Examples Manual Civil and Bridge

Powerful FE technology for specialist applications
Examples Manual
LUSAS Civil & Structural

and
LUSAS Bridge
Version 13.6
(Issue 1)
FEA Ltd
Forge House, 66 High Street, Kingston upon Thames,
Surrey, KT1 1HN, United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)20 8541 1999

Fax +44 (0)20 8549 9399
Email: info@lusas.com
http://www.lusas.com
Distributors Worldwide
About the Examples
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Introduction 1
About the Examples .............................................................................................................1
Format of the Examples.......................................................................................................2
Modelling Units ....................................................................................................................7
Running LUSAS Modeller ....................................................................................................7
Linear Analysis of a 2D Frame 11
Description .........................................................................................................................11
Modelling ............................................................................................................................12
Running the Analysis .........................................................................................................19
Viewing the Results ...........................................................................................................20
Importing DXF Data 27
Description .........................................................................................................................27
Modelling ............................................................................................................................28
Calculating Section Properties of a Box Section 33
Description .........................................................................................................................33
Modelling ............................................................................................................................33
Simple Building Slab Design 39
Description .........................................................................................................................39
Modelling ............................................................................................................................40
Linear Analysis of a Post Tensioned Bridge 57
Description .........................................................................................................................57
Modelling ............................................................................................................................58
Running the Analysis ........................................................................................................66
Simple Grillage 71
Description .........................................................................................................................71
Modelling ............................................................................................................................72
Simple Slab Deck 95
Description .........................................................................................................................95
Modelling ............................................................................................................................96
Running the Analysis .......................................................................................................106
Viewing the Results .........................................................................................................107
Wood-Armer Bridge Slab Assessment 115
Description .......................................................................................................................115
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................116
Grillage Load Optimisation 133
Description .......................................................................................................................133
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................135
iii
Bridge Slab Load Optimisation 149
Description........................................................................................................................149
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................150
BRO94 Slab Analysis 167
Description........................................................................................................................167
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................168
Viewing the Results..........................................................................................................170
Section Slicing of a 3D Shell Structure 177
Description........................................................................................................................177
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................178
Seismic Response of a 2D Frame (Frequency Domain) 191
Description........................................................................................................................191
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................192
Seismic Response of a 3D Frame (Frequency Domain) 217
Description........................................................................................................................217
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................219
Buckling Analysis of a Plate Girder 231
Description........................................................................................................................231
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................232
Nonlinear Analysis of a Concrete Beam 247
Description........................................................................................................................247
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................248
Staged Construction of a Concrete Tower with Creep 269
Description........................................................................................................................269
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................270
Segmental Construction of a Post Tensioned Bridge 287
Description........................................................................................................................287
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................288
3D Nonlinear Static Analysis of a Cable Stayed Mast 307
Description........................................................................................................................307
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................308
2D Consolidation under a Strip Footing 323
Description........................................................................................................................323
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................324
iv
About the Examples

Drained Nonlinear Analysis of a Retaining Wall 339
Description .......................................................................................................................339
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................340
Seismic Analysis of a 2D Frame (Time Domain) 367
Description .......................................................................................................................367
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................369
Seismic Analysis of a 3D Frame (Time Domain) 389
Description .......................................................................................................................389
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................391
Train Induced Vibration of a Bridge 405
Description .......................................................................................................................405
Modelling ..........................................................................................................................406
v
vi
About the Examples
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Unless otherwise noted, the examples are written for use with Version 13.6 of the base
versions of all LUSAS software products. When applicable, the LUSAS software
product and any options that must be installed in order to carry out the example will
be stated at the beginning of the example.
Except where mentioned, all examples are written to allow modelling and analysis to
be carried out with the versions of LUSAS which have restrictions on problem size.
The limits are currently set as follows:
500 100 250 1500 10

Nodes Points Elements Degrees of Freedom Loadcases
1RWH The first example contains detailed information to guide new users, in a step
by step fashion, through the procedures involved in building a LUSAS model, running
an analysis and viewing the results. This fully worked example details the contents of
each dialog box opened and the necessary text entry and mouse clicks involved. The
remaining examples assume that users have completed the fully worked example and
may not necessarily contain the same level of information.
The examples are of varying complexity and cover different modelling and analysis
procedures using LUSAS. It will benefit all users to work through as many examples
as possible, even if they have no direct bearing on immediate analysis interests.
Because of the modelling and analysis limits imposed by the Teaching and Training
Versions some examples may contain coarse mesh arrangements which do not
necessarily constitute good modelling practice. In these situations these examples
should only be used to illustrate the LUSAS modelling methods and analysis
procedures involved and should not necessarily be used as examples of how to analyse
a particular type of structure in detail.
1
Introduction
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Each example contains some or all of the following main headings:
'HVFULSWLRQ contains a summary of the example, defining geometry,

material properties, analysis requirements and results processing requirements.
.H\ZRUGV contains a list of keywords as an aid to selecting the correct
examples to run.
$VVRFLDWHG )LOHV contains a list of command files held in the
\Lusas136\Examples\Modeller directory (or similar) that are associated
with the example. These files can be used to skip to a certain part of an
example, for instance if it is required to carry out the results processing
stage only.
0RGHOOLQJ contains procedures for defining the features and attribute
datasets to prepare the LUSAS model file. Multiple model files may be created
for the more complex examples and may contain more than one ‘Modelling’
section.
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV contains details for creating the LUSAS data file
for analysis running the analysis. Multiple LUSAS data files may be required
for some examples.
9LHZLQJ WKH 5HVXOWV contains procedures for results processing using
various methods.
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Menu entries to be selected are shown as follows:
Geometry
Point >
Coordinates...
For certain commands a toolbar button will also be shown to show the ‘short-cut’
option to the same command that could be used instead:
Instructions for the user to carry out after selecting the previous menu command or
toolbar button are bulleted and are shown as follows:
x Enter coordinates of (10, 20).
2
Format of the Examples
So the selection of a typical menu command and the response required by the user
would appear as follows:
Geometry Enter coordinates of (10, 20).
Point >
Coordinates...
This implies that the Geometry menu should be selected from the menu bar, followed
by Point, followed by the Coordinates... option.
The toolbar button for the same command is also shown. Selecting either of these to
access the command will cause a dialog box to be displayed, on which the coordinates
10, 20 should be entered.
If a menu entry is referred to in the body text of the example it is written using a bold
text style. For example the menu entry shown above would be written as Geometry >
Point > Coordinates...
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Grey-boxed indicates a procedure that only needs to be performed if problems occur
with the modelling or analysis of the example. An example follows:
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File x If a model is to be rebuilt start a new model file and save any previous modelling
New…
data if required.
x Select the Blank model option.

File x Open the command file example_modelling.cmd. This file can be located in the
Command Files >
Open...
\Lusas136\Examples\Modeller directory. Click the OK button. LUSAS will
replay the command file, correctly generating the model for subsequent analysis.
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Each example has an associated set of LUSAS command files which are supplied on
the release media and with a default installation are installed into the
\Lusas136\Examples\Modeller directory. LUSAS command files can be used to
create a model for results processing (if the modelling of the example is not of
interest) or to rebuild a model that may contain an error that cannot be fixed by a new
user.
)LOHV The diskette icon is used to indicate which files should be run to reach a
specified stage in an analysis.
3
Introduction
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Throughout the examples, notes, tips and warnings will be found. They are marked by
an icon in the left margin.
1RWH A note is information relevant to the current topic that should be drawn to

users’ attention. Notes may cover useful additional information or bring out points
requiring additional care in their execution.
7LS A tip is a useful point or technique which will help to make the software easier
)
to use.
&DXWLRQ A caution is used to alert attention to something which could cause an

