3 A

Training Notes
Module 3a
Electrical Fundamentals
Module 3. Electrical Fundamental
CONTENT
Electron Theory 3.1
Static Electricity and conduction 3.2
Electrical Terminology 3.3
Generation of electricity 3.4
DC source of electricity 3.5
DC circuits 3.6
Resistance/resistor 3.7
Power 3.8
Capacitance/Capacitor 3.9
Magnetism 3.10
Inductance/Inductor 3.11
DC Motor/Generator Theory 3.12
AC theory 3.13
Resistive (R), Capacitive (C), and Inductive (L) Circuits 3.14
Transformers 3.15
Filters 3.16
AC generator 3.17
AC Motor 3.18
Page 1 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

TABLE OF CONTENT
Topics Page
Electron Theory 4 – 7
Static Electricity and conduction 8 – 11
Electrical Terminology 12 – 16
Generation of electricity 17 – 24
DC source of electricity 25 – 46
DC circuits 47 – 61
Resistance/resistor 62 – 84
Power 85 – 91
Capacitance/Capacitor 92 – 105
Magnetism 106 - 129
STUDY RESOURCES
Jeppesen General
Jeppesen Airframe
AC 43.13-1B/ AC 43.13-2A Combined – Aircraft Inspection and Repair

Aircraft Maintenance Technician’s Hand book Volume I and II

1. ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTAL
3.1: Electron Theory

Atomic Structure (INTRODUCTION)
 According to the modern theory, matter is electrical in nature. All materials are composed of very small
particles called atoms.
 These atoms are building bricks of all matter.
 An atom consists of central nucleus of positive charge around which small negatively charged particles
called electrons revolve in different paths or orbits.
Structure of Atom
Atom consist of two parts mainly:

1. NUCLEUS: It is central part of an atom and contains protons and neutrons. A proton is a positively
charged particle whereas neutron has no charge but same mass as that of proton.
Therefore, the nucleus of an atom is positively charged and the sum of proton and neutron constitute
entire weight of an atom and is called as Atomic Weight as the particles in the extranucleus (electrons)
have negligible weight as compared to protons and neutrons.
Atomic weight=No. of protons + No. of neutrons
2. It is outer part of an atom and contains electron only which is negatively charged particle having negligible
mass. The charge on electron is equal and opposite to that of proton. An atom is considered to be neutral
as no. of electrons is equal to no. of proton
Atomic Number = No. of protons or electrons
The electron in an atom revolve around the nucleus in different paths or orbit and the arrangement of electron in
any orbit is given by 2n2 where n is the no. of orbit.
Eg: 1 st orbit has 2 x 12= 2 e-
2nd orbit has 2 x 2 2= 8 e-
3rd orbit has 3 x 2 2 = 18 e- and so on
Note: the last orbit cannot have more than 8 electrons and the last but one orbit cannot have more than 18
electrons.

Structure of elements
We have seen that all atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons. The difference between various types
of elements is to due to the different number and arrangement of these particles within their atoms. For example,
the structure of copper atom is different from that of carbon atom and hence the two elements have different
properties.
The atomic structure can be easily built up if we know the atomic weight and atomic number of the element. Thus
taking the case of copper atom,
Atomic weight = 64
Atomic number = 29
No. of protons = No. of electrons = 29
And No. of neutrons = 64-29=35
Fig. 1.1 shows the structure of copper atom. It has 29 electrons which are arranged in different orbits as follows.
The first orbit will have 2 electrons, the second 8 electrons, the third 18 electrons and the fourth orbit will have 1
electron. The atomic structure of all known elements can be shown in this way and the reader is advised to try for
a few commonly used elements.
Figure 1.1
Compound
A compound is a chemical combination of two or more elements. Water is one of the most common compounds
and is made up of two hydrogen atoms and oxygen atom.

Figure 1.2
The Molecule
The smallest particle of matter that can exist and still retain is identity, such as water (H2O) is called a molecule.
A molecule of water is illustrated in Figure 1.2. Substances composed of only one type of atom are called
elements. But most substances occur in nature as compounds, that is combination of two or more types of atoms.
It would no longer retain the characteristics of water if it were compounded of one atom of hydrogen and two
atoms of oxygen. If a drop of water is divided in two and then divided again and again until it cannot be divided
any longer, it will still be water.
Valence Electrons
Valence is the number of chemical bonds an atom can form. Valence electrons are electrons that can participate
in chemical bonds with other atoms. The number of electrons in the outermost shell of the atom is the determining
factor in its valence. Therefore, the electrons contained in this shell are called valence electrons.
Ions
Ionization is the process by which an atom loses or gains electrons. Dislodging an electron from an atom will
cause the atom to become positively charged. This net positively charged atom is called a positive ion or a cation.
An atom that has gained and extra number of electrons is negatively charged and is called a negative ion or an
anion. When atoms are neutral, the positively charged proton and the negatively charged electron are equal.
Figure 1.3

Molecular Structure
1. Conductors
Elements such as gold, copper and silver possess many free electrons and make good conductors. The
atoms in these materials have a few loosely bound electrons in their outer orbits. Energy in the form of
heat can cause these electrons in their outer orbit to break loose and drift throughout the material. Copper
and silver have one electron in their outer orbits. At room temperature, a piece of silver wire will have
billions of free electrons.
2. Insulators
These are materials that do not conduct electrical current very well or not at all. Good examples of these
are: glass, ceramic, and plastic. Under normal conditions, atoms in these materials do not produce free
electrons. The absence of the free electrons means that electrical current cannot be conducted through the
material. Only when the material is in an extremely strong electrical field will the outer electrons be
dislodged. This action is called breakdown and usually causes physical damage to the insulator.
3. Semiconductors
This material falls in between the characteristics of conductors and insulators, in that they are not good at
conducting or insulting. Silicon and germanium are the most widely used semiconductor materials.

3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction
1. Static electricity
Electricity is often described as being either static or dynamic. The difference between the two is based simply
on whether the electrons are at rest (static) or in motion (dynamic). Static electricity is a build-up of an electrical
charge on the surface of an object. It is considered “static” due to the fact that there is no current flowing as in
AC or DC electricity. Static electricity is usually caused when non-conductive material such as rubber, plastic
or glass are rubbed together, causing a transfer of electrons, which then results in an imbalance of charges
between the two materials. If there is an imbalance of charges between the two materials means that the objects
will exhibit an attractive or repulsive force.(fig 2.1)
2. Laws of Electrostatics
First law: Like charges of electricity repel each other, whereas unlike charges attract each other.
Second Law: According this law, the force exerted between two point charges (i) is directly proportional to the
product of their strengths of charge (ii) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
This law is known as Coulomb’s Law and can be expressed mathematically as: F= Q1Q2/ d2 or Q1Q2/ d2In
vector.
3. Attractive and Repulsive forces
One of the most fundamental laws of static electricity, as well as magnetic, deals with attraction and repulsion.
Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. All electrons possess a negative charge and
as such will repel each other. Similarly, all protons possess a positive charge and as such will repel each other.
Electrons (negative) and protons (positive) are opposite in their charge and will attract each other.
COULOMB OF CHARGE
Fig. 2.1

CO
Hence , one coulomb of charge may be defined as that charge which when placed in air (strictly vacuum) from
an equal and similar charge repels it with a force of 9*109N.
ELECTROSTATIC FIELD
A field of force exists around a charged body. This field is an electrostatic field (sometime called a dielectric
field) and is represented by lines extending in all directions from the charged body and terminating where there
is an equal and opposite charge.
Lines are used to represent the direction and intensity of the electric field to force. As illustrated in figure 2.2
the intensity of the field is indicated by the number of lines per unit area and the direction is shown by
arrowheads on the lines pointing in the direction in which a small test charge would move or tend to move if
acted upon by the field of force.
Either a positive or negative test charge can be used, but it has been arbitrarily agreed that a small positive
charge will always be used in determining the direction to the field. Thus, the direction of the field around a
positive charge is always away from the charge, as shown in figure 2.2 because a positive test charges would
be repelled. Om the other hand, the direction of the lines about a negative charge is toward the charge, since a
positive test charge is attracted toward it.
Figure 2.3 illustrates the field around bodies having like charges. Positive charge are shown, but regardless of
the type of charge, the lines of force would repel on material objects and always extend from a positive charge
to a negative charge.
In case of the charge on a hollow sphere,although the sphere is made of conducting material , the charge is
evenly distributed over the outside surface. The inner surface is completely neutral..
The distribution of the charge on an irregularly shaped object differs from that on regularly shaped object. In
this, the charge on such objects is not evenly distributed. The greatest charge is at the points, or areas of sharpest
curvature, of the objects.
Fig. 2.2 Direction of electric field around positive and negativce charges

Fig. 2.3 Field around two positively charged bodies
CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY IN SOLIDS , LIQUIDS AND A VACUUM
SOLIDS
Electric current is the movement of valence electrons. Conduction is the name of this process. Only metals
conduct electricity. Some conduct better than others.
The exception to this is graphite, (one of the forms of the element carbon). Carbon is a non-metal which exhibits
some electrical conductivity.
LIL LIQUIDS
The only liquid elements which conduct are the liquid metals. At room temperature liquid mercury is a
conductor. Other metals continue to conduct electricity when they are melted. Non – metals such as water,
alcohol, ethnic acid, prop none, hexane and so on, are all non-conductors of electricity.
However it is possible to make some non-conducting liquids conduct electricity, by a process called ionization.
Ionized substances are called ionic substances.
Ionic substance are made of charged particles- positive and negative ions. In the solid state they are held very
firmly in place in a lattice structure. In the solid state the ions cannot move about at all. When the ionic solid is
melted, the bonds holding the ions in place in the lattice are broken. The ions can then move around freely.
When an electric current is applied to an ionic melt the electricity is carried by the ions that are now able to
move. In an ionic melt the electric current is a flow of ions.
Taking water as an example. Remember firstly, that water is considered to be a non – conductor of electricity.
It can allow some electricity through it if a high voltage is applied to it. This is due to the presence of a minute
concentration oh H+ and OH- ions in the water. However, electrons cannot flow through water.

Covalent substances do not conduct at all in solution.
Ionic substance are able to conduct electricity when they are dissolved in water.
The reason lies again in the fact that ionic substances are made of charged particles. Ions. When the ionic solid
is dissolved in water the ionic breaks up and the ions become free to move around the ions the water. When
you pass electricity through the ionic solution , the ions are able to carry the electric current because of their
ability to move freely. A solution conducts by means of freely moving ions.
An electrolyte is a liquid which can carry an electric current through it. Ionic solute ions and ionic melts are all
electrolytes.
Electrolysis describes the process which takes place when an ionic solution or melt has electricity passed
through it.
GASES
A gas in its normal state is one of the best insulators known, however, in similar way as; liquid, it can be forced
to conduct electricity by ionization of the gas molecules. Ionization of the gas molecules can be effected by
extremely high voltages. For examples lightning, is electric current flowing through an ionized path through
air due to the huge electrical potential difference between the storm cloud and the ground.
Plasma is the state of matter where some of the electrons in a gas are stripped or “ionized” from their molecules
or atoms. A plasma can be formed by high temperature, or by application of a high electric or alternating
magnetic field as noted above. Due to their lower mass, the electrons in plasma accelerate more quickly in
response to an electric field than the heavier positive ions, and hence carry the bulk of the current.
VV VACUUM
It is a common belief that electricity cannot flow through a vacuum. This is however incorrect. Remember that
a conductor is “something through which electricity can flow,” rather than “something which contains movable
electricity.” A vacuum offers no blockage to moving charges. Should electrons be injected into a vacuum, the
electrons will flow uninhibited and unretarded. As such, a vacuum is an ideal conductor.
This fact is taken advantage of in many situations, from television to vacuum valves. A vacuum arc can arise
when the surfaces of metal electrodes in contact with a goof vacuum begin to emit electrons either through
heating or via an electric field that is sufficient to cause fields emission. Once initiated a vacuum arc can persists
since the freed particles gain kinetic energy from the electric field, heating the metal surfaces through high
speed particle collisions. This process can create an incandescent cathode spot which frees more particle thereby
sustaining the arc. At sufficiently high currents an incandescent anode spot may also be formed.
Electrical discharge in vacuum is important for certain types of vacuum tubes and for high voltage vacuum
switches.
Electrical bonding is the practice of intentionally electrically connecting all exposed metallic items not
designed to carry electricity in a room or building as protection from electric shock. If a failure of electrical
insulation occurs, all bonded metal objects in the room will have substantially the same electrical potential, so
that an occupant of the room cannot touch two objects with significantly different potentials. Even if the
connection to a distant earth ground is lost, the occupant will be protected from dangerous potential
d4tifferences.

3.3 Electrical Terminology
a. Potential Difference:
Voltage, electrical potential difference, electric tension or electric pressure (denoted ∆V or ∆U and measured in
units of electric potential: volts, or joules per coulomb) is the electric potential difference between two points, or
the difference in electric potential energy of a unit charge transported between two points. Voltage is equal to
the work done per unit charge against a static electric field to move the charge between two points. A voltage may
represent either a source of energy (electromotive force), or lost, used, or stored energy (potential drop).
A voltmeter can be used to measure the voltage (or potential difference) between two points in a system; often a
common reference potential such as the ground of the system is used as one of the points.
b. Electromotive force (voltage)
Voltage as a value across two points, the symbol for emf is the capital letter “E”.
Across the terminals of the typical aircraft battery, voltage can be measured as the potential difference of 12 volts
or 24 volts. That is to say that between the two terminal posts of the battery, there is an electromotive force of 12
or 24 volt available to push current through a circuit .relatively free electrons in the negative terminal will move
toward the excessive number of positive charges in the positive terminal. The net result is a flow or current through
a conductor. The potential difference, or the voltage across any two points in an electrical system, can be
determined by
E=e
E = potential difference in volts
e = energy expanded or absorbed in joules (j)
Q = charge measured in coulombs
Figure 3.1 illustrates the flow of electrons of electric current. Two interconnected water tanks demonstrate that
when a difference of pressure exists between the two tanks, water will flow until the two tanks are equalized. The
illustration shows the level of water in tank A to be at a higher level, reading 10 psi (higher potential energy) than
the water level in tank B reading 2 psi (lower potential energy). Between the two tanks there is 8-psi potential
difference. If the valve in the interconnecting line between the tanks is opened, water will flow from tank A into
tank B until the level of water (potential energy) of both tanks is equalized.
It was the difference in pressure between tank A and tank B that caused the flow.
Electrons move, when a path is available, from a point of excess electrons (higher potential energy) to a point
deficient in electrons (lower potential energy). The force that causes this movement is the potential difference
in electrical energy between the two points. This force is called the electrical pressure or the potential
difference or the electromotive force (electron moving force).

10 psi 2 psi
Fig. 3.1 Difference of Pressure
c. CURRENT
Electrons in motion make up an electric current. Current is measurement of a rate at which a charge flows .The
moving charges are the free electrons found in conductors, such as copper, silver aluminum, and gold.
These loosely bound electrons can be easily motivated to move in a given direction when an external source,
which as a battery is applied to the circuit. These electrons are attracted to the positive terminal of the battery,
while the negative terminal is the source of the electrons. The greater amount of charge moving through the
conductor in a given amount of time it is translated into a current.
Current =charge
Time
Or
I=Q
Where :
I = system international unit for current is the Ampere (A), where
1A= 1C
That is, I ampere (A) of current is equivalent to 1 coulomb (C) of charge passing through a conductor in 1
second(s). One coulomb of charge equal 6.28 billion electrons. The symbol used to indicate current in formulas
or on schematics in the capital letter “I”.

Types of current
1. Conventional flow
It was initially advanced by Benjamin Franklin who reasoned that current flowed out of a positive source into a
negative source or an area that lacked an abundance of charge. The notation assigned to the electric charges was
positive (+) for the abundance of charge and negative (-) for a lack of charge. It then seemed natural to visualize
the flow of current as being from the positive (+) to the negative(-)
2. Electron flow
Later discoveries were made that proved that just the opposite is true. Electron flow is what actually happens
where an abundance of electrons of electrons flow out of the negative (-) source to an area that lacks electrons or
the positive (+) source.
Both conventional flow and electron flow are used in industry.
d. RESISTANCE
It may be defined as the property of a substance due to which it opposes (or restricts) the flow of electricity (i.e.
electrons) through it.
Metals (as a class) acids and salts solutions are good conductors of electricity. Amongst pure metals, silver, copper
and aluminum are very good conductors in the given order. Due to the presence of a large number of free or
loosely attached electrons in their atoms.
Those substances which offer relatively greater difficulty or hindrance to the passage of these electrons are said
to be relatively poor conductors of electricity like Bakelite, mica, glass, rubber, p.v.c (polyviny1chloride) and
dry wood etc.
1. The unit of resistance
The practical unit of resistance is ohm. A conductor is said to have a resistance of one ohm if it permits one
ampere current to flow through it when one volt is impressed across its terminals.
For insulators whose resistances are very high, a much bigger unit is used i.e.
mega-ohm = 106 (the prefix ‘mega’ or mego meaning a million) or
kilo – ohm = 103 ohm (kilo means thousand ). In the case of very small resistances, smaller units like milli-
ohm = 10-3 ohm or micro-ohm =10-6ohm are used. The symbol for ohm is Ω.
2. Law of resistance
The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on the following factors: (Refer Fig. 3.2)
 It varies directly as its length

 It varies inversely as the cross-section A of the conductor.

 It depends on the nature of the material.
 It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.
Fig. 3.2
Neglecting the last factor for the time being, we can say that
RœL
R œ 1/A
R = ρL/A (Eq. i)
Where ρ is a constant depending on the nature of the material of conductor and is known as its specific resistance
or resistivity.
If in Eq. i, we put
L = 1 meter and A=1 meter 2, then R= ρ
Units of resistivity
We know,
R=ρ L
ρ = R*A/L
In the S.I system of unit
ρ = A metre2 * R ohm =AR = ohm-meter
L meter
Hence, the unit of resistivity is ohm – meter (Ω-m)
e. CONDUCTANCE
Conductance is an expression of the ease with which electric current flows through a substance. In equations,
conductance is symbolized by the letter G. The standard unit of conductance is the Siemens (abbreviated S),
formerly known as the mho.
When a current of one ampere (1 A) passes through a component across which a voltage of one volt (1 V) exists,
then the conductance of that component is 1 S. The siemens is, in fact, equivalent to one ampere per volt. If G is
the conductance of a component (in siemens), I is the current through the component (in amperes), and E is the
voltage across the component (in volts), then:
G = I/E
In general, when the applied voltage is held constant, the current in a direct-current (DC) circuit is directly
proportional to the conductance. If the conductance is doubled, the current is also doubled; if the conductance is
cut to 1/10 its initial value, the current also becomes 1/10 as great.
Conductance is inversely related to resistance. If R is the resistance of a component or device (in ohms), then the
conductance G (in siemens) is given by:
G = 1/R
f. CHARGE
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an
electromagnetic field. There are two types of electric charges: positive and negative. Positively charged
substances are repelled from other positively charged substances, but attracted to negatively charged substances;
negatively charged substances are repelled from negative and attracted to positive. An object is negatively charged
if it has an excess of electrons, and is otherwise positively charged or uncharged. The SI derived unit of electric
charge is the coulomb (C).
g. Electrostatic Field
A field of force exists around a charged body. This field is an electrostatic field (sometimes called a dielectric
field) and is represented by lines extending in all directions from the charged body and terminating where there
is an equal and opposite charge.
To explain the action of an electrostatic field, lines are used to represent the direction and intensity of the
electric field of force. As illustrated in figure 3.3, the intensity of the field is indicated by the number of lines
per unit area, and the direction is shown by arrowheads on the lines pointing in the direction in which a small
test charge would move or tend to move if acted upon by the field of force.
Fig. 3.3 Direction of electric field around positive and negative charges
3.4 Generation of electricity
What is Electricity?
Any appliances that we use in our daily lives such as household appliances, office equipment and industrial
equipment, almost all of those things take electricity. Therefore, we should understand electricity.
The first question that we will find out the answer is "where does electricity come from?"
Fig. 4.1
All matters are made up of atoms. Then ask the next question, "What are atoms?"
Atoms are the smallest part of an element. They are composed of nucleus and electrons, electrons surround
nucleus. Elements are identified by the number of electrons in orbit around nucleus of atoms and by the number
of protons in nucleus.
Fig. 4.2
Nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons, and the number of protons and neutrons are balanced. Neutrons have
no electric charge, protons have positive charges (+) and electrons have negative charges (-). A positive charge
of proton equals a negative charge of electron.
Electrons are bound in their orbit by attraction of protons, but electrons in the outer band can become free of
their orbit by some external forces. These are referred to as free electrons, which move from one atom to the
next, electron flows are produced. These are the basis of electricity. Materials that allow many electrons to
move freely are called conductors and materials that allow few free electrons to move are called insulators.
All matters are made up of atoms that have electric charges. Therefore, they have electric charges. For the
matter that has a balanced the number of protons and electrons, positive charge force and negative charge force
are balanced. It is called neutral state of an atom. (The number of protons and electrons remains equal.)
Fig. 4.3 Neutral State of an atom
"Static electricity" represents a situation that all things are made up of electric charges. For example, the rubbing
of material against another can cause the static electricity. Free electrons of one material move forcefully till they
are freed of their orbits around nucleus and move to another. Electrons of one material decrease, it presents
positive charges. At the same time, electrons of another increase, it has negative charges.(Fig 4.4)
Fig. 4.4
In general, charge producing of the matter means the matter has electric charges. It has positive and negative
charges, which is expressed in coulomb.
DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRODUCING ELECTRICITY
The following methods produce a voltage:
a. Electrochemistry
b. Static electricity
c. Magnetic induction
d. Piezoelectric effect

e. Thermoelectricity
f. Photoelectric effect
g. Thermionic emission
Electrochemistry
Chemicals can be combined with certain metals to cause a chemical reaction that will transfer electrons to
produce electrical energy. This process works on the electrochemistry principle.
One example of this principle is the voltaic chemical cell, shown in Figure 4.5. A chemical
reaction produces and maintains opposite charges on two dissimilar metals that serve as the
positive and negative terminals. The metals are in contact with an electrolyte solution. Connecting
together more than one of these cells will produce a battery.
Fig. 4.5
Example: A battery can maintain a potential difference between its positive and negative terminals by
chemical action.
Static Electricity
Atoms with the proper number of electrons in orbit around them are in a neutral state, or have a "zero
charge." A body of matter consisting of these atoms will neither attract nor repel other
matter that is in its vicinity. If electrons are removed from the atoms in this body of matter, as happens
due to friction when one rubs a glass rod with a silk cloth, it will become electrically
positive as shown in Figure 4.6. If this body of matter (e.g., glass rod) comes near, but not in
contact with, another body having a normal charge, an electric force is exerted between them because of
their unequal charges. The existence of this force is referred to as static electricity or electrostatic force.

Fig. 4.6
Example: Have you ever walked across a carpet and received a shock when you touched a metal door
knob? Your shoe soles built up a charge by rubbing on the carpet, and this charge was transferred to your
body. Your body became positively charged and, when you touched the zero-charged door knob, electrons were
transferred to your body until both you and the door knob had equal charges.
Magnetic Induction
A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by using the
principle of magnetic induction. Magnetic induction is used to produce a voltage by rotating
coils of wire through a stationary magnetic field, as shown in Figure 4.7, or by rotating a
magnetic field through stationary coils of wire. This is one of the most useful and widely-employed
applications of producing vast quantities of electric power.
Fig. 4.7 Generator - Electromagnetic Induction
Piezoelectric Effect
By applying pressure to certain crystals (such as quartz or Rochelle salts) or certain ceramics(like barium
titan ate), electrons can be driven out of orbit in the direction of the force. Electrons leave one side of the material
and accumulate on the other side, building up positive and negative charges on opposite sides, as shown in Figure

4.8. When the pressure is released, the electrons return to their orbits. Some materials will react to bending
pressure, while others will respond to twisting pressure. This generation of voltage is known as the piezoelectric
effect. If external wires are connected while pressure and voltage are present, electrons will flow and current will
be produced. If the pressure is held constant, the current will flow until the potential difference is equalized.
When the force is removed, the material is decompressed and immediately causes an electric
force in the opposite direction. The power capacity of these materials is extremely small.
However, these materials are very useful because of their extreme sensitivity to changes of mechanical
force.
Fig. 4.8 Pressure Applied to Certain Crystals Produces an Electric Charge
Example: One example is the crystal phonograph cartridge that contains a Rochelle salt crystal. A
phonograph needle is attached to the crystal. As the needle moves in
the grooves of a record, it swings from side to side, applying compression and
decompression to the crystal. This mechanical motion applied to the crystal generates a voltage signal that
is used to reproduce sound.
Thermoelectricity
Some materials readily give up their electrons and others readily accept electrons. For example, when two
dissimilar metals like copper and zinc are joined together, a transfer of electrons can
take place. Electrons will leave the copper atoms and enter the zinc atoms. The zinc gets a surplus of
electrons and becomes negatively charged. The copper loses electrons and takes on a positive charge. This
creates a voltage potential across the junction of the two metals. The
heat energy of normal room temperature is enough to make them release and gain electrons, causing a
measurable voltage potential. As more heat energy is applied to the junction, more electrons are released, and
the voltage potential becomes greater, as shown in Figure 4.9. When heat is removed and the junction cools, the
charges will dissipate and the voltage potential will decrease. This process is called thermoelectricity. A device
like this is generally referred to as a "thermocouple."
The thermoelectric voltage in a thermocouple is dependent upon the heat energy applied to the junction of the
two dissimilar metals. Thermocouples are widely used to measure temperature and as heat-sensing devices in
automatic temperature controlled equipment
Thermocouple power capacities are very small compared to some other sources, but are somewhat greater
than those of crystals
.Generally speaking, a thermocouple can be subjected to higher temperatures than ordinary mercury or
alcohol thermometers
Fig. 4.9
Photoelectric Effect
Light is a form of energy and is considered by many scientists to consist of small particles of energy called
photons. When the photons in a light beam strike the surface of a material, the release their energy and transfer
it to the atomic electrons of the material. This energy transfer
may dislodge electrons from their orbits around the surface of the substance. Upon losing electrons, the
photosensitive (light sensitive) material becomes positively charged and an electric force is created, as shown in
Figure 4.10

.
Fig. 4.10 Producing Electricity from Light Using a Photovoltaic Cell
This phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect and has wide applications in electronics, such
as photoelectric cells, photovoltaic cells, optical couplers, and television camera tubes. Three uses of the
photoelectric effect are described below. Photovoltaic: The light energy in one of two plates that are joined
together causes one plate to release electrons to the other. The plates build up opposite charges, like a battery
(Figure 4.10).Photoemission: The photon energy from a beam of light could cause a surface to release electrons
in a vacuum tube. A plate would then collect the electrons. Photoconduction: The light energy applied to some
materials that are normally poor conductor’s causes free electrons to be produced in the materials so that they
become better conductors.
Thermionic Emission
A thermionic energy converter is a device consisting of two electrodes placed near one another in a
vacuum. One electrode is normally called the cathode, or emitter, and the other is called the anode, or
plate. Ordinarily, electrons in the cathode are prevented from escaping from the surface by a potential-energy
barrier. When an electron starts to move away from the surface, it induces a corresponding positive charge in
the material, which tends to pull it back into the surface. To escape, the electron must somehow acquire enough
energy to overcome this energy barrier. At ordinary temperatures, almost none of the electrons
can acquire enough energy to escape. However, when the cathode is very hot, the electron energies are greatly
increased by thermal motion. At sufficiently high temperatures, a considerable number of electrons are able to
escape. The liberation of electrons from a hot surface is called thermionic emission.
The electrons that have escaped from the hot cathode form a cloud of negative charges near it called a space
charge. If the plate is maintained positive with respect to the cathode by a battery,
the electrons in the cloud are attracted to it. As long as the potential difference between the electrodes is
maintained, there will be a steady current flow from the cathode to the plate. The simplest example of a thermionic
device is a vacuum tube diode in which the only electrodes are the cathode and plate, or anode, as shown in Figure
4.11. The diode can be used to convert alternating current (AC) flow to a pulsating direct current (DC) flow.

Fig. 4.11

3.5 DC SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
THE CELL
A cell is a device that transforms chemical energy into electrical energy. The simplest cell, known as
either a galvanic or voltaic cell, is shown in figure. It consists of a piece of carbon (C) and a piece of
zinc (Zn) suspended in a jar that contains a solution of water (H2O) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) called
the electrolyte.
The cell is the fundamental unit of the battery. A simple cell consists of two electrodes
placed in a container that holds the electrolyte. In some cells the container acts as one of the
electrodes and, in this case, is acted upon by the electrolyte.
Container
The container which may be constructed of one of many different materials provides a means of
holding (containing) the electrolyte. The container is also used to mount the electrodes. In the
voltaic cell the container must be constructed of a material that will not be acted upon by the
electrolyte.
Electrodes
The electrodes are the conductors by which the current leaves or returns to the electrolyte.
In the dry cell, they are the carbon rod in the centre and zinc container in which the cell is
assembled.

Electrolyte
The electrolyte is the solution that acts upon the electrodes. The electrolyte, which provides a path
for electron flow, may be a salt, an acid, or an alkaline solution. In the simple galvanic cell, the
electrolyte is in a liquid form. In the dry cell, the electrolyte is a paste.
Simple galvanic cell
Electrochemical Action
All batteries use an electrochemical reaction to deliver current.
The first battery created by Alessandro Volta in 1800 was constructed of a stack of alternating
layers of zinc, blotting paper soaked in salt water, and silver. This arrangement was known as a
voltaic pile and is the basis of battery construction today.
If a load (a device that consumes power) is connected externally to the electrodes of a cell,
electrons will flow under the influence of a difference in potential across the electrodes from the
negative electrode, through the external conductor to the positive electrode.
A cell is a device in which chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. This process is
called ELECTROCHEMICAL action.
The voltage across the electrodes depends upon the materials from which the electrodes are
made and the composition of the electrolyte.
The current that a cell delivers depends upon the resistance of the entire circuit, including that
of the cell itself.
The internal resistance of the cell depends upon the size of the electrodes, the distance between
them in the electrolyte, and the resistance of the electrolyte.
The larger the electrodes and the closer together they are in the electrolyte (without touching), the
lower the internal resistance of the cell and the more current the cell is capable of supplying to the
load.
CELLS
Electric cells are classified into two broad categories:
• Primary cells.
• Secondary cells.
A primary cell cannot be recharged satisfactorily. Part of the electrode deteriorates as the cell
produces current, hence it cannot be restored to its original condition by charging.
In a secondary cell, the chemical action which produces the electric current can be reversed
returning the cell to the charged condition.
Primary Cell
A primary cell is one in which the chemical action eats away one of the electrodes, usually the
negative electrode. When this happens, the electrode must be replaced or the cell must be
discarded. In the galvanic-type cell, the zinc electrode and the liquid electrolyte are usually replaced
when this happens. In the case of the dry cell, it is usually cheaper to buy a new cell.

The dry cell is the most popular type of primary cell. It is ideal for simple applications where an
inexpensive and non-critical source of electricity is all that is needed.
The dry cell is not actually dry. The electrolyte is not in a liquid state, but is a moist paste. If it
should become totally dry, it would no longer be able to transform chemical energy to electrical
energy.
Alkaline Cells
Alkaline cells are very similar to carbon-zinc cells. Both of these cells have the same positive
terminal and negative terminal materials, which undergo similar chemical reactions. But these two
cells are different in several ways.
First an alkaline cell has a zinc positive terminal that oxidises more readily than a carbon-zinc
cell, also it's electrolyte is a strong alkali solution called potassium hydroxide. These particular
features enable an alkaline cell to deliver a sustained high current more efficiently than an
carbon-zinc cell.
Alkaline cells serve as a perfect source of energy for bicycle lights, electric shavers, portable
televisions, and walkie-talkies.
Alkaline cells overcome some of the problems with carbon-zinc batteries by using potassium
hydroxide in place of ammonium chloride in the electrolyte. Potassium hydroxide is a base or
alkaline material, hence "alkaline" batteries.
Secondary Cell
A secondary cell is one in which the electrodes and the electrolyte are altered by the chemical
action that takes place when the cell delivers current. These cells may be restored to their original
condition by forcing an electric current through them in the direction opposite to that of discharge.
The automobile storage battery is a common example of the secondary cell.
Secondary cells are sometimes known as wet cells. There are four basic types of wet cells, the
• lead-acid,
• nickel-cadmium,
• silver-zinc, and
• silver-cadmium.
LEAD-ACID BATTERY CONSTRUCTION

Secondary cell batteries are constructed using the various secondary cells already described. The
lead-acid battery is one of the most common batteries in use today.
Lead acid batteries are named after the two major components of the battery — lead and acid. More
specifically, the battery is made up of positive plates of lead peroxide (PbO 2), negative plates of pure
spongy lead (Pb), and a liquid electrolyte between the plates of sulfuric acid (H 2SO4) and water (H20).
The nominal open-circuit (no-load) voltage of a lead-acid cell is approximately 2 volts (2.1
volts).

The container houses the separate cells. Most containers are hard rubber, plastic, or some other
material that is resistant to the electrolyte and mechanical shock and will withstand extreme
temperatures. The container (battery case) is vented through vent plugs to allow the gases that
form within the cells to escape.
Battery Construction
There is always one more negative plate than positive plates, so that the positive plate is acted
upon on both sides. All cells will have an uneven number of plates, ie. a 9 plate cell has 5 negative
and 4 positive plates.
Separators
Separators of wood or of perforated glass, rubber or plastic are used to hold the plates apart whilst
allowing free movement of the electrolyte. The container is metal, hard rubber or some form of hard
plastic. A space at the bottom of the cell collects the sediment formed as the cell is used and sheds
positive plate material.
The negative plate group is the negative terminal of the individual cells and the positive plate
group is the positive terminal. As shown in the prvious figure, the plates are interlaced with a
terminal attached to each plate group. The terminals of the individual cells are connected together
by link connectors. The cells are connected in series in the battery and the positive terminal of one
end cell becomes the positive terminal of the battery. The negative terminal of the opposite end cell
becomes the negative terminal of the battery.
The individual cells of the lead-acid battery are not replaceable, so in the event one cell fails, the
battery must be replaced.
The terminals of a lead- acid battery are usually identified from one another by their size and
markings. The positive terminal, marked (+) is sometimes colored red and is physically larger than
the negative terminal, marked (-).
Lead-Acid Electrolyte
Lead-acid battery electrolyte is a mixture of 64% distilled water (H2O) and 36% sulfuric acid (H
2SO4). Batteries today have an electrolyte with a specific gravity of 1.270 (at 20°C, 68°F) when fully
charged. Specific Gravity is the weight of a given volume of liquid in comparison to the weight of
the same volume of pure water. The higher the specific gravity of a liquid the denser (thicker) it is.

Specific Gravity of Electrolyte
Specific gravity means exact weight. A "Hydrometer" or a "Refractometer" compares the exact
weight of electrolyte with that of water. Electrolyte in a charged battery is stronger and heavier
than electrolyte in a discharged battery. By weight, the electrolyte in a fully charged battery is
about 36% acid and 64% water. The specific gravity of water is 1.000, and the specific gravity of
sulfuric acid is 1.835, which means the acid is 1.835 times heavier than the water. The battery
electrolyte mixture of water and acid has a specific gravity of approximately 1.270 and is typically
referred to as “twelve seventy”.
Electrochemical reaction
The electrochemical reaction that takes place in a lead acid battery can be written in a formula as
follows:
PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 = 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
Note: If the battery is discharging, the formula is read from left to right. During charge, the
formula is read from right to left.
Lead-acid Discharging
When the battery is delivering current, the sulfuric acid in the electrolyte breaks down into
positively charged hydrogen ions and negatively charged sulfate ions (SO 4) Ions are atoms or
molecules that are either positively or negatively charged. An ion that is positively charged has a
deficiency of electrons while an ion that is negatively charged has an excess of electrons. The
negatively charged sulfate ions (SO4) combine with the lead in the plates (Pb) and form lead sulfate
(PbSO4). At the same time, they give up their negative charge creating an excess of electrons on the
negative plate.
The hydrogen ions go to the positive plate and combine with the oxygen of the lead peroxide (PbO 2)
forming water (H2 O). During this process, they take electrons from the positive plate. The lead (Pb) of
the lead peroxide (PbO 2) combines with some of the sulfate ions (SO4) to form lead sulfate (PbSO4) on
the positive plate.

As a result of the electrochemical reaction described above, the positive plate ends up with a deficiency
of electrons while the negative plate has an excess of electrons.
When the battery posts are connected by an external conductor, the electrons from the negative
plate flow to the positive plate. This flow will continue until both plates are converted to lead
sulfate and no further chemical action is possible. Then the battery is discharged.
Lead-Acid Charging
When a battery is charging, current is passed through the battery in the reverse direction. A
current is applied to the battery with the positive pole connected to the positive plate and the
negative pole connected to the negative plate. If the electromotive force (EMF) of the source is
greater than the EMF of the battery, the current will flow in the reverse direction.
When the current flow is reversed, the sulfate ions (SO4) are driven back into the solution where they
combine with the hydrogen (H2) ions of the water forming sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The plates are then
in their original composition of spongy lead (Pb) on the negative plate and lead peroxide (PbO2) on the
positive plate.
Knowing that the sulfuric acid in the electrolyte is used up as the battery is discharged and that it
is returned to the electrolyte when it is charged, measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte
will give an indication of the state of charge of the battery.

Service life killers
Overcharging and undercharging kill lead acid battery service life. It may seem ironic or even
ridiculous, but both of these conditions will adversely affect your battery in the long run.
Internal resistance of electric cells
Every electric cell has a definite internal resistance between its output terminals which opposes
the flow of current through the interior of the cell.
This resistance is inversely proportional to the effective area of the electrodes exposed to the
electro-chemical action, and directly proportional to the distance separating the electrode
surfaces. It is also influenced by the nature and condition of the electrolyte and the depolarising
arrangements. Internal resistance typically increases with age.
The internal resistance becomes part of the overall circuit resistance and must be considered
when calculating values of current, voltage and power in primary cell powered circuits.
Lead-Acid Battery Ratings
The voltage of a battery is determined by the number of cells connected in series to form the battery. Although
the voltage of one lead-acid cell just removed from a charger is approximately 2.2 volts, a lead-acid cell is
normally rated at only 2 volts, because it soon drops to that value. A battery rated at 12 volts consists of 6 lead-
acid cells connected in series, and a battery rated at 24 volts is composed of 12 cells.
The capacity of a storage battery is rated in ampere-hours (amperes furnished by the battery times the amount of
time current can be drawn). This rating indicates how long the battery may be used at a given rate before it
becomes completely discharged.
Theoretically, a 100 ampere-hour battery will furnish 100 amperes for 1 hour, 50 amperes for 2 hours, or 20
amperes for 5 hours. Actually, the ampere-hour output of a particular battery depends on the rate at which it is
discharged. Heavy discharge current heats the battery and decreases its efficiency and total ampere-hour output.
For airplane batteries, a period of 5 hours has been established as the discharge time in rating battery capacity.
However, this time of 5 hours is only a basis for rating and does not necessarily mean the length of time during

which the battery is expected to furnish current. Under actual service conditions, the battery can be completely
discharged within a few minutes, or it may never be discharged if the generator provides sufficient charge.
The ampere-hour capacity of a battery depends upon its total effective plate area. Connecting batteries in
parallel increases ampere-hour capacity. Connecting batteries in series increases the total voltage but not the
ampere-hour capacity.
In multiengine airplanes, where more than one battery is used, the batteries are usually connected in parallel.
The voltage is equal to that of one battery, but the ampere-hour capacity is increased. The total capacity is the
sum of the ampere-hour ratings for the individual batteries.
Factors Affecting Lead-Acid Battery Life
Various factors cause deterioration of a battery and shorten its service life. These include over discharging,
which causes excess sulphation and too rapid charging or discharging, resulting in overheating of the plates and
shedding of active material. The accumulation of shedded material, in turn, causes shorting of the plates and
results in internal discharge. A battery that remains in a low or discharged condition for a long period of time
may be permanently damaged. In addition to causing deterioration of the battery, these factors also decrease
battery capacity.
Lead-Acid Battery Testing Methods
Lead-Acid Battery Charging Methods
A storage battery may be charged by passing direct current through the battery in a direction opposite to that of
the discharge current. Because of the internal resistance (IR) in the battery, the voltage of the external charging
source must be greater than the open circuit voltage. For example, the open circuit voltage of a fully charged 12
cell, lead-acid battery is approximately 26.4 volts (12 x 2.2 volts), but approximately 28 volts are required to
charge it. This larger voltage is needed for charging because of the voltage drop in the battery caused by the
internal resistance. Hence, the charging voltage of a lead-acid battery must equal the open circuit voltage plus
the IR drop within the battery (product of the charging current and the internal resistance).

Batteries are charged by either the constant voltage or constant current method. In the constant voltage method
(A of figure 5.10), a motor generator set with a constant, regulated voltage forces the current through the
battery. In this method, the current at the start of the process is high but automatically tapers off, reaching a
value of approximately 1 ampere when the battery is fully charged. The constant voltage method requires less
time and supervision than does the constant current method.
In the constant current method, the current remains almost constant during the entire charging process.
This method requires a longer time to charge a battery fully and, toward the end of the process, presents the
danger of overcharging, if care is not exercised.
In the aircraft, the storage battery is charged by direct current from the aircraft generator system. This method of
charging is the constant voltage method, since the generator voltage is held constant by use of a voltage
regulator.
When a storage battery is being charged, it generates a certain amount of hydrogen and oxygen. Since this is an
explosive mixture, it is important that steps be taken to prevent ignition of the gas mixture. The vent caps
should be loosened and left in place. No open flames, sparks, or other source of ignition should be permitted in
the vicinity. Before disconnecting or connecting a battery to the charge, always turn off the power by means of
a remote switch.

NICKEL-CADMIUM CELL
The nickel-cadmium cell (NICAD) is far superior to the lead-acid cell. In comparison to lead-acid
cells, these cells generally require less maintenance throughout their service life in regard to the
adding of electrolyte or water.
The major difference between the nickel-cadmium cell and the lead-acid cell is the material used in the
negative terminal, positive terminal, and electrolyte. In the nickel-cadmium cell the positive terminal is
nickel hydroxide, the negative terminal is cadmium hydroxide, and the electrolyte is potassium
hydroxide and water.
Nickel-cadmium electric cells and batteries have been developed to a high degree of efficiency and
dependability. They are used in small devices which formerly used carbon-zinc dry cells and in other
devices where carbon- zinc cells cannot meet the load requirements. They are also being manufactured
in large sizes for use in aircraft where they replace the lead-acid batteries which were formerly used.
As mentioned previously, a secondary cell is one which can be charged and discharged repeatedly
without appreciable deterioration of the active elements. An advantage of the nickel- cadmium
secondary cell is that it can stand in a discharged condition indefinitely at normal temperatures
without deterioration.
The negative electrode consists of a metallic cadmium (Cd), and the positive electrode is nickel
oxides. The electrolyte is a 30% potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution giving an SG of about
1.300. When the cell is discharged, the negative electrode becomes cadmium hydroxide and the
positive electrode becomes nickel hydroxide [Ni(OH) 2].
The nickel-cadmium and lead- acid cells have capacities that are comparable at normal
discharge rates, but at high discharge rates the nickel-cadmium cell can deliver a larger
amount of power.
In addition the nickel-cadmium cell can:
• Be charged in a shorter time,
• Stay idle longer in any state of charge and keep a full charge when stored for a longer period
of time, and

• Be charged and discharged any number of times without any appreciable damage.
Due to their superior capabilities, nickel-cadmium cells are being used extensively in many military
applications that require a cell with a high discharge rate. A good example is in the aircraft storage
battery.
The nominal open-circuit (No load) cell voltage for a ni-cad cell is 1.3 volts.
Nickel-Cadmium Cell Thermal Runaway
The ni-cad battery has a very distinct advantage over lead-acid batteries in that its internal
resistance is very low, so its voltage remains constant until it is almost totally discharged. A ni-
cad has the ability to maintain normal voltage until at least 70 to 80% of its charge. This low
resistance is also an advantage in recharging, as it allows high charging rates without damage.
While high discharge and charging rates are favourable, there are dangers involved. These dangers
begin with the high battery temperatures associated with nickel-cadmium batteries.
Thermal runaway is an uncontrolled rise in battery temperature that destroys the battery if it is not
detected and corrected. It is indicated when a battery charging current starts to rise instead of
falling as the charge progresses. The high temperature lowers the internal resistance causing it to
draw more current. If the extra heat is not dissipated as fast as it is produced, there is a further
rise in temperature causing yet lower internal resistance and thus higher current – with further rise
in temperature and so on. It has a snow balling effect. This chain reaction leads to violent gassing,
boiling electrolyte, and possibly an explosion of the battery.
For example, the discharge or charging cycle of a ni-cad battery produces high temperatures that
break down the cellophane-like material that separates the plates within the cell. The breakdown
of the cell separator creates a short circuit allowing current flow to increase. The increased current
flow creates more heat, causing further breakdown of the separator material. This condition is
aggravated by the fact that the internal resistance of a ni-cad battery drops as the temperature
rises.
These factors all contribute the process known as thermal runaway.
Some ni-cad battery installations are required to have temperature monitoring equipment that
enables the flight crew to recognise an overheat condition that can lead to thermal runaway.
Effects of thermal runaway
A runaway exothermic reaction can have a range of results from the boiling over of the reaction
mass, to large increases in temperature and pressure that lead to an explosion. Such violence can
cause blast and missile damage. If flammable materials are released, fire or a secondary explosion
may result. Hot liquors and toxic materials may contaminate the area.
Safety Precautions in event of Thermal Runaway
• Isolate electrical power. (switch battery charger ‘OFF’).
• WARNING – DO NOT attempt to disconnect battery terminals.
• Do NOT attempt to handle or move battery for AT LEAST 30 minutes.
• After 30 minute cooling off period, check temperature of the battery. (Is it cool enough to
touch).
• If battery still exhibits runaway symptoms, allow another 30 minute cooling off period.
• When the battery is cool enough to handle, carefully remove the vent caps of the affected cells.
• Submit the whole battery to a reconditioning routine.
Neutralising Spills
Spilled acid can be neutralised with bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) or ammonia.
Lead Acid electrolyte is to be neutralised in an approved container with a solution of bicarbonate of
soda (100 grams per 1 litre of water) until a neutral pH is obtained.
On aircraft spilled potassium hydroxide can be neutralised with a solution of chromic acid.
Off aircraft spilled potassium hydroxide can be neutralised with a 3% solution of boric acid or
acetic acid (vinegar).
Spills on skin need to be flushed with copious amounts of cold water and receive medical
attention.
OTHER TYPES OF SECONDARY CELLS
The development of new and different types of cells in the past decade has been so rapid that it is
virtually impossible to have a complete knowledge of all the various types. A few recent
developments are the silver- zinc, nickel-zinc, nickel-cadmium, silver-cadmium, organic and
inorganic lithium, and mercury cells.
Silver-Zinc Cells
The silver-zinc cell is used extensively to power emergency equipment. This type of cell is relatively
expensive and can be charged and discharged fewer times than other types of cells. When
compared to the lead-acid or nickel-cadmium cells, these disadvantages are overweighed by the
light weight, small size, and good electrical capacity of the silver-zinc cell.

The silver- zinc cell uses the same electrolyte as the nickel-cadmium cell (potassium hydroxide and
water), but the positive terminal and negative terminal differ from the nickel-cadmium cell. The
positive terminal is composed of silver oxide and the negative terminal is made of zinc.
Advantages and Applications
The zinc/silver oxide cell is noted for its high volumetric energy density and its ability to deliver
this energy at relatively high current drains. Silver oxide cells are ideal for miniature devices
where space is limited, such as small electronic and photographic equipment. Their relatively high
cost limits their usage to specialised applications.
COMBINING CELLS
In many cases, a battery- powered device may require more electrical energy than one cell can
provide. The device may require either a higher voltage or more current, and in some cases both.
Under such conditions it is necessary to combine, or interconnect, a sufficient number of cells to
meet the higher requirements. Cells connected in SERIES provide a higher voltage, while cells
connected in PARALLEL provide a higher current capacity. To provide adequate power when both
voltage and current requirements are greater than the capacity of one cell, a combination SERIES-
PARALLEL network of cells must be used.

Battery Voltage
Aircraft batteries are usually nominally rated at 12 or 24 volts but the voltages on no load (open
circuit) of serviceable batteries are a little higher. 12-cell lead-acid and 20-cell nickel-cadmium
batteries have open-circuit voltages between 25 and 26.5 volts. 19- cell nickel-cadmium batteries
have an open-circuit voltage of 24 to 25 volts. You can work on the basis of 2 volts per lead-acid cell
and 1.3 volts per nickel-cadmium cell.
Connecting Cells in Series
Batteries are two or more cells that are grouped together to form the one source of electrical supply.
Electrically, the cells of a battery are connected either in series or in parallel. Physically, the cells
are usually housed in one container.
A series connection of cells gives a total emf equal to the sum of the individual voltages.
(1.5 v + 1.5 v + 1.5 v + 1.5 v = 6 volts)
Cells connected in series

A single cell whether it be a primary cell or a secondary cell, can only ever give out its rated voltage,
no matter how large or small it may be. If we require a higher voltage to operate equipment, we
must connect cells in series to increase the output voltage. Once we connect together a group of
cells in whatever format we create a battery.
For the cells to be in series, the positive of one cell is connected to the negative of the next cell and
so on. The total voltage is the sum of all of the voltages added up. However, the higher voltage
does not mean that they will supply more current because being in series their internal
resistances are also in series and add up, therefore limiting their current supplying capability to
that of a single cell.
As with any series connection, any change in one cell will affect the whole circuit, that is, one cell open
circuits, the current stops. One cell short circuits, the current reduces because of the lower voltage.
The voltage produced by a single cell cannot be increased by increasing its size. The larger cell will last
longer. We need the series arrangement that we have just looked at to achieve any increase in voltage.
CAUTION
When connecting cells in series, connect alternate terminals together (- to +, - to +, etc.) Always
have two remaining terminals that are used for connection to the load only. Do not connect the
two remaining terminals together as this is a short across the battery and would not only quickly
discharge the cells but could cause some types of cells to explode.
Parallel connected cells
One of the major factors which determine the capacity of a cell to supply current is the surface
area of the electrodes. By connecting cells in parallel, we add up the effective electrode areas and
they increase the battery’s current supplying capability. As with any parallel circuit, the voltage
remains the same for all cells, but the total current demand is now shared equally between all
cells in the chain, thus avoiding the excessive voltage drop that would happen if we took the total
current from one cell. The internal resistances of the cells are also connected in parallel, therefore,
like parallel resistances, the total internal resistance of the battery is less than the internal
resistance of one cell.
A change in any of the cells will affect the output of the battery, as each cell contributes to the
total current. If one cell open circuits, the voltage will not be affected, but the ability of the
system to supply current will drop, because the internal resistance of the group will have
increased. If a cell is short circuited, the entire system fails, as all cells will discharge through
the shorted cell.
In this case, assume an electrical load requires only 1.5 volts, but will require 1/2 ampere of
current. (Assume that a single cell will supply only 1/8 ampere.) To meet this requirement, the
cells are connected in parallel, as shown in figure 2-7 view Aand schematically represented in 2-7
view B. In a parallel connection, all positive cell electrodes are connected to one line, and all
negative electrodes are connected to the other. No more than one cell is connected between the
lines at any one point; so the voltage between the lines is the same as that of one cell, or 1.5 volts.
However, each cell may contribute its maximum allowable current of 1/8 ampere to the line. There
are four cells, so the total line current is 1/8 x 4, or 1/2 ampere. In this case four cells in parallel
have enough capacity to supply a load requiring 1/2 ampere at 1.5 volts.
Series-Parallel-Connected Cells
Figure depicts a battery network supplying power to a load requiring both a voltage and a current
greater than one cell can provide. To provide the required 4.5 volts, groups of three 1.5-volt cells
are connected in series. To provide the required 1/2 ampere of current, four series groups are
connected in parallel, each supplying 1/8 ampere of current.
The connections shown have been used to illustrate the various methods of combining cells
to form a battery.

Figure depicts a battery network supplying power to a load requiring both a voltage and a current
greater than one cell can provide. To provide the required 4.5 volts, groups of three 1.5-volt cells
are connected in series. To provide the required 1/2 ampere of current, four series groups are
connected in parallel, each supplying 1/8 ampere of current.
The connections shown have been used to illustrate the various methods of combining cells
to form a battery.
THERMOCOUPLES
Thermocouples are one of a number of types of devices used to sense temperature. Typical uses in
aircraft are to:
• Sense the temperature of cylinder heads on piston engines;
• Sense the temperature of the gas passing into, through or from the turbines of gas turbine
engines; and
• In some older aircraft, act as fire warning detectors by sensing abnormally rapid increases of
temperature in and around the aircraft engines.

Thermocouple Operation
The production of an EMF by heat requires the application of heat to a junction formed by two
dissimilar metals. The figure illustrates this concept.
Note that the joined metal junction is referred to as the hot junction whilst the unjoined
section of the metals is referred to as the cold junction.
How it Works
The application of heat to a metal results in the electrons within the atom’s valence shells gaining
energy and becoming free electrons. The production of free electrons results in positive and
negative ions forming within the metal. As the amount of energy required to release the valence
electrons of each metal varies, the resulting charge that each piece of metal assumes will also vary.
By taking a measurement between the different metals at the cold junction, a potential difference
(voltage) can be measured.
This phenomenon of generating a potential via heat is named, after its discoverer, the Seebeck
effect.
A typical value of the EMF that can be produced by the Seebeck effect is 10 millivolts
(0.010 Volts).
The combination of the junction and the two dissimilar metals is known as a
thermocouple.
In the figure below, we can see the measuring junction is connected to a meter, calibrated in
degrees Celsius. The meter effectively forms the cold junction.
The leads are made from the same combination of metals. This prevents more junctions from being
formed resulting in errors from additional EMF generations.
Aircraft use this principle to measure engine turbine inlet temperatures, engine exhaust gas
temperatures and engine cylinder head temperatures.

Typical Thermocouples
A thermocouple generates its own electrical current, it is capable of operating independently
from aircraft power.
Common combinations used in aircraft are:
• Copper-constantan – range: up to 400ºC (typical – piston engines)
• Iron-constantan – range: up to 850ºC (typical – piston engines)
• Chromel-alumel – range: up to 1200ºC (typical – gas turbine engines)
LIGHT
Light is electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye. Light is thought to travel in a
form similar to radio waves and like radio waves, light is measured in wavelengths.
Light travels at 186,000 miles per second or 300,000,000 metres per second in a vacuum. The velocity
is reduced as it passes through various types of mediums. The frequency range of light is 300 to
300,000,000 gigahertz (giga = 1,000,000,000).
• Below 400,000 gigahertz – infrared light
• 400,00 to 750,000 gigahertz – visible to human eye
• Above 750,000 gigahertz – ultraviolet light
Light waves at the upper end of the frequency range have more energy than at the lower end.
PHOTO ELECTRIC CELL

Also known as a solar cell or photovoltaic cell
The modern age of solar power technology arrived in 1954 when Bell Laboratories, experimenting
with semiconductors, accidentally found that silicon doped with certain impurities was very
sensitive to light.
A solar cell is a device that converts sunlight directly into a usable amount of direct current (DC)
electricity. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar panels.
Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials.
Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to flow
through the material to produce electricity.
When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen:

• the photon can pass straight through the silicon - this (generally) happens for lower energy
photons,
• the photon can reflect off the surface,
• the photon can be absorbed by the silicon, and an electron-hole pair is created.
When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in the crystal lattice. Usually this
electron is in the valence band, and is tightly bound in covalent bonds between neighbouring
atoms, and hence unable to move far. The energy given to it by the photon "excites" it into the
conduction band, where it is free to move around within the semiconductor. The covalent bond
that the electron was previously a part of now has one fewer electron - this is known as a hole. The
presence of a missing covalent bond allows the bonded electrons of neighbouring atoms to move
into the "hole," leaving another hole behind, and in this way a hole can move through the lattice.
Thus, it can be said that photons absorbed in the semiconductor create mobile electron-hole pairs.
The interesting part starts when you put N-type silicon together with P -type silicon. Remember
that every PV cell has at least one electric field. Without an electric field, the cell wouldn't work,
and this field forms when the N-type and P-type silicon are in contact. Suddenly, the free
electrons in the N side, which have been looking all over for holes to fall into, see all the free holes
on the P side, and there's a mad rush to fill them in.
Anatomy of a Solar Cell
Our missing electrons (holes) were balanced out by the missing protons in the boron. When the holes
and electrons mix at the junction between N-type and P -type silicon, however, that neutrality is
disrupted. Do all the free electrons fill all the free holes?
No. If they did, then the whole arrangement wouldn't be very useful. Right at the junction,
however, they do mix and form a barrier, making it harder and harder for electrons on the N side
to cross to the P side. Eventually, equilibrium is reached, and we have an electric field separating
the two sides.

This electric field acts as a diode, allowing (and even pushing) electrons to flow from the P side to the N
side, but not the other way around. It's like a hill - electrons can easily go down the hill (to the N side),
but can't climb it (to the P side).
So we've got an electric field acting as a diode in which electrons can only move in one direction.
When light hits the solar cell, its energy frees electron-hole pairs.
Each photon with enough energy will normally free exactly one electron, and result in a free hole
as well. If this happens close enough to the electric field, or if free electron and free hole happen to
wander into its range of influence, the field will send the electron to the N side and the hole to the
P side. This causes further disruption of electrical neutrality, and if we provide an external current
path, electrons will flow through the path to their original side (the P side) to unite with holes that
the electric field sent there, doing work for us along the way. The electron flow provides the
current, and the cell's electric field causes a voltage. With both current and voltage, we have
power, which is the product of the two.
There are a few more steps left before we can really use our cell. Silicon happens to be a very shiny
material, which means that it is very reflective. Photons that are reflected can't be used by the cell.
For that reason, an antireflective coating is applied to the top of the cell to reduce reflection losses to
less than 5 percent.
The final step is the glass cover plate that protects the cell from the elements. Solar modules are
made by connecting several cells (usually 36) in series and parallel to achieve useful levels of
voltage and current, and putting them in a sturdy frame complete with a glass cover and positive
and negative terminals on the back.
How much sunlight energy does our PV cell absorb? Unfortunately, the most that our simple cell
could absorb is around 25 percent, and more likely is 15 percent or less.

3.6 DC Circuit
SIMPLE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
Here is a simple electric circuit. It has a cell, a lamp and a switch. To make a circuit, these components are
connected together with metal connecting wires.(Fig 6.1)
When the switch is closed, the lamp lights up. This is because there is a continuous path of metal for
the electric current to flow around. If there were any breaks in the circuit, the current could not flow.
The current flows all the way around the circuit. The cell pushes the current around the circuit. As the current
passes through the lamp, it makes it light up.
Series circuit
This circuit is called a series circuit. The components are connected end-to-end, one after the other. They
make a simple loop for the current to flow round.
Fig. 6.1 Asimple switch. Closing it joins the contacts together and lets the current flow through.
How does a switch work?
A simple switch is made of a metal lever that can join up with a metal contact. When you press the switch,
the two pieces of metal touch and the current can flow through it. When you open it, this breaks the circuit.
OHM’S LAW
We have already studied the three fundamental of element of electricity voltage, amperage and resistance.
Ohm’s law describes the relationship between these elements.
Ohm’s law is necessary to determine the correct size and length of wire to be used in a circuit, the proper sizes
of fuses and circuit breakers etc.
This law states that “current in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the emf (voltage) and inversely
proportional to the resistance.
I = E/R
Current in a given circuit is equal to voltage divided by resistance.
Or

The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two point on a conductor to the current (I) flowing between
them is constant provided the temperature of the conductor does not change.
V/I = CONSTANT
V/I = R
Fig. 6.2
A graph of this relationship is shown in Figure 6.2 which uses a constant resistance of 20 ohms. The
relationship between voltage and current in this example shows voltage plotted horizontally along the X axis
in values from 0 to 120 volts and the corresponding values of current are plotted vertically in values from 0
to 6.0 amp along the Y axis. A straight line drawn through all the points where the voltage and current lines
meet represents the equation
I = E/20 And is called linear relationship.
If E = 10V Then 10V/20Ω = 0.5 A
If E = 60V Then 60V/20Ω = 3 A
If E= 120V Then 120V/20Ω = 6 A
Eg: If a battery of 2V is connected to a lamp of resistance 1 Ω,then current in the circuit can be determined
as follows:
I=V/R=2/1 = 2 Amp
If in the above example battery voltage is increased to 4V then current will be

I=V/R =4/1=4 Amp
NOTE: In the above example, you see as the voltage is doubled, current doubles. This shows that current is
directly proportional to voltage.
I∞V
In the same example if resistance is double current will be half say R= 2Ω and V= 4V Then
I = 4/2=2 Amp
SERIES DC CIRCUIT

The series circuit is the most basic electrical circuit. It is the first building block of all the circuit to be studied
and analyzed. A series circuit is a circuit in which all components are connected end to end to ensure same
current flow in all. Batteries and resistor are in series with each other and there is only one path for current to
flow.
Fig. 6.3
In the above example(fig 6.3) there is 12 V DC Source in series with two resistors R1= 10Ω and R2 = 30Ω.
To calculate total resistance in a series circuit take the sum of individual resistors.
RT = R1 + R2 +R3+……RN
Therefore, RT = 10Ω + 30Ω = 40Ω
Current remains same at all points in a series circuit …so
I= V/R
I=12/40 =0.3 A
TO CALCULATE VOLTAGE DROP IN A SERIES CIRCUIT
Fig. 6.4
Voltage drop is caused by a loss of electrical pressure or emf caused by forcing electrons through a resistor.
In the fig 6.4, there are three resistors in series with the circuit so three voltage drop will be there as per the
resistor value.
Current given as I = 1mA
R1 = 1 KΩ

R2 = 3 KΩ
R3 = 5 KΩ
Voltage drop across each resistor is calculated by product of each resistance and total current in the circuit
(same current flows in series network)
Voltage drop at R1 = I X R1 = 1 mA x 1 kΩ = 1 volt
 Source voltage = I X RT
RT = 1 kΩ + 3 kΩ + 5 kΩ = 9 kΩ
Source voltage = 1 mA x 9 kΩ = 9V
Fig. 6.5
In the figure 6.5 three resistance are connected in series with 24 V battery.
 Total voltage = 24 V
R1= 1Ω
R2= 3Ω
R3= 8Ω
RT = 1Ω + 3Ω + 8Ω =12 Ω
 Total current in the circuit ; IT = VT/RT= 24 V/12Ω = 2 Amp
 Voltage drop across R1 = I X R1 = 2 X 1 = 2 V
When we add all voltage drop we find that it is equal to source voltage: 2V + 6V + 16V =24 V
This determines Kirchoff’s Voltage Law

Fig. 6.6
In the figure 6.6
VT = 12 V
I1 = 3 A
R2 = 2 Ω
R3 = 1Ω
We know, current remains same across each resistor in a series circuit.
Total resistance RT = VT/IT
RT =12/3 = 4 Ω
Unknown resistance R1 can be determined as
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
4Ω = R1 + 2Ω + 1Ω
R1 = 4Ω - 3Ω = 1Ω
 Voltage drop across each resistor is
V1 = I X R1 = 3X1=3V
V2 = I X R2 =3X2= 6V
V3 = I X R3 = 3X1=3V
 Total voltage is sum of individual voltages drop
 So V1+V2+V3 =VT
 3+6+3 =12V which is source voltage
Characteristics of a Series Circuit
1. Same current flows through all the part of the circuit

2.Different resistors have their individual voltage drop
3. Voltage drops are additive
4.Applied voltage is equal to the sum of different voltage drop
5.Resistance is additive
6. Power is additive

KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
In 1847,G.R. Kirchoff ,a german physicist develop these laws that are more comprehensive than Ohms law and
are used for solving electrical network which are not solved by latter. Kirchoff’s Law two in number are used for
1.determining equivalent resistance of a complicated network of conductors
2.calculating the currents flowing in the various conductors
We will be studying about Kirchoff’s Voltage Law first.
KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW or MESH LAW(KVL)
In a series circuit, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops in that circuit must be equal to the source voltage. Or the
algebraic sum of all voltages and electromotive force around a close path or loop is zero. Electromotive force is
the supply or source voltage.
Determination of Voltage Polarity
Some definitions that will help in understanding electronic circuits:

Voltage Rise - Just like it sounds a voltage rise is created by an electrical device in a circuit that creates a Voltage
increase or “Rise”. Examples of these devices are batteries, solar cells, generators, alternators, and thermocouples.
Simply, a Voltage Rise is an increase in electrical pressure. A Voltage Rise may be a positive or a negative.
Voltage Drop - A Voltage Drop occurs when a Current flows through a Resistive electrical component in an
electrical circuit. This Voltage drop will be the opposite polarity from the Voltage rise that caused the Current
flow, thus named a Voltage Drop. Using Ohm’s Law it can be shown that a Voltage is present when Current flows
through a Resistor (V= I • R). Simply put a Voltage Drop is a decrease in electrical pressure. ”
In an electrical circuit, the Voltage across a resistor is always the opposite polarity from the Voltage source. This
means if the Voltage source is a positive polarity (+), the Voltage drop across the resistors in that electrical circuit
will be a negative polarity (-). If the Voltage source is a negative polarity (-), the Voltage drop across the resistors
in the electrical circuit will be a positive polarity (+).
Application of Kirchoff’s Voltage Law
Kirchhoff's voltage law can be written as an , as shown below:
Ea + Eb + Ec + . . . En = 0
where Ea, Eb, etc., are the voltage drops or emf's around any closed circuit loop. To set up the equation for an
actual circuit, the following procedure is used.
Kirchhoff's voltage law can be written as an , as shown below:
Ea + Eb + Ec + . . . En = 0
where Ea, Eb, etc., are the voltage drops or emf's around any closed circuit loop. To set up the equation for an
actual circuit, the following procedure is used.
Assume a direction of current through the circuit. (The correct direction is desirable but not necessary.)
Using the assumed direction of current, assign polarities to all resistors through which the current flows.
Place the correct polarities on any sources included in the circuit.
Starting at any point in the circuit, trace around the circuit, writing down the amount and polarity of the voltage
across each component in succession. The polarity used is the sign AFTER the assumed current has passed through
the component. Stop when the point at which the trace was started is reached.
Place these , with their polarities, into the equation and solve for the desired quantity.
Example: Three resistors are connected across a 50-volt source. What is the voltage across the third resistor if the
voltage drops across the first two resistors are 25 volts and 15 volts?
: First, a diagram, such as the one shown in figure 3-23, is drawn. , a direction of current is assumed (as shown).
Using this current, the polarity markings are placed at each end of each resistor and also on the terminals of the
source. Starting at point A, trace around the circuit in the direction of current flow, recording the voltage and
polarity of each component. Starting at point A and using the components from the circuit:
Example: Three resistors are connected across a 50-volt source. What is the voltage across the third resistor if the
voltage drops across the first two resistors are 25 volts and 15 volts?
: First, a diagram, such as the one shown in figure 6.8, is drawn. , a direction of current is assumed (as shown).
Using this current, the polarity markings are placed at each end of each resistor and also on the terminals of the
source. Starting at point A, trace around the circuit in the direction of current flow, recording the voltage and
polarity of each component. Starting at point A and using the components from the circuit:
Substituting values from the circuit:
Fig. 6.8Determining unknown voltage in a series circuit.
Using the same idea as above, you can solve a problem in which the current is the unknown quantity.
Example: A circuit having a source voltage of 60 volts contains three resistors of 5 ohms, 10 ohms, and 15 ohms.
Find the circuit current.
Solution: Draw and label the circuit (fig.6.9). Establish a direction of current flow and assign polarities. Next,
starting at any point - point A will be used in this example - write out the loop equation.
KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
Kirchoff’s Current Law states that in a parallel circuit, the algebraic sum of the current entering a point is equal to
the algebraic sum of the current leaving that point. This law is also known as junction law or node law or point
law.
In other words, total current leaving a junction is equal to the total current entering that junction as there is no
accumulation of charge at the junction of the network.
Junction may be defined as a point in the circuit where two or more circuit path come together. In case of parallel
circuit , it is the point in the circuit where the individual branches join.
Consider some conductors having current leading to point A whereas some have currents leading away from point
A as in figure below. Assuming incoming current to be positive and outgoing current to be negative, we have
Incoming current = outgoing current

I1 + (-I2) + (-I3) +(+I4) +(-I5) = 0
I1+I4-I2-I3-I5=0
I1+I4 =I2+I3+I5
Example using Kirchoff’s both law
Fig. 6.13
Assume an electric network consisting of two voltage sources and three resistors.(fig 6.13)
According to the first law we have
The second law applied to the closed circuit s1 gives

The second law applied to the closed circuit s2 gives
Thus we get a linear system of equations in :
Assuming
the solution is
I3 hasa negative sign, which means that the direction of I3 opposite to the assumed direction (the direction defined
in the picture).
Fig.6.14
In the fig 6.14

IT= 17 mA

I1=?
I2=12mA
By using Kirchoff’s current law
At junction A
Incoming current = Outgoing current
IT = I1 + I2
17 mA = I1 + 12 mA
I1 = 5 mA
PARALLEL DC CIRCUIT
A circuit in which two or more electrical resistance or load are connected across the same voltage source is called
a parallel circuit.
As compare to series circuit,parallel circuit provides more than one path for current flow.Each parallel path is
called as a branch.
The minimum requirements for a parallel circuit are
1. A power source
2. Conductors
3. A resistance or load for each current path
Two or more path for current flow
Fig. 6.15

The figure 6.15 is a basic parallel circuit. Current from the battery divides at point A and goes through R1 and
R2.
SERIES PARALLEL DC CIRCUIT
Most of the circuits in electrical are series- parallel circuits that is it is a combination of series and parallel circuit.
A series parallel circuit consist of group of parallel resistors connected in series with other resistors. To solve
series-parallel circuit the same rule can be applied as for the individual series and parallel circuits.
UNDERSTANDING A SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUIT(COMBINATION CIRCUIT)

EXAMPLE(fig 6.29)
Fig. 6.29
In the fig 6.29, voltage source will provide a current out to resistor R1, then to parallel resistors R2 and R3 and
then to unknown resistor after junction B say R4 before returning to source voltage.
First step is to recognize parallel group of resistors R2 and R3 and find out their equivalent resistance.
R23= R2R3
R2 + R3
R2 and R3 can be reduced to R23.

Now the above diagram can be simplified as below(fig 6.30)

Fig. 6.30
Referring the figure 6.30 total resistance can be calculated by adding all three resistor value as this is a
series circuit.
Fig. 6.31
To simplify a above combination circuit(fig 6.31), we will solve parallel branch of a series parallel network
We know
RT = R1 + R23
R23 = R2R3
R2 + R3
R23 = 2KΩ X 3KΩ
2KΩ+3KΩ
R23 = 6 KΩ = 1.2 K Ω
5KΩ
RT = R1 + R23 = 1 + 1.2 = 2.2K Ω
Total current can be taken out as
IT = VT/RT = 24V /2.2 K Ω = 10.9 mA
VOLTAGE DIVIDER(POTENTIAL DIVIDER)
Fig. 6.44 A simple divider
Fig. 6.45
A voltage divider are devices that make it possible to obtain more than one voltage from a single power source(fig
6.44).It consist of resistor or resistors connected in series with fixed or movable contact and two fixed terminal
contacts.As current flow through the resistor,different voltages can be obtained between the contacts.
Series circuit are used as Voltage Divider.As same current flow in the series circuit,voltage drop is proportional
to the ohmic value of resistors.
To understand how a voltage divider works,examine fig 6.45.Each load draws a given amount of current:
I1,I2,I3.In addition to load current ,some bleed current IB flows.The current IT is drawn from the power source
and is equal to the sum of all currents.
The voltage at each point is measured with respect to common point or reference point.
NOTE:Common point is the point at which the total current IT divides into separate current (I1,I2,I3)

The current which does not flow through any of the load devices is called a bleed current.
Each part of voltage divider has different current flowing in it.The current distribution is as follows:
Through R1 ------------ bleeder current(IB)
Through R2-------------IB plus I1
Through I3--------------IB plus I1, plus I2
The voltage across each resistor of voltage divider is
90 V across R1
60 V across R2
50 V across R3
Fig. 6.46
In the figure 6.46,the common reference point that is ground symbol has been moved to a different point on the
voltage divider.The voltage drop across R1 is 20 V, however since tap A is connected to point in the circuit that
is at the same potential as the negative side of the battery, the voltage between tap A and reference point is a
negative (-)20V .Since resistors R2 and R3 are connected to the positive side of the battery,the voltages between
the reference point and tap B or C are positive.
The following points should be kept in mind while determining negative and positive voltages:
1.If current enters a resistance flowing away from the reference point, the voltage drop across that resistance is
positive in respect to the reference point.

2. If current flows out of a resistance towards the reference point, the voltage drop across that resistance is negative
in respect to the reference point.
It is the location of the reference point that determines whether a voltage is positive or negative.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF VOLTAGE DIVIDER
In actual practice the computed value of the bleeder resistor does not always come out to an even value. Since the
rule-of-thumb for bleeder current is only an estimated value, the bleeder resistor can be of a value close to the
computed value. (If the computed value of the resistance were 510 ohms, a 500-ohm resistor could be used.) Once
the actual value of the bleeder resistor is selected, the bleeder current must be recomputed. The voltage developed
by the bleeder resistor must be equal to the voltage requirement of the load in parallel with the bleeder resistor.
The value of the remaining resistors in the voltage divider is computed from the current through the remaining
resistors and the voltage across them. These values must be used to provide the required voltage and current to
the loads.

3.7 RESISTANCE
It may be defined as the property of a substance due to which it opposes (or restricts) the flow of electricity
(i.e. electrons) through it.
Metals (as a class) acids and salts solutions are good conductors of electricity. Amongst pure metals, silver,
copper and aluminum are very good conductors in the given order. Due to the presence of a large number
of free or loosely attached electrons in their atoms.
Those substances which offer relatively greater difficulty or hindrance to the passage of these electro ns are
said to be relatively poor conductors of electricity like bakelite, mica m glass rubber p.v.c
(polyviny1chloride)and dry wood etc.
1. The unit of resistance
The practical unit of resistance is ohm. A conductor is said to have a resistance of one ohm if it permits
one ampere current to flow through it when one volt is impressed across its terminals.
For insulators whose resistances are very high, a much bigger unit is used i.e. mega -ohm = 106 (the prefix
‘mega’ or mego meaning a million) or kilo – ohm = 103 ohm (kilo means thousand ). In the case of very
small resistances, smaller units like milli- ohm = 10-3 ohm or micro-ohm =10-6 ohm are used. The symbol
for ohm is Ω.
Table 1.1. Multiple and sub-multiples of Ohm

Prefix Its meaning Abbreviation Equal to
Mega- One million mΩ 106Ω
Kilo- One thousand kΩ 103Ω
Centi- One hundredth cΩ 10-2Ω
Milli- One thousandth mΩ 10-3Ω
Micro- One millionth µΩ 10-6Ω
2. Law of resistance
The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on the following factors:
i. It varies directly as its length
ii. It varies inversely as the cross-section A of the conductor.
iii. It depends on the nature of the material.
iv. It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.
1. length of conductor: The resistance of a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the length of a
given wire. The longer the length of given size of wire greater is its resistance. If length of a given wire
increases, some energy will be given off as heat as free electrons move from atom to atom. This energy
loss is subtracted from the energy given to the conductor (given voltage).Finally this leads to decrease of
current flow and increase of resistance. If length of conductor increases, resistance increases.
R is directly proportional to the Length of Conductor

Fig 7.1
Type of conductor material (Resistivity): The resistance of a metallic conductor is dependent on the type
of conductor material .Certain metals are used as conductors due to free electrons in the outermos t orbit.
Copper is one of the best conductor as compare to aluminum for a given diameter. However, aluminium is
often used when the weight factor is important.
Specific resistance or resistivity is represented by ρ
ρ = AR/l ,where A is area and l is length of conductor
ρ = m2xohm/m = ohm-metre
Unit of resistivity is ohm-meter(Ω-m)
Conductor MATERIAL RESISTIVITY

(OHM MATERS @200 C
Silver 1.64x10-8
Copper 1.72x10-8
Aluminum 2.83x10-8
Tungsten 5.50x10-8
Nickel 7.80x10-8
Iron 12.0x10-8
Constantan 49.0x10-8
Nichrome ii 110x10-8
3.Cross sectional Area of conductor: The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the cross
sectional area of the conductor. If cross sectional area is increased, more no. of electrons move through a
conductor. Resulting in large amount of current flow for a given voltage. More the current flow, less will
be the resistance and vice versa.
Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area.
4. Effect of Temperature: The fourth significant factor influencing the resistance of a conductor is the
temperature. The amount of change in resistance per unit change of temperature is called as the temperature
coefficient. Some material shows positive temperature coefficient(their resi stance increases with increase
of temperature). Some material shows negative temperature coefficient(their resistance decreases with
increase of temperature.
 Metals have positive temperature coefficient(PTC)
 Electrolytes, insulators(such as paper, rubber, glass,mica etc.) and semiconductors eg. Carbon have
negative temperature coefficient.(NTC)
 Some alloys such as Constantan and Manganin have zero temperature coefficient as their resistance
remains relatively constant with change in temperature.
The resistance Rt at a temperature of t(°C) can be calculated from the approximation
Rt = R0 (1 + t)
Where,R0 is the resistance at 0°C, t is the temperature coefficient per degree, taking 0°C as standard
Example: The field winding of a generator has a resistance of 40 at 0°C.What is the resistance at
50°C?Resistance Temperature coefficient of copper is 0.0043 per °C at 0°C.
Rt = R0 (1 + t)
=40(1 + 0.0043x50)
=40 x 1.215 = 48.6
COLOUR CODE SYSTEMS
With end to center band system,four bands are commonly used on resistor.
To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.
bandA is the first significant figure of component value (left side)
bandB is the second significant figure (Some precision resistors have a third significant figure, and thus
five bands.)
bandC is the decimal multiplier
bandD if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means 20%)
For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit 4 (yellow in table
below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that the tolerance is
±5%, so the real resistance could lie anywhere between 4,465 and 4,935 ohms.
Resistors manufactured for military use may also include a fifth band which indicates component failure
rate (reliability)
The first and second band represent the numerical value of the resistor, and the color of the third band
specify the power-of-ten multiplier. The color bands are always read from left to right starting with the
side that has a band closer to the edge.
For carbon-composition and carbon film resistors, the common tolerances are 5%, 10%, and 20%,
indicating that the actual value of the resistor can vary from the nominal value by ±5%, ±10% and ±20%.
If the band is gold, it specifies a 5% tolerance; silver specifies a 10% tolerance; if no band is present, the
tolerance is 20%.
The table below shows the color code and their associated value:

First-band Second-band Third-band
Color Fourth-band
Digit Digit Multiplier
0
Black 0 0 10 = 1
Brown 1 1 101 = 10 1%
Red 2 2 102 = 100 2%
Orange 3 3 103 = 1000 3%
Yellow 4 4 104 = 10000 4%
Green 5 5 105 = 100000
Blue 6 6 106 = 1000000
Violet 7 7 107 = 10000000
Gray 8 8 108 = 100000000
White 9 9 109 = 1000000000
Gold 5%
silver 10%
None 20%
The first and second bands represent the numerical value of the resistor, and the color of the third band
specify the power-of-ten multiplier. The color bands are always read from left to right starting with the
side that has a band closer to the edge.
For carbon-composition and carbon film resistors, the common tolerances are 5%, 10%, and 20%,
indicating that the actual value of the resistor can vary from the nominal value by ±5%, ±10% and ±20%.
If the band is gold, it specifies a 5% tolerance; silver specifies a 10% tolerance; if no band is present, the
tolerance is 20%.
Note that the color-code system for capacitors is very similar to that of resistors except there is a fifth band
representing the temperature coefficient. This band is the first one closest to one end of the capacitor. The
other four fall into the same order as mentioned for resistors. In this case,the second, third, and fourth
bands are used to determine the capacitance. The fifth band represents the tolerance of the capacitor.
So, for a 560 ohm, 5% resistor the color will be green, blue, brown and gold. Green and blue are the first
significant digits (56); brown is the multiplier (10 1 = 10) and gold is the (5%). 56 x 10 = 560Ω.
If the 3rd band would be red instead of brown, the multiplier would be (10 2 = 100) instead of 10 and the
resistor value would be 56 x 100 = 5600 ohms = 5.6 k ohms.
If the multiplier band is gold or silver, then the decimal point is moved to the left one or two places ( by
10 or 100). For example, a resistor with green, blue, silver and gold rings has a value of 56 x 0.01 = 0.56Ω.
The 5-band code
The 5 band code is used for marking high quality, precision resistors with 2%, 1% or lower tolerances.
The rules are similar to the previous system; the only difference is the number of digit bands. The first 3

bands will represent the value, the 4th band will be the multiplier and the 5th stripe will give us the
tolerance.
Optional band
A few resistors have an additional band - often giving beginners a bit of trouble - indicating either the
reliability or the temperature coefficient.
The reliability band specifies the failure rate per 1000 hours (assuming that a full wattage being applied to
the resistor). This stripe is found primarily on 4-band resistors made for military applications and seldom
used in commercial .
The temperature coefficient is more commonly marked, especially on quality 5-band resistors, as it starts
to become an important factor for precision components. For a resistor with temperature coefficient of 200
ppm, for example, a change in temperature of 50°C causes a value change of 1%. The most common values
for this band are presented in the color chart above.
Examples:
Four band code:
Green, blue, red, with silver tolerance band: 56 x 100 = 5.6 kohms, with a tolerance of 10%
Brown, black, orange, gold tolerance band: 10 x 1000 = 10000 ohms (or 10K ohms), with a
tolerance of 5%
Red, red, brown, silver tolerance band: 22 x 10 = 220 ohms (220 ohms), with a tolerance of
10%
Five band code:

Blue, brown, white, brown, red tolerance band: 619 x 10 = 6190 ohms (6.19K ohms), with a
tolerance of 2%
Red, red, brown, black, with a brown tolerance band: 221 x 1 = 221 ohms, with a tolerance of
1%
Brown, black, black, red, with a brown tolerance band: 100 x 100 = 10000 ohms (10.0K), with
a tolerance of 1%
So, for a 560 ohm, 5% resistor the color will be green, blue, brown and gold. Green and blue are the first
significant digits (56); brown is the multiplier (10 1 = 10) and gold is the (5%). 56 x 10 = 560Ω.
If the 3rd band would be red instead of brown, the multiplier would be (10 2 = 100) instead of 10 and the
resistor value would be 56 x 100 = 5600 ohms = 5.6 k ohms.
If the multiplier band is gold or silver, then the decimal point is moved to the left one or two places ( by
10 or 100). For example, a resistor with green, blue, silver and gold rings has a value of 56 x 0.01 = 0.56Ω.

The 5-band code
The 5 band code is used for marking high quality, precision resistors with 2%, 1% or lower tolerances. The
rules are similar to the previous system; the only difference is the number of digit bands. The first 3 bands
will represent the value, the 4th band will be the multiplier and the 5th stripe will give us the tolerance.
Optional band
A few resistors have an additional band - often giving beginners a bit of trouble - indicating either the
reliability or the temperature coefficient.
The reliability band specifies the failure rate per 1000 hours (assuming that a full wattage being applied to
the resistor). This stripe is found primarily on 4-band resistors made for military applications and seldom
used in commercial .
The temperature coefficient is more commonly marked, especially on quality 5-band resistors, as it starts
to become an important factor for precision components. For a resistor with temperature coefficient of 200
ppm, for example, a change in temperature of 50°C causes a value change of 1%. The most common values
for this band are presented in the color chart above.
Examples:
Four band code:
Green, blue, red, with silver tolerance band: 56 x 100 = 5.6 kohms, with a tolerance of 10%
Red, red, brown, silver tolerance band: 22 x 10 = 220 ohms (220 ohms), with a tolerance of
10%
More 4 band resistor color code examples: E12 and E24 series.
Five band code:
Blue, brown, white, brown, red tolerance band: 619 x 10 = 6190 ohms (6.19K ohms), with a
tolerance of 2%
Red, red, brown, black, with a brown tolerance band: 221 x 1 = 221 ohms, with a tolerance of
1%
Brown, black, black, red, with a brown tolerance band: 100 x 100 = 10000 ohms (10.0K), with
a tolerance of 1%
6 band resistor

Resistors with 6 bands are usually for high precision resistors that have an additional band to specify the
temperature coefficient (ppm/K). The most common color for the sixth band is brown (100 ppm/K). This
means that for a temperature change of 10 ˚C, the resistance value can change 0.1%. For special where
temperature coefficient is critical other colorsShown example: orange (3), red (2), brown (1), green (x10),
brown (1%), red(50 ppm/K): 3.21 k Ω 1% 50 ppm/K.
RESISTOR IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

SERIES RESISTANCE:
Resistors can be connected in series; that is, the current flows through them one after another. The circuit
in Figure 7.2 shows three resistors connected in series, and the direction of current is indicated by the
arrow.
Figure 7.2 Resistors connected in series
Note that since there is only one path for the current to travel, the current through each of the resistors is
the same.
Also, the voltage drops across the resistors must add up to the total voltage supplied by the battery:
Since V = I R, then
[3]

But Ohm's Law must also be satisfied for the complete circuit:
[4]
Setting equations [3] and [4] equal, we get:
[5]
We know what the current through each resistor (from equation [1]) is just I.
[6] So the currents cancel on both sides, and we arrive at an expression for equivalent resistance for resistors
connected in series.
[7]
SERIES CIRCUIT
EXAMPLE (Fig 7.3)
PARALLEL RESISTANCE
If two or more components are connected in parallel they have the same potential difference ( voltage)
across their ends. The potential differences across the components are the same in magnitude, and they also
have identical polarities. The same voltage is applicable to all circuit components connected in parallel.
The total current is the sum of the currents through the individual components, in accordance with
Kirchhoff’s current law.
Voltage
In a parallel circuit the voltage is the same for all elements.
Resistors
The current in each individual resistor is found by Ohm's law. Factoring out the voltage gives

To find the total resistance of all components, add the reciprocals of the resistances of each component
and take the reciprocal of the sum. Total resistance will always be less than the value of the smallest
resistance:
For only two resistors, the unreciprocated expression is reasonably simple:
This sometimes goes by the mnemonic "product over sum".

s to:
and therefore to:
To find the current in a component with resistance , use again:
The components divide the current according to their reciprocal resistances, so, in the case of two
resistors,
EXAMPLE(fig 7.9)
Find the total resistance, RT of the following resistors connected in a parallel network.

Fig 7.9
The total resistance RT across the two terminals A and B is calculated as:
SERIES PARALLEL COMBINATION CIRCUITS
Circuits which are combination of series and parallel circuits are called as combination circuits.Example
for such a circuit is given in fig 7.13 where voltage source Es will provide current to resistir R1 ,then to
group of resistors R2 and R3 and then to other unknown resistor say as R4 before returning to the voltage
source.
Fig 7.13
Simplification of the circuit can be done by reducing parallel circuit into an equivalent resistor.

R23 = R2R3/R2+R3
R2 and R3 can be reduced to R23 as shown below (fig 7.14)
Fig 7.14
The total resistance RT of the circuit can now be determined as

RT = R1 + R23 + R4
OPERATION AND USE OF POTENTIOMETER AND RHEOSTAT
Fig 7.16
A potentiometer, a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a or rotating that forms an adjustable voltage
divider. If only two are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat.(fig 7.16)
A potentiometer measuring instrument is essentially a used for measuring electric potential (voltage); the
component is an implementation of the same , hence its name.
are commonly used to control electrical devices such as controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers
operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick. Potentiometers
are rarely used to directly control significant power ( than a watt), since the power dissipated in the
potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the controlled load.
Potentiometer construction
Fig 7.17
A potentiometer is a adjustable electrical resistor that uses three (fig 7.17). In many , potentiometers are
what establish the levels of output. For example, in a , a potentiometer is used to adjust the volume. In a
television set, computer monitor or light dimmer, it can be used to control the brightness of the screen or
light bulb.
How It Works
Potentiometers, sometimes called pots, are relatively simple devices. O ne terminal of the potentiometer is
connected to a , and another is hooked up to a ground — a point with no voltage or resistance and which
serves as a neutral reference point. The third terminal slides across a strip of resistive material. Thi s
resistive strip generally has a low resistance at one end, and its resistance gradually increases to a maximum
resistance at the other end. The third terminal serves as the connection between the power source and
ground, and it usually is operated by the user through the use of a knob or lever.
The user can adjust the position of the third terminal along the strip to manually increase or decrease
resistance. The amount of resistance determines how much current flows through a . When used to regulate
current, the potentiometer is limited by the maximum resistivity of the strip. Controlling Voltage(fig 7.19)
Potentiometers also can be used to the potential difference, or voltage, across circuits. The involved in
utilizing a potentiometer for this purpose is a little complicated. It involves two circuits, with the first
circuit consisting of a cell and a resistor. At one end, the cell is connected i n series to the second circuit,
and at the other end, it is connected to a potentiometer in parallel with the second circuit.
The potentiometer in this arrangement drops the voltage by an amount equal to the ratio between the
resistance allowed by the position of the third terminal and the highest possible resistivity of the strip. In
other words, if the knob controlling the resistance is positioned at the exact halfway point on the resistive
strip, then the voltage will drop by exactly 50 percent, no matter what the is. Unlike with electrical current
regulation, is not limited by the maximum resistivity of the strip.

Fig 7.18
FIG 7.19
Fig 7.20

Fig 7.21
In the figure 7.21,potentiometer is used to obtain variable voltage from affixed voltage source to an
electrical load.The voltage applied to the load is between point 2 and 3.When the slider arm is moved to
point 1,entire voltage is applied to electrical load and when the arm is moved to point 3,the voltage applied
to the load is zero.Thus,potentiometer varies the voltage between full to zero to the load
APPLICATION OF POTENTIOMETER
Potentiometer applications
Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant amounts of power (more than a watt or so).
Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (for example volume controls on audio
equipment), and as control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light dimmer uses a potentiometer
to control the switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly to control the brightness of lamps.
Preset potentiometers are widely used throughout electronics wherever adjustments must be made during
manufacturing or servicing.
Audio control

Linear potentiometers ("faders")
Low-power potentiometers, both linear and rotary, are used to control audio equipment, changing loudness,
frequency attenuation and other characteristics of audio signals.
The 'log pot' is used as the volume control in audio power amplifiers, where it is also called an "audio taper
pot", because the amplitude response of the human ear is approximately logarithmic. It ensures that on a
volume control marked 0 to 10, for example, a setting of 5 sounds subjectively half as loud as a setting of
10. There is also an anti-log pot or reverse audio taper which is simply the reverse of a logarithmic
potentiometer. It is almost always used in a ganged configuration with a logarithmic potentiometer, for
instance, in an audio balance control.
Potentiometers used in combination with filter networks act as tone controls or equalizers.
Television
Potentiometers were formerly used to control picture brightness, contrast, and color response. A
potentiometer was often used to adjust "vertical hold", which affected the synchronization between the
receiver's internal sweep circuit (sometimes a multivibrator) and the received picture signal, along with
other things such as audio-video carrier offset, tuning frequency (for push-button sets) and so on.
Motion control
Potentiometers can be used as position feedback devices in order to create "closed loop" control, such as
in a servomechanism. This method of motion control used in the DC Motor is the simplest method of
measuring the angle or speed.
Transducers
Potentiometers are also very widely used as a part of displacementtransducers because of the simplicity of
construction and because they can give a large output signal.
Rheostats
When only two of the three terminals are used, the potentiometer acts as a type of variable called a rheostat.
One end terminal is used, along with the sliding terminal. Rheostats typically are used to handle higher
levels of current or higher voltage than potentiometers. For example, rheostats might be used to control
motors in industrial machinery

A rheostat is a variable resistor which is used to control current. They are able to vary the resistance in a
circuit without interruption. The construction is very similar to the construction of a potentiometers. It uses
only two connections, even when 3 terminals (as in a potentiometer) are present. The first connection is
made to one end of the resistive element and the other connection to the wiper (sliding contact). In contrast
to potentiometers, rheostats have to carry a significant current. Therefore they are mostly constructed as
wire wound resistors. Resistive wire is wound around an insulating ceramic core and the wiper slides over
the windings.
Rheostats were often used as power control devices, for example to control light intensity (dimmer), speed
of motors, heaters and ovens. Nowadays they are not used for this function anymore. This is because of
their relatively low efficiency. In power control applications they are replaced by switching electronics. As
a variable resistance they are often used for tuning and calibration in circuits. In these cases they are
adjusted only during fabrication or circuit tuning (preset resistor). In such cases trimpots are often used,
wired as a rheostat. But dedicated 2 terminal preset resistors also exist
OPERATION OF THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone Bridge was originally designed by Charles Wheatstone to measure unknown resistance
values and as a means of calibrating measuring instruments, voltmeters, ammeters, etc, by the use of a long
resistive slide wire. Although today digital multimeters provide the simplest way to measure a resistance,
The Wheatstone Bridge can still be used to measure very low values of resistances down in the milli -Ohms
range.
The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is nothing more than two simple series-parallel arrangements of resistors
connected between a voltage supply terminal and ground producing zero voltage difference when the two
parallel resistor legs are balanced. A Wheatstone bridge circuit has two input terminals and two output
terminals consisting of four resistors configured in a diamond-like arrangement as shown. This is typical
of how the Wheatstone bridge is drawn.

The Wheatstone Bridge
Fig 7.25
When balanced, the Wheatstone bridge can be analysed simply as two series strings in parallel(fig 7.25).
In resistors in Series, we saw that each resistor within the series chain produces an IR drop, or voltage drop
across itself as a consequence of the current flowing through it as defined by Ohms Law. Consider the
series circuit below.(fig 7.26)
Fig 7.26
As the two resistors are in series, the same current ( i ) flows through both of them. Therefore the current
flowing through these two resistors in series is given as: V/R T.
I = V ÷ R = 12V ÷ (10Ω + 20Ω) = 0.4A
The voltage at point C, which is also the voltage drop across the lower resistor, R2 is calculated as:
VR2 = I × R2 = 0.4A × 20Ω = 8 volts
Then we can see that the source voltage VS is divided among the two series resistors in direct proportion
to their resistances as VR1 = 4V and VR2 = 8V. This is the principle of voltage division, producing what is
commonly called a potential divider circuit or voltage divider network.
Now if we add another series resistor circuit using the same resistor values in parallel with the first we
would have the following circuit.(fig 7.27)

Fig 7.27
As the second series circuit has the same resistive values of the first, the voltage at point D, which is also
the voltage drop across resistor, R4 will be the same at 8 volts, with respect to zero (battery negative), as
the voltage is common and the two resistive networks are the same.
But something else equally as important is that the voltage difference between point C and point D will be
zero volts as both points are at the same value of 8 volts as: C = D = 8 volts, then the difference is: 0 volts
When this happens, both sides of the parallel network are said to be balanced because the voltage at point
C is the same value as the voltage at point D.
Now let’s consider what would happen when we reverse the position of the two resistors, R3 and R4 in the
second parallel branch.
Fig 7.28
With resistors, R3 and R4 reversed(fig 7.28), the same current flows through the series combination and the
voltage at point D, which is also the voltage drop across resistor, R4 will be:
VR4 = 0.4A × 10Ω = 4 volts
Now with VR4 having 4 volts dropped across it, the voltage difference between points C and D will be 4
volts as: C = 8 volts and D = 4 volts. Then the difference is: 8 - 4 = 4 volts
The result of swapping the two resistors is that both sides or “arms” of the parallel network are different
as they produce different voltage drops. When this happens the parallel network is said to be unbalanced
as the voltage at point C is at a different value to the voltage at point D.
Then we can see that the resistance ratio of these two parallel arms, ACB and ADB, results in a voltage
difference between 0 volts (balanced) and the maximum supply voltage (unbalanced), and this is the basic
principal of the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit.
So we can see that a Wheatstone bridge circuit can be used to compare an unknown resistance R X with
others of a known value, for example, R1 and R2, have fixed values, and R3 could be variable. If we
connected a voltmeter, ammeter or classically a galvanometer between points C and D, and then varied
resistor, R3 until the meters read zero, would result in the two arms being balanced and the value of RX,
(substituting R4 ) known as shown.
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
Fig 7.29
By replacing R4 above with a resistance of known or unknown value in the sensing arm of the Wheatstone
bridge corresponding to R X and adjusting the opposing resistor, R3 to “balance” the bridge network, will
result in a zero voltage output. Then we can see that balance occurs when:
APPLICATION OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
The Wheatstone Bridge has many uses in electronic circuits other than comparing an unknown resistance
with a known resistance. When used with Operational Amplifiers, the Wheatstone bridge circuit can be
used to measure and amplify small changes in resistance, R X due, for example, to changes in light intensity
as we have seen above.
But the bridge circuit is also suitable for measuring the resistance change of other changing quantities, so
by replacing the above photo-resistive LDR light sensor for a thermistor, pressure sensor, strain gauge, and
other such transducers, as well as swapping the positions of the LDR and VR1, we can use them in a variety
of other Wheatstone bridge applications.
Also more than one resistive sensor can be used within the four arms (or branches) of the bridge formed
by the resistors R1 to R4 to produce “full-bridge”, “half-bridge” or “quarter-bridge circuit arrangements
providing thermal compensation or automatic balancing of the Wheatstone bridge.
CONDUCTANCE
Electrical conductance measures how easily electricity along a certain path through an electrical element.
The SI derived unit of conductance is the siemens(S). Because it is the of resistance (measured in ohms),

historically, this was referred to as mho.
Conductance acts opposite to that of resistance.Therefore,conductance is directly proportional to the area

and inversely proportional to the length of material.The temperature also is a factor affecting conductance
but keeping temperature constant,conductance can be calculated.It is represented by letter G.
R = 1/G
G = 1/R
Positive and negative coefficients of conductance

Similar to resistors,conductance too depends on temperature.Since,it is reciprocal to resistance,it means
where a material shows PTC, Positive temperature coefficient of resistance,there it will exhibit
NTC,Negative temperature coefficient of resistance and vice versa.
ELECTRICAL RESISTOR
Resistor
A typical -lead resistor
Type Passive
Working principle Electric resistance
Electronic symbol
Two common schematic symbols
Fig 7.31
A resistor is a passive two-terminalelectrical component that electrical resistance as a element. Resistors

act to reduce flow, and, at the same time act to lower voltage levels within circuits.Resistors are
manufactured in different types and sizes ans possess different resistance value.

TYPES OF RESISTORS WITH ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
Fig 7.32
TYPES OF RESISTORS
1. Fixed resistor
Fixed resistors have built into the design a resistor of opposing current. The general use of a resistor in a
circuit is to limit the amount of current low. There are a number of methods used in construction and sizing
of a resistor or that control properties such a resistance valve, the precision of the resistance valve, and the
ability to dissipate heat. While in some applications the purpose of the resistive element is used to generate
heat, such as in propeller anti-ice boots, heat typically is the unwanted loss of energy.
a. Carbon composition
The carbon composed resistor is constructed from a mixture of finely grouped carbon / graphite an
insulation material for filler, and a substance for binding the material together. The amount of graphite in
relation to the insulation material will determine the ohmic or resistive valve of the resistor. This mixture
is compressed into a rod, which is then fitted with axial leads or “pigtails.” The finis hed product is then
sealed in an insulating coating for isolation and physical protection. This resistive material can be graphite
for the carbon film resistor, nickel chromium for the metal film resistor, metal and glass for the metal glaze
resistor and last and an insulating oxide for the metal oxide resistor. They are available in power ratings of
1/8,1/4,1/2,1and 2 W, in voltage ratings of 250,350 and500V. they have low failure rates when properly
used.
b. Deposited Carbon
Deposited carbon resistors consist of ceramic rods which have a carbon film deposited on them. As
compared to carbon composition resistors, these resistors offer a major improvement in lower current noise
and in closer tolerance. These resistor are being replaced by metal film and metal glaze resistors.
c. High – Voltage Ink Film

These resistor consist of ceramic base on which a special resistive ink is laid down in helical band. These
resistors are capable of with sanding high voltages and find extensive use in cathode - ray circuits in radar
and in medical electronics. Their resistance range form 1 k Ω to 100,000MΩ with voltage range up to 1000
kV.
d. Metal film
Metal film resistor are made by depositing vaporized metal in vacuum on an ceramic – core rod. Metal film
resistor have excellent tolerance and temperature coefficient and are etrememlyreliable. Hence, they are
very suitable for numerous high grade applications in low- level of certain instruments although they are
much more costlier.
e. Metal glaze
A metal glaze resistor consists of a metal glass mixture which is applied as a thick film to a ceramic
substrate and then fired to form a film. The resistance can be made to vary from 1 Ω to many mega ohms.
f. Wire wound resistor

It consist of ceramic core wound with a drawn wire having accurately controlled characteristics.Different
wire alloys are used for providing different resistances ranges.These resistors have highest stability and
highest power rating.It is coated with an insulating material such as Baked enamel. Wire wou ld resistor
typically control large amounts of current and have high power ratings. A wire wound resistor with tap is
a special type of fixed resistor that can be adjusted. Another type of wire- would resistor is that constructed
of manganin wire, used where high precision is needed.
g. Cermet(Ceramic Metal)
The cermet resistor are made by firing certain metals blended with ceramics on a ceramic substrate. The
value of resistance depends on the type of mix and its thickness. These resistor have very accurate
resistance values and show high stability even under extreme temperatures. Usually, they are produced as
small rectangles having leads for being attached to printed circuit boards(PCB).
Variable resistor
Variable resistor are constructed so that the resistive value can be changed easily. This adjustment can be
manual or automatic, and the adjustments can be made while the system that it is connected to is in
operation. There are two basic types of manual adjustors. One is the rheostat and the seco nd is the
potentiometer .
a. Rheostat : It is a variable resistor use to vary the amount of current flowing in the circuit and is
connected in series with the circuit.Its resistance is very less and it has two connections.One is fixed and
other is movable.It can handle high current.eg.dimmer control of lights Potentiometer:It is a variable
resistor having three connection One movable and two fixed.
Special Resistor :
a. Thermistor
The thermistor is a type of a variable resistor, which is temperature sensitive. This component has what is
known as aNegative temperature coefficient which means that as the sensed temperature increases, the
resistance of the thermistor decrease.
b. Varistor
It is a voltage dependent metal oxide material whose resistance. Decr eases sharply with increase of
voltage.The zinc oxide based varistor are used for protecting solid state power supply from low and medium
surge voltage. It has nonlinearcurrent–voltage characteristic, and is therefore also known as a voltage-
dependent resistor (VDR).
Wattage Rating of Resistors
When a current is through a , heat is developed within the resistor The resistor must be capable of
dissipating this heat into the surrounding air; otherwise, the temperature of the resistor rises causing a
change in resistance, or possibly causing the resistor to burn out.
The ability of the resistor to dissipate heat depends upon the of the resistor itself. This ability to dissipate
heat depends on the amount of which is exposed to the air. A resistor designed to dissipate a large amount
of heat must therefore have a large physical size. The heat dissipating capability of a resistor is measured
in WATTS . Some of the common wattage ratings of carbon resistors are: one-eighth watt, one-fourth
watt, one-half watt, one watt, and two watts. In some of the newer state-of-the-art circuits of today, much
smaller wattage resistors are used. Generally, the type that you will be able to physically work with are of
the values given. The higher the wattage rating of the resistor the lar ger is the physical size. Resistors that
dissipate very large amounts of power (watts) are usually wirewound resistors. Wirewound resistors with
wattage ratings up to 50 watts are not uncommon. Figure 7.33 shows some resistors which have different
wattage ratings. Notice the relative sizes of the resistors.
Resistors of different wattage ratings

Fig 7.33

3.8 POWER
In physics, power is the rate of doing work. It is equivalent to an amount of energy consumed per unit . In the
MKS system, the unit of power is the joule per second (J/s), known as the watt.
The same amount of work is done when a load up a of stairs whether the person carrying it walks or runs, but
power is needed for running because the work is done in a shorter amount of time. The output power of an
electric motor is the product of the torque that the motor and the of its output shaft. The power involved in
moving a vehicle is the product of the traction force of the and the velocity of the vehicle. The rate at which a
light bulb converts electrical energy into light and heat is measured in watts—the higher the wattage, the more
power, or equivalently the more electrical energy is used per unit time.Power is the rate of doing work .Its unit
is Watts.
1 Watt = 1 Joule/1 Sec

Whether referring to mechanical or electrical system,power can be defined as the rate of energy consumption
or conversion.(amount of energy used or converted in a given amount of time)
Calculation of POWER The power in an electric circuit is calculated by multiplying the voltage in "volts" by
the current in "amps" we arrive at an answer in "watts." Let's apply this to a circuit example:
Fig. 8.1
In the above circuit(fig 8.1), we know we have a battery voltage of 18 volts and a lamp resistance of 3 Ω.
Using Ohm's Law to determine current, we get:
Now that we know the current, we can take that value and multiply it by the voltage to determine power:
Answer: the lamp is dissipating (releasing) 108 watts of power, most likely in the form of both light and heat.

Let's try taking that same circuit and increasing the battery voltage to see what happens. Intuition should tell
us that the circuit current will increase as the voltage increases and the lamp resistance stays the same.
Likewise, the power will increase as well:
Fig. 8.2
Now, the battery voltage is 36 volts instead of 18 volts(fig 8.2). The lamp is still providing 3 Ω of electrical
resistance to the flow of electrons. The current is now:
This stands to reason: if I = E/R, and we double E while R stays the same, the current should double. Indeed, it
has: we now have 12 amps of current instead of 6. Now, what about power?
Notice that the power has increased just as we might have suspected, but it increased quite a bit more than the
current. Why is this? Because power is a function of voltage multiplied by current, and both voltage and current
doubled from their previous values, the power will increase by a factor of 2 x 2, or 4. You can check this by
dividing 432 watts by 108 watts and seeing that the ratio between them is indeed 4.
Using algebra again to manipulate the formulae, we can take our original power formula and modify it for
applications where we don't know both voltage and current:
If we only know voltage (E) and resistance (R):
If we only know current (I) and resistance (R):

REVIEW:
 Power measured in watts, symbolized by the letter "W".

 P = I2R ; P = IE ; P = E2/R
The amount of power changes when either voltage or current, or both voltage and current, are caused to change.
In practice, the ONLY factors that can be changed are voltage and In explaining the different forms that
formulas may take, current is sometimes presented as a quantity that is changed. Remember, if current is
changed, it is because either voltage or resistance has been changed.
Figure 8.3 shows , using a source of power that can be varied from 0 to 8 volts and a graph that indicates the
relationship between voltage and power.
The resistance of this circuit is 2 ohms; this value does not change. Voltage (E) is increased (by increasing the
voltage source), of 1 volt, from 0 to 8 volts. By applying Ohm's law, the current (I) is determined for each step
of voltage. For instance, when E is 1 volt, the current is:
Fig.8.3Graph of power related to changing voltage.

Power (P), in watts, is determined by applying the basic power formula:
and
P=ExI
P = 2 volts x 1 ampere
P = 2 watts
You should notice that when the voltage was increased to 2 volts, the power increased from .5 watts to 2 watts
or 4 times. When the voltage increased to 3 volts, the power increased to 4.5 watts or 9 times. This shows that
if the resistance in a circuit is held constant, the power varies directly with the SQUARE OF THE VOLTAGE.
Another way of proving that power varies as the square of the voltage when resistance is held constant is:

Another important relationship may be seen by studying figure 8.4Thus far, power has been calculated with
voltage and current (P = E x I), and with voltage and resistance
Referring to figure 8.4, note that power also varies as the square of current just as it does with voltage. Thus,
another for power, with current and resistance as its factors, is P = I2R. This can be proved by:
Fig. 8.4Graph of power related to changing current
Up to this point, four of the most important electrical quantities have been discussed. These are voltage (E),
current (I), resistance (R), and power (P). You must understand the relationships which exist among these
quantities because they are used throughout your study of electricity. In the preceding paragraphs, P was
expressed in terms of alternate pairs of the other three basic quantities E, I, and R. In practice, you should be
able to express any one of these quantities in terms of any two of the others.
Figure 8.5 is a summary of 12 basic formulas you should know. The four quantities E, I, R, and P are at the
center of the figure 8.5. Adjacent to each quantity are three segments. Note that in each segment, the basic
quantity is expressed in terms of two other basic quantities, and no two segments are alike.

Fig. 8.5 Summary of basic formulas
For example, the formula wheel in figure 8.5 could be used to find the formula to solve the following
problem:
A circuit has a voltage source that delivers 6 volts and uses 3 watts of power. What is the resistance of the
load?
Since R is the quantity you have been asked to find, look in the section of the wheel that has R in the center.
The segment
contains the quantities you have been given. The formula you would use is
The problem can now be solved.
POWER RATING

The power rating on these devices is usually determined by the amount of heat created from electrical power,
as the heat that is created will damage the device if it reaches a certain level.
One of the most important considerations circuit designers have to make when allocating resistors in their
designs is the appropriate power rating for components. The resistor power rating is based on the amount of
thermal loading a component will be able carry on a continuous basis and are expressed in watts.
A power rating is a measurement of the maximum amount of power that can be used with a specific tool or
device. It is provided in order to keep the user safe and to prevent the tool or device from becoming damaged.
Typically, the rating provided by the manufacturer is slightly less than the actual maximum level in order to
provide additional safety.
Typically, the power rating for a device is expressed in watts when representing the actual power. The perceived
power, however, is expressed as volt-amperes. In the case of large power systems, watts and volt-amperes may
be expressed as a per-unit system rating.
For devices that change electricity into mechanical power or dissipate the power, the power rating is a
measurement of how much they can safely dissipate. Examples of these devices include motors, resistors, and
speaker.
The current conducted by a resistor varies according to several other features of the circuit, thereby making
the correct resistor power rating a critical part of circuit design. Resistor power ratings are expressed in
watts, with common ratings running from small 1/8 watt variants to specialist high watt resistors of several
hundred watts.
In some the wattage rating indicates the maximum power the device is designed to use rather than the normal
operating power. A 150-watt lamp, for example, uses 150 watts when operated at the specified voltage printed
on the bulb. In contrast, a device such as a is not normally given a or a current rating. A resistor is given a
power rating in watts and can be operated at any of voltage and current as long as the power rating is not
exceeded. In most , the actual power used by a resistor is considerably less than the power rating of the resistor
because a 50% factor is used. For example, if a resistor normally used 2 watts of power, a resistor with a power
rating of 3 watts would be used.
of the same value are available in different wattage values. , for example, are commonly made in wattage
ratings of 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, 1, and 2 watts. The larger the physical size of a carbon resistor the higher the wattage
rating. This is true because a larger of material radiates a greater amount of heat more easily.
When resistors with wattage ratings than 5 watts are needed, are used. Wire wound resistors are made in values
between 5 and 200 watts. Special types of wire wound resistors are used for power in excess of 200 watts.
As with other electrical quantities, prefixes may be attached to the word watt when expressing or very small
of power. Some of the more common of these are the kilowatt (1,000 watts), the megawatt (1,000,000 watts),
and the milliwatt (1/1,000 of a watt).

3.9 CAPACITANCE / CAPACITOR
Basic Capacitor
If we can have 2 conductors or plates close together, but separated by an insulator or dielectric, and
apply a voltage to them, electrons are moved from one plate and
placed onto the other one, charging each plate. The charge held by this combination
for a given voltage can be quite large, because of the very strong electric field which can be created
between the two plates. This combination is called a capacitor.
(Unpolarised Capacitor Circuit Symbol)

Dielectric – A nonconductor of electricity, especially a substance with electrical conductivity of
less than a millionth (10-6) of a siemens.
Basic Capacitor Operation
At the instant the voltage is connected to the plates, there will be a rush of current until the potential
difference across the plates is equal to the applied voltage, when all current flow ceases.
This plate voltage will govern any further current flow, into or out of the plates.
So except for any of these small charging and discharging currents, a charged capacitor is
said to block DC current flow.
From a fully charged capacitor, if the battery is now reversed, there will be a rush of current
through the battery as the plates first discharge themselves and then re-charge in the opposite
direction back up to battery voltage, when again all current flow ceases.
Since the plates of the capacitor are changing polarity at the same rate as the ac voltage, the
capacitor seems to pass an alternating current. Actually, the electrons do not pass through the
dielectric, but their rushing back and forth from plate to plate causes a current flow in the circuit. It
is convenient, however, to say that the alternating current flows "through" the capacitor. You know
this is not true, but the expression avoids a lot of trouble when speaking of current flow in a circuit
containing a capacitor.
By the same short cut, you may say that the capacitor does not pass a direct current (if both
plates are connected to a dc source, current will flow only long enough to charge the
capacitor). With a capacitor type of hookup in a circuit containing both AC and DC, only the
ac will be "passed" on to another circuit. Since, as the figure shows, there is always this
continuous current flow in the wires, the capacitor is said to pass AC.
Capacitance Values
As you learned in an earlier learning subject, electric charge is measured in coulombs. A
charge of one coulomb exists when the plates of a capacitor have a deficiency or excess of 6.25
x 1018 electrons.
Capacitance Values
If the charge creates a potential difference of one volt across the plates of the capacitor then
it is said to have a capacity of one farad (symbol F).
This unit is however an extremely large unit and not easy to get. Usual size unit
of capacitance values in practical use:
Microfarad (µF) – (10-6 x 1 farad) Picofarad (pF) –

(10-12 x 1 farad)
Factors affecting capacitance
The capacitance of any given combination of capacitor plates is constant. If we apply a higher
voltage to it, we can increase the charge held, but the ratio of charge/voltage (capacitance)
stays the same.
C = Q/V, where C is capacitance in farads, Q is charge in coulombs and V is voltage in volts.
Just like the amount of gas in a gas cylinder depends on the charging pressure, so the charge in
the capacitor depends on the electrical pressure or voltage. The capacitance however, in the same
way as volume of a gas cylinder, depends on dimension. The capacitance depends on the physical
shapes and sizes of the capacitor. The factors to be considered are:
• Area.
• Distance.
• Dielectric material.
Area of Plates and Number of Plates
The capacitance increases as the total area (A) of the plates increases. The greater
area can hold a greater charge.
Small Plate Area
Small Capacitance
Large Plate Area
Large Capacitance

Connecting capacitors in parallel does the same thing, in effect, enlarging the plate
area. So for capacitors in parallel, you simply add up their values:
•
Ctotal = C1 + C2 + C3 …..
Distance Between Plates
The capacitance increases as the distance between the plates decreases. This action brings
the plates closer together, creating a stronger electric field. Moving the plates apart
weakens the field, giving a lower capacitance.
Small
Distance
Large Large
Capacitance Distance
Small Capacitance
In the same way, connecting the capacitors in series has the effect of increasing the distance
between the first and last plate. The inside plates form an intermediate plate, which forces the
outside plates further apart.

Dielectric
The capacitance also depends on the dielectric material. This has the ability to support an
electric field and has a function similar to that of permeability in
magnetic materials. A dielectric material is a substance that is a poor conductor of electricity,
but an efficient supporter of electrostatic fields.
If the flow of current between opposite electric charge poles is kept to a minimum while the
electrostatic lines of flux are not impeded or interrupted, an electrostatic field can store energy.
Dielectric Constant
The dielectric strength for a given thickness of material is measured by the potential difference
required before a spark can jump through it.
Air (K=1)
Small K Large K
Small Capacitance Large Capacitance
The dielectric materials are compared to air as a standard and a figure called a dielectric
constant (symbol K) worked out. This defines the ability of the material to improve the capacity
of the capacitor.

Examples:
• Air (K = 1)
• Tantalum oxide (K = 11)
• Mica – most common (K = 6.5 - 8.7)
Working Voltage
The safe working voltage for any capacitor is the maximum DC voltage which can be safely applied to
it without the risk of dielectric breakdown. If the value is
exceeded for any given capacitor, the electric field between the plates becomes strong enough to
cause a flashover between the plates. To be able to stand up to higher voltages, a thicker dielectric
is required, but this will move the plates apart, lowering the capacitance. Large plates will be
needed to compensate for that change, making the capacitor physically larger. The maximum safe
working voltage is written on the side. (For example, 75V DC safe working voltage). Occasionally
you may see added to that 90V DC PEAK. This means that the capacitor will safely withstand
surge voltages up to 90V DC.
The voltage rating of a capacitor should be selected so that its working voltage is at least 50%
greater than the highest voltage to be applied to it.
CONSTRUCTION OF CAPACITORS Paper
capacitors
Possibly the simplest and longest enduring is the paper capacitor. This has now largely been
superseded by a polystyrene type, but the method of manufacture is basically the same.

Two long rolls of aluminium foil, separated by a thin layer of waxed tissue paper in the older
type or polystyrene in the newer ones, are rolled tightly into a cylinder. One lead is connected
to each layer of foil and the whole thing is sealed into another cylinder of cardboard or
plastic. Paper capacitors usually range in value from about 300 picofarads to about 4
microfarads. The working voltage of a paper capacitor rarely exceeds 600 volts.
Mica capacitors
This is a high quality capacitor made from thin layers of metal, interleaved with sheets of mica.
Mica is an excellent dielectric and can withstand a higher voltage than can a paper dielectric of
the same thickness.
Alternate sheets of metal are connected together and brought out to the leads.
The assembly can be either placed inside a moulded plastic case as shown in Figure or, when used
as a trimmer capacitor, mounted so that a trimmer screw can compress the stack down to change
its capacitance.
Common values of mica capacitors range from approximately 50 picofarads to 0.2 microfarad
with operating voltages up to 2,000 volts.
Ceramic capacitors
A ceramic capacitor is so named because it contains a ceramic dielectric. One type of ceramic
capacitor uses a hollow ceramic cylinder as both the form on which to construct the capacitor and as
the dielectric material. The plates consist of thin films of metal deposited on the ceramic cylinder.
A second type of ceramic capacitor is manufactured in the shape of a disk. After leads are attached to each
side of the capacitor, the capacitor is completely covered with an insulating moisture-proof coating. Ceramic
capacitors usually range in value from 1 picofarad to 0.01 microfarad and may be used with voltages as high
as 30,000 volts. They are a very stable capacitor and are often used for temperature correction purposes.
Electrolytic capacitors
To obtain very large values of capacitors up to 2,000-4,000 uF, in a small size case, requires the
special characteristics of the electrolytic capacitor. These are manufactured with a very thin film of
dielectric, formed from a layer of gauze soaked in either; borax, phosphate or carbonate between
the plates. Electrolysis converts this to an oxide layer, which is the dielectric. The metal container
in most cases becomes part of the conducting circuit.
For this oxide film or layer to be maintained, the electrolytic capacitor must have a DC potential
applied to it. For this reason they are polarity sensitive and must be connected with the correct
polarity, otherwise they may explode. They work extremely well as filter capacitors in low frequency
circuits or as coupling capacitors where there may be both a DC and AC component. Because the
very thin film dielectric is not a good insulator, these capacitors tend to allow for some leakage
current.
Special dual element electrolytics are made for use in purely AC circuits, where a large
capacitance value is required in small sized container.
Tantalum capacitors
A newer type of electrolytic capacitor has been developed using tantalum foil instead of
aluminium. Titanium has also been used very successfully however the cost of both of these
types is much greater than the aluminium electrolytic. They are manufactured with the wet type
of dielectric like the aluminium ones and also as a solid state chip type, with a built-in oxide
layer.
Tantalum oxide has a dielectric constant over 3 times higher than the aluminium oxide type.
As with the electrolytic capacitor, make sure you get the terminals the right way round.
Tantalum capacitors have +ve terminal marked.

Some tantalums use the normal numbering system for capacitance values while others have
values printed directly on the covering.
Some older types use a colour coding system for values as shown in the table below.
Determination of Capacitor Values – Printed Bodies

This is the most common method used on small capacitors.

Variable capacitors
A variable capacitor is constructed in such manner that its value of capacitance can be varied. A
typical variable capacitor (adjustable capacitor) is the rotor-stator type. It consists of two sets of
metal plates arranged so that the rotor plates move between the stator plates. Air is the dielectric.
As the position of the rotor is changed, the capacitance value is likewise changed. This type of
capacitor is used for tuning most radio receivers.
Another type of variable capacitor is the trimmer capacitor. This capacitor consists of two plates
separated by a sheet of mica. A screw adjustment is used to vary the distance between the plates,
thereby changing the capacitance.
RC Circuits – Exponential Capacitor Charge
When power is applied to a capacitive circuit, current immediately begins to flow as electrons move
from the positive plate to the negative plate. However, the voltage across the plates does not
immediately increase. Instead it rises as the plates become charged.
The time constant of a capacitive circuit is the time, in seconds, required for the voltage across
the capacitor to reach 63.2% of the source voltage. It is determined by multiplying a circuit’s
capacitance by its resistance.
TC = R x C

• TC = Time constant in seconds
• R = Resistance in ohms
• C = Capacitance in farads Time Constant for
exponential charge
Time required for an exponential quantity to change by an amount equal to 63.2 percent of the
total change that can occur.
Timing circuits are often made using a capacitor and a resistor in series. For example, when a
10,000 ohm resistor is connected in series with a 100 microfarad capacitor across a 100 volt
power source, the current begins to flow when the circuit is closed. However, the amount of
current flow is limited by the opposition caused by the resistor.
The time constant in this circuit is 1 second; (10,000 ohms x
0.0001 farad = 1 second);
Therefore, in 1 second, the voltage rises to 63.2 volts. In 5 seconds, the voltage across the
capacitor will equal the source voltage, and the current flow ceases.
Therefore, it takes 1 time constant (TC) to reach 63.2% and 5 TCs to reach 100%.
Exponential Capacitor Discharge

This same time constant applies when discharging the capacitor. In other words, when the
discharge cycle begins, it takes 1 TC to discharge capacitor by 63.2% (to 36.8%). At this point, the
voltage drop starts to slow.

Time constant in discharge circuit equals? (above illustration). 0.4 seconds
(TC = R x C: 4,000 Ω x 0.0001 F = 0.4 seconds).
Therefore, in 0.4 seconds (1 TC), voltage across capacitor drops to 36.8 volts and in 2 seconds (5
TC), the voltage across the capacitor will equal zero – complete discharge.
1 TC to drop by 63.2% and 5 TCs to complete discharge.
Capacitors in Parallel – Capacitance and Voltage Drop

Formula for calculating total capacitance of capacitors in parallel
Ctotal = C1 + C2 + C3 …..
Voltage drop across capacitors in parallel – All equal regardless of capacitance
All capacitors in parallel are subject to same voltage source therefore all have the same voltage
drop.
Capacitors in Series – Capacitance and Voltage Drop

The formula for calculating the total capacitance of capacitors connected in series is similar to the
formula for calculating total resistance in parallel, as shown below.

The voltage drop across capacitors in series is inversely proportional to capacitance.
E.g. 30 VDC source – 5 µF and 10 µF capacitors connected in series drop 20 V and 10 volt
respectively.
The voltage drop across each capacitor adds up to the total applied voltage.
Testing Capacitors
Testing capacitors may be accomplished by:
Visual Inspection for swollen capacitors
If the capacitor is swollen or bulged (see image) on the sides or top where the terminals are
located, remove and replace with a new one.
WARNING: ENSURE CAPACITOR IS FULLY DISCHARGED PRIOR TO HANDLING
OR REMOVAL.
Verify the correct capacitance

This can be performed with a capacitance meter or a DMM (digital multimeter) with capacitance
function.
All capacitors should be removed from the circuit before testing. Impedances found in the circuit
will result in false meter readings.
WARNING: make sure the capacitor is discharged! This is both for your safety and the continued
health of your meter.
Connect the test leads to the capacitor to be tested. Polarity of the test leads is important only
if you are checking a polarised capacitor.
When checking polarised capacitors, be sure to connect the red test lead to the positive
capacitor terminal.
Alternatively, using a DC power supply and series resistor, capacitance can be calculated by
measuring the rise time to 63% of the power supply voltage from T=RC or C=T/R.
Using an analogue ohmmeter to check capacitors
Discharge capacitor by shorting the terminals and disconnect capacitor from circuit. For
polarised – ensure red test lead (+ve) is connected to +ve capacitor terminal.
Set ohmmeter to highest resistance scale and connect leads to capacitor terminals.
• If resistance starts low and gradually increases, the capacitor is good.
• If resistance starts low and doesn’t increase, the capacitor is shorted and should be
replaced.
• If resistance is high and remains relatively the same, the capacitor is open and should be
replaced.

3.10 MAGNETISM
Magnetism is defined as a property of an object to attract certain metallic substances such as ferrous materials
that is the material made of iron or iron alloy such as soft iron, steel and alnico. These material sometimes called
as magnetic material today which include three non-ferrous material: nickel, cobalt and gadolinium which are
magnetic to limited degree. All other substances are considered nonmagnetic and few of these nonmagnetic
substances are classified as diamagnetic as they are repelled by both the poles of the magnet.
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL
Ferromagnetic materials have a large, positive susceptibility to an external magnetic field. They exhibit a
strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to retain their magnetic properties after the external field has
been removed. Iron, nickel, and cobalt and the alloy of Alnico and Permalloy (alloy made of two or more
elements out of which one must be metal) are examples of ferromagnetic materials.
NATURAL MAGNET
Fig. 10.1
Natural Magnets (fig 10.1) are objects that make a magnetic field around themselves that attracts iron. The
only natural magnet is lodestone, leading stone as it was early used by navigators to determine the
direction. It is composed of an oxide of an iron called as magnetite. It naturally attracts iron particles and
was the first mineral used to make compasses.
Lodestone or magnetite is a magnet because it is found in nature. It is found in very few places. It looks
nothing other than an ordinary stone or rock. Thus, it has no and size. It has a very low attracting power. It is
of no practical use.
Lodestone has historically been used for compasses. In fact "lode" also means "way" in old English. Ancient
mariners have used lodestones as compasses since 200 BC, as evidenced by a sunken Chinese ship from that
era that had a dozen lodestone compasses.
ARTIFICIAL MAGNET
Magnets produced from magnetic materials are called ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS. They can be made in a variety
of shapes and sizes and are used extensively in electrical apparatus. Artificial magnets are generally made from
special iron or steel alloys which are usually magnetized electrically. The material to be magnetized is inserted
into a coil of insulated wire and a heavy flow of electrons is passed through the wire. Magnets can also be
produced by stroking a magnetic material with magnetite or with another artificial magnet. The forces causing
magnetization are represented by magnetic lines of force, very similar in nature to electrostatic lines of force.

Artificial magnets are usually classified as PERMANENT or TEMPORARY, depending on their ability to retain
their magnetic properties after the magnetizing force has been removed. Artificial magnet can be made to any
desired shape and size unlike natural magnet.
A Permanent magnet is one which maintains almost constant magnetic field without the application of any
magnetizing force. Certain substances such as hard steel are more difficult to magnetise than soft iron because
of the internal friction among the molecules. If such a substance is placed in a strong magnetic field and is struck
several blows with a hammer, the molecules become aligned with the field. When such a substance is removed
from the magnetic field, it will retain its magnetism hence it is called as permanent magnet. Hard steel and
Alnico(an alloy of nickel, aluminium and cobalt) are examples of permanent magnet.
The ability of a material to become magnetized is called as permeability and the opposition which a material
offers to magnetic lines of force is called reluctance.
Temporary magnets are materials that perform like when in the presence of a magnetic field, but lose magnetism
when not in a magnetic field. Material such as soft iron or annealed silicon steel having low reluctance are very
easy to magnetise as their molecules align themselves with the field but as soon as the magnetizing field is
removed, most of the molecules return to the random position and the substance is no longer magnetized.
Because some of the molecules tend to remain in the aligned position, every magnetic substance retains a slight
amount of magnetism after having been magnetized. This retained magnetism is called as the residual
magnetism(retentivity)
A permanent magnet have high reluctance and low permeability whereas temporary magnets have low reluctance
and high permeabililty.
PERMEABILITY
As previously mentioned, permeability ( is a material property that describes the ease with which a magnetic
flux is established in a component. It is the ratio of the flux density (B) created within a material to the
magnetizing field (H) and is represented by the following equation:
It is clear that this equation describes the slope of the curve at any point on the hysteresis loop(fig 10.2). The
permeability value given in papers and reference materials is usually the maximum permeability or the maximum
relative permeability. The maximum permeability is the point where the slope of the B/H curve for the
unmagnetized material is the greatest. This point is often taken as the point where a straight line from the origin
is tangent to the B/H curve.
The relative permeability is arrived at by taking the ratio of the material's permeability to the permeability in free
space (air).

Fig. 10.2
Relative permeability, sometimes denoted by the symbol μr, is the ratio of the permeability of a specific
medium to the permeability of free space, μ0:
TYPES OF MAGNETISM
DIAMAGNETISM
Diamagnetism, to a greater or lesser degree, is a property of all materials and always makes a weak
contribution to the material's response to a magnetic field. For materials that show some other form of
magnetism (such as ferromagnetism or Para magnetism), the diamagnetic contribution becomes negligible.
Substances that mostly display diamagnetic behavior are termed diamagnetic materials, or diamagnets.
Materials called diamagnetic are those that non-scientists generally think of as non-magnetic, and include
water, wood, most organic compounds such as petroleum and some plastics, and many metals including
copper, particularly the heavy ones with many core electrons, such as mercury, gold and
bismuth.Dimagneticmaterial have relative permeabilty less than one and are therefore repelled by the magnetic
field.
PARAMAGNETISM
Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism whereby certain materials are attracted by an externally applied
magnetic field, and form internal, induced magnetic fields in the direction of the applied magnetic field. In
contrast with this behavior, diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields and form induced magnetic
fields in the direction opposite to that of the applied magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include most

chemical elements and some compounds; they have a relative permeability greater than or equal to 1 and hence
are attracted to magnetic fields.
These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the magnetic
properties when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some
unpaired electrons, and from the realignment of the electron paths caused by the external magnetic field.
Paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum.
Unlike ferromagnets, paramagnets do not retain any magnetization in the absence of an externally applied
magnetic field.
FERROMAGNETISM
Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron) form permanent magnets, or
are attracted to magnets.. Ferromagnetism is the strongest type; it is the only type that can produce forces
strong enough to be felt, and is responsible for the common phenomena of magnetism encountered in everyday
life. One example is refrigerator magnets.
All permanent magnets (materials that can be magnetized by an external magnetic field and which remain
magnetized after the external field is removed) are ferromagnetic .They have very high permeability.
MAGNETIC POLES
Fig. 10.3
The region of a magnet toward which the lines of magnetic induction converge (south pole) or from which the
lines of induction diverge (north pole). The north pole of a magnet is the pole out of which magnetic lines of
force point, while the south pole is the pole into which they point.(fig 10.3)

Fig. 10.4
The demonstration with iron filings shows that the magnetic field of a magnet is concentrated at the ends of the
magnet.These areas of concentrated flux are called as north and south poles of a magnet.(fig 10.4)
LAWS OF MAGNETIC POLES
Every magnet, whether large or small, has exactly two poles. At these poles is where the magnetic strength of
the magnets is the strongest. Each pole is either north or north-seeking or south or south-seeking. Like
objects(such as two north poles of two magnets) repel each other. Unlike objects (such as a north pole of one
magnet and a south pole of another magnet) attract each other.
 There are a few laws that govern the behavior of magnets. All magnetic poles are equal in magnitude
(strength) and if a magnet is broken into smaller magnets, each section becomes its own magnet with
two poles of equal strength. Short bar magnets (such as U-shaped magnets and horseshoe magnets) do
not retain magnetism as well as long bar magnets.
 The particular attraction or repulsion of two magnets depends on the strength of their magnetic fields.
In particular, the bigger the distance that separates the magnets, the weaker their magnetic force and the
smaller the distance that separates the magnets, the stronger their magnetic force.
Another important feature of magnets is that when a magnet is shattered or broken into pieces, a new
north and south pole will appear on the smaller pieces.
If a bar magnet is suspended freely on a string, as shown in figure below it will align itself in a north and south
direction. When this experiment is repeated, it is found that the same pole of the magnet will always swing
toward the north magnetic pole of the . Therefore, it is called the north-seeking pole or simply the NORTH
POLE. The other pole of the magnet is the south-seeking pole or the SOUTH POLE.(fig 10.5)

Fig. 10.5
1. A use of the directional characteristic of the magnet is the compass, a device in which a freely rotating
magnetized needle indicator points toward the North Pole. The realization that the poles of a suspended
magnet always move to a definite position gives an indication that the opposite poles of a magnet have
opposite magnetic polarity.
The law previously stated regarding the attraction and repulsion of charged bodies may also be applied to
magnetism if the pole is considered as a charge. The north pole of a magnet will always be attracted to the
south pole of another magnet and will show a repulsion to a north pole. The law for magnetic poles is: Like
poles repel, unlike poles attract
THE EARTH’S MAGNETISM

Fig. 10.6
A freely suspended magnet assumes a north-south position. The reason is that earth is a large magnet and earth’s
magnetic field exists over the entire surface. The suspended magnet’s line of force interact with the earth’s
magnetic field and align the magnet accordingly. As per the definition, the magnetic pole near the earth’s north
geographic pole is actually the earth’s south magnetic pole. This can be demonstrated by suspending a magnet
on the string and noting the direction in which the north pole points. The magnet’s north pole points to the earth’s
geographic north, but by definition north should repel north, therefore the earth’s south magnetic pole is actually
nearest to the earth’s geographic north as demonstrated in above figure 10.6.To eliminate confusion, the direction
in which a magnet’s north pole point is called the earth’s north pole. In reality, it is magnetic south.
The magnetic poles of the earth are not located at the geographic poles. The magnetic pole in the northern
hemisphere is located east of geographic north. The magnetic south pole is located west of the geographic south
as shown in the above figure.
The difference between the geographic and magnetic poles is called magnetic variation which is sometimes also
referred to as magnetic declination. In general, this principle of magnetic variation does not affect electrical
phenomena, however it becomes very important when navigating aircraft using a magnetic compass.
Magnetic Inclination(Dip)
Fig. 10.7

Fig. 10.8
The lines of force in the earth’s magnetic field pass through the center of the earth, exit at both magnetic poles,
and bend around to reenter at the opposite pole. Near the equator, these lines become almost parallel to the
surface of the earth. However, as they are near to the poles, they tilt toward the earth until in the immediate area
of the magnetic poles they dip rather sharply into the earth. Because the poles of a compass tend to align
themselves with the magnet lines of force, the magnet within the compass tends to tilt or dip toward the earth in
the same manner as the lines of force. This angle of inclination can be measured with a specially constructed
compass.(fig 10.7,8)
Theories of MagnetismWeber’s Theory
Fig. 10.9

A popular theory of magnetism considers the molecular alignment of the material(fig 10.9). This is known as
Weber's theory. This theory assumes that all magnetic substances are composed of tiny molecular magnets. Any
unmagnetized material has the magnetic forces of its molecular magnets neutralized by adjacent molecular
magnets, thereby eliminating any magnetic effect. A magnetized material will have most of its molecular
magnets lined up so that the north pole of each molecule points in one direction, and the south pole faces the
opposite direction. A material with its molecules thus aligned will then have one effective north pole, and one
effective south pole. An illustration of Weber's Theory is shown in figure above, where a steel bar is magnetized
by stroking. When a steel bar is stroked several times in the same direction by a magnet, the magnetic force from
the north pole of the magnet causes the molecules to align themselves.
Domain Theory
A more modern theory of magnetism is based on the electron spin principle. From the study of atomic structure
it is known that all matter is composed of vast quantities of atoms, each atom containing one or more orbital
electrons. The electrons are considered to orbit in various shells and subshells depending upon their distance
from the nucleus. The structure of the atom has previously been compared to the solar system, wherein the
electrons orbiting the nucleus correspond to the planets orbiting the sun. Along with its orbital motion about the
sun, each planet also revolves on its axis. It is believed that the electron also revolves on its axis as it orbits the
nucleus of an atom.
It has been experimentally proven that an electron has a magnetic field about it along with an electric field. The
effectiveness of the magnetic field of an atom is determined by the number of electrons spinning in each
direction. If an atom has equal numbers of electrons spinning in opposite directions, the magnetic fields
surrounding the electrons cancel one another, and the atom is unmagnetized. However, if more electrons spin in
one direction than another, the atom is magnetized. An atom with an atomic number of 26, such as iron, has 26
protons in the nucleus and 26 revolving electrons orbiting its nucleus. If 13 electrons are spinning in a clockwise
direction and 13 electrons are spinning in a counterclockwise direction, the opposing magnetic fields will be
neutralized. When more than 13 electrons spin in either direction, the atom is magnetized. An example of a
magnetized atom of iron is shown in figure 10.9
Fig. 10.10

Fig. 10.11
The space surrounding a magnet where magnetic forces act is known as the magnetic field.
A pattern of this directional force can be obtained by performing an experiment with iron filings. A piece of glass
is placed over a bar magnet and the iron filings are then sprinkled on the surface of the glass. The magnetizing
force of the magnet will be felt through the glass and each iron filing becomes a temporary magnet. If the glass
is now tapped gently, the iron particles will align themselves with the magnetic field surrounding the magnet just
as the compass needle did previously. The filings form a definite pattern, which is a visible representation of the
forces comprising the magnetic field. Examination of the arrangements of iron filings in figure 10.11will indicate
that the magnetic field is very strong at the poles and weakens as the distance from the poles increases. It is also
apparent that the magnetic field extends from one pole to the other, constituting a loop about the magnet.
Lines of Force
To further describe and work with magnet phenomena, lines are used to represent the force existing in the area
surrounding a magnet . These lines, called MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE, do not actually exist but are
imaginary lines used to illustrate and describe the pattern of the magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force are
assumed to emanate from the north pole of a magnet, pass through surrounding space, and enter the south pole.
The lines of force then travel inside the magnet from the south pole to the north pole, thus completing a closed
loop.

Fig. 10.12
When two magnetic poles are brought close together, the mutual attraction or repulsion of the poles produces a
more complicated pattern than that of a single magnet. These magnetic lines of force can be plotted by placing
a compass at various points throughout the magnetic field, or they can be roughly illustrated by the use of iron
filings as before. A diagram of magnetic poles placed close together is shown in figure 10.13
FIG. 10.13
Although magnetic lines of force are imaginary, a simplified version of many magnetic phenomena can be
explained by assuming the magnetic lines to have certain real properties. The lines of force can be compared to
rubber bands which stretch outward when a force is exerted upon them and contract when the force is removed.
The characteristics of magnetic lines of force can be described as follows:
1. Magnetic lines of force are continuous and will always form closed loops.
2. Magnetic lines of force will never cross one another.
3. Parallel magnetic lines of force traveling in the same direction repel one another. Parallel magnetic lines of
force traveling in opposite directions tend to unite with each other and form into single lines traveling in a
direction determined by the magnetic poles creating the lines of force.
4. Magnetic lines of force tend to shorten themselves. Therefore, the magnetic lines of force existing between
two unlike poles cause the poles to be pulled together.
5. Magnetic lines of force pass through all materials, both magnetic and nonmagnetic.
6. Magnetic lines of force always enter or leave a magnetic material at right angles to the surface.
MAGNETICEFFECTS
MAGNETIC FLUX. The total number of magnetic lines of force leaving or entering the pole of a magnet is
called MAGNETIC FLUX. The number of flux lines per unit area is known as FLUX DENSITY.FIELD
INTENSITY. The intensity of a magnetic field is directly related to the magnetic force exerted by the field.
ATTRACTION/REPULSION. The intensity of attraction or repulsion between magnetic poles may be described
by a law almost identical to Coulomb's Law of Charged Bodies. The force between two poles is directly
proportional to the product of the pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
the poles.
Magnetic Induction
It has been previously stated that all substances that are attracted by a magnet are capable of becoming
magnetized. The fact that a material is attracted by a magnet indicates the material must itself be a magnet at the
time of attraction. With the knowledge of magnetic fields and magnetic lines of force developed up to this point,
it is simple to understand the manner in which a material becomes magnetized when brought near a magnet. As
an iron nail is brought close to a bar magnet (fig.10.14 , some flux lines emanating from the north pole of the
magnet pass through the iron nail in completing their magnetic path. Since magnetic lines of force travel inside
a magnet from the south pole to the north pole, the nail will be magnetized in such a polarity that its south pole
will be adjacent to the north pole of the bar magnet. There is now an attraction between the two magnets.
Fig. 10.14
If another nail is brought in contact with the end of the first nail, it would be magnetized by induction. This
process could be repeated until the strength of the magnetic flux weakens as distance from the bar magnet
increases. However, as soon as the first iron nail is pulled away from the bar magnet, all the nails will fall. The
reason being that each nail becomes a temporary magnet, and as soon as the magnetizing force is removed, their
domains once again assume a random distribution.
Magnetic induction will always produce a pole polarity on the material being magnetized opposite that of the
adjacent pole of the magnetizing force. It is sometimes possible to bring a weak north pole of a magnet near a
strong magnet north pole and note attraction between the poles. The weak magnet, when placed within the
magnetic field of the strong magnet, has its magnetic polarity reversed by the field of the stronger magnet.
Therefore, it is attracted to the opposite pole. For this reason, you must keep a very weak magnet, such as a
compass needle, away from a strong magnet.Magnetism can be induced in a magnetic material by several means.
The magnetic material may be placed in the magnetic field, brought into contact with a magnet, or stroked by a
magnet. Stroking and contact both indicate actual contact with the material but are considered in magnetic studies
as magnetizing by INDUCTION.
MAGNETIC SHIELDING
Magnetic fields are of affecting sensitive electronic . If the electronic equipment is sensitive enough and the
magnetic field great enough, then the device can even be damaged or destroyed by the magnetic field. technology
was developed to address this problem. Today many sensitive electronic devices are protected by magnetic
shields.
If a nonmagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the flux easily penetrates through the nonmagnetic
material. For eg. If a glass plate is placed between a horseshoe magnet ,it will have no appreciable effect on the
field despite it is a good insulator. However, if we place a magnetic material such a soft iron in place of glass
plate, the flux may be redirected due to strong permeability of soft iron.
Some sensitive instruments/meters are provided with magnetic shield/screen as they can easily be influenced by
stray magnetic field that can make them erratic. Magnetic shielding is done by placing soft iron case about the
instrument. The flux is established more readily through iron than through the air inside the case, thus effectively
shielding the instrument against stray magnetic field.
DIFFERENT SHAPES OF MAGNETS
Due to different uses and applications , magnets are of different shapes and sizes. Bar Magnet, Horseshoe
Magnet and Ring Magnet are such examples.
Fig. 10.15
BAR MAGNET
Fig. 10.16Iron filings orientation by bar magnet
A bar magnet is a rectangular object that has a magnetic field. It is usually made of iron or steel, but it can also
be made of any ferromagnetic substance or a ferromagnetic composite. This type of magnet is almost always

permanent, meaning that it will retain its magnetic field for a significant period of time without the use of a
supplied electric current. (fig 10.15)
Each end of a bar magnet is called a pole — one is north and the other south. When freely suspended, the magnet
will align itself so that the end of its northern pole points towards the Earth’s magnetic North Pole. This works
in the exact same manner as a compass needle, which itself uses or is a magnet. If the magnet has one end painted
red, that end is traditionally the north pole.(fig 10.15)
Bar magnets are usually made of ferromagnetic materials, which are elements that can naturally have a magnetic
field
Mostly used in schools and laboratories to study the property of magnets.(fig 10.16 ,10.17)
Fig. 10.17
RING MAGNET
Fig. 10.18
Ring magnets are permanent magnets that are distinguished by their shape: they are round with a hole in the
middle, and because of this shape they are sometimes referred to as donut magnets. They are often used in
science and medicine. they are even used instruments and has no poles.(fig 10.18)
HORSESHOE MAGNET

Fig. 10.19
A Horseshoe magnet is a U-shaped metal object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field in invisible,
but is responsible for a magnet’s notable pull on other metal objects. It is one type of permanent magnet, meaning
that it stays magnetized, as opposed to an electromagnet, whose magnetic field can be started and stopped.(fig
10.19)
Originally, the horseshoe magnet was made as an alternative to the significantly weaker bar magnet. Its lifting
strength is doubled, compared to that of a bar magnet, because both of its magnetic poles point in the same
direction. For industrial applications, they have largely been replaced by even stronger magnets, but are still
effective for uses such as classroom demonstrations and picking up small metal objects. Electrical measuring
device often use horseshoe magnet.
FLAT MAGNETS are used as pole pieces in generators and motors in which field of force lie through the
thickness rather than the length.
CARE OF MAGNETS
When handling a magnet, avoid applying direct heat, or hammering or dropping it. Heat or sudden shock will
cause misalignment of the molecules, causing the strength of a magnet to decrease. When a magnet is to be stored
device known as “keeper bars “ are installed to provide an easy path for flux lines from one pole to the other.
This promotes the retention of the molecules in their north south alignment.
Put away each type of magnet in its own space or drawer to prevent demagnetization. The common alnico magnet
is the most easily demagnetized. Use a magnet keeper to preserve the magnetic charge. You can store horseshoe
magnets end-to-end, with opposite poles touching. Store bar magnets so that the opposite poles are beside each
other--the north pole of one magnet should be next to the south pole of the other.
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Although the effects of magnetism were observed for centurie ,it was not until 1819 that the relationship between
electricity and magnetism were discovered. The Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted discovered that the
needle of a small compass deflected when it was held near a wire carrying electric current. This deflection was
caused by the invisible magnetic field surrounding the wire.

Fig. 10.20
You can see the magnetic field produced by a conductor by sprinkling iron filings on a plate that surrounds a
current carrying conductor. When this is done, the filings arrange themselves in a series of concentric circle
around the conductor. The reason for this is when electrons travel through a conductor, they produce lines of
flux. The greater the amount of flow, the stronger the magnetic field.(fig 10.20)
One way to determine the direction of lines of flux travel is with the left hand rule. Foreg. If you grasp the
conductor in your left hand with your thumb pointing in the direction of electron flow, your fingers encircle the
conductor in the direction of the lines of flux travel as shown in fig 10.21.

Fig. 10.21
Because the magnetic field around the conductor does not have any poles and is weak, therefore it does not serve
a practical purpose. However, if the conductor is wound in the form of coil, the lines of flux become concentrated
and the coil attains the characteristics of a magnet (fig 10.22). Fig. 10.22
In an electromagnet, the lines of flux surrounding each turn of wire reinforce the flux around every other turn of
wire. This results in a magnetic field that leaves the north end of the coil and enters the south end. To determine
which end of an electromagnet is north and which is south, you can use the left hand rule for the coils. This rule
states that if you grasp a coil with your left hand so your fingers wrap around the coil in the direction of electron
flow, your thumb points to the coil’s north pole as shown in fig 10.23.

Fig. 10.23
The strength of an electromagnet is determined by the number of turns in a coil, the amount of current flowing
through it and the type of material used for the core.
A coil’s strength or its magneto motive force is similar to the electromotive force in an electrical circuit.
However, magneto motive force is measured in gilberts”Gb”.
The field intensity of an electromagnet is measured in gauss just like a conventional magnet.
FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
It has been observed that when an current carrying conductor is placed inside an magnetic field, the conductor is
experienced a force in the direction perpendicular to both direction of current and direction of magnetic flux.
Fig. 10.24
In the figure10.24, a conductor lying vertically in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of strength H. If l is the
length of the conductor tying within this magnetic field and i is the current through it, then the force experienced
by the conductor will be
F = B.i.l

The direction of the force F can also be determined by Flemming's Left Hand Rule(fig 10.25). As per this rule,
if any one holds out his or her hand with fore finger, second finger and thumb at right angle to each other, then
his or her fore-finger will indicate the direction of magnetic field, the second finger will indicate the direction of
flow of current and the thumb will give the direction of force or motion of the conductor.
So far we have discussed about the force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed in perpendicularly
in the field. The conductor inside the field may lie at an angle θ with the field. Then field strength H can be
resolved in two components Hcos(θ) parallel to the conductor and Hsin(θ) perpendicular to the conductor. In this
case the force experienced by the conductor will beF = B.i.l.sin(θ) Newton
Fleming Left Hand Rule
Fig. 10.25
It is found that whenever an current carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, a force acts on the
conductor, in a perpendicular to both the directions of the current and the magnetic field. In the figure it is shown
that, a portion of a conductor of length L placed in a magnetic field strength H, produced by two poles N and
S. If i is the current flowing through this conductor, the magnitude of the force acts on the conductor is, F = Bil
sin Where θis the angle between l and B which is 90° in present case.F=Bil sin 90°=Bil
ELECTROMAGNETS
Electromagnets in various forms are very useful and have become a common place for modern aircraft.
Electromagnet as the name implies are produced by using electric current to create a magnetic field. Around
every current carrying conductor magnetic field exists. This magnetic field is created owing to the movement of
electrons through the conductor. Typically this magnetic field is so small to be unnoticed. However, if the current
is very strong or the conductor is formed into the coil, the magnetic field strength increases. Most electromagnet
conductors are wound into coils to create the desired magnetic field strength.

Fig. 10.26
In the figure 10.26, the shaded circle represents a cross section of a conductor with current flowing in toward the
paper. The current is flowing from negative to positive. When the current flows as indicated, the magnetic field
is in a counterclockwise direction. This is easily determined by use of left hand rule, which is based on the true
direction of current flow. When the wire is grasped in the left hand with the thimb pointing from negative to
positive, the magnetic field around the conductor is in the direction that the fingers are pointing.
If a current carrying wire is bent into a loop, the loop assumes the properties of a magnet, that is one side of the
loop is north pole and the other side will be a south pole (fig 10.27). If a soft iron core is placed in a loop, the
magnetic lines of force will traverse the iron core and it becomes a magnet. When a wire is made into a coil and
connected to a source of power, the field of the separate turns join and thread through the entire coil as shown
below. Note that the lines of force produced by one turn of the coil combine with the lines of force from the other
turns and thread through the coil, thus giving the coil a magnetic polarity. The polarity of the coil is easily
determined by the use of left hand rule for the coils. When a coil is grasped in a left hand with the fingers
pointing in the direction of current flow, that is from negative to positive, the thumb will pint toward the north
pole of the coil.
Fig. 10.27

When a soft iron is placed in a coil,an electromagnet is produced.Ofcourse,the wire in the coil must be insulated
so that there can be no short circuit between the turns of the coil.A typical electromagnet is made by winding
many turns of insulated wire on a soft iron core that has been wrapped with an insulating material. The turns of
wire are placed as close together as possible to help prevent magnetic lines of force from passing between the
turns. The figure 10.28 shows a cross section drawing of an electromagnet.
Fig. 10.28
The strength of electromagnet is directly proportional to the current carried by the wire coil and to the number
of turns in the coil.Thatis,as either the current through the coil or the number of wire wraps around the coil
increases, the electromagnet’s strength also increases.Also.use of core material of high permeability will increase
an electromagnet’s strength. The same electromagnet using a core of low permeability would have a decreased
magnetic strength
Magnetomotive Force
This is analogous to the electric current. The magneto motive force, mmf, is analogous to the electromotive
force and may be considered the that sets up the flux. The mmf is equivalent to a number of turns of wire carrying
an current and has units of ampere-turns. Mmf is the strength of a magnetic field in a coil of wire. This is
dependent on how much current flows in the turns of coil: the more current, the stronger the
magnetic field; the more turns of wire, the more concentrated the lines of force. The current times the
number of turns of the coil is expressed in units called "ampere-turns" (At), also known as mmf. Equation below
is the mathematical representation for ampere-turns (At).
Fm = ampere-turns = NI
Where
Fm=magnetomotive force (mmf)
N=number of turns
I=current
Magnetic Field strength is a measure of the intensity of a magnetic field, given in teslas (T), the standard unit.
One tesla is equal to one weber per square.
Field Strength

Flux distribution
Previously , we stated that magnets possess a property called a magneto motive force (m.m.f.) and that this
m.m.f. generates flux to produce a magnetic field surrounding a magnet. The distribution of this flux is an
important factor in determining the characters of the magnet. The field could be very extended spreading out
the magnetic flux or it could be very concentrated. There are two parameters we can measure which are
effected by the distribution of the magnetic field. These are field strength and flux density.
Field strength
As you may expect a larger m.m.f. will produce a stronger field. Also as you may expect the more extended the
field lines are the weaker they will be. ( ie the field strength is propotional to the m.m.f. and inversely
proportional to the length of the magnetic field.)
H = m.m.f./l
 H = magnetic field strength measured in Amperes per metre (Am-1)

 m.m.f = magnetic motive force measured in Amperes turns (At)
 l = average length of magnetic circuit measured in metres (m)
Flux density
Flux density is a measure of how concentrated the magnetic field is. We can imagine the flux density in terms
of the magnetic field lines being compressed closer together. The flux density can be calculated from the
equation below.
B = I/A
 B = Flux density measured in Webers per metre squared (Wm-2)

 I = Magnetic flux measured in Webers (W)
 A = Cross sectional area perpendicular to the field lines measured in metres squared (m 2)
RELUCTANCE
It is the name given to that property of a material which opposes the creation of magnetic flux in it.It in fact,
measures the opposition offered to the passage of magnetic flux through the material and is analogous to the
resistance in an electrical circuit. Its unit is AT/Wb
We know
Magnetic flux(ᵩ) = mmf/reluctance
So, reluctance = mmf/ Magnetic flux(ᵩ) = AT/Wb
In other words,the reluctance of a magnetic circuit is the number of ampere turns required per weber of magnetic
flux in the circuit.
PERMEANCE
The reluctance (S) of a material is a measure or how difficult it is to produce flux within it. Permeance is a
measure of how easily a magnetic flux can set up in a material. It takes into account the distribution of the flux
within the material. It is analogous to conductance in an electric circuit. It is measured in terms of Wb/AT
HYSTERISIS LOOP
When an external magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnet such as iron, the atomic dipoles align themselves
with it. Even when the field is removed, part of the alignment will be retained: the material has
become magnetized. Once magnetized, the magnet will stay magnetized indefinitely. To demagnetize it requires
heat or a magnetic field in the opposite direction. The relationship between field strength H and
magnetization M is not linear in such materials.
Magnetic Hysteresis
Consider a magnetic material being subjected to a cycle of magnetization. The graph intensity of magnetization
(M) vs. magnetizing field (H) gives a closed curve called M-H loop. Consider the portion AB of the curve given
below. The intensity of magnetization M does not become zero when the magnetizing field H is reduced to zero.
Thus the intensity of magnetization M at every stage lags behind the applied field H. This property is called
magnetic hysteresis. The M-H loop is called hysteresis loop. The shape and area of the loop are different for
different materials.
Hysteresis Loop
An initially unmagnetized material is subjected to a cycle of magnetization. The values of intensity of

magnetization M and the magnetizing field H are calculated at every stage and a closed loop is obtained on
plotting a graph between M and H as shown in the figure 10.29. The point ‘O’ represents the initial unmagnetized
condition of the material. As the applied field is increased, the magnetization increases to the saturation point
‘A’ along ‘OA’. As the applied field is reduced, the loop follows the path ‘AB’. ‘OB’ represents the intensity of
magnetization remaining in the material when the applied field is reduced to zero. This is called the residual
magnetism or remanence. The property of retaining some magnetism on removing the magnetic field is called
retentivity. OC represents the magnetizing field to be applied in the opposite direction to remove residual
magnetism. This is called coercive field and the property is called coercivity. When the field is further increased
in the reverse direction the material reaches negative saturation point ‘D’. When the field is increased in positive
direction, the curve follows path ‘DEF’.

Fig. 10.29 Magnetic hysteresis loop showing coercive force OC, residual magnetism OB, saturation point
COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
Magnetic circuit m.m.f(magneto motive force) = (Flux) (reluctance) whereas electric circuit follows ohm’s law
that is E = I.R or e.m.f(electro motive force) = (current) (Resistance) From above point m.m.f in magnetic circuit
is like as e.m.f in electrical circuit. Flux in magnetic circuit is similar as current in electrical circuit.
Reluctance in magnetic circuit, S = ( l / μA) is similar to resistance R = (ρl/A) in electric circuit.
Permeance (= 1/reluctance) in magnetic circuit is equivalent to conductance (=1/resistance) in electric circuit.

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Training Notes

Page 1 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

AC 43.13-1B/ AC 43.13-2A Combined – Aircraft Inspection and Repair

Page 2 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

3.1: Electron Theory

Atom consist of two parts mainly:

Atomic weight=No. of protons + No. of neutrons

Atomic Number = No. of protons or electrons

Eg: 1 st orbit has 2 x 12= 2 e-

2nd orbit has 2 x 2 2= 8 e-

3rd orbit has 3 x 2 2 = 18 e- and so on

Page 4 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

No. of protons = No. of electrons = 29

And No. of neutrons = 64-29=35

Page 5 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Page 6 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Page 7 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

3. Attractive and Repulsive forces

Page 8 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Page 9 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY IN SOLIDS , LIQUIDS AND A VACUUM

Page 10 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Page 11 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

b. Electromotive force (voltage)

E = potential difference in volts

e = energy expanded or absorbed in joules (j)

Q = charge measured in coulombs

Page 12 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Fig. 3.1 Difference of Pressure

I = system international unit for current is the Ampere (A), where

Page 13 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Both conventional flow and electron flow are used in industry.

1. The unit of resistance

mega-ohm = 106 (the prefix ‘mega’ or mego meaning a million) or

 It varies directly as its length

Page 14 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

L = 1 meter and A=1 meter 2, then R= ρ

In the S.I system of unit

ρ = A metre2 * R ohm =AR = ohm-meter

Hence, the unit of resistivity is ohm – meter (Ω-m)

Fig. 4.3 Neutral State of an atom

DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRODUCING ELECTRICITY

The following methods produce a voltage:

Page 18 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Page 19 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Fig. 4.7 Generator - Electromagnetic Induction

Page 20 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Fig. 4.8 Pressure Applied to Certain Crystals Produces an Electric Charge

Page 22 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Fig. 4.10 Producing Electricity from Light Using a Photovoltaic Cell

Page 23 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Page 24 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Page 25 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Simple galvanic cell

Page 27 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

LEAD-ACID BATTERY CONSTRUCTION

Page 29 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Page 30 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Page 31 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Page 32 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental

Lead-Acid Battery Ratings

Page 33 of 130 Module 3: Electrical Fundamental