, current, power) and displays on the LCD screen. The LCD is designed to
mimic the Smart Meter. The price per kWh is displayed on the screen. The pricing can
be changed from the set of switches. The dynamic pricing schemes can easily be applied
with the timer. The price will remain fixed for the amount of time which is adjustable.

The model is designed to incorporate all the demand response program. The pricing
strategies can easily be implemented on the smart. The system has the functionality to
run the TOU pricing, critical peak pricing, and real time pricing. Not only the price
based demand response programs can be run; the system can also implement the
incentive based programs with the DLC functionality.

The integration of renewable energy source is done by adding a 10 watt solar panel
to the grid. The panel charges the batteries. The load can be directly fed through a solar

46
panel and power supply both at a time. On-grid. The system is also made to be Off-grid
where solar system works alone.

8.1 Model Specifications

There are eight circuits of smart grid model.

1. Power Supply Circuit

2. Current Transformer (CT) and Potential Transformer (PT) circuit

3. Relay circuit

4. Microcontroller circuit

5. Solar Panel circuit

6. Display circuit

7. Demand Response Control Circuit

8. Load Circuit

8.1.1 Power Supply Circuit

The power supply circuit consists of the following components.

1. Step down transformer.
2. Bridge rectifier circuit.
3. Input filter.
4. Voltage regulators.
5. Output filter.
6. Indicator unit.

47
8.1.1.1 Step down transformer

The specifications of step down transformer are:

- Step-down Centre tapped Transformer

- Input Voltage: 220V AC at 50Hz

- Output Voltage: 24V, 12V or 0V

- Output Current: 1A

- Vertical mount type

8.1.1.2 Bridge rectifier

- Bridge rectifier IC: DB107S – 1 A Diode Bridge

- AC-DC conversion.

- Upto 1000 V at 1 A

8.1.1.3 Input filter

- Capacitor: 100 uF, 100pF

- Diode: 1N4007

8.1.1.4 Voltage Regulator

- 7805 IC

8.1.1.5 Output Filter

- Diode: 1N4007

48
 - Capacitor: 100 uF, 100 pF

- Resistor: 1K

- LED (Indicator)

8.1.1.6 Power Supply Output

- +5 Volts

8.1.1.7 Schematic

49
8.1.2 CT and PT Circuit

8.1.2.1 Components

- CT, PT

- Bridge rectifier IC: DB107S – 1 A Diode Bridge

- Input filter Capacitors: 100 uF, 100pF

- Output filter Capacitors: 100 uF, 100pF

- Resistor: 1K

- Diode: 1N4007

8.1.2.2 Schematic

50
8.1.3 Relay Circuit

8.1.3.1 Components

- Resistor: 470 ohm, 1K

- Octocoupler PC817

- Transistor: C95 NPN

- Capacitor: 100uF

- Diode: 1N4007

8.1.3.2 Schematic

51
8.1.4 Microcontroller circuit

8.1.4.1 Components

- Arduino UNO R3

8.1.4.2 Board

52
8.1.4.3 Demand Response Management Program (Code)

#include <Wire.h>

#include<EEPROM.h>

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>

//LiquidCrystal lcd(3, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7);

LiquidCrystal lcd(7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2);

#include <SoftwareSerial.h>

int temp,inc,hours1,minut,add=11;

int next=14;

int INC=15;

int set_mad=14;

int owd=0;

#define buzzer 13

const int rlytrip = 8; // the number of the LED pin

int buzer =13;

int cntp=0;

int rly1=8;

int rly2=9;

int rly3=10;

53
int rly4=11;

int rly5=30;

int sw1=53;

int sw2=51;

int sw3=49;

int sw4=47;

int mod=A5;

int swinc=A4;

int swdec=A3;

int addr = 0,peak=0;

int rly6=32;

int c11 = A1;//load1 current

int v11 = A0;//load5 current

int off1=0;

int off2=0;

SoftwareSerial gsmSerial(10,11);// RX, TX

int mode=1;

char d1 = '0';

char d2 = '0';

54
 char d3 = '0';

char d4 = '0';

char d5 = '0';

char d6 = '0';

long tempReading ;

long tempVolts,tunit,UNIT,tlong,P11;

long tempReading1;

long tempReading2;

long tempb;

long temps;

long tempc;///cuerr

long tempc1;///cuerr

long power;

long voltage,current,power2,i1,i2,i3,i4,i5,total_power;

long units=0;

long truepower;

int tens,ch ;

int sec=0,mint=10,hour1=12,smint=5,shour=12;