0
inadvertent error to be made, or potential corruption of data. Cautions are rare, so take
heed if they appear in the example.
4
Format of the Examples
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LUSAS is an associative feature-based Modeller. The model geometry is entered in
terms of features which are sub-divided (discretised) into finite elements in order to
perform the analysis. Increasing the discretisation of the features will usually result in
an increase in accuracy of the solution, but with a corresponding increase in solution
time and disk space required. The features in LUSAS form a hierarchy, that is
Volumes are comprised of Surfaces, which in turn are made up of Lines or Combined
Lines, which are defined by Points.
A LUSAS model is a graphical representation consisting of geometric features (points,
lines, surfaces, volumes) and assigned attributes (materials, loading, supports, mesh).
The geometry is defined using a whole range of tools under the Geometry menu, or
the buttons on the Smart define toolbar (and advanced define toolbar). Attributes are
defined from the Attributes menu. Once defined, attributes are listed in the Treeview.
5
Introduction
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As the LUSAS model progresses, it will grow in complexity. The Treeview is used to
organise various aspects of the model into a graphical tree frame. It has five panels
showing Window Layers , Groups , Attributes , Loadcases and Utilities
. The Treeview uses drag and drop functionality. For example, an attribute in the
Treeview can be assigned to selected geometry by dragging the attribute onto the
model.
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Although all commands can be accessed from the main menu at the top of the LUSAS
interface, pressing the right-hand mouse button with an object selected usually
displays a shortcut menu with relevant commands attached.
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Some users may prefer better contrast for selected features in the Graphics Window.
Selected lines can be made thicker or of a different colour through the Graphics
Window Properties dialog as follows:
x Right-click in a blank region of the Graphics Window and select Properties from
the context menu. Ensure the checkbox Use Windows colors is not selected and
redefine the selection pen accordingly.
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Many important parts of a LUSAS model are contained within Property dialogs.
Properties may relate to the whole model or the current window, or a single geometric
feature, in fact most objects have properties. To view an object’s properties, select it
with the right mouse button, then choose Properties from the shortcut menu.
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LUSAS contains a comprehensive Help system. The Help consists of the following:
x The Help button on the Main toolbar is used to get context-sensitive help on
the LUSAS interface. Click on the Help button, then click on any toolbar button or
menu entry (even when greyed out), or certain parts of the LUSAS screen.
x From the Help menu choose Help Topics to browse the full Help files. They
include the LUSAS User Guide, reference help files such as the Element Library
and Worked Examples to take users through step-by-step FE analyses.
6
Modelling Units
x Also accessed from the Help Topics option is a comprehensive keyword index
and full text search facility. These can be powerful tools in the search of
information.
x Finally, every dialog includes a Help button to answer such questions as What
does this mean? or How do I use this dialog?
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At the beginning of each example the modelling units used will be stated as one of the
following:
1PNJ&V(SI units)
N1PW&V
1PPW&V
In real-life modelling when non-SI units are used, care must be taken to ensure that all
modelling values are correctly defined. In particular, in analyses where the self weight
of the structure is to be considered, adjustment must be made to the Young’s Modulus
and Mass Density material property values to ensure that the correct output results are
obtained.
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Running LUSAS Modeller by using a software key for a LUSAS Teaching and
Training Version differs slightly from running LUSAS Modeller with a software key
for a particular LUSAS product.
x Run LUSAS Modeller using a method appropriate to the machine in use.
x Click the OK button on the Tips dialog.
7
Introduction
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x Select the LUSAS product for teaching or training
purposes and click the OK button.
When running LUSAS for the first

time in a session the LUSAS
Modeller Startup dialog will be
displayed. This allows either a new
model to be created, or a recent or
previously created model to be re-
opened.
8
Running LUSAS Modeller
For a new model

the New Model
Startup dialog will
be displayed.
Continue by
following an
appropriate
LUSAS example
from this manual
for the product
selected.
1RWH Once the Model Startup information has been entered and the OK button
pressed, product specific menu entries e.g. Analyst, Composite, Bridge or Civil will
be added to the LUSAS Modeller menu bar according to the product in use.
9
Introduction
10
Description
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For software product(s): LUSAS Civil & Structural or LUSAS Bridge.
With product option(s): None.
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A simple 2D frame is
2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
to be analysed. The
geometry of the
frame is as shown.
1.0
All members are
made of steel with a
Young’s modulus of
210E9 Pa, a Poisson’s 3.0
Ratio of 0.3 and a
mass density of 7860
kg/m3.
The structure is
subjected to two load cases; the self-weight of the structure, and a sway load at the top
of the left-hand column.
The units of the analysis are N, m, and kg throughout.
11
Linear Analysis of a 2D Frame
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The required output from the analysis consists of:
A deformed shape plot showing displacements caused by the imposed loading
An axial force diagram showing stresses in the members
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2D, Frame, Beam, Standard Sections, Copy, Mirror, Deformed Mesh, Axial
Force Diagram, Shear Force Diagram, Bending Moment Diagram, Report
Wizard, Printing results.
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IUDPHBGBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

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For details of how to run LUSAS Modeller see the heading Running LUSAS
Modeller in the Examples Manual Introduction.
1RWH This example is written assuming a new LUSAS Modeller session has been
started. If continuing from an existing Modeller session select the menu command
File>New to start a new model file. Modeller will prompt for any unsaved data and
display the New Model Startup form.
12
Modelling
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x Enter the file name
as frame_2D
x Use the Default

working folder.
x Enter the title as

Simple 2D Frame
x Leave the units as N

m kg C s
x Select the model

template Standard
from those available
in the drop down
list.
x Select the Vertical Y axis option.
x Click the OK button.
1RWH It is useful to save the model regularly as the example progresses. This allows
a previously saved model to be re-loaded if a mistake is made that cannot be corrected
easily by a new user.
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Geometry
Point > Enter coordinates of (0, 0), (0, 3), 2. Drag a box
Coordinates... (4, 3) and (4, 4) to define the main around these 2
setting-out points for one-half of the Points to create
portal frame. Use the Tab key to move a vertical line on
the centre line
to the next entry field on the dialog.
of the Frame
With all the coordinates entered click
the OK button.
1. Drag a box
1RWH Sets of coordinates must be around these 2
separated by commas or spaces unless

the ‘Grid Style’ method is chosen. The
Points to create
the left hand
column
Tab key is used to create new entry
fields. The Arrow keys are used to
move between entries.
x Select the Points on the left-hand side of the model.
13
Geometry Connect the selected Points with a Line representing the left-hand column of
Line >
Points…
the portal frame.
x Select the pairs of Points on the right hand side of the model.
Geometry Connect the selected Points with a Line representing the right-hand vertical
Line >
Points…
member on the frame centreline.
x Create the horizontal member by selecting the appropriate Points and define a Line
in a similar manner.
x Select the Points at the top of the left hand column and the apex of the roof.
Geometry Connect the selected Points with a Line representing the sloping member of the
Line >
Points…
frame.
To create the vertical roof member at quarter span the 2 Lines shown are split into
equal divisions to create the points required and the new line is then defined.
x Select the 2 Lines shown (Hold

down the Shift key to add the second Select these 2
Line to the initial selection). Lines to be split
Geometry
Line >
x Enter the number of divisions for
By Splitting > both Lines as 2
At equal
distances… x Ensure that Delete features on
splitting is set so that the original
Lines are deleted and click the OK Drag a box
button. around these 2
Points
x Drag a box around the 2 Points just
created.
Geometry Create the Line representing the
Line >
Points...
internal member.
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The Line features are to be meshed using two-dimensional beam elements.
Attributes x Select Thick Beam, 2 dimensional, Linear elements.
Mesh >
Line... x Set the number of divisions per line to be 1
x Enter the dataset name as Thick Beam then click OK
x Select the whole model. (Ctrl and A keys together)
14
Modelling
x Drag and drop the mesh dataset Thick Beam from the Treeview onto the
selected model Lines.
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Attributes x Select material Mild Steel
Material >
Material Library…
from the drop-down list, leave
the units as N m kg C s and
click OK to add the material
dataset to the Treeview.
x With the whole model selected

(Ctrl and A keys together) drag
and drop the material dataset
Mild Steel Ungraded (N m kg
C) from the Treeview onto
the selected features and assign
to the selected lines by clicking
the OK button.
Attributes *HRPHWULF3URSHUWLHV
Geometric >
Section Library …
The standard sections dialog will appear.
x Select the
library of UK
Sections
x Select section
type Universal
Beams (BS4)
x Select section
name
127x76x13kg
UB
x Select 2D
Frame usage.
x Click the Apply

button to add the
15
Universal Beam dataset to the Treeview.
x Change the section type in the Type drop-down list to Equal Angles (BS4848)
and select the 70x70x6 EA section name.
x Select 2D Frame usage.
x Click the OK button to add the Equal Angle dataset to the Treeview.
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x Drag a box around the Lines
representing the roof members.
x Drag and drop the geometry

dataset 70x70x6 EA (m) from the
Treeview onto the selected
Lines.
Drag a box around these members
x Select the Line representing the
left-hand vertical member.
x Drag and drop the geometry Select this Line

dataset 127x76x13kg UB (m)
from the Treeview onto the
selected Line.
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LUSAS provides the more common types of support by default. These can be seen in
the Treeview. The structure will be supported at the end of the column which is in
contact with the ground with a fully fixed support condition.
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x Select the Point at the bottom of the left-hand vertical member.
x Drag and drop the support dataset Fully Fixed from the Treeview onto the
selected feature.
x Ensure the Assign to points and All loadcases options are selected and click OK.
16
Modelling
0LUURULQJWKH0RGHO
One half of the 2D frame has now
been generated. This half can now be
mirrored to create the complete frame.
The first step in the process is to
define the mirror plane.
x Select the 2 points on the right-

hand side of the model that define Select these 2
the axis about which the frame will Points to define
be mirrored. mirror plane
Edit The points are stored in memory.
Selection Memory >
Set x Select the whole model (Ctrl and
A keys together).
Geometry Select Mirror - points 3 4
Line
from the drop down list and
Copy…
click the Use button on the dialog. This will use the points stored in memory to create
the mirror plane. Click the OK button to create the full model.
Edit The points are cleared from selection memory.
Selection Memory >
Clear
1RWH Features which are copied retain their attributes. This means that there is no
need to define the mesh, material or geometric properties for the newly created Lines
as they will already have the attributes from the original half of the model assigned.
1RWH In mirroring the features the Line directions are reversed. The orientation of
Lines is important as it controls the local beam axes directions which will define the
sign convention used to present the results.
x In the Layers Treeview double-click on Geometry to display the geometry

