BRU Technical Guideline No.

2
(Second edition)

Loads for
Structural Design

National Housing & Building Research Agency

Ministry of Lands, Housing and Human Settlements
Development
P.O. Box 1964, Dar es Salaam
Website: www.nhbra.go.tz
© 2015

1
PREFACE
BRU Technical Guideline NO.2: Loads for Structural Design is one of
the set of guidelines issued by the Ministry of Lands, Housing and
Human Settlements Development through the National Housing
Building and Research Agency (NHBRA). It is intended to be a local
reference to be used by practicing structural engineers in Tanzania by
providing practical advises on how to achieve the given requirements
in the design of buildings. This second edition supersedes the first
edition in the sense that only limited additional information has been
incorporated with regard to local data on wind loading. Similar local
guidelines for design of timber structures, brick-and brickwork
structures, foundations, steel structures and concrete structures will
also be released by the NHBRA.
These guidelines have been compiled by NHBRA jointly and in close
cooperation with the key stakeholders, namely; the Department of
Structural and Construction Engineering of the University of Dar es
Salaam, Commission of Science and Technology, Enginers Registration
Board, National Construction Council, Tanzania Bureau of Standards,
Association of Consulting Engineers Tanzania and local structural
engineering companies.
NHBRA undertakes to develop and release regularly updated
Technical Guidelines as local reference materials as and when new
information is made available; so that they continually serve to
complement foreign standards, mainly the British Standards and Euro
Codes, which are commonly used in Tanzania.

2
Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................7

1.1. Scope .......................................................................................7

1.2. Units ........................................................................................7

1.3. Notations .................................................................................9

1.4. Indices .................................................................................. 10

1.5. Definitions ............................................................................ 11

2. BASIC DESIGN RULES .................................................................... 13

2.1. General ................................................................................. 13

2.2. Verification by calculation.................................................... 13

2.3. Calculation of design loads .................................................. 14

2.4. Calculation of design capacity .............................................. 15

2.5. Verification by Testing ......................................................... 16

3. PERMANENT LOAD ....................................................................... 18

3.1 Weight of building materials ................................................ 18

3.2 Water Pressure..................................................................... 20

3.3 Soil pressure ......................................................................... 20

3.3.1 General ......................................................................... 20

3
 3.3.2 Conditions for use of the described method ............... 21

3.3.3 Materials and partial safety coefficients ...................... 21

3.3.4 Calculation of design soil Pressure ............................... 22

4. VARIABLE LOADS .......................................................................... 25

4.1. Service Loads ........................................................................ 25

4.1.1. General ......................................................................... 25

4.1.2. Vertical Loads from people, furniture, fittings and

equipment .................................................................................... 25

4.1.3. Concentrated loads ...................................................... 27

4.1.4. Loads on handrails ....................................................... 27

4.1.5. Services loads from heavy machinery and equipment 27

4.1.6. Service Loads from stored materials, goods and masses

28

4.1.7. Service Loads from vehicles ......................................... 28

4.2. Wind Loads ........................................................................... 29

4.2.1. General ......................................................................... 29

4.2.2. Design wind pressure ................................................... 29

4.2.3. Design wind speed ....................................................... 30

4.2.4. Basic wind speed .......................................................... 31

4
 4.2.5. Equivalent Static Wind loads........................................ 32

4.2.6. Shape factors................................................................ 33

4.2.6.1. General ..................................................................... 33

4.2.6.2. Internal wind loads................................................... 33

4.2.6.3. External wind loads .................................................. 34

4.2.6.4. Gabled roofs ............................................................. 35

4.2.6.5. Shed roofs ................................................................ 36

4.2.6.6. Horizontal and arched roofs..................................... 38

4.2.6.7. Multiple gabled and saw roofs ................................. 39

4.2.6.8. Independent roofs.................................................... 41

4.2.6.9. Chimneys, towers and poles .................................... 43

5. ACCIDENTAL LOADS ..................................................................... 46

5.1 Cyclone wind ........................................................................ 46

5.1.1. General ......................................................................... 46

5.1.2. Design wind speed for cyclone wind ............................ 46

5.1.3. Dynamic pressure and equivalent static wind loads. ... 47

5.2 Load action during fire ......................................................... 47

5.2.1 General ......................................................................... 47

5
 5.2.2 Fire resistance and design methods............................. 47

5.2.3 Time temperature curves for structural design ........... 48

5.3 Earthquake loads.................................................................. 52

5.3.1 General ......................................................................... 52

5.3.2 Direction and durability of earthquake forces ............. 53

5.3.3 Design values for lateral earthquake loads .................. 53

5.3.4 Fundamental period of oscillation, T ........................... 57

5.3.5 Distribution of lateral loads ......................................... 57

5.3.6 Lateral loads on parts of buildings ............................... 58

5.3.7 Overturning moment ................................................... 60

5.3.8 Torsional eccentricity and set-back portions ............... 60

5.3.9 Differential movements ............................................... 61

REFERENCES ......................................................................................... 62

6
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Scope
This guideline provides loads and load coefficients for structural design
according to the method of partial safety coefficients. The rules are based
on general design requirements of structural safety and stability stated in
Tanzania Building Regulations.

1.2. Units
In Tanzania Building Regulations the SI units (International System) are
used for measurement; see Table 1.2.1, in accordance with report ISO/DP
4337 Rules for the use of the SI system of units in buildings.

Decimal prefixes are given in Table 1.2.2. Conversion factors from old
units to SI units are given in Table 1.2.3.
Table 1.2.1 SI- Units
Quantity Unit Multiple
Name Symbol Units
Length Metre m 1 mm = 10-3
Area Square metre m2 1 mm2 = 10-6 m2
Volume Cubic metre m3 1 mm3 = 10-9 m3
Force (load) 1 kN (=103 N)
Newton N
1 MN (=106 N)
Time Second s H, d, m
Moment of force Newton metre Nm 1 kNm
Stress Pascal 1 Pa kPa, MPa
=1N/m2

7
Modulus of Pascal Pa MPa
elasticity
Load intensity Pascal Pa kPa, MPa

Table 1.2.2 Decimal prefixes

Name Symbol Factor
Mega M 106
Kilo K 103
milli m 10-3

Table 1.2.3 Conversion factors

Quantity Traditional Unit SI Unit
Length 1 in 25.4 mm
1 ft 0.305 m
1 yd 0.915 m
1 sq in 645 mm2
Area 1sq ft 0.092 m2
Volume 1 cub in 16,400mm3
1 cub ft 0.028m3
1 lbf 4.45 N
Force (load) psi
Stress, modulus 6900N/m2
of elasticity
1 psf
Load intensity 47.9 N/m2

Mind that the conversions 1 kgf = 10 N and 1 kgf/cm2 = 0.1 N/mm2 are
allowed to be used.
8
1.3. Notations
The notation used in the following complies with ISO Standard 3898,
Bases for calculation of structures notations – general symbols.
A Area, cross section
E Modulus of elasticity
F Force, load, loading capacity
G Permanent loads
K Coefficient (without dimensions)
L Span, length
M Bending moment
N Axial force, variable load, point load
P Variable load, earth pressure, point load
Q Variable load, point load
T Temperature, fundamental period of oscillation. The later is not
according to ISO-Standard 3898.

V Volume, Load, shear force

W Wind load
b Width
d Depth, diameter, effective height
f Strength of material, fire energy intensity
g Distributed permanent load
h Height
k Coefficients (without dimensions)
l Length ,span
m Mass, bending moment per unit
P, q Distributed variable loads
9
q Energy density
r Radius
s Standard deviation of sample
t Time, thickness of thin elements
v Velocity of winds
w Distributed wind load
z Building height
 (alpha) angle
 (beta) angle
 ( eta) correction factor
 (gamma) safety factor, partial safety coefficient, density
of soil, shear strain (angular strain)
 (delta) coefficient of variation
 (mu) shape factor
 (rho) density
 (sigma) normal stress
 (tao) shear stress
 (psi) coefficient, ratio, roughness of
surface.

1.4. Indices
a = acceleration
c = characteristic (e.g. characteristic strength, fc)
d = design (e.g. design strength, fd)

10
f = load, failure, foundation
h = horizontal
m = mean value, materials
p = partial
t = total
v = ventilation, vertical
w = water, wall
x = x-direction
y = y-direction
z = z-direction

1.5. Definitions

Load Any action which introduces stresses or strains in a

structure

Common load Load which frequently may act on a structure

Accidental Load, which either directly or indirectly occurs due to

load accidents or unpredictable situations. Magnitude and
frequency are often difficult to determine

Permanent Load which in direction and magnitude is independent

load on time.

Characteristic A load which has a particular acceptable probability of

load not being exceeded, (for permanent loads this
probability is 50%, and for variable loads (it is) 98%
within One year). Variable loads (it is) 98% within one
year).

11
Design load Characteristic load multiplied with the load
coefficient.
Load Partial safety coefficient for loads. (The coefficient
coefficient takes account of
un-predictable variation of the characteristic load,
inaccuracy in the loading model used and the reduced
probability for loads, all having their characteristic
value simultaneously)

Characteristic A material strength property which has a particular

Strength acceptable probability of not being attained. (This
probability is most often defined as the 5% fraction
value in standard normal distribution).

Design Characteristic strength divided by the material

strength coefficient.

Material Partial safety coefficient for materials.

coefficient (The coefficient takes account of unpredictable
variations of the properties, inaccuracy of calculation
models, geometrical data and control efficiency.

Limit state A particular state which a structure or a component has

attained due to the loads acting on it when at the point
of no longer fulfilling the particular requirement it was
designed for.

Ultimate limit Corresponds to the requirements governing safety

state against complete collapse due to excessive loading.

Serviceability Corresponds to requirement governing normal use and

limit state durability.

Characteristic Load carrying capacity of a structure or a component

capacity which a particular (low) probability of not being
attained if tested.
(The characteristic capacity is derived from testing
structures or components, and refers to the lower 5%
12
 fractile in a standard normal distribution, a level of
confidence of 75%, and the test method applied).

Design Load carrying capacity of a structure or a component

capacity calculated from the design strength of the material
used. (The design capacity may vary according to the
calculation model used)

Safety class Expected degree of failure consequences; graded as 1)

less serious, 2) serious, or 3) very serious (see
Tanzania Building Regulations). The grading adheres to
the degrees grouping is based on the risk of damage to
life and the social consequences following the failure of
ordinary structures. Special structures with
catastrophic failure consequences cannot be expected
to provide sufficient safely if designed according to this
guideline.

2. BASIC DESIGN RULES

2.1. General
Apriori verification of any structure fulfilling the requirement
corresponding to the limit state considered may be made either by
appropriate method of calculation or by testing.

2.2. Verification by calculation

Design of structures must be carried out to the limit states corresponding
to the requirements stated in the Tanzania Building Regulations, or to
requirements specified by the central building authority.
The basic design criteria which must be proved valid in any of the limit
state designs, requires that the design resistance of the structure must
exceed the design load effect.

13
Ultimate limit state design is carried out when sufficient load carrying
capacity is required. Plastic or elastic method of analysis may be applied
depending on the behavior of the materials and the structure when being
exposed to excessive loading.
Serviceability limit state design is carried out when proper service of the
structure is required with respect to deflections and deformations due to
load action, temperature, shrinkage etc. Elastic method of analysis is
normally appropriate.

2.3. Calculation of design loads

The design loads are calculated as

Fd = f . Fc

Where Fd = the design load

Fc = the characteristic load

f = the partial safety coefficient for load

The characteristic loads are given in chapter 3, 4 and 5.

The partial safety coefficient for load varies according to the limit
state considered, the type of load acting and other additional
loads assumed to be acting simultaneously. Applicable values for
loads are given in Table 2.2 below.
The most unfavorable load combinations given both in the ultimate limit
state (common loads) and in the serviceability limit state have to be
checked.

14
The accidental load combinations for earthquake, fire and cyclone
winds apply only to structures where the failure consequences are graded
as very serious (safety class 3).

Table 2.2 Partial safety coefficients f of loads for different load

combinations (BS 8110)
Load Type
Load Dead Imposed Earth Wind
Combina A d v e r s e Beneficial Adverse Beneficial and
tion (worsening (lessening (worsening (lessening water
effect) effect) effect) effect) pressure
1.
Dead and 1.4 1.0 1.6 0 1.4 -
Imposed
2.
Dead and
Wind 1.4 1.0 - - 1.4 1.4
(and
earth and
water
pressure)
3.
Dead and
Imposed
and Wind
Load 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
(and
earth and
water
pressure)

2.4. Calculation of design capacity

The design capacity is calculated from the design strength of the materials
in the structure. The built-in safety and accuracy of the mathematical

15
methods and models must correspond to the consequences of structural
failure.
The design strength of materials are calculated as

fd = fc/  m   n

where fd= the design strength

fc = the characteristic strength
 m = the partial safety coefficient for materials
 n = the partial safety coefficient for failure consequences with
the respect to the safety class

Characteristic strength of materials and partial safety coefficients for

materials will be given in technical guidelines for structural design.

2.5. Verification by Testing

The minimum required capacity of the structure obtained through non-
destructive control testing may be calculated as

Fmin  c   n   m   f  Fc
where:

c = a coefficient for correction taking account of the test conditions

being different from the service conditions on site
 n ,  m = as given above
f = the partial safety coefficient for loads
Fc = the characteristics load which the structure has been designed
to carry

The coefficient c above takes account of the strength of the test specimen
being related to loading time, temperature, geometric conditions etc.

16
For non-destructive tests of a structure on site the final test load is
made equal Fmin. The calculation of Fmin shall be based on values of the
partial safety coefficient for loads corresponding to serviceability limit
state of the structure. At full load, the structure should be proved
serviceable according to the design requirements given.
For laboratory testing of type structures and structural elements, at
least three specimens should be tested. The structures may be tested in
either of the two following methods.
1. All specimens have to reach Fmin without failure or extensive damage.
2. The ultimate capacity of all samples should be measured, and the
characteristic capacity of the lot is calculated as follows.
Fc =Fm – ks

where FC = the characteristic capacity 1

Fm =the average capacity

s =the standard deviation2

1
See chapter 1.5 Definitions.

1
 2 ( xi ) 2  2
  xi  n 
2
s 
 n 1 
 
where xi = the result no. i
n= the number of specimens

17
 k = a constant depending on the number of specimens in the lot,
Table 2.4.1

Table 2.4.1 Coefficients k as a function of the number of specimens, n

n 3 4 5 6 8 10 15 25 ∞

k 3.2 2.7 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.64

the characteristic capacity obtained must be greater than F min . , Fc >Fmin. .

For both methods, the calculation of Fmin shall be based on values of the
partial safety coefficient for loads corresponding to ultimate limit state of
the structure.

Quality control of materials shall be done according to rules for

production control and site control given in the respective material
standards.

3. PERMANENT LOAD

3.1 Weight of building materials

The following numbers may be used to calculate the characteristic weight
of building components. Only if other values are proved more accurate,
the following numbers for density may be omitted.
Component Materials Unit
weight
(kN/m3)
Concrete and stone (solid) 27
blocks Concrete, reinforced 24
Cement 31.5
Mortar 20
Airated concrete 6

18
 Expanded clay concrete 14- 16
Solid concrete blocks 21
Hollow concrete blocks 14
Airated concrete blocks 5- 7
Expanded clay blocks 8- 14
Bricks 14 – 18

Metals Steel 77
Cast iron 71
Aluminium 27

Soils Clay 20
Silt, sand, murram (dry) 18
Sand (loose and dry) 13
Rocks, gravel 15

Timber ( dry) Adina, muwa 9

Mtundu, mbalamwezi 8
Mninga, mvule 7
Newtonia, Grevillea,
Mtambara, Mkangazi,
Mahogany 6

Timber Plywood board 7

Products (dry) Chipboard, particle board 7
Fibre board, hard 10
Fibre board, soft 3
Wood wool slabs 15

Roofing and Bitumen 8

cladding
Roofing paper 10 –15
Asbestos cement sheets 20
Thatch 1-2
Glass 25

19
 Gypsum board 6- 9
Mineral wool 0.5- 2
Rubber 10-20

3.2 Water Pressure

Water pressure may normally be divided into one permanent load

and one variable.

The following loads may be regarded as permanent

-Water pressure from average height of tide and average level of

water in lakes and rivers.

-Water pressure from average level of water table in ground

-Water pressure when the level is fixed by an overrun in dams,

storage cylinders etc.

For density of water, 10 kN/m3 should be applied.

3.3 Soil pressure

3.3.1 General
Earth may consist of any soil or mixture of soil such as stones, gravel,
murram, sand, silt, clay or organic masses.

Soil pressure on supporting structures will vary according to geometric

conditions, strength, deformation properties and weight of the soil, water
table level, pore pressure, and deformation properties and surface texture
of the structure (friction between the structure and the soil).

20
Vibrations, compaction, transport and storing of items in the
neighbourhood etc. may also affect the soil pressure.

Calculations of the soil pressure may be done according to the methods

given in chapter 3.3.4.

More accurate calculations (not described here) must be based on

information about the above mentioned soil properties on site, obtained
by site inspection, soil sampling and testing.

3.3.2 Conditions for use of the described method

The methods given in chapter 3.3.4, should be used only if:

-the height of the fill/structure is less than 3 m

-the structure rests on firm ground
- The structure gives way to soil pressure (active) or is immovable
(resting soil pressure).

This method cannot be used to calculate passive pressure (the structure

being pressed towards a fill).

3.3.3 Materials and partial safety coefficients

The calculations must be based on the properties of the weakest soil type
in the backfill.

If density of the soil is not measured, 18kN/m3 should be used.

The load coefficient f = 1.0 should be used for calculation of design

weight of soil. Other loads acting e.g. on the ground should be multiplied
according to the table 2.2 in the chapter 2 in order to obtain the design
load values.

The materials coefficient  m = 1.3 have been used for calculations of the Kd
in the following chapter.

21
 3.3.4 Calculation of design soil Pressure
The design soil pressure on the vertical immovable structure supporting
drained soil and with no loads on the ground may be calculated as

Ps= /2 Kd   d  h2
1

Where

 d = the density of the soil

h= the height (depth) of the structure below ground level

Kd= the coefficient for design soil pressure as given in Table 3.3.4

Ps = the total soil pressure, it may be assumed to act at ⅔h below ground

level.

Table 3.3.4: The coefficient for design soil pressure

Soil type  Kd*
Soft clay 19 o 0.60
Other clays and clayey Soil 25 o 0.50
Silt 32 o 0.40
Sand and silty soil 36 o 0.35
Course sand, gravel 40 o 0.30
Course gravel, blasted rock 44 o 0.25
* The values of Kd are calculated from the formula

Kd= tan2 (45 – α/2) Where tan α = tan (  /  m )

where

 m = 1.3 the materials coefficient

 = the characteristic angle of friction

22
 α= the design angle of friction

If the ground is loaded with an evenly distributed load qc , the following

pressure should be added to Ps to obtain the total pressure P:

Pq = Kd . qc .  f

where

Pq= the additional soil pressure due to the surface load qc. It is assumed to
act at ⅟₂h below ground level.

f = the partial safety coefficient for the surface load qc

qc= the characteristic value of the surface load.

If the ground is loaded with a concentrated load Qc , the following pressure

should be added to Ps to obtain the total pressure P:

PQ = Kd . Qc .  f

Where

PQ = additional soil pressure due to the surface load Qc. It is assumed to act
at a distance d below ground level and in a total horizontal length d along
the structure, where d is the horizontal distance between the wall and the
surface load.

f = the partial safety coefficient for the surface load Qc

Qc = the characteristic value of the surface load.

23
If the ground is not drained, and the structure is loaded with water
pressure from ground water, the following pressure should be added to Ps
to obtain the total pressure P:

Pw = (1-Kd) .  w . hw2 .  f

where Pw = the addition pressure due to the ground water (water

pressure minus up-thrust pressure of the soaked soil).

The pressure is assumed to be acting at hw/3 above the

bottom of the structure.

 w = the unit weight of water = 10 kN/m3

hw = the height of the water table above the bottom of the structure

f = the partial safety coefficient for water pressure = 1.2

Qc qc

d h
PQ 2 2h
G.W.
Pq Ps 3
hw Pw
hw
3
Fig. 3.3.4 Calculation of soil pressure

Total pressure P = Pq + PQ + Ps + Pw

If the structure position is fixed, the shear strength of the soil will not be
activated, and the earth pressure will be higher. The pressure can be

24
calculated as shown above by increasing the coefficient for design soil
pressure by 50%.

If the ground slopes toward the structures, the values of Kd should be

increased by 10% if the slopes is 1:6 and by 20% if the slope is 1:3.

4. VARIABLE LOADS

4.1. Service Loads

4.1.1. General
If the characteristics values are not being determined by statistical
methods according to the definition of characteristic loads, the values in
chapter 4.1.2-4.1.6 may be applied.

Service loads may be regarded as static loads unless otherwise is stated.

4.1.2. Vertical Loads from people, furniture, fittings and equipment

The characteristic values of vertical loads (uniformly distributed, due to
people, furniture, fittings, and equipment) are given in the table below.

Table 4.1.2.1 Characteristic values for imposed loads (BS 6399).

Premises Distributed
(floors and roofs) load
qc (kN/m2)
All Premises in residential buildings 1.5

Bedroom and staffrooms in hospitals, 2.0

dispensaries, nurseries
Offices, reception and classrooms 2.0
in schools
Terraces and roof retraces 2.0

Balconies 3.0

25
Shops 3.0

Kitchens, and laundries in hotels and 3.0

institutions
Theatres, Cinemas etc. with fixed 4.0
seating
Assembly rooms and halls without 5.0
fixed seating
Factory halls, workshops, storage
rooms, Libraries etc. must be
designed for the actual characteristic 4.0
loads, and not less than

Flat roof, slope less than 1:5 0.7

Sloping roof, slope more than 1:5 0.5

Sloping light-weight roof, slope 0.2

more than1:5

Roof with access 1.5

Roof without access 0.75

When designing loads carrying walls, column and foundations in

multistoried residential or office buildings, the loads in table 4.1.2.1 may
be reduced according to the following rules:

Allowed reduction in % of the value given in Table 4.1.2.1

Table 4.1.2.2 Reduction of service loads in multistoried buildings

(BS 6399)
Number of floors with Reduction in total
loads qualifying for distributed imposed load
reduction on all floors
carried by member carried by the member
26
under consideration under consideration %
1 0
2 10
3 20
4 30
5 to 10 40
over 10 50 max

The total calculated reduction must not exceed 50% of the total loads on
any load carrying component. The reduction does not apply to floors
intended for storage.

4.1.3. Concentrated loads

Floors, staircases and terraces etc. must be designed to carry one
concentrated load not less than 1.5 kN.
This load should be assumed to cover a circular area with diameter 25
mm.
Roofs must be designed to carry one concentrated load of not less than
0.75kN. This load should be assumed to cover a circular area with
diameter 50mm.

Concentrated loads should not be combined with other variable loads.

4.1.4. Loads on handrails

The characteristics value of horizontal and vertical loads or handrails of
stairs, balconies and terraces in residences and offices is 0.4 kN/m.

Where a crowd may be expected gather, the load should be assumed to be

0.8 kN/m or more

4.1.5. Services loads from heavy machinery and equipment

Vibrations, dynamic loads and concentrated loads may occur due to the
specials activities and fittings. The maximum values of the loads must be

27
determined, and the structure must be designed to carry the determined
loads.

Special literature may be used for calculating these loads.

4.1.6. Service Loads from stored materials, goods and masses

Stored materials, goods and masses may cause contracted and distributed
loads, vertical and horizontal loads. The effect of friction forces must be
considered. Tensile forces in the floor under stored mass must also be
considered.

Special literature may be used for calculating these loads.

4.1.7. Service Loads from vehicles

The characteristic loads are determined from the heaviest vehicles which
may enter the structure.

Both maximum loads from the wheels (concentrated loads) and a

uniformly distributed load should be considered. For vehicles weighing
less than 25 kN, the uniform load should be assumed to be 2.5 kN/m2 and
the wheels not less than 7.5 kN each. The area of contact for each wheel
should be assumed equal to 100mm x 100mm. Floors in garages and
multistoried car parks may normally be assumed subjected to this load.

For vehicles weighing more than 25 kN, special literature should be

consulted.

The loads should be assumed acting on the area which is accessible to the
vehicles. The concentrated loads are to be placed in the most unfavorable
positions within the area and with distances which correspond to the
position of the wheels.

Horizontal forces due to impact from small accidents may be assumed to

be 20% of the total weight of the vehicle.

28
Larger impact forces may be regarded as accidental loads.

4.2. Wind Loads

4.2.1. General
This chapter gives methods for calculating characteristic values for static
wind loads on buildings and structures.

4.2.2. Design wind pressure

The design wind pressure may be calculated as follows:

qd =⅟2  . vd2
where vd = design wind speed(m/s) given in 4.2.3
 = the density of air (Kg/m3)
For computing the design wind pressure the following approximation may
be used:
qd= 0.613 vd2 (N/m2)


The density of air may be calculated from
p TO
 = o
po T
where o  1.3Kg / m3
Po  760mmHg
To  273 o K
P= actual pressure
T= actual temperature

29
4.2.3. Design wind speed

The design wind speed is dependent on the geographical situation, the

nature of the surroundings, and the height above the ground and are
described in [15] as S1, S2 and S3 such that

vd = vb x S1 x S2 x S3
vb = basic wind speed as discussed in 4.2.4
S1-3 are obtained from [15] and defined as follows:

S1 = the topography factor

S2 = factor for ground roughness, building size and height above the
ground

S3 = factor for the degree of security and exposure period to wind


Sometimes referred to as the effective wind speed
30
4.2.4. Basic wind speed
The basic wind speeds for major stations Tanzania was obtained from a
study of evaluating parent records of maximum monthly wind speeds and
is given in the map of Fig. 4.2.4 and in Table 4.2.4

Lake
Nyasa
Nyasa

Figure 4.2.4: Map of Tanzania showing basic wind

speed in m/s at major stations as obtained in [16]

31
 Table 4.2.4: Basic wind speed
S/N Station Basic wind speed
in m/s
1 Arusha 31
2 Bukoba 48
3 Dar es Salaam 27
4 Dodoma 36
5 Iringa 29
6 Kigoma 48
7 Mbeya 41
8 Morogoro 42
9 Moshi 35
10 Musoma 29
11 Mtwara 38
12 Mwanza 29
13 Shinyanga 46
14 Songea 34
15 Sumbawanga 34
16 Tabora 33
17 Tanga 30
18 Zanzibar 29

4.2.5. Equivalent Static Wind loads

The static wind loads on different parts of building and structures, may be
derived from

qs=µ . qd

Where µ is the shape factor according to section 4.2.6.

The shape factors normally vary from + 2. 0 (suction) to – 2. 0 (pressure)

according to the shape of the structure and the direction of the wind.

32
4.2.6. Shape factors

4.2.6.1. General
Shape factors for wind pressures may be determined either through full
scale tests or model testing.

The shape factors given in this chapter are the most commonly needed
ones. Additional information may be obtained from special literature on
the subject.

4.2.6.2. Internal wind loads

Closed structures, with or without openings, shall be designed for the
following shape factors for internal wind loads acting simultaneously
with external wind loads. Openings in closed structures may be doors,
openable windows or ventilation holes at the foot of the roof

Alt. 1 Alt. 2
Structure Wind Shape Wind Shape
Direction factors Direction factors
Heavily
ventilated 0.7 0.5
on one side pressure suction

Heavily
ventilated 0.3 0.3
on two pressure suction
adjacent sides

Heavily
ventilated 0.0 0.5
on two pressure suction
opposite sides
.
Heavily
ventilated 0.3 0.3
on three sides pressure suction

33
 Heavily
ventilated 0.3 0.3
all sides suction suction

Fig. 4.2.6.2 Internal wind loads

4.2.6.3. External wind loads

These factors are valid independent of the type of the roof.

On the lee side, the shape factor is equal to 0.9 for secondary parts of the
structure.

The total wind loads on any external wall are sum of both internal and
external loads.

Special attention should be paid when designing anchorage for roofing

materials along the edges of the roof where the wind loads are
considerably higher than in the areas further in.

h
b Wind
1.1 suc direction
0.6 suc 0.7 press
0.7 1.1 suc 1.1 suc
press Ld
Wind 0.5
direction suc
0.6 0.6
suc suc
0.5 suc
1.1 suc0.6 suc
Ld L d= b/2 or h/2 whichever
is smaller

Fig . 4. 2. 6. 3 shape factors for external wind loads on external walls

34
Ld is the smaller of the two values b/₂ and h/₂,

Where b = the shorter of the horizontal

dimensions of the structure
h = the height of the wall

4.2.6.4. Gabled roofs

Shape factors for gabled roofs are dependent on the roof slope  as well
as the wind direction as described in Fig. 4.2.6.4

Table 4.2.6.4 Shape factors for gabled roofs dependent on Fig. 4.2.6.4
Load Wind towards long façade
area tan  ≤ 0 .3 0.3 tan <  ≤ 0.6

Alt. 1 Alt. 2
A 2.0 suction 0.7 suction 0.2 pressure
B 1.5 suction 0.7 suction 0.2 pressure
C 1.0 suction 0.7 suction 0.2 pressure
D 0.5 suction 0.5 suction 0.5 suction
Load Wind toward long façade
area
0.6 <tan  ≤ 1.0 tan  > 1.0
A 0.4 Pressure 0.7 pressure
B 0.4 pressure 0.7 pressure
C 0.4 pressure 0.7 pressure
D 0.5 suction 0.5 suction
Load Wind towards gable
Area tan  ≤ 0.2 0.2 ≤ tan  ≤ 0.4
E 2.0 Suction 1.0 suction
F 1.0 suction 1.0 suction
G 0.5 suction 1.5 suction

35
 0.1b

0.5b A

Wind B
D
direction C h
Ridge
β
A
b
L
0.5b
0.1b Ridge

E F G
Wind
direction E F G

Fig. 4.2.6.4 Shape factors for gabled roofs

The shape factors given in Fig. 4.2.6.4 are valid when

(I) b < L

(II) b/₃ ≤ hw ≥ 3 L

Where L = length of the roof along the top ridge

b = horizontal Projection of the width of the roof

4.2.6.5. Shed roofs

The shape factors given in Fig. 4.2.6.5 are valid when
I) b < L
II) tan  < 0.4
III) b/₃ ≤ hw ≥ 3 L
where L = length of the roof
b = horizontal projection of the width of the roof.

36
Table 4.2.6.5 Shape factors for shed roofs dependent on Fig. 4.2.6.5
Load Wind toward high façade
area
tan  ≤ 0.1 0.1< tan  ≤ 0.4
A 2.0 suction 2.0 suction
B 1.5 suction 1.2.-1.4 tan β suction
C 1.0 suction 1.2.-1.4 tan β suction
D 0.5 suction 0.5 suction
Load Wind toward low façade
area
tan  ≤ 0.1 0.1< tan ≤ 0.4
A 2.0 suction 1.3-2.6 tan β suction
B 1.5 suction 1.3-2.6 tan β suction
C 1.0 suction 1.3-2.6 tan β suction
D 0.5 suction 0.7-1.4 tan β suction
Load Wind towards low gable
area
tan  ≤ 1.0 0.1< tan ≤ 0.4
E 2.0 suction 1.0 suction
F 1.0suction 1.0 suction
G 0.5 suction 1.5suction

0.1b

0.5b A
Wind B D
direction C hw β
A L
0.5b b
0.1b
Wind E
G b
direction F

Fig. 4.2.6.5 Shape factors for shed roofs

37
 4.2.6.6. Horizontal and arched roofs
The shape factors given in Fig.4.2.6.6.a are valid for horizontal roofs when:
(I) b< L
(II) tan β = 0

(III) b/10 < h <3 L

Where b,  and h are shown on the figure below.

h h
L
b
a2
a1 b L

a2 For h<b/3: a1 = 0.5b and a2 = 0.1b

Wind For h>b/3: a1 = 1.5h and a2 = 0.3h
direction µ = 0.5 suction
µ = 1.0 suction
µ = 1.5 suction
µ = 2.0 suction
Fig. 4.2.6.6.a Shape factors for horizontal roofs

The shape factors given in Fig. 4.2.6.6.b are valid for circular arched roof
structures when
b < 3hw

h  hw
 0.1
b
Where b, h and hw are shown on the figure.

38
 h  hw
If  0.1 then the shape factors for gable roofs should be used
b
2h  hw 
assuming tan  
b

h
hw

b
0.9 + h - hw suction
b
0.7 pressure 0.5 suction

Wind o
direction  α = 40
tan α = 0.8

1.5 suction 1.0 suction

0.1b 0.5b 0,5 suction

Wind
direction

Fig. 4.2.6.6.b Shape factors for circular arched roofs

4.2.6.7. Multiple gabled and saw roofs

The shape factors given in fig.4.2.6.7. a are valid for multiple gabled roofs
when
(I) b <3hw
(II) tan  > 0. 4

39
Where b,  and hw are given on the figure
In addition to the evenly distributed loads, the area  x width of the roof
should be considered as a rough plain surface with a shape factor  = 0.1
for tangential wind loads. These loads act along the foot of the roof.

b
β β
hw

µ is the same as for windward side of gable roof

0.5 suction

Wind
direction

Fig. 4.2.6.7a Shape factors for multiple gabled roofs

For wind parallel to the ridge, a suction of  = 1.0 acts on an area with a
width of b/2 on the windward side of the roof edge and suction of  = 0.5
on the remaining part of the roof.
The shape factors given in Fig. 4.2.6.7.b are valid for saw roofs when

1 = 30 0 (approximately)
2 = 60 0 (approximately)

Where 1 and 2 are given on the figure.

For tangential wind loads on the wind side of the roof, the some shape
factors as for multiple gabled roofs shall be used.

40
 b
2
1

0.7 pressure 0.7 suction

1.5 suction
µ = 0.5 suction

Wind
dir.
μ is the same as for windward side of gable roof
0.5 suction 0.7 suction

µ
Wind
dir.

Fig. 4.2.6.7b Shape factors for saw roofs

4.2.6.8. Independent roofs

These factors are valid when there is a free passage between the ground
surface and the roof. It is assumed that the free height under the roof is at
least half the horizontal projection of the width of the roof.

The angle  is always positive.

Shape factor is given as the sum of the shape factors for the two surfaces
of the roof. The wind load is assumed to be perpendicular to the surface of
the roof.

41
 Roof type Slope/alt Windward side Lee side

Gable roof 0 ≤ tan  ≤ 0.3  =1.0+2tan  dow  = 1.0 up

n
alt. 1  = 1.0 up
 =1.0 - 2 tan  up
β
0.3 ≤ tan  ≤ 0.5  = 1.0 + 2 tan   =2.5 - 5 tan  up
down
alt. 1  =2.5 - 5 tan  up
 =1.0 - 2 tan  up
alt. 2

tan  < 0.5

both alternatives
 = 2.0 down  = 0.0

Upside down 0 ≤ tan  ≤ 0.3  =1.0+2tan   = 1.0 down

gable roof down
β alt. 1  = 1.0 down
 =1.0-2 tan  up
alt. 2

0.3 ≤ tan  ≤ 0.5  =1.0+2tan   =2.5-5tan  down

down
alt. 1  =2.5-5tan  down
 =1.0-2 tan  up
alt. 2

tan  < 0.5

both alternatives
 = 2.0 up  = 0.0

42
 Shed roof 0≤ tan  ≤ 0.2 Wind type A Wind type B
A
Wind β alt. 1 2.0 tan β
direction
alt. 2 2.0
tan β
B β
2.0 tan β
Wind 2.0 tan β
direction

0≤ tan  ≤ 2.0 2.0 tan β

both alternatives 2.0
tan β

tan  ≤ 2.0
both alternatives
 = 2.0 up  = 2.0 down

Fig. 4.2.6.8 Shape factors for independent roofs

4.2.6.9. Chimneys, towers and poles

Shape factors for chimneys and towers of rectangular sections with the
wind perpendicular to one side with length b and for different values of
side lengths ratios a/b are given in Table 4.2.6.9.a

43
Table 4.2.6.9.a Resulting shape factors for rectangular chimneys,
towers and poles
a/b 
≤1 2.0 a
Wind
direction b
1–5 2.2 – 0.2 a/b
a
Wind b
direction
>5 1.2

The wind load is lower near the top. Within the length 3b from the top, the
given shape factors may be multiplied by 0.6.

Shape factors for circular bars are given in Table 4.2.5.9.b

The shape factors are valid for the component of the wind load in the
direction of the wind. The bars projection area, perpendicular to the
direction of the wind is used when calculating the wind loads.

Wind loads on bars with circular section depend on Reynolds constant

(Re) and the roughness of the surface.

Reynolds constant may be calculated as

Re =0.67 . 105 . v . d

where v = the wind velocity in m /s

d = the diameter in mm

The roughness of circular cross-sections may be calculated as

 = (rmax-rmin) /d
44
Where rmax = the maximum radius of the bar
rmin = the minimum radius
d = the diameter

Table 4.2.5.9.b Resulting shape factors for circular bars

Reynold No. Surface
Re roughness
μ
rmax - rmin

< 5 *10-3 1.2

≤ 5*105 > 5*10-3 1.4

≤ 0.2 *10-3 0.6

> 5*105 0.4*10-3 0.7

0.8*10-3 0.8

1.5*10-3 0.9

2.5*10-3 1.0

4.0*10-3 1.1

9.0*10-3 1.2


The rmax and rmin shall be measured with respect to the rough, uneven
texture of the surface

45
Dynamic vibration or oscillations of slender structures and components
may occur due to wind action, and should be controlled according to
special literature.

5. ACCIDENTAL LOADS

5.1 Cyclone wind

5.1.1. General
Design in the ultimate limit state for cyclone wind only apply to structures
where failure consequences are graded as very serious and when these
structures are situated within 200km from the coast.

Cyclone winds occur only in the coastal areas of Tanzania. According to

experience, the frequency is ranging from approximately once in ten years
in the southern parts of the coast to once in a hundred years in the
northern parts.

The cyclone may retain wind speeds of 50-60 m/s at 10m height.

However, the area affected by this speed is limited to a width of not less
than 20km along the track of the cyclone centre. The cyclone may reach
inland areas as far as 200km from the coastline, though with a declining
strength as it moves from the coast.

5.1.2. Design wind speed for cyclone wind

The design wind speed shall be calculated from the formula

vc=55/3(log10 h+2)

Where vc = the design wind speed in m/s for cyclone wind at the height h
above ground level

h= the height in m above ground level

46
For densely built areas (e.g. cities) the design wind speed may be reduced
to 80% of the values obtained from the formula above, if the building is
less than 20m high.

5.1.3. Dynamic pressure and equivalent static wind loads.

The dynamic pressure and static wind loads may be calculated as stated in
the chapter 4.2.2 and 4.2.3. The calculated loads shall be based on the
characteristic wind speed for cyclones in chapter 5.1.2.

5.2 Load action during fire

5.2.1 General
The load action during fire consists of two basic elements, the permanent
and variable loads as described in chapter 3 and 4 in this guideline and
effect of temperature increase on load carrying structures.

This chapter deals only with the development of temperature during fire
with respect to the load carrying capacity of structure. The design load
combinations are calculated from chapter 2.2 using ultimate limit state,
load combination F.

Ultimate limit state design for fire, only apply to structures where failure
consequences are graded as very serious.

5.2.2 Fire resistance and design methods

Generally, the required fire resistance in terms of time for buildings and
components are given in the building regulations. The method of design
may either be based on fire testing of structures and components or by
calculation.

The fire testing methods are based on material studies during and after
the fire testing of the structure or the component in an oven according to

47
internationally accepted test methods . The time–temperature shall vary
according to the following formula

Tt – T0 = 1325 -430 -0.26 – 270e -1.7t -6252 -19t

Where Tt , 0 = the temperature in Co in the oven at the time t and 0

respectively
t = the time in hours

Design calculations, however, shall be based on the time – temperature

development according to chapter 5.2.3. The design of structures and
components shall be based on the use of standard structural analysis, and
strength and deformation properties according to the calculated
development of temperature as in chapter 5.3.2.

5.2.3 Time temperature curves for structural design

For ventilation controlled fire development, the temperature development
within any fire cell may be calculated from the latent fire energy intensity,
f, for each fire cell and ventilation factor K.

The temperatures for various energy intensities, f, and ventilation factors,

K , are given in figure 5.2.3.

48
Fig. 5.2.3 Time temperature curves for fire cells

49
The ventilation factor K is calculated from the formula

1
K  Av .h / At
2

where K = the ventilation factor (dimension m1/2)

Av = the total area of openings (windows, doors, etc.)
h = the significant height calculated as
∑Ai hi /∑Ai = h

where Ai = the area of each opening i

hi = the height dimension of each opening i respectively
At = the total surface area of the fire cell (floor, ceiling and walls,
including openings)

For values of the ventilation factor K which lie outside the range

0.01 m1/2 ≤ K ≤ 0.12 m1/2

this method of calculating the temperature development does not apply.

The fire intensity, f for each fire cell, shall be calculated from the formula

f = (m1 q1 + m2 q2 +m3 q3 + ………..)/At

where f = the energy intensity in MJ/m2

m1,2 = the mass of any combustible materials within the fire cell
which may contribute to the total energy release

q1,2 = the latent energy 1, 2, 3, ……..respectively according to Table

5.2.3.a

At = the total surface area of the fire cell (floor, ceiling and walls,
including openings)

50
All combustible materials, within the cell and within enveloping
structures, shall be included in the calculation above. Table 5.2.3.a and
Table 5.2.3.b give appropriate values for energy densities of materials and
approximate values of energy intensities in some premises respectively.

For fire developments, which are not ventilation controlled, special

literature should be consulted.

Table 5.2.3.a Energy densities q of materials in MJ/Kg

Material, commodities, etc. q (MJ/kg)
Building materials
Asphalt 40
Wood, timber 17-20
Cork 35
Straw 17
Paper 16-18
Plastics
ABS 40
Epoxy 34
Polyester 30
Polyetylen 47
Polystyren 42

Stored goods and commodities

Cotton 18
Cellulose 15
Fat 40
Cooking oil 40
Clothes 17-21
Rubber 30
Leather 20
Charcoal 30
Petrol 44
Kerosene 41
Diesel 41

51
Table 5.2.3.b Some approximate energy intensities, f, in MJ/m 2 for
some types of premises
Type of premises f (MJ/Kg)

Residences, flats 100

Offices 120

Schools and 60
universities

Hospitals 100

Hotels 70

5.3 Earthquake loads

5.3.1 General
Where earthquake design of structures is required, earthquake loads shall
either be determined by the rules given in this chapter or by accurate
dynamic analysis of the structure provided the horizontal ground
acceleration used is not less than given in the map in figure 5.3.3.

Ultimate limit state design for earthquake loads only apply to structures
where failure consequences are graded as very serious

Earthquake induces vibrations and oscillations in structures which cause

stresses in the structural components

The magnitude of these stresses depends on several factors.

- the magnitude, direction and durability of the earthquake movements
- the behaviour of the soil under and close to the foundations
- the dynamic response of the structure (period of oscillation, rigidity,
ductility, weight, dimensions and shape of the structure)

52
- permanent loads, service loads and other loads acting on the structure
simultaneously
- the influence of direct or indirect contact with neighbouring structures

5.3.2 Direction and durability of earthquake forces

The forces calculated from chapter 5.3.3 should be assumed to be static
and acting in any horizontal direction.

Independent design considering loads acting parallel to both horizontal

main axes of the structure, may normally be assumed adequate.

5.3.3 Design values for lateral earthquake loads

The total static loads assumed to be equivalent to the dynamic earthquake
loads shall be calculated from the formula

Vd = ka . ks . kn . ki . kf . Wd

where Vd = the design equivalent static load

Wd= the total design load of the structure

including service loads according to
load combination E in chapter 2. 2

ka = the design ground acceleration factor

in the seismic risk map of Tanzania,
on Figure 5.3.3

ks = the structural response factor which is equal

1

to 0.5 T where T is the fundamental period of oscillation of
3

the structure as calculated from chapter 5.3.4

kn = the horizontal force factor. Appropriate

values are given in Table 5.3.3

53
 ki = the building importance factor
ki= 1. 0 for other structures than mentioned below

ki = 1.3 for all buildings which shall be designed for

post disaster service ability, such as
buildings for water supply, electric power,
telecommunication, food –stores, and other
buildings for emergency use
ki = 1.5 for hospitals and buildings with special risks,
such as storages for poisonous chemicals and
inflammable liquids

kf = the foundation factor. The value should be equal to 1.0 when the
foundation rests on rock or very firm soil. For soft fine – grained soil,
the value 1.5 should be used. (A more correct value for kf may be
obtained if the dynamic shear properties of the particular soil in
question are tested)

54
Fig. 5.3.3 Seismic risk map of Tanzania

55
Table 5.3.3. The horizontal force factor kn. The factor reflects the manner in
which structures resist earthquake forces and the ductility of the material
used
Description of structures kn

Building with a ductile moment resisting space

frame with capacity to resist the total lateral loads 0.7
independently

Building with a ductile moment resisting space

frame with capacity to resist at least 25% of the
total lateral loads. The building should in addition
0.8
consist of shear walls with a total capacity to
resist the total lateral loads independently of the
space frame

Building with ductile framing or ductile shear

walls different from other structures described
1.0
elsewhere in this table with a sufficient capacity
of the framing or walls to resist the lateral loads

Building with shear walls consisting of reinforced

concrete, reinforced masonry or structural steel, 1.3
or a combination of these materials

Building of unreinforced masonry 2.0

Elevated tanks or stores (with contents) with

3.0
cross-braced legs


Steel and reinforced concrete (not pre-stressed) may be regarded as
ductile materials
56
5.3.4 Fundamental period of oscillation, T
The period of oscillation in the direction considered, shall be determined
according to the formula

1
T  0.09hn  d 2

where T = the fundamental period of oscillation

in seconds
hn = height in metres from the foundation to the top of the main
portion of the structure
d = total depth of the building in the direction of the lateral
forces considered.
If the building consists of an independent ductile moment resisting space
frame, which is designed to carry the total lateral load, the period of
oscillation may be calculated as

T = 0 .10 N

where T = the fundamental period of oscillation in

seconds
N = the total number of storeys above ground
level.

5.3.5 Distribution of lateral loads

The total equivalent static design load Vd shall be distributed according to
the following rules:

a) A portion Vt shall be assumed to be concentrated

at the top of the structure

Vt = 0.004 . (hn /ds )2 . Vd

where Vt = the concentrated lateral top load . Vt

may be neglected if ds is more than

57
 60% of hn
hn = height in metres from the
foundation to the top of the main
portion of the structure
ds = the dimension of the lateral load carrying
system in metres in a direction parallel to the lateral load.
Vd = the total equivalent static design load.

Vt shall not be considered to be more than 15% of V.

b) The remainder shall be distributed along the height of the building

according to the formula

Vx = (Wx . hx / ∑Wi . hi) . Vr

where Vx = the lateral load acting on level x

Vr = Vd – Vt = the remainder

Wx,i = the portion of the total design load

Wd which is located at level x or i
respectively
hx,i = the height in metres from the
foundation to level x or i respectively.

The total shear in any horizontal section shall be distributed to the various
elements of the lateral force resisting system in proportion to their
rigidities.

For building with one or two storeys, the lateral force Vr shall be
considered uniformly distributed throughout the height.

5.3.6 Lateral loads on parts of buildings

Parts of buildings (partition wall, cladding, parapets, chimneys, tanks etc.)
and their anchorages shall be designed to resist the lateral loads obtained
from the formula
Vpd = ka . kp . Wpd

58
where Vpd = the design value of the lateral loads
acting on the part considered
ka = the design ground acceleration factor
given in the seismic risk map of
Tanzania, figure 5.3.3
Kp = the partial horizontal force factor for the
part considered according to table 5.3.6
Wpd = the design value of the weight of the part
considered.

Table 5.3.6 The horizontal force factor, kp

Part of building Direction
kp
of force
All external and internal walls Normal to
2
face

Floors and roofs acting as

Any 1
diaphragms

Cantilever parapets and similar Normal to

10
wall other than retaining walls face

Internal and external ornaments

Any 10
and appendages

Towers, tanks (incl. contents),

chimneys, pent houses and other Any 2
structures on roofs

Tanks (incl. contents) when resting

Any 1
on ground

Connections for external walls and

elements not forming part of the Any 2
main structural system

59
5.3.7 Overturning moment
The overturning moment at the base or at any other level of the structure
is calculated from the lateral force Vt and the distributed load Vx. The
moment shall be multiplied by a reduction coefficient

ᵠx = αx + 0.6 (1-αx ). T -1/3

Where ᵠx = the reduction coefficient at level x.

Values of ᵠx greater than 1.0 are not
applicable
T = the fundamental period of oscillation
of the total structure as calculated in
seconds from chapter 5.3.4
αx = hx3/hn 3 where hx is the height in
metres from the foundations to
level x, and hn is the height in
metres from the foundations to the
top of the main portion of the
structure.

5.3.8 Torsional eccentricity and set-back portions

Torsional moments about a vertical axis shall be computed for each
storey. The eccentricity which shall be used for detailed design purposes
shall be 1.5 times the computed eccentricity and increased by 5% of the
plan dimension dn of the building in the direction of the computed
eccentricity.

When the total torsional eccentricity as computed above exceeds 25% of

dn, torsional moments should be doubled if not a more accurate dynamic
structural analysis is made.

Building with set –back storeys (tower) where the plan dimension are not
less than 75% of the plan dimensions of the portion below may be
considered as a uniform building . If the dimensions are less than 75%, the
60
set–back portion shall be designed as a separate structure using the
largest loads obtained either from considering the set-back portion as a
separate structure or considering it as a part of the total structure.

The resulting total shear from the set–back portion shall be applied at the
top of the lower portion. The lower portion may otherwise be designed as
a separate building.

5.3.9 Differential movements

Where partitions or elements are separated from the load carrying
framework, the parts should be separated at an adequate distance to
prevent pounding.

Adjacent structures should also be separated by adequate distance to

prevent pounding. Whenever connecting of structures is unavoidable, the
mass, rigidity, strength, ductility and differential motion of the connection
and the structures shall be taken into account when calculating the
reciprocal loads due to differential movements.

A more accurate dynamic analysis should be preferred for design of

connected structures.

61
REFERENCES
1. General principles on reliability for structural design. Published by
joint committee on structural safety of CEB – CECM – CIB – FIP – IABSE.
1978.

CIB , International council for Building Research, Rotterdam.

CEB , Euro-International committee for concrete.

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FIP ,International federation for pre-stressing.

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Erik and THOR, Jorgen. Fire engineering
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earthquake areas in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam 1978. Stencil.

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14. BUILDING AND ROAD INSTITUTE. Ghana building code, chapter 3.11:
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Loading – Part 2. Wind Loads: 1972

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wind speeds in Tanzania, Uhandisi Journal 16, 1992, University of Dar
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and imposed loads

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