55
void setup()

lcd.begin(20,4);

Serial.begin(9600);

pinMode(rly1, OUTPUT);

pinMode(rly2, OUTPUT);

pinMode(rly3, OUTPUT);

pinMode(rly4, OUTPUT);

digitalWrite(rly1, LOW);

digitalWrite(rly2, LOW);

digitalWrite(rly3, LOW);

digitalWrite(rly4, LOW);

pinMode(mod, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(swinc, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(swdec, INPUT_PULLUP);

lcd.print("Configuring ... ");

Serial.print("Configuring ... ");

pinMode(buzer, OUTPUT);

56
digitalWrite(buzer, LOW);

delay(500);

digitalWrite(buzer, HIGH);

// delay(5000);

// delay(5000);

//Config();

lcd.clear();lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Configured ...");

delay(1000);

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

Serial.print("Configured ... ");

addr=1;d1 = EEPROM.read(addr);

addr=2;d2 = EEPROM.read(addr);

addr=3;d3 = EEPROM.read(addr);

addr=4;d4 = EEPROM.read(addr);

addr=5;temps = EEPROM.read(addr);

if(temps==1){}else{d1=0;d2=0;d3=0;d4=0;}

UNIT= (d1*1000) + (d2 * 100) + (d3*10) + (d4 *1 );

57
// SendSMS(Mob1, SelectSMS);

lcd.clear();

void loop()

//addr=1;EEPROM.write(addr, d1);

while(1){

lcd.begin(20,4);

lcd.clear();

if(peak==0){

lcd.setCursor(7, 1); lcd.print("UNIT PRICE=10 ");

digitalWrite(rly3, LOW);

}else{

cntp++;

if(cntp>60){

cntp=0;

peak=0;

lcd.setCursor(7, 1); lcd.print("UNIT PRICE=15 ");

digitalWrite(rly3, HIGH);

58
 }

// senddata();

getad(); DISPLAYUNIT ();unitinc();

getad(); DISPLAYUNIT ();unitinc();

getad(); DISPLAYUNIT ();unitinc();

clock1();

if(shour==hour1){

if(smint==mint){

lcd.begin(20, 4);lcd.clear();

delay(1000);

lcd.setCursor(0, 0); lcd.print("PEAK HOUR START ");

delay(1000);

peak=1;

mint++;

//loc4();

delay(1000);

59
void clock1(){

if(digitalRead(mod) == LOW){buz();

lcd.begin(20, 4);lcd.clear();

delay(1000);

lcd.setCursor(0, 0); lcd.print("< TIME SETTING > ");

delay(1000);

while(digitalRead(mod) == LOW){ delay(1000);}

lcd.begin(20, 4);lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0, 0); lcd.print("< MINUTE SETTING > ");

lcd.setCursor(0, 1); lcd.print(smint);

while(digitalRead(mod) == HIGH){

if(digitalRead(swinc) == LOW){ buz(); smint++;

lcd.setCursor(0, 1); lcd.print(smint);

delay(200);}

if(digitalRead(swdec) == LOW){ smint--;buz();

lcd.setCursor(0, 1); lcd.print(smint);

delay(200);}

lcd.begin(20, 4);lcd.clear();

60
while(digitalRead(mod) == LOW){ delay(1000);}

lcd.begin(20, 4);lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0, 0); lcd.print("< HOUR SETTING > ");

while(digitalRead(mod) ==HIGH ){

lcd.setCursor(0, 1); lcd.print(shour);

if(digitalRead(swinc) == LOW){ buz(); shour++;

lcd.setCursor(0, 1); lcd.print(shour);

delay(200);}

if(digitalRead(swdec) == LOW){ shour--;buz();

lcd.setCursor(0, 1); lcd.print(shour);

delay(200);}

delay(1000);}

sec++;

if(sec>59) {sec=0;mint++;}

if(mint>59){mint=0;hour1++;}

61
 lcd.setCursor(0, 2);

lcd.print(hour1);

lcd.print(":");

lcd.print(mint);

lcd.print(":");

lcd.print(sec);

void buz(){

digitalWrite(buzer, LOW);delay(50);

digitalWrite(buzer, HIGH);delay(50);

digitalWrite(buzer, LOW);delay(50);

digitalWrite(buzer, HIGH);delay(50);

digitalWrite(buzer, LOW);delay(50);

digitalWrite(buzer, HIGH);delay(50);

void func1(){

getad(); DISPLAYUNIT ();

unitinc();delay(1000);

62
 getad(); DISPLAYUNIT ();

unitinc();delay(1000);

getad(); DISPLAYUNIT ();

unitinc();delay(1000);

void SendSMS(char Mob[20], char MotionSMS[40])

digitalWrite(rly6, LOW);

delay(2000);

gsmSerial.print("AT+CMGS=\"");

gsmSerial.print(Mob);

gsmSerial.print("\"\r");

delay(1200);

gsmSerial.println("DATA= ");

// senddata();

gsmSerial.print("\r");

delay(1200);

gsmSerial.write(0x1A); //end sms

delay(2200);

63
digitalWrite(rly6, HIGH);

void getad(){ /// measure current and display on lcd

////////////////////////////////////////

tempReading1 = analogRead(c11);

i1=tempc1 = tempReading1 * 5000 / 1024;

lcd.setCursor(0, 1); lcd.print("I1=");

d1=tempc1/1000;

d2=(tempc1/100)%10;

d3=(tempc1/10)%10;

lcd.write(d1+48);

lcd.write('.');

lcd.write(d2+48);

// lcd.write(d3+48);

/////////////////////////////////////////////////

tempReading1 = analogRead(v11);

voltage= tempc1 = tempReading1 * 5000 / 1024;

lcd.setCursor(0, 0); lcd.print("Voltage=");

d1=tempc1/1000;

d2=(tempc1/100)%10;

64
 d3=(tempc1/10)%10;

lcd.write(d1+48);

//lcd.write('.');

lcd.write(d2+48);

lcd.write(d3+48);

/////////////////////////////////////////////////

current=i1;

tempc1 = voltage*current;

tempc1 =tempc1/1000;

P11=tempc1;

lcd.setCursor(9, 2); lcd.print("Power=");

d1=tempc1/1000;

d2=(tempc1/100)%10;

d3=(tempc1/10)%10;

lcd.write(d1+48);

//lcd.write('.');

lcd.write(d2+48);

lcd.write(d3+48);

/////////////////////////////////////////////////

65
void senddata(){

tempc1 =i1;

Serial.print("Current=");

d1=tempc1/1000;

d2=(tempc1/100)%10;

d3=(tempc1/10)%10;

Serial.write(d1+48);

Serial.write('.');

Serial.write(d2+48);

// gsmSerial.write(d3+48);

Serial.println(" A");

tempc1 = voltage;

Serial.print("Voltage=");

d1=tempc1/1000;

d2=(tempc1/100)%10;

d3=(tempc1/10)%10;

Serial.write(d1+48);

// gsmSerial.write('.');

Serial.write(d2+48);

Serial.write(d3+48);

66
Serial.println(" V");

/////////////////////////////////////////////////

current=i1;

tempc1 = voltage*current;

tempc1 =tempc1/1000;

P11=tempc1;

Serial.print("Power=");

d1=tempc1/1000;

d2=(tempc1/100)%10;

d3=(tempc1/10)%10;

Serial.write(d1+48);

// gsmSerial.write('.');

Serial.write(d2+48);

Serial.write(d3+48);

Serial.println(" W");

/////////////////////////////////////////////////

Serial.print("UNITS=");Serial.println(UNIT);

void unitinc(){

if(tens>99) {

lcd.begin(20,4);

67
lcd.clear();

tens=0;

tunit=tunit++;

UNIT++;

DISPLAYUNIT ();

addr=1; EEPROM.write(addr,d1);

addr=2;EEPROM.write(addr,d2);

addr=3; EEPROM.write(addr,d3);

addr=4;EEPROM.write(addr,d4);

d4=1;

addr=5;EEPROM.write(addr,d4);

truepower=P11;

if(truepower>200&&truepower<400) {tens=tens+1; }

if(truepower>400&&truepower<600) {tens=tens+3; }

if(truepower>600&&truepower<1000) {tens=tens+4; }

if(truepower>1000&&truepower<1500) {tens=tens+5; }

if(truepower>1500&&truepower<2000) {tens=tens+8; }

if(truepower>2000&&truepower<2500) {tens=tens+10; }

68
if(truepower>2500&&truepower<3500) {tens=tens+12; }

if(truepower>3500&&truepower<6500) {tens=tens+15; }

void DISPLAYUNIT (){

lcd.setCursor(0, 3); lcd.print("Units");

tlong=UNIT;

lcd.setCursor(10,3);

ch = tlong / 1000;

d1=ch;

lcd.write(48+ch);

ch = (tlong / 100) % 10; // extract 0.1 volts digit

d2=ch;

lcd.write(48+ch);

ch = (tlong / 10) % 10; // extract 0.01 volts digit

d3=ch;

lcd.write(48+ch);

ch = tlong % 10; // extract 0.001 volts digit

d4=ch;

lcd.write(48+ch);

69
 lcd.write('.');

tlong=tens;

ch = (tlong / 100) % 10; // extract 0.1 volts digit

d5=ch;

lcd.write(48+ch);

ch = (tlong / 10) % 10; // extract 0.01 volts digit

d6=ch;

lcd.write(48+ch);

ch = tlong % 10; // extract 0.001 volts digit

// d7=ch;

//lcd.write(48+ch);

//lcd.write(d2+48);

70
8.1.5 Solar Panel Circuit

8.1.5.1 Solar Panel Specifications

- 10 Watt polycrystalline Photovoltaic Solar Panel

- Power Max: 10 +/- 5%

- Maximum Voltage: 17.7 V

- Max Power Current: 0.6 A

8.1.5.2 Batteries

- Volta 12V Rechargeable Batteries

8.1.6 Display Circuit

8.1.6.1 Display Module

- 16 x 2 LCD display module

- HD44780 LCD built in controller

8.1.7 Demand Response Control Circuit

- Two switches for adjusting timer on the LCD for demand response programs

8.1.8 Load Circuit

- 4 LED bulbs as residential, commercial, industrial, and agriculture load.

71
8.2 Model Working

The power supply section is fed with the 230V from the main supply. Power supply
steps down the voltage to 5V. The Arduino boards get this 5V for its operation. CT and
PT are also fed through the main supply and steps down the voltage and current to 12V,
1A respectively. This stepped down voltage is taken to the relay circuit. The relay
circuit controls all the loads and are used to automatic switching according to the
program. The relay circuits perform the load management. The output from CT and PT
are also taken for the display of voltage, current, and power on the screen. The LCD
module displays the following information.

- Voltage

- Current

- Power

- Timer

- Demand Response Tariff

The program is run with the Arduino UNO. The timer in the LCD is controlled by the
demand response control circuit which comprise of two buttons for hours and minutes.

The pricing can be easily adjusted. During normal times, the meter would show the
voltage, current, and power consumed by the load. And the electricity price per Watt
hour. For the implementation of Critical Peak Pricing (CPP) for the next 30 minutes,
the timer is adjusted for 30 minutes. As soon as the timer starts, the relays would switch
off the Industrial Load automatically. And show the new tariff for the CPP. Which is
higher than the normal price since it marks the critical peak hour.

When timer reaches its time, the industrial load is switched on, with the system giving
the beep and pricing back set to its normal rate marking the end of CPP and peak hour,
and entering in the off-peak hour with the normal rates.

72
 CONCLUSION

Smart grid is a next generation revolutionized grid of power industry. With its
modern communication technologies, intelligent network, and smart equipment, the
system offers the advanced monitoring and control of power and communication flow.
The intelligent sensing and computing devices allows the remote access to the whole
grid with the effective consumer data management system. The smart grid, unlike the
traditional grid offers the complete automated load and energy management. Therefore,
it of vital importance to shift from the traditional grid to the smart grid. The increasing
penetration of renewable energy sources to the grid often referred as the distributed
generation, pose complex challenges to the existing grid system. Under smart grid
domain, the integration, however, is easy and more effective. The integration can be
done by employing lot of integration techniques which have been discussed in the
paper, and are still under research in lot of countries. The vast penetration of these
renewable sources require the smart grid technologies for their effective integration.

The paper also provides discussion on the demand response in smart grids. Due to
the prospective significance of demand response programs under demand side
management, the paper broadly explores the four major prospects of demand response
programs, issues, challenges, implementation techniques and approaches. The demand
response programs are classified into two categories. Incentive-based and price-based
programs. In incentive-based programs, the direct load control (DLC),
interruptible/curtailable load, demand bidding, and emergency demand reduction
programs have been reviewed in detail. In price-based programs, the most widely used
pricing programs, time-of-use pricing, critical peak pricing, real-time pricing, and
inclining block rate have been discussed. The success of these programs depends on the
cooperation of consumers with the utility company. The utility offers the subsidies and
incentives to its consumers in the form of cheap electricity rates during the certain hours
in order to encourage the consumer to participate in the demand response programs.
For the effective load management, smart grid technologies are now the inevitable need
of the future power grid and needs the focus in its development.

73
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