layer properties. Select the Show line directions option and click the OK button.
The Lines orientations are shown.
17
x Select the 4 Lines to

be reversed. (Hold
down the Shift key
to add lines to the
initial selection).
Geometry The selected Line
Line >
directions will be These Line
Reverse directions need
reversed.
reversing
Once the Line directions

are corrected, de-select
the Show line directions option in the geometry layer properties and click the OK
button.
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Two loadcases will be considered; self weight, and a concentrated sway load acting at
the top of the left-hand vertical member.
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Loadcase 1 will represent the self-weight of the structure. This is modelled using a
constant body force which is an acceleration loading simulating the force of gravity
acting upon the structure.
Attributes x Select the Body Force tab. Enter a linear acceleration in the Y direction of -9.81.
Loading >
Structural...
x Enter the dataset name as Self Weight and click OK to add the dataset to the
Treeview.
x Select the whole model (Ctrl and A keys together) and drag and drop the loading
dataset Self Weight from the Treeview onto the selected features.
x Ensure that the Assign to lines option is selected and the loading is applied to
Loadcase 1 with a load factor of 1. Click the OK button and the loading on the
frame will be displayed.
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Loadcase 2 is a sway load acting at the top of the left-hand vertical member.
Attributes x Ensure the Concentrated tab is selected and enter a concentrated load in the X
Loading >
Structural...
direction of 500.
x Enter the dataset name as Sway Load and click OK.
18
Running the Analysis
x Select the Point at the top

of the column.
x Drag and drop the

loading dataset Sway
Load from the
Treeview onto the
Select this Point to assign
selected Point.
the concentrated load
x Change the loadcase
name to Loadcase 2 and
ensure that the Assign to
points option is selected.
x Click the OK button to assign the loading with a factor of 1.
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File Save the model file.
Save
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With the model loaded:
File
LUSAS Datafile... A LUSAS data file name of frame_2D will be automatically entered in the File
name field. Click the Save button to finish.
A LUSAS Datafile will be created from the model information. The LUSAS Solver
uses this datafile to perform the analysis.
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The LUSAS results file will be added to the Treeview.
In addition, 2 files will be created in the directory where the model file resides:
IUDPHBGRXW this output file contains details of model data, assigned

attributes and selected statistics of the analysis.
IUDPHBGP\V this is the LUSAS results file which is loaded automatically
into the Treeview to allow results processing to take place.
19
,IWKHDQDO\VLVIDLOV
If the analysis fails, information relating to the nature of the error encountered can be
written to an output file in addition to the text output window. Select No to not view
the output file. Any errors listed in the text output window should be corrected in
LUSAS Modeller before saving the model and re-running the analysis.
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If it proves impossible for you to correct the errors reported a command file is
provided to enable you to re-create the model from scratch and run an analysis
successfully.
IUDPHBGBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

File
New… Start a new model file. If an existing model is open Modeller will prompt for
unsaved data to be saved before opening the new file.
x Enter the file name as frame_2D
x Select the Vertical Y axis option and click OK

File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file frame_2D_modelling.cmd which
Open... is located in the \Lusas136\Examples\Modeller directory.
File
Save Save the model file.
File
LUSAS Datafile... Rerun the analysis to generate the results.
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If the analysis is run from within LUSAS Modeller the results will be loaded on top of
the current model and the load case results for the first load case will be set to active
by default.
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A deformed mesh plot is normally displayed to highlight any obvious errors with an
analysis before progressing to more detailed results processing. The deformed shape
20
Viewing the Results
will usually show up errors in loading or supports and may also indicate incorrect
material property assignments (e.g. where the results show excessive displacements).
For clarity, the geometry will be removed from the display to leave only the
undeformed mesh displayed.
x In the Treeview click on and delete the Geometry and Attributes layers.
x With no features selected click the right-hand mouse button in a blank part of the
Graphics window and select the Deformed mesh option. This will add the
deformed mesh layer to the Treeview. Accept the default properties by
selecting Close.
1RWH By default the maximum displacement is scaled to the magnitude defined on

the deformed mesh dialog so the deformed shape can be easily visualised. The
exaggeration factor used to multiply the displacements is displayed on the deformed
mesh properties dialog and can be defined if required.
The deformed mesh plot
for loadcase 1 (the default
active load case) will be
displayed on top of the
mesh layer.
x Delete the Mesh layer

from the Treeview
to leave only the
deformed mesh
displayed as shown.
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Combinations can be created to view the combined effects of multiple load cases on
the structure.
Utilities
A combination dataset Combination 3 will be created in the Treeview.
Combination >
Basic
The combination properties dialog will appear.
21
x Ensure Results file: 1 is

selected from the drop
down list.
Both results loadcases should
be included in the
combination panel.
x Select Loadcase 1, hold the

shift key down and select
Loadcase 2. Click the
button to add the
loadcases to load
combination.
x Click the OK button to finish and the Yes button to confirm the combination
dataset is to be overwritten.
1RWH The load factor may be modified by selecting the included loadcase in the

right hand list and updating the factor or by updating the factor in the grid which is
displayed by selecting the Grid button.
1RWH To obtain the correct effect from the combined loads in this example, the

Combination should only include one occurrence of each loadcase.
9LHZLQJD&RPELQDWLRQ
x In the Treeview right-click on Combination 3 and select the Set Active option.
The deformed mesh plot will show the effect of the combined loading on the structure.
0DUNLQJ3HDN9DOXHV
Graphics window and select the Values option to add the values layer to the
Treeview.
The values layer properties will be displayed.
22
Viewing the Results
x Select Displacement results from the Entity drop down list and select the
resultant displacement RSLT from the component drop down list.
x From the Values Display tab set 100% of Maxima values to be displayed.
x Set the number of

significant figures to 3
x Click the OK button

to display the
deformed mesh plot
showing the
displacement at each
node.
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Different results may be viewed in different windows.
Window A new window using default layer names and a default loadcase will be created.
New Window
x In the Treeview click on the Mesh, Geometry and Attributes layers for
Window 2 and delete them.
Graphics window and select the Deformed mesh option to add the Deformed
mesh layer to the Treeview. Accept the default properties by selecting Close.
&KDQJLQJWKH/RDGFDVH
By default, a new window is created with Loadcase 1 set active. To view the results
for the Combination it needs to be set active again for this window.
$[LDO)RUFH'LDJUDP
graphics window of Window 2 and select Diagrams to add the diagrams layer to
the Treeview.
The diagram properties will be displayed.
x Select Stress results of axial force Fx in the members
23
x Select the Diagram Display tab and select the Label values button.
x Select the Label only if selected option.
x Change the number of significant figures to 4
x Click the OK button to finish.
The order of the layers in the Treeview governs the order that the layers are
displayed.
x To see the deformed mesh on top of the diagram plot the deformed mesh layer
needs to be moved down the Treeview to a position after the diagram layer.
x In the Treeview for Window 2 select the Deformed Mesh layer, click the
right-hand mouse
button and select
the Move Down
option.
x Now add labels to

the columns
(vertical
members). Select
the left hand
column hold the
Shift key and
select the right hand column.
An axial force diagram for each member will be displayed with values of Fx displayed
on the selected columns.
6KHDU)RUFH'LDJUDP
x In the
Treeview double-
click on the
Diagrams layer.
The diagram
properties will be
displayed.
x Select Stress
results of shear
force Fy in the
members.
24
Viewing the Results
x Click the OK button to display a shear force diagram of stresses in each member
with labels on the selected vertical members.
%HQGLQJ0RPHQW'LDJUDP
x In the Treeview double-click on the Diagrams layer. The diagram properties
will be displayed.
x Select Stress
results of
bending
moments in the
members Mz.
x Click the OK
button to display
a bending
moment diagram
for each member
with labels on
the selected vertical members.
6DYHWKH0RGHO
Save
1RWH When the model file is saved after results processing, all load combinations,
envelopes, and graph datasets, if defined, are also saved and therefore do not have to
be re-created if the model is amended and a re-analysis is done at a later date.
3ULQWLQJD5HSRUW
Selective model and results details can be printed to a Word document by using the
report wizard.
Utilities x Click the Set defaults button to enter the report name, report title and report units
Report Wizard…
from details held with the model and click Next.
x Select a Model Properties report, click the Apply button and confirm the
filename to be used for the report name.
1RWH The report wizard is not for use with versions of Word for Windows 95. The
use of Word 2000 is recommended.
25
This completes the example.
26
Description
,PSRUWLQJ';)'DWD
For software product(s): All.
With product option(s): CAD Toolkit for Analyst and Composite
Note: This example exceeds the limits of the LUSAS Teaching and Training Version.
'HVFULSWLRQ
This example shows the steps involved in importing DXF drawing data for use in
LUSAS.
Features imported
from DXF file
The initial geometry shown is equivalent to that imported from a typical CAD general
arrangement drawing.
0RGHOOLQJ2EMHFWLYHV
The operations in the creation of the model are as follows:
` Import initial Point and Line feature information from CAD drawing.
` Rationalise drawing to delete unwanted information.
27
Importing DXF Data
` Re-scale imported features to establish analysis units of length (m).
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
VODEG[I contains the drawing information available in DXF format.

