DASAR-DASAR TRANSPORTASI

Lecture 12 : Road Safety

 A Definition of Road Safety

Roadway safety is
the number of accidents (crashes),
or accident consequences,
by kind and severity,
expected to occur on the entity
during a specific period.

Ezra Hauer

2
 Road Safety Engineering - a
professional discipline
Provision & maintenance of a forgiving road
environment:
• safety-conscious planning of new
infrastructure and networks
• incorporating safety features into design of
new roads
• improving safety aspects of existing roads to
alleviate future problems
• improving identified hazardous locationsA
 Road Safety Engineering
… for what is a proper engineering discipline

• RSE is the discipline which uses the analysis of

road and traffic related crash information in
the application of engineering principles and
technologies to identify road design or traffic
management measures and improvements
that will cost-effectively reduce the incidence
and costs of road crashes
 A traffic conflict takes place when one
Basics: Pyramid of or more drivers have to perform an
evasive maneuver (rapid swerving or
braking) to avoid collision with another
Traffic Events vehicle.

Relevance to Safety
Severity

PDO

5
 National Highway
Fatalities and Fatality Rates
1988-2008*
48,000 2.5

46,000
Total Fatalities

Fatality Rate per 100M VMT

Fatality Rate per 100M 2.0
44,000
VMT
Total Fatalities

42,000
1.5
40,000

38,000
1.0
36,000

34,000
0.5

32,000

30,000 0.0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Source: Created by Cambridge Systematics based on fatality data retrieved from the Fatality Analysis Reporting
System
(National Highway Traffic Safety Administration) and vehicle miles traveled data (Federal Highway Administration.
6
*2008 Preliminary data retrieved from NHTSA Traffic Safety Facts Research Note DOT HS 811 124
 National Highway
Injuries and Injury Rates

4,000,000 180

3,500,000
Total Injuries 160

Injury Rate per 100M VMT

Injury Rate per 100M 140
3,000,000 VMT
120
Total Injuries

2,500,000
100
2,000,000
80
1,500,000
60

1,000,000
40

500,000 20

0 0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Source: Created by Cambridge Systematics based on injury data retrieved from NHTSA Traffic Crash Facts 2007 7
Australian road fatalities 1980-2005
Road fatalities by road user group
2005
Number of accidents
 Road length vs vehicles # vs accident #
130000

117949
110000 108696
104119
100106
94373
90000 91623
87020 85601
76907
70000
67337 66488
61685 62960
59164
54803
50000 49553
43313
37623
30000 30542 28525,2 28792,6
26614 27123 27775,5 27935,1
25028 25874,4
21430,8 20614,4 21671,4 22334,3
17732
13399
10000

2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014

-10000

Panjang Jalan (puluh km) Jumlah Kend. Bermotor (ribu unit) Jumlah Kecelakaan (orang)
 The Public Health Perspective
• Events Causing Health Problems
– Cancer
– Heart disease
– Stroke
– Obesity
– Suicide
– Homicide

• Population or Population Category

– Cancer cases per capita
– Number of attempted suicides by age and gender
categories

• Exposure to Risk

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10 Leading Causes of Death by Age Group, United
States─ 2006
 The Dynamics of a Crash
The Dynamics of a Crash
• Slide 2: Explain and define crush energy
(include image below)

Crush energy:

Deformation of car and

human parts
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 Systems view
Consider the 3 components
• road users
• road environment
• Vehicles

• and their interactions

Driver Behavior and Crash Models

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Multidisciplinary Approaches

Human
Road Factors (95%)
Environment
Factors (28%)

4% 24% 67%

4% 4%

Vehicle
Factors (8%)

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Contributing Factors (RTA-NSW, 1996)
 The 4 Es of Road Safety
• Engineering
• Education
• Enforcement
• Emergency Response

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 Ex: Safety Corridor Programs
• Legislation
• Data Analysis
• Signage
• Enforcement
• Public Education

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 Road Safety Modes
• Passenger Cars
• Commercial Vehicles
• Motorcycles
• Pedestrians and Cyclists
• Transit

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 Future Road Safety Needs
• Accommodate Older Drivers and Pedestrians
• Adjust to Changes in Travel Behavior

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 Types of Decisions
• Decision to Drive
• Information Gathering
• Vehicle Control
• Emergency Response

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 Road Design and Decision Making
• Guidance
• Predictability
• Speed
• Gap Selection
• Lane Position

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 Impact of Built Environment on Decisions

• Travel Behavior
• Speed
• Attentiveness

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 Travel Behavior

 Most Sprawled
Least Sprawled

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 Speed
• Road Design
• Speed Limits
• Land Uses

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 More on Speed
• Two relationships that are important
– Speed versus risk of injury
– Speed limits versus actual speeds
• On speed versus injury: Two issues
– Risk of injury as function of speed (TRB study says this is
clearly supported by research and physics)
– Risk of crash as function of speed (TRB study says not as
clearly defined by research)
TRB. Managing Speed: Review of Current Practice for Setting and Enforcing Speed Limits.
TRB, National Research Council, 1998.

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Speed

29
Speed variance

30
 Vehicle Design & Road User Decisions
• Electronic Stability Control
• Lane Departure Warning System
• Intelligent Speed Adaptation
• Entertainment Features
• Occupant Protection

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 Steps in the Scientific Process
1. Review the Literature.
2. Postulate Relationships or Theories.
3. Generate Testable Research Hypotheses.
4. Design a Study.
5. Collect Data.
6. Apply Appropriate Statistical Methods and/or
Models.
7. Correctly Interpret Results.

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 Weaknesses of non-scientific Methods

• Crashes Vary Randomly

• Hunches are Often Incorrect
• Inability to Process Data
• Counter-productive Recommendations

33
 Observational Study Limitations
• Ideal is randomized studies/experiments
• Lack of Experiments in safety
• Weaknesses in Observational Studies
– Occupant protection
– Non-crashes
– Speeding
– Commercial vehicles

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 Applied Technologies
• Reporting Crashes
• Responding to Crashes
• Collecting Victim and Crash Information
• Managing and Storing Crash Information
• Linking Crash Records with Hospital Records
• Analyzing Crashes
• Disseminating Crash Information to Stakeholder Agencies
• Educating Safety Professionals

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Data Driven Success

36
 Models for Identifying Sites
The identification and examination of well
chosen sites will yield safety improvements…

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 Example of Models

E  yi   i  EXP  βX i 
 0.83  0.00008( AADT 1i )  0.0005( AADT 2i ) 
 EXP  
  0.06( Median i )  0.07( Drive i ) 
 EXP 0.83 EXP 0.00008( AADT 1) ........EXP 0.07( Drive )
 (0.436)( AADT 1Factor ).......( DriveFactor )

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Engineering Studies

• Step 1: Collect & examine Crash Data

• Step 2: Conduct a Field Study
• Step 3: Identify Countermeasures
• Step 4: Prioritize Countermeasures
• Step 5: Implement the Countermeasures
• Step 6: Evaluate the countermeasure impact

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 Road Safety Audits
• A formal examination with a structured process;
• Conducted independently by professionals who
are not currently involved with the project;
• Completed by a team of qualified professionals
representing appropriate disciplines;
• Focuses solely on safety issues; and
• Examines the transportation site with respect to
all potential road users.

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Countermeasures: Haddon Matrix
• Crash Time
– Pre Crash
– Crash
– Post Crash
• Other Factors
– Human
– Vehicle
– Roadway
– Environmental

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 The Haddon Matrix (cont.)
Pre Crash Crash Post Crash

Human

Vehicle/
Equipment

Road/Physical
Environment

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 Haddon Matrix
Road safety crosses multiple areas

Pre-Crash Crash Post-Crash

Attitudes Safety Belts Use Traveler’s Age
Driver Skills Air Bags Traveler’s Health
Alcohol/Drug Use Side Impact First Aid Training
Human Vision Protection
Education

Safety Equipment Vehicle Size Fuel System Integrity

Vehicle Design Vehicle Weight
Vehicle/
Equipment
Road Design Roadside Hazards EMS Response
Weather Conditions Fixed Objects Hospitals
Road Operation
Availability of Med.
Road + Road Maintenance
Services
Environment Lighting

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Matrix developed by William Hadden, Insurance Institute for Highway Safety
The classic…
A new guard rail installation!
Slaves to fashion ...
Bridge rail design as a hobby?
These folk surely knew better ...
Yet something didn’t quite fit
Never mind the deck, what about the piers?
Never mind the deck, what about the piers?
Slip-base light pole
Slip-base light pole

Things can change over time

And, another classic …
 South China
Morning Post, 11
December 1998
 Summary
A safe road environment should:
• Warn drivers of any substandard or unusual features
• Inform drivers of the conditions to be encountered
• Guide drivers through unusual sections
• Control drivers’ passage through conflict points or sections
• Forgive errant or inappropriate behavior by drivers

The basic principles to ensure a safe road environment include:

• meet driver expectations by not providing surprises in road design,
road layout and traffic control
• ensure a controlled release of information to drivers, so that they do
not have to cope with too much information at any time
• repeat pertinent information when there is a need to emphasize
possible danger