Group 5 Summary Report

TEMPERATURE SENSORS

THERMAL EXPANSION THERMOMETERS

 Thermal expansion thermometers are based on the principle that a body expands as the temperature
increases.

1. Expansion of Solids
BIMETALLIC THERMOMETER
- Bimetallic thermometer consists of a metal strips. Bimetallic strip is made of
two thin strips of metals having different temperature coefficient of expansion.
Two metals are joined together by welding.
- Metal strip’s one end is fixed like cantilever beam and other end is free to move
as shown in figure. Temperature applied at free end. An increase in temperature
will result deflection in free end either upward or downward as per material
Mechanism
coefficient. The strip will bend towards the side with low coefficient of thermal
expansion. The resultant deflection is calibrated in terms of applied
temperature.
- The movement of the bimetallic strip utilized to deflect pointer over a
calibrated scale. The deflection of the trip is small and large according to strip
wither short or long.
1. The bimetallic strips find wide applications in simple thermometers in which
deflection of the strip is made to open or close electrical contacts in the
electrical heat supply to control a gas flow.
2. As switching devices, used in electrical irons, car wrinkle lamps, domestic
Application oven and the refrigerators.
3. Spiral type used in air conditioning thermostats
4. Helix type used for process application
5. Bimetallic thermometer can be used where local temperature indication is
required and point of measurement is easily accessible.
1. Low cost
2. Simple and robust (not easily broken)
3. Easily installed and maintained
Advantages
4. Good accuracy relative to cost ( 2% for process type instruments and 0.5%
for laboratory type instruments.
5. Fairly wide temperature range (-75 to 540oC)
1. Limited to applications where manual reading is acceptable
2. Possibility of calibration change due to rough handling
Disadvantages 3. Not very accurate
4. Not suitable for very low temperatures because the expansion of metals tend to
be too similar, so the device becomes rather insensitive thermometer.

2. Expansion of Liquids
LIQUID IN GAS THERMOMETER
Mechanism The temperature measurement is carried out by measuring the expansion of a
liquid under the effect of heat. The expansion is reversible. The thermometer
consists of a glass reservoir topped with a small diameter capillary terminating in a
safety bulb (in case of exceeding the maximum temperature value of the
temperature range).
 The tank is filled with a liquid; the fineness of the capillary can enjoy a large
displacement with a small change in volume. The other end of the tube contains an
inert gas such as nitrogen or argon to a pressure below that of the atmosphere.
1. Aircrafts
2. Meteorological and oceanographic
Applications
3. Household, hospitals, body temperature
4. Indoor climate control systems
1. Simplicity in use and low cost
2. Portable device
Advantages 3. Checking physical damage is easy
4. Power source not required
5. Repeatable, calibration does not shift
1. Cannot be used for automatic reading
2. Time lag in measurement
Disadvantages 3. Range is limited to about 600oC
4. Fragile construction
5. Poor response against variation in temperature

3. Expansion of Gases
PRESSURE SPRING THERMOMETER
The pressure-spring device has a metal bulb made with a low coefficient of
expansion material along with a long metal narrow bore tube. Both contain
material with a high coefficient of expansion. The bulb is at the monitoring point.
Mechanism
The metal tube is terminated with a Bourdon spring pressure gauge.
As the temperature in the bulb increases, the pressure in the system rises. Bourdon
tubes, bellows, or diaphragms sense the change in pressure.
1. Industrial equipments, piping
2. Boilers, compressors
Application
3. Automobile dash board
4. Muscle microcalorimetry
1. Fundamental Simplicity
2. Direct reading or recording
3. Less expensive
Advantages
4. Stable operation and have a good accuracy (1 oC)
5. Distance measurement
6. Easy maintenance
1. Limited linearity and prone to errors.
2. Slow response time.
3. The bulb size may be too large to fit the available space.
4. The maximum temperature is more limited than that in some electrical
Disadvantages
measuring systems.
5. Proper calibration of bulb, capillary tube, and Bouden tube is needed.
If bulb is raised by a height h from the calibration elevation, then the Bouden
gauge experiences an increase in pressure equal to Error=gh.
 FILLED-SYSTEM THERMOMETER
Filled- System Thermometer consists of a hollow metal sensing bulb at one end a
small-bore capillary tube, which is connected at the other end to a Bourdon tube or
Mechanism other device that responds to volume changes or to pressure changes. The system is
partially or completely filled with a fluid that expands when heated and contracts
when cooled.
1. Indoor climate control system
Applications
2. Suitable for most heating and ventilation systems
1. Simple
2. Cost is low
3. Power source is not required
Advantages
4. Can measure a wide temperature range
5. Easy to use
6. Satisfactory time response
1. Entire system needs to be replaced in case of failure
Disadvantages 2. Do not produce electrical signal
3. Large bulb required for better accuracy

RESISTANCE THERMOMETER DETECTOR

 Is a temperature sensor which measures temperature using the principle that the resistance of a
metal changes with temperature and usually measures temperatures between -200 and 500 °C.

The type of material used in RTD construction will determine the limits on the
temperature the RTD can be exposed to. The sensing element in an RTD is an
electrical resistor that changes the resistance value as the temperature changes.
Mechanism
The resistance value of the RTD element is then measured by an instrument. This
resistance value is then correlated to temperature based upon the known
resistance characteristics of the RTD element.
1. Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
2. Food Processing
3. Stoves and grills
4. Textile production
Applications 5. Plastics processing
6. Petrochemical processing
7. Micro electronics
8. Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement
9. Exhaust gas temperature measurement
1. Linear over wide operating range
2. Wide temperature operating range
Advantages 3. High temperature operating range
4. Interchangeability over wide range
5. Good stability at high temperature
1. Low sensitivity
2. Higher cost than thermocouples
Disadvantages 3. No point sensing
4. Affected by shock and vibration
5. Requires three or four-wire operation
THERMISTORS
 A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose resistance is dependent on
temperature.

A thermistor’s “b” value, or beta value, is an indication of the shape of the curve
Mechanism representing the relationship between resistance and temperature of an NTC
thermistor. Calculating the beta value is a vital step in the component selection.
1. Digital thermometers (thermostats)
2. Automotive applications (to measure oil and coolant temperatures in cars &
trucks)
3. Household appliances (like microwaves, fridges, and ovens)
4. Circuit protection (i.e. surge protection)
Applications
5. Rechargeable batteries (ensure the correct battery temperature is maintained)
6. To measure the thermal conductivity of electrical materials
7. Temperature compensation (i.e. maintain resistance to compensate for effects
caused by changes in temperature in another part of the circuit)
8. Used in wheatstone bridge circuits
1. Small size
2. Very high sensitivity
3. Polarity insensitive
Advantages 4. No cold junction compensation
5. Wide selection of sensors
6. Inexpensive
7. Fast response
1. Not easily interchangeable
2. High resistance, noise problems
3. Non linear
Disadvantages
4. Unstable due to drift and decalibration (especially at high temperatures)
5. Narrow span
6. Fragile

THERMOCOUPLE
- Type J, K, T, N & E are “Base Metal” thermocouples, the most common types of thermocouples.
- Type R, S, and B are “Noble Metal” thermocouples, which are used in high temperature
applications.
- Grounded Thermocouples: most common junction style, very good response time because the
thermocouple is making direct contact with the sheath, allowing heat to transfer easily, more
susceptible to electrical interference.
- Ungrounded Thermocouples: wires are often separated from the sheath by mineral insulation.
- Exposed Thermocouples: wires are welded together and directly inserted into the process, very
quick response time, more prone to corrosion and degradation
- 316SS: most common sheath material, relatively corrosion resistant and is cost effective.
- Inconel 600: for highly corrosive environments.
- Special Limits of Error: usage of a higher grade of thermocouple wire, increased accuracy
- Standard Limits of Error: use standard “thermocouple grade” wire

Mechanism - two wire legs from different metals welded together at one end to create a
junction where temperature is measured
 - a change in temperature at the junction, when placed on the surface or in the
environment, produces a voltage which can be interpreted through the
reference table of the thermocouple for temperature determination. Its output
is a millivolt signal.
- The SEEBECK EFFECT, Thomas Seebeck (1821): continuous current flow
in the thermoelectric circuit when two wires of dissimilar metals form a
junction at one end while one of the other ends is heated
1. Automated measurements
2. Industrial (power generation, oil/gas, pharmaceutical, biotech, cement,
paper & pulp)
Applications
3. Appliances (stoves, furnaces, asters)
4. Scientific and
5. OEM
1. low cost
2. very wide temperature range
Advantages 3. fast response time
4. available in small sheath sizes
5. durable nature
1. vulnerable to corrosion
Disadvantages
2. difficult recalibration

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
 Semiconductor devices are electronic components that exploit the electronic properties of
semiconductors.
A semiconductor temperature sensor is an IC that combines a temperature-
sensing element with signal conditioning, output, and other types of circuitry on
one chip. It relies on the change of voltage across a p-n junction, essentially a
Mechanism silicon diode, in response to a temperature change to determine the ambient
temperature. The bipolar IC substrate is designed to build p-n-p and n-p-n
transistors, so in practice, the sensing diode is usually formed using a transistor
with the base and collector shorted.
1. Heating
2. Ventilation
Applications 3. Air Conditioning
4. Automotive systems
5. Industrial processes
1. inexpensive
2. require no linearization, cold junction compensation, or signal
conditioning
Advantages 3. often combine several functions on one chip
4. produce analog, logic, or digital outputs that can be interfaced directly to
an analog measurement circuit, an analog-to-digital converter (ADC), a
microprocessor, or a fan control
Disadvantages 1. Limited temperature range
2. The noise level is higher in semiconductor devices as compared to that in
the vacuum tubes.
3. Ordinary semiconductor devices cannot handle as more power as
 ordinary vacuum tubes can do.
4. In high frequency range, they have poor responders.

RADIATION PYROMETER
 A non-contact temperature sensor that gathers or collects the temperature of an object by
detecting its naturally emitted thermal radiation.

The radiation pyrometer has an optical system, including lens, a mirror and an
adjustable eye piece. The heat energy emitted from the hot body is passed on the
optical lens, which collects it and is focused on the detector with the help of the
Mechanism mirror and eye piece arrangement. The detector may either be a thermistor or
photomultiplier tubes. Thus, the heat energy is converted to its corresponding
electrical signal by the detector and is sent to the output temperature display
device.
1. Smelting industry
2. Measuring average temperature of large surface area
Applications 3. For a target where physical contact is impossible
4. In a corrosive environment
5. Invisible rays from radiation
1. Ability to measure very high temperature
2. High output signal
Advantages
3. No need to contact with measuring system
4. Fast response
1. Emissivity errors are introduced
2. Errors due to the absorption of radiation by carbon dioxide, water or
Disadvantages other apparently transparent gases
3. Availability of optical materials limit on the wavelength that can be
measured