`
0RGHOOLQJ

&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the file name as dxf_slab
x Use the default working folder.
x Enter the title as Imported DXF file of slab
x Set the units as kN m t C s
x Leave the model template as None

,PSRUWLQJ';)0RGHO'DWD
File Select the DXF file slab.dxf from the \Lusas136\Examples\Modeller directory and
Import…
click the Import button.
28
Modelling
)HDWXUH*HRPHWU\
The DXF features are imported in scaled units defined by the drawing scale. These
features will need to be scaled to suit the units of the analysis. Only the features
defining the plan view are to be used in creating the analysis model. All other features
can be deleted.
Delete these Features
x Drag a box around the Point and Line features on the other views of the bridge.
Use the Shift key to add additional features to the initial selection.
Edit >
Delete
Delete the selected features, confirming that the Combined Lines and Points are
to be deleted.
The remaining features will form the basis of the slab definition, but some further
manipulation is required before a finite element model can be created.
&RQYHUWLQJ8QLWV
With DXF data there may be situations where the DXF drawing units need to be
converted from scaled ‘paper’ dimensions into full size model as with this example
where modelling units of metres are required.
The imported DXF drawing units are millimetres plotted at 1:100 scale, so these will
need to be scaled by 100 to get the actual full-size dimensions of the slab in
millimetres. These dimensions in millimetres will then need to be scaled by 0.001 to
29
Importing DXF Data
convert them into metres. To save scaling the data twice, one scale factor of
(100x0.001)=0.1 can be used to convert the feature data into metres. Before scaling
the model data it is worth checking the dimensions of the slab.
To check the existing model dimensions, 2 sample Points on the centre line of the
mid-span support can be selected in turn and their coordinates obtained. If necessary
zoom in on the model to make Point selection easier.
Use the Zoom in

button to enlarge the
view to include both ends
of the centreline. Select this Point
Return to normal
cursor selection mode.
x Select the Point on

the left-hand edge of Select this Point
the slab deck as
shown in the diagram
x With the Shift key

held down, select the
Point shown on the
right-hand edge of the deck.
Geometry A value between the Points selected of 2.02075e+02 will be displayed in the message
Point > window.
Distance between
points
Resize the model to fit the graphics window.
6FDOLQJWKHPRGHOXQLWV
x Drag a box around the slab to select all the features. (Or press the Ctrl and A keys
together).
Geometry Select the Scale option and enter a Scale factor of 0.1 in the X, Y and Z
Point >
directions leave the origin as 0,0,0 and click OK
Move…
The slab dimensions will be scaled accordingly.
To check the new model dimensions, The same sample Points on the centre line of the
mid-span support are to be selected and their new coordinates obtained.
30
Modelling
Use the Zoom in

button to enlarge the
view to include both
Select this Point
ends of the centreline
as before.
Return to normal
cursor selection mode.
x Select the Point on Select this Point

the left-hand edge
of the slab deck as
shown in the
diagram
x With the Shift key

held down, select the Point shown on the right-hand edge of the deck.
Geometry A value between the Points selected of 2.02075e+01 will be displayed in the message
Point >
window.
Distance between
points
Resize the model to fit the graphics window.
6DYHWKHPRGHO
File Save the model.
Save
This completes the conversion and preparation of the DXF data model for use in
LUSAS. From the imported data, Surfaces would be defined, a mesh assigned to the
model, and geometric properties, supports and loading added.
31
Importing DXF Data
32
Description
&DOFXODWLQJ6HFWLRQ
3URSHUWLHVRID%R[
6HFWLRQ
For software product(s): All.
'HVFULSWLRQ
The section properties of an arbitrary shaped box section are to be computed from the
geometry of the section which is supplied as a DXF file.
2EMHFWLYHV
Section Properties of a box section
.H\ZRUGV
Section Properties, Arbitrary Section
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
ER[BVHFWLRQG[I DXF file containing geometry of section

0RGHOOLQJ
33
Calculating Section Properties of a Box Section

&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the file name as box_section
x Use the Default working folder.
x Enter the title as Box Section
x Select units of N mm t C s from the drop down list provided.
x Leave the startup template as None
'LVFXVVLRQ
The arbitrary section property calculator computes the section properties of any open
or closed section. Sections are created within LUSAS Modeller either as a single
regular or irregular surface, or as a group of surfaces. Any holes in a section must be
defined as separate surfaces that must be assigned to a group named Holes. Any
number of holes can be included in a cross-section. Holes in a surface must be
connected by a minimum of 2 lines to define other surfaces because Modeller cannot
currently model holes within surfaces that are not geometrically joined in this way.
)HDWXUH*HRPHWU\
File x Locate the box_section.dxf file from the \Lusas136\examples\modeller directory
Import...
and click the Import button to read in the DXF file and create the cross section
geometry as shown below.
x Drag a box around the right-

hand pair of points as shown.
Create a Line from the

selected Points. Box select a pair
of Points and
x Repeat for the left-hand pair of create a Line
points.
34
Modelling
x Box select the Box select these

Lines representing Lines to create
the top of the box. Surface 1
Geometry
Surface > Create a Surface
Lines… from the selected
Select Lines
Lines.
bounding shaded
x Select the Lines surface to create
defining the lower Surface 2
portion of the
section shown as
shaded.
1RWH When box selecting Modeller always creates a surfaces with the maximum
perimeter length so the lines defining the shaded surface can be created by box
selecting the shaded area of the section.
Geometry
Surface > Create a Surface from the selected Lines.
Lines…
x Box select the Lines defining the hole.
Geometry
Surface > Create a Surface representing the hole
Lines… from the selected Lines.
&DXWLRQ Even though the lines defining

0 the hole are currently selected and a surface
has been defined the current selection only
includes the lines defining the hole and
does not include the surface.
Box select these Lines
x To deselect the lines click the left-hand to create Surface 3
mouse button in a blank part of the
screen outside of the box section.
x Now select the surface defining the hole.

Geometry
Group > Create a group in the Treeview named New Group
New Group
x Right click on the New Group entry in the Treeview, select the Rename
option and change the name of the group to Holes
35
Utilities The units of the

Section Property
Calculator >
model as selected in
Arbitrary the startup form -
Section… millimetres (mm) -
will be displayed in
the drop down list.
1RWH There is no
need to compute the
section properties in
the units they are to
be used in the
analysis model since
units conversion is
carried out when the
section properties are
extracted from the
section library if
required.
x Click the Apply button, and after a short wait the calculated section properties will
be displayed in the greyed boxes on the right-hand side of the form.
1RWH The section properties may be added to the local or server section property
libraries by selecting the appropriate option(s) prior to selecting the Apply button.
Alternatively the user can deselect the ‘Recompute section properties’ option after
selecting the ‘Add local library’ or ‘Add server library’ options. By default the model
name is entered as the Section Name. This can be modified if required.
1RWH The mesh used to compute the properties of each of the surfaces is displayed
in the graphics window. By default an element size is selected which will assign 15
elements to the longest side and a minimum of 2 elements is applied to the shorter
sides. This mesh may be adjusted by deselecting the automatic mesh check box and
changing the mesh size in the Treeview. Alternatively, the maximum element on
the longest side may be adjusted by changing the ‘Max elts/line’ option as required
prior to selecting the Apply button. As with all finite element models the more
elements used the more accurate the results but the slower the calculation. A good
compromise of 2 elements across all thin sections has been found to provide
reasonable results without using excessive computation time.
x Click Cancel to close the dialog.

The mesh used for the whole section will be visible. The mesh on the section may be
viewed by making the Holes group invisible.
36
Modelling
x In the Treeview select the Holes

group with the right-hand mouse button
and select Invisible
37
38
Description
6LPSOH%XLOGLQJ
6ODE'HVLJQ
Note: The example as written exceeds the limits of the LUSAS Teaching and
Training Version. However, by reducing the default mesh density to 4 divisions per
line (where shown) the analysis can be run in order to see the principles involved but
correspondingly less accurate results will be obtained.
'HVFULSWLRQ
Four panels of a concrete slab Line Support
supported by a wall, columns and a lift

Panel A Panel B
shaft are to be analysed and
reinforcement areas computed for
Slab Thickness 200mm 6m
moment only. Shear and displacement Concrete 40 N/mm2
checks need to be carried out Steel 460 N/mm2
Columns
separately. The geometry of the slab is
as shown.
Panel C Panel D
The slab is subjected to self-weight and
a live load. 2m Line 6m
Supports
The units of the analysis are N, m, and
2m
kg throughout.
2EMHFWLYH 6m 6m
To produce areas of

reinforcement under working load
.H\ZRUGV
Slab Design, Reinforcement, Wood Armer, RC Design, Steel Area, Load Combinations,
Smart Combinations
39
Simple Building Slab Design
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
VODEBGHVLJQBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

0RGHOOLQJ
For details of how to run LUSAS Modeller see the heading Running LUSAS Modeller
in the Examples Manual Introduction.
display the New Model Startup dialog.
&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the file name as
slab_design
x Use the default working

folder.
x Enter the title as Slab
Design Example
x Leave the units as N m kg

Cs
x Select the model template

Standard from those
available in the drop-down
list.
x Ensure the Vertical Z Axis option is selected and click the OK button.
'HIDXOW$VVLJQPHQWV
Attributes x Select material Concrete BS8110 from the from drop-down list, select grade
Material >
Material Library...
Long Term C40, leave the units as N m kg C s and click OK to add the material
40
Modelling
x Select the material dataset Concrete BS8110 Long Term C40 (N m kg C) from
the Treeview with the right-hand mouse button and select the Set Default
option.
Attributes x Select generic element type as Thick Plate, Element shape as Quadrilateral and
Mesh >
Surface...
Interpolation order as Linear. Enter the dataset name as Thick Plate and click the
OK button.
x Select the mesh dataset Thick Plate with the right-hand mouse button and select
the Set Default option.
Attributes x Enter a thickness of 0.2. Enter a dataset name of Thickness 200mm and click the
Geometric >
Surface…
OK button.
x Select the geometric dataset Thickness 200mm with the right-hand mouse button
and select the Set Default option.
Now set the default mesh density for each line.
File x Select the Meshing tab and set the default number of divisions to 8 and click the
Model Properties…
OK button.
1RWH If using the Evaluation Version of LUSAS set the default number of divisions
to 4 and click the OK button. This allows the example to be run inside the limits of
the Evaluation Version but note that different and less accurate results will be
obtained to those shown.
x For clarity delete the Mesh layer from the Treeview.
)HDWXUH*HRPHWU\
Geometry
Surface > Enter coordinates of (0, 0), (6, 0), (6, 6) and (0, 6) to define the lower left-hand
Coordinates... area of slab. Use the Tab key to move to the next entry field on the. With all the
coordinates entered click the OK button to create a surface with all the default
attributes assigned as specified above.
x Select the newly created Surface.

Geometry
Surface > Copy the selected surface with an X translation of 6. Click the OK button to
Copy… create a the new Surface.
x Use Ctrl + A keys together to select the whole model.

Geometry
Surface > Copy the selected surfaces with a Y translation of 6. Click the OK button to
Copy… define two new Surfaces.
41
Now define a Surface representing the lift shaft.

Geometry
Surface > Enter coordinates of (2, 2), (4, 2), (4, 4) and (2, 4) and click OK
Coordinates...
x Select the lower left Surface and then the
Surface representing the lift shaft. (Use
the Shift key to pick the second Surface Select and
to add to the selection) delete these
Surfaces
Edit
Delete Delete the selected Surfaces leaving the
Lines and Points in the model.
x Select the lower Line of the left-hand panel

and the lower line defining the lift shaft.
Geometry
Surface > Create the surface
By Joining…
x Create the other 3 surfaces around the lift
shaft in the same way.
1RWH It is normally good practice to ensure

that the orientation of surface axes (and hence
mesh element orientation) is consistent
throughout the model. However, plate
elements, as used in this example, produce
results based upon global axes and as such
ignore inconsistent element axes.
42
Modelling
6XSSRUWV
x Select the 6 points where the columns
are located.
Select these Points
x Assign the supports by dragging and and assign Fixed in Z
dropping the support dataset Fixed in
Z from the Treeview and assign to
All loadcases by clicking the OK
button.
x Select the 2 Lines representing the Select these

line support and drag and drop the Lines and assign
support dataset Fixed in Z from the Fixed in Z
Treeview and assign to All
loadcases by clicking the OK
button. Select these
Lines and assign
x Select only the top, bottom, and left- Fixed in Z
hand lines defining the lift shaft and
drag and drop the support dataset
Fixed in Z from the Treeview
and assign to All loadcases by
clicking the OK button.
43
Rotate the model to check that

all supports have been assigned
correctly.
Return to normal cursor mode.
Click this part of the status bar to view the model from the Z direction
again.
/RDGLQJ
Attributes x Select the Body Force tab.
Loading >
Structural…
x Enter an acceleration of -9.81 in the Z direction.
x Enter a dataset name of Self Weight and click the OK button.

Attributes x Select the Global Distributed tab.
Loading >
Structural…
x Select the per unit Area option.
x Enter -5000 in the Z Direction.
x Enter a dataset name as Live Load 5kN/m2 and click the OK button.
Now the dead and live loading needs to be assigned to each slab panel of the building.
This is done using separate load cases so that the load cases can be combined to
determine the most adverse effects.
x Firstly, right click on Loadcase 1 in the Treeview, select the Rename option
and change the first loadcase name to Panel A DL
x Select the surface representing the top left-hand panel (Panel A).
x Assign the dead loading by dragging and dropping the dataset Self Weight from
the Treeview onto the selection. The load assignmentwill be displayed. Select
the loadcase Panel A DL Leave the load factor as 1 and click the OK button.
44
Modelling
1RWH The loading assigned to each panel will be visualised as each loadcase is

assigned to the model
x Drag and drop the dataset Live Load 5kN/m2 from the Treeview onto the
selection and enter the loadcase as Panel A LL Leave the load factor as 1 and
click the OK button.
x Select the top right-hand panel (Panel B).
the Treeview onto the selection. The load assignmentwill be displayed. Enter
the loadcase Panel B DL Leave the load factor as 1 and click the OK button.
selection and enter the loadcase as Panel B LL Leave the load factor as 1 and
x Select all 4 surfaces of the Bottom left-hand panel (Panel C).
the loadcase Panel C DL Leave the load factor as 1 and click the OK button.
selection and enter the loadcase as Panel C LL Leave the load factor as 1 and
x Select the bottom right-hand panel (Panel D).
the loadcase Panel D DL Leave the load factor as 1 and click the OK button.
selection and enter the loadcase as Panel D LL Leave the load factor as 1 and
The Treeview should now contain 8 loadcases consisting of a dead and live
loadcase for each panel.
6DYLQJWKHPRGHO
Save
45
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of slab_design will be automatically entered in the File
LUSAS Datafile...
name field.
x Ensure that the options Solve now and Load results are selected.
x Click the Save button to finish.

The LUSAS results file will be added to Treeview.
VODEBGHVLJQRXW this output file contains details of model data, assigned

VODEBGHVLJQP\V this is the LUSAS results file which is loaded
automatically into the Treeview to allow results processing to take place.
,IWKHDQDO\VLVIDLOV
5HEXLOGLQJD0RGHO
successfully.
VODEBGHVLJQBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

File
x Enter the file name as slab_design and click OK
46
Viewing the Results
File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file slab_design_modelling.cmd which is
Open... located in the \Lusas136\Examples\Modeller directory.
File
9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
If the analysis was run from within LUSAS Modeller the results will be loaded on top
of the current model and the load case results for Loadcase 1 are set to be active by
default.
x Delete the Attributes layer from the Treeview
x With no
features
selected, click
the right-hand
mouse button in
a blank part of
the active
window and
select the
Contours
option to add
the contours
layer to the
Treeview.
x Select entity
Stress and
results
component Mx(B) to see the results for loadcase 1 - Panel A Dead Load.
'HILQLQJD/RDG&RPELQDWLRQ
The loadcases will be combined to provide the most adverse loading effects. This is
achieved using the smart load combination facility within LUSAS Modeller. For
Ultimate Limit State (ULS) design the code BS8110 requires dead loading to be
factored by 1.4 if it causes an adverse effect and 1.0 if it causes a relieving effect. Live
loading that causes an adverse effect is factored by 1.6 and omitted if it causes a
relieving effect.
47
For the dead load this is equivalent to a permanent load factor of 1.0 and a variable
load factor of 0.4 since 1.0 will always be applied and 0.4 will only be applied if it
creates an adverse effect.
For the live load this is equivalent to a permanent load factor of 0.0 and a variable
load factor of 1.6 since the loading will only be applied if it creates an adverse effect.
Utilities
Creates a smart combination in the Treeview.
Combination >
Smart…
x On thechange the smart combination name to ULS
Now include all loadcases in the smart combination:
x To do this select the first load case in the loadcase selector at the bottom left of the
then hold the Shift key down and scroll down the list and select the last loadcase.
x Click the button to add these loadcases to the included list.
x Select the Grid button and set the permanent and variable factors as shown in the
table that follows:
Name Loadcase Res File ID Permanent Variable

ID Factor Factor
Panel A DL 1 1 1 0.4
Panel A LL 2 1 0 1.6
Panel B DL 3 1 1 0.4
Panel B LL 4 1 0 1.6
Panel C DL 5 1 1 0.4
Panel C LL 6 1 0 1.6
Panel D DL 7 1 1 0.4
Panel D LL 8 1 0 1.6
x Click the OK button to return to the combination properties
x Click the OK button to complete the definition of the smart combination and Yes
to overwrite the combination definition.
48
Viewing the Results
The maximum combination will produce the most adverse hogging moments whilst
the minimum combination will produce the most adverse sagging moments.
1RWH When the properties of the max combination are modified the corresponding

min combination is updated automatically.
x Select ULS
(Min) from the
Treeview
with the right-
hand mouse
button and
pick the Set
Active option.
x Select entity
Stress and
results
component
Mx(B) to
combine,
applying the
variable
factors based
on the bottom
Wood Armer moments in the X direction and click the OK button.
8VLQJWKH5&6ODE:DOO'HVLJQIDFLOLW\
The RC Slab/Wall design facility enables K factor, bar size or steel reinforcement
areas with the option for crack checking to be computed and contoured from Wood
Armer moments for plate and shell elements. The effective depth is computed from
the top and bottom reinforcement bar sizes and covers, which are then used to
compute the chosen results quantities.
49
Civil/Bridge
RC Design >
Slab/Wall…
x Ensure that the United Kingdom – BS8110 is selected from the dropdown list of
design codes
x Ensure that the check options for the design of reinforcement and crack
checking are selected.
x Click Next to proceed to the Slab Properties.
50
Viewing the Results
x Enter the slab properties as shown
x Click Next to proceed to the Reinforcement Contour Properties dialog.
51
x Select the option to contour Steel Area
x Select the Wood

Armer Component
as Mx(B)
x Click the Apply

button.
This will close the RC
Slab/Wall Design
dialog and plot
contours of bottom
steel area in the X
direction based on the
active Loadcase (for a
combination or an
envelope)
An RC Slab/Wall
Design return button
will appear that can be moved or docked.
To plot contours in the Y direction:
52
Viewing the Results
x Select ULS (Min) from the Treeview with the right-hand mouse button and
pick the Set Active option.
x Select Stress and My(B) from the drop-down lists to combine applying the
variable factors based on the moments about the Y axis and click the OK button.
x Click OK and acknowledge that temporarily the active loadcase component and
the results component show different values.
&DXWLRQ The revised contour plot shows bending moment contours based upon the
0
My(B) ULS (Min) combination but the actual contours displayed are currently Mx(B)
- the selection last made by the RC Design wizard. To see the correct contours for
bottom steel area in the Y direction the Wood Armer moment My(B) needs to be
selected on the RC Design dialog.
Click the RC Slab/Wall Design button to return to

the Reinforcement Contour Properties dialog.
x Select the component as My(B)
x Ensure that the option to contour Steel Area is selected.
x Click the Apply

button to display
contours of bottom
steel area in the Y
direction.
x The previous
processes can be
repeated to plot
contours of top
steel
reinforcement
using the ULS
(Max)
combination for
most adverse
hogging moments
Mx(T) and My(T)
53
&RQFUHWHFUDFNFKHFNLQJ
x Display contours of the bottom steel area in the X direction by selecting ULS
(Min) from the Treeview and with the right-hand mouse button and pick the
Set Active option.
x Select Stress and Mx(B) from the drop-down lists to combine applying the
variable factors based on the moments about the X axis and click the OK button.
x Click OK and acknowledge that temporarily the active loadcase component and
the results component show different values. To correct this:
Click the RC Slab/Wall Design button to return to

the Reinforcement Contour Properties dialog.
x Select the component as Mx(B)
Select the Next button from the Reinforcement Contour Properties dialog defined.
x Enter the Crack Checking Properties as shown on the dialog.
x Click the Finish button to plot contours of crack widths based on Mx(B) with a
54
Viewing the Results
reinforcement bar size of 12mm and spacing 150mm.
1RWH The crack checking calculation is independent of the previous reinforcement

design calculation. However, the effective depth is calculated from the information
given in the Slab Properties dialog. Using the Apply Button will allow the contour to
be drawn with the option to return to the Crack Checking Properties dialog so that the
reinforcement can be changed if required.
Civil/Bridge This switches off all slab design annotation and options and returns the contour range
RC Design >
Off
to its default range of values.
6DYHWKHPRGHO
Save
55
'LVFXVVLRQ
If the Evaluation Version of LUSAS was used to carry out this example with a
reduced default mesh density of 4 divisions per line a reduced accuracy of results will
have been obtained.
The following graph for ULS(Min) shows how Bending Moment (MX) along a
horizontal 2D slice section through the central three columns varies with the number
of line mesh divisions used.
In general, more accurate results are obtained when using more line mesh divisions
and hence more elements when modelling slabs of this type. Care should always be
taken to use an appropriate number of elements together with a possible refinement of
the mesh in areas of interest in order to obtain the best results.
56
Description
/LQHDU$QDO\VLVRID
3RVW7HQVLRQHG
%ULGJH
For software product(s): LUSAS Civil & Structural or LUSAS Bridge
With product option(s): None
'HVFULSWLRQ
A 3 span concrete y = 0.2 - 0.163(x-19) + 0.0136(x-19)2
y CL
post tensioned y = 0.2 + 0.163(x-13) - 0.02717(x-13)2
bridge is to be
analysed. The y = -0.1322x + 0.01135x 2 C D
bridge is idealised A x
1
as a 1 metre deep B tangent points E
beam with a
tendon profile as
shown in the half 6.5 6.5 2 4 6
model of the 15 10
bridge.
Abutment Column (Not to scale)
The initial post Half-model of bridge
tensioning force of
5000 kN is to be applied from both ends. Tendons with a cross section area of
0.0035m2 are located every 2 metres across the section allowing the analysis to model
a 2 metres effective width.
Three loadcases are to be considered; self-weight, short term losses, and long term
losses.
Units of kN, m, and tonnes are used throughout the analysis.
57
Linear Analysis of a Post Tensioned Bridge
2EMHFWLYHV
The maximum and minimum long and short term stress in the concrete due to
post tensioning.
.H\ZRUGV
2D, Beam, Prestress, Post tensioning, Beam Stress recovery.
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
SRVWBWHQBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.
SRVWBWHQBSURILOHFPG carries out the definition of the tendon.
0RGHOOLQJ
&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the file name as post_ten
x Enter the title as Post-tensioning of a bridge
x Select units of kN m t C s
x Select the startup template Standard from those available in the drop down list.
x Select the Vertical Y axis option
58
Modelling
)HDWXUH*HRPHWU\
Geometry
Line > Enter coordinates of (0, 0), (15, 0) and (25, 0) to define two Lines representing
Coordinates... half the bridge. Use the Tab key to move to the next entry field on the dialog.
x With all the coordinates entered click the OK button.
x Select all the visible Points and Lines using the Ctrl and A keys together.
Geometry
Group > To make the manipulation of the model easier create a group of the bridge
New Group...
x Select the New Group entry in the Treeview with the right-hand mouse button
select the Rename option and update the group name to Bridge
x Select the group Bridge with the right-hand mouse button and select the Invisible
option to clear the display.
When using the Prestress utility the tendon geometry is determined from a Line
definition, which in practice is usually a spline curve. The geometry of the tendon may
be input into the model directly by manually entering the coordinates, or by copying
and pasting from a spreadsheet, or, as in this example (for simplicity) by importing the
required data from a LUSAS command file.
File Read the coordinates of the tendon profile from the command file
Command Files >
Open...
post_ten_profile.cmd which can be found in the \Lusas135\Examples\Modeller
folder.
The points defining the tendon profile should appear as shown.
59
:KHQLPSRUWLQJGDWDIURPDVSUHDGVKHHW«
1RWH When entering the coordinates
of the tendon by copying and pasting
from a spreadsheet 3 columns of X,Y
Click here to select the table
and Z coordinates must be copied into

the paste buffer.
Geometry
Point > Ensure the 3 Column option is
Coordinates... activated.
x Select the top left-hand corner of the

grid as shown and use Ctrl + V to
paste the coordinates defining the
tendon profile into the table.
x Use Ctrl and A keys together to select all the visible Points.
Geometry To define the tendon profile with a spline line:

Line >
Spline >
From Points…
x Use Ctrl and A keys together to select the spline line and points.
Geometry Make the model definition easier by placing the prestress tendon into a group.
Group >
New Group
x Select the New Group entry in the Treeview with the right-hand mouse button
select the Rename option and update the group name to Tendon
x Select Bridge in the Treeview and pick the Set As Only Visible option.
60
Modelling
'HILQLQJWKH0HVK
The concrete bridge is represented by 2D beam elements.
Attributes x Select Thick Beam, 2
Mesh >
Line...
dimensional, Linear
elements, enter the
dataset name as 2D
Beam and click OK to
add the mesh dataset to
the Treeview.
x Use Ctrl + A to select all

the features.
x Drag and drop the mesh

dataset 2D Beam onto
the selection.
'HILQLQJWKH0DWHULDO
Attributes x Select material Concrete of grade Ungraded from the drop down list, leave the
Material >
Material Library… units as kN m t C s and click OK to add the material dataset to the Treeview.
x With the whole model selected (Ctrl and A keys together) drag and drop the
material dataset Concrete Ungraded (kN m t C) from the Treeview onto the
selected features and assign to the selected Lines by clicking the OK button.
'HILQLQJWKH*HRPHWULF3URSHUWLHV
The beam idealisation represents a two metre width of the bridge which is one metre
deep.
Attributes x Select the Thick Beam tab and enter the Area as 2, the Second moment of area
Geometric >
Line…
about y axis (Iyy) as 0.6667, the Second moment of area about z axis (Izz) as
0.1667, the Torsion constant (J) as 0.333, the Effective shear area in z direction
61
(Asz) as 2, the Effective shear area in y direction (Asy) as 2 and set the
Eccentricity (ez) to 0
x Enter the dataset name as Beam Properties and click the OK button to add the
geometric dataset Beam Properties from the Treeview onto the selected
features.
'HILQLQJWKH6XSSRUWV
the Treeview.
The bridge is supported with rollers at each of the abutments.
x Select the point at the left-hand abutment and the point at the column. (Hold the
Shift key to add to the initial selection)
x Drag the support dataset Fixed in Y from the Treeview and drop it onto the
selected Points in the graphics window. Choose options to Assign to points for
All loadcases and click OK
x Select the right-hand point on the centre line of the bridge.
x Drag the support dataset Symmetry YZ Plane from the Treeview and drop it
onto the selected Point in the graphics window. Choose options to Assign to
points for All loadcases and click OK
/RDGLQJ
Three loadcases are to be applied. The first represents self-weight of the structure. The
second represents the prestress with short term losses only. The third represents the
prestress with short and long term losses.
62
Modelling
'HILQLQJWKH6HOIZHLJKW
Attributes x Select the Body Force tab and enter a value of -9.81 for the linear acceleration in
Loading >
Structural…
the Y direction.
x Name the dataset Gravity and click OK to create a load dataset in the
Treeview.
x Use Ctrl and A keys together to select all the visible features
x Drag and drop the load dataset Gravity from the Treeview onto the selection.
Ensure the Assign to lines is selected and click OK to assign Loadcase 1 with a
factor of 1
x Select Loadcase 1 from the Treeview with the right-hand mouse button and
pick the Rename option and change the loadcase name to Self Weight
'HILQLQJ3UHVWUHVVZLWK6KRUW7HUP/RVVHV
Utilities Loadcase 2 will be generated in the Treeview.
Loadcase
x Select the Close option on the dialog.
x In the Treeview select Tendon with the right-hand mouse button and select the
Visible option.
x Select the spline Line representing the tendon followed by the 2 beams
representing the concrete bridge. (Hold the Shift to add to the initial selection)
1. Select this
line first
2. Select this line 3. Select this line
63
Civil/Bridge x On the Prestress

Prestress Wizard
BS5400…
Definition form
select the Defaults
button.
x Enter the Prestress

Force as 5000
x Leave the Modulus

of the tendon as
200E6
x Enter the Tendon

Area as 0.0035
x Set the duct friction

as 0.3
x Deselect the Long

term losses option
x Pick End 1 Only from the jacking end drop down list.
x Enter an anchorage slippage of 0.005
x Click OK
Modeller will assign the datasets to the selected Lines representing the concrete beams
for the current loadcase and will also add two load datasets to the Treeview.
pick the Rename option and change the loadcase name to Short Term Loss
'HILQLQJ3UHVWUHVVZLWK6KRUWDQG/RQJ7HUP/RVVHV
Utilities Loadcase 3 will be generated in the Treeview.
Loadcase
x Select the Close option on the dialog
x Ensure the 3 Lines are still selected.

Civil/Bridge The values previously entered on the form will be retained.
Prestress Wizard >
BS5400… x Select the Long term losses option. Leave all values as their defaults and click
OK to apply the prestress force to the current loadcase.
64
Modelling
pick the Rename option and change the loadcase name to Long Term Loss
1RWH If Microsoft Word is loaded on the machine a report showing the calculation
of losses can be generated at the time of input by checking the Word report option at
the bottom of the Prestress Definition dialog. This may take a short time to create.
Prior to picking this option the file Modeller.dot should be copied from the
\Lusas13\Programs\Scripts directory (or similar) to the Microsoft Word templates.
x To check the loading assignments use the right-hand mouse button to select each
loadcase in turn and pick the Set Active option.
*UDSKLQJRI3UHVWUHVV)RUFHLQWKH7HQGRQ
When the Prestress utility generates the required loading it also generates two graph
datasets. The first contains the distance along the beam and the second the force in the
tendon at each point.
Utilities x Select the Specified datasets option and click Next
Graph Wizard…
x From the first drop down list select Tendon 3 Distance and from the second select
Tendon 3 - Short Term Losses and click Next
x Click Finish to display the graph

Now add a graph of the Force after long term losses:
Utilities x Select the Specified datasets option and click Next
Graph Wizard…
x From the first drop down list select Tendon 3 Distance and from the second select
Tendon 3- Long Term Losses and click Next
x Select the Add to existing graph option and click Finish to update the graph.
65
x Right-click on the
graph select Edit
Graph
Properties and
update the titles to
display the graph
shown.
Close the graph

window.
6DYLQJWKH0RGHO
Save
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of post_ten will be automatically entered in the File
LUSAS Datafile...
name field.

66
SRVWBWHQRXW this output file contains details of model data, assigned

SRVWBWHQP\V this is the LUSAS results file which is loaded automatically
,IWKHDQDO\VLVIDLOV
5HEXLOGLQJD0RGHO
successfully.
SRVWBWHQBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

File
x Enter the file name as post_ten
x Select the Vertical Y Axis option and click OK

File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file post_ten_modelling.cmd which is
File
File
67
9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
6HOHFWLQJWKH5HVXOWVWREH9LHZHG
of the current model and the load case results for the first load case will be set to be
active by default.
'HIRUPHG0HVKDQG6XPPDU\
A deformed mesh plot helps highlight any obvious errors with an analysis before
progressing to detailed results processing. The deformed shape will usually show up
errors in loading or supports and may also indicate incorrect material property
assignments (e.g. where the results show excessive displacements).
x If present, delete the Geometry, Attributes and Mesh layers from the
Treeview.
x With no model features selected, click the right-hand mouse button in the graphics
window and select Deformed mesh
x Click the Close button to accept the default deformed mesh properties and display
the deformed mesh for self-weight alone.
window and select Values
x Select entity Displacement and component DY
x Select the Values Display tab.
x Select the Show values of selection option.
x Change the number of significant figures to 3 and click OK
x Select the node on the centre line to add the value of vertical displacement at mid
span to the display.
68
Viewing the Results
6WUHVV5HFRYHU\
Beam stress recovery is the calculation of stresses from the forces in the beam.
x Set the Area to 2 and the Section Modulus Zyy and Zzz to 0.667 and 0.333
Civil/Bridge respectively.
Beam Stress Check>
Define Beam
Section…
x Name the dataset Bridge Beam Section and click OK to add to the Treeview.
x To assign the stress check dataset select the dataset Bridge Beam Section from
the Treeview and click the button
x Select the Bridge entry in the Treeview and click on the button and click
OK to assign to Lines.
1RWH The stresses can now be viewed using the standard display facilities and the
entries My/Zyy and Mz/Zzz will appear in the component drop down lists.
x Delete Deformed mesh and Values from the Treeview to clear the display.
x Right-click in the graphics window and pick Diagrams
x Select entity Stress and component Mz/Zzz
x Select the Diagram Display tab.
x Pick the Label values option
x Select the Label font button and change the text size to 11 and click OK
x Change the angle of text to 45 and click OK to display the bridge beam stresses
under self-weight.
To view the stresses immediately after the application of the post tensioning load the
self-weight and short term loss loadcases are combined.
Utilities
A basic combination is created in the Treeview and a dialog appears.
Combination >
Basic
69
x Select Self Weight and Short Term Loss from the available loadcases and click
the button to add them to the Included panel.
x Change the name to DL + Short Term
x Click OK and Yes to confirm overwriting of the combination.
x Select the combination DL + Short Term in the Treeview and select the Set
Active option to update the display of stresses.
70
Description
6LPSOH*ULOODJH
For software product(s): LUSAS Bridge.
'HVFULSWLRQ
A bridge deck is to be analysed using the grillage method. The geometry is as shown
below. All members are made of C50 concrete to BS5400. Section properties of the
longitudinal beams and diaphragms are to be calculated using the Section Property
Calculator facility.
Footway 0.25m Concrete Surfacing 0.1m Tarmac

Density 2.4t/m3 Density 2.0t/m3
2.5m 3.5m Lane 3.5m Lane 2.5m Y6 beam with insitu

12 m concrete top slab
0.25m Span = 20m
Width = 12m
Skew = 0o
6@2m
Cross-section through deck
20 m
0.75m
Longitudinal section along deck 0.5m
The structure is subjected to four loadcases: Dead load, Superimposed dead load,
Lane loads in both lanes (UDL and KEL), and an abnormal load (HB) in the lower
notional lane with a lane load (UDL and KEL) in the upper lane.
Units of kN, m, and t are used when modelling the grillage. Units of N, mm, and t are
used in calculating the section properties of selected components.
71
Simple Grillage
2EMHFWLYHV
A diagram showing bending moments in the longitudinal members for the
design load combination
.H\ZRUGV
2D, Y6 Precast Section, Section Property Calculation, Local Library, Grillage,
Basic Load Combination, Smart Load Combination, Enveloping, Deformed
Mesh, Bending Moment Diagram, Print Results Wizard
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
JULOODJHBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

0RGHOOLQJ
Before creating the grillage model the section properties of the longitudinal beams and
end diaphragms are to be computed using the section property calculator and stored
for future use.
&UHDWLQJWKH/RQJLWXGLQDO%HDP0RGHO
x Enter the file name as Y6
x Enter the title as Y6 Precast Beam
72
Modelling
x Ensure the Vertical Z Axis option is selected
'HILQLQJ/RQJLWXGLQDO%HDP*HRPHWU\
Utilities x From the Y Beams
Section Property
Calculator> section series select
Precast Section… a Y6 section.
x Specify a slab depth

of 250
x Enter a slab width of

2000
x Select the option to

Run Arbitrary
Section Property
Calculator after
section generation
x Click the OK
button.
&DOFXODWLQJ/RQJLWXGLQDO%HDP6HFWLRQ3URSHUWLHV
x The units of the model
selected in the startup
dialog, millimetres
(mm) in this case, will
be displayed in the
drop down list.
x Select the option Add

local library so the
calculated properties
will be available from
the local library when
required.
x Click the Apply

button to compute the
section properties.
These will be
73
Simple Grillage
displayed in the greyed text boxes on the right hand side of the dialog and written
to the local library.
x Click the Cancel button to close the dialog.
&UHDWLQJWKH(QG'LDSKUDJP0RGHO
File
New… Create a new model and discard the changes to the previous model.
x Enter the file name as diaphragm
x Use the default working folder.
x Enter the title as End diaphragm
x Ensure units of N m kg C s are selected.
'HILQLQJ'LDSKUDJP*HRPHWU\
Geometry >
Surface > Enter coordinates of (0,0), (0.5,0),
Coordinates… (0.5,0.5), (1.0,0.5), (1.0,0.75), (0,0.75) to
define a surface representing the end
diaphragm and slab (which is to be
represented by the end beam on the
grillage model) and click OK
74
Modelling
&DOFXODWLRQRI(QG'LDSKUDJP6HFWLRQ3URSHUWLHV
Utilities The units of the
Section Property model selected in the
Calculator>
Arbitrary
startup dialog, metres
Section… (m) in this case, will
be displayed in the
drop down list.
x Select the option

Add local library
x Click the Apply

button to compute
the section
properties. These
will be displayed
in the greyed text
boxes on the right
hand side of the
dialog and written
to the local library file for future use.
x Click the Cancel button to close the dialog.
&UHDWLQJWKH*ULOODJH0RGHO
Now that the beam and diaphragm properties have been calculated the grillage model
can be created.
File
New… Create a new model and discard the changes to the previous model.
x Enter the file name as grillage
x Enter the title as Simple grillage analysis
x Leave the model template as None
75
Simple Grillage
8VLQJWKH*ULOODJH:L]DUG
In this example the grillage wizard is used to generate a model of the bridge deck. The
grillage wizard defines the grillage geometry, assigns grillage elements to each of the
lines, and assigns supports to the end beams. It also assigns an equivalence dataset to
ensure nodes are generated at each of the line intersections and creates Groups to ease
member identification and the application of section properties.
1RWH It is difficult to make absolute recommendations as to how individual

structures should be modelled using a grillage. A few basic recommendations are
however valid for most models:
a) Longitudinal beams within the grillage should be coincident with the

actual beams within the structure.
b) Transverse beams should have a spacing which is similar or greater than

that of the longitudinal beams and the total number of transverse beams
should be odd to ensure a line of nodes occur at mid span.
Bridge x Select the Set defaults button

Grillage Wizard…
x Ensure Slab deck is selected and click Next
x The grillage is Straight with 0 degrees skew so click Next again
x Enter the grillage width as 10 and the number of internal longitudinal beams as 6
and click Next
x Leave the number of spans as 1
x Enter the length of span as 20 and the number of internal transverse beams as 9
x Click Finish to generate the grillage model.
76
Modelling
&DXWLRQ The grillage wizard creates nodes at the intersection of each line and uses
0 an equivalence dataset to merge the nodes together. If the grillage geometry is
modified the nodes will not appear at the line intersection and the equivalence will be
unable to merge out the nodes to connect the longitudinal and transverse members.
&DOFXODWLRQRI7UDQVYHUVH%HDP6HFWLRQ3URSHUWLHV
The internal transverse beams each represent 2m of slab so the section properties are
computed for an equivalent solid rectangular section.
Utilities End Diaphragm Slab Transverse Grillage beams

Section Property
Calculator>
Standard Section...
1m 2m 2m
Longitudinal Section
x Select the solid rectangular section.
x Enter a depth of D = 0.25
x Enter a width of B = 2
77
Simple Grillage
The section properties will be displayed in the greyed text boxes on the right hand
side of the dialog. Note the torsion constant (J) is approximately 0.010. This will be
required later in the example.
x Ensure the Add to local library option is selected, change the section name to
Slab D=0.25 B=2 and click OK to add the properties to the local section library.
$GGLQJ6HFWLRQ/LEUDU\,WHPVWRWKH7UHHYLHZ
Attributes x Select the User Sections library from the drop down list.
Geometric >
Section Library... x Select the Local library type.
x Select Y6 Precast Beam from the name in the drop down list.
1RWH Even though the Y6 beam was defined in millimetres the units can be
extracted from the library in metres. The units will be set to metres automatically as
these were the units selected on the startup dialog.
x Ensure the Grillage option is selected
x Click Apply to add the Y6 precast beam section properties to the Treeview.
x Select End diaphragm from the Name drop down list and click Apply to add the
End diaphragm section properties to the Treeview.
x Select the Slab D=0.25 B=2 entry from the Name drop down list and click OK to
add the properties to the Treeview and cancel the dialog.
1RWH For grillage analysis it is common practice to assume 50% of the torsion
capacity of the slab is taken by the transverse beams and 50% by the longitudinal
beams. The torsion constant of the Y6 beam thus needs to be reduced by 50% of the
torsion constant for the slab.
x Double click on the Slab D=0.25 B=2 (m) entry in the Treeview and reduce
the torsion constant to 0.005 i.e. 50% of the computed value.
x Click OK to make the change and Yes to overwrite the previous value.
x Double click on the Y6 Precast Beam (m) entry in the Treeview and modify
the torsion constant to be 0.022 (The computed value of 0.027 less the 50%
allowance of the torsion constant for the slab of 0.005)
x Click OK to make the change and Yes to overwrite the previous value.
78
Modelling
$VVLJQLQJ*HRPHWULF3URSHUWLHVWRWKH*ULOODJH0HPEHUV
The Y6 beam section properties are to be assigned to all the longitudinal members.
x In the Treeview select the Y6 Precast Beam (m) entry and click on the
copy button.
x In the Treeview select the Edge Beams group and click the paste button
to assign the Y6 beam section properties to the edge beams.
Confirmation of the assignment will appear in the text window.
x Select the Longitudinal Beams group and click the paste button again to
assign the Y6 beam section properties.
The diaphragm section properties are assigned to the end diaphragms in a similar
fashion.
x In the Treeview select the End diaphragm (m) entry and click on the
copy button.
x In the Treeview select the End Diaphragms group and click the paste
button to assign the slab section properties.
The slab section properties are assigned to the transverse members in a similar
fashion.
x In the Treeview select the Slab D=0.25 B=2 (m) entry and click on the
copy button.
x In the Treeview select the Transverse Beams group and click the paste
button to assign the slab section properties.
'HILQLQJWKH0DWHULDO
1RWH In this example a single material property will be used. If deflections and

rotations are of interest then separate analysis runs with short and long term properties
may be appropriate.
79
Simple Grillage
Attributes x Select material Concrete

Material >
Material Library…
BS5400 from the drop down
list, and Short Term C50 from
the grade drop down list.
x Leave the units as kN m t C s

and click OK to add the
material dataset to the
Treeview.
x With the whole model selected

(Ctrl and A keys together) drag
and drop the material dataset
Concrete BS5400 Short Term
C50 (kN m t C) from the
features and assign to the
selected Lines by clicking the
OK button.
/RDGLQJ
In this example seven loadcases will be applied to the grillage. These will enveloped
and combined together to form the design combination.
5HQDPLQJWKH/RDGFDVHV
x In the Treeview right click on Loadcase 1 and select the Rename option.
x Rename the loadcase to Dead Load by over-typing the previous name.
Use the Isometric View button to rotate the model
'HDG/RDG
Dead load is made up of the self-weight of the structure which is defined as an
acceleration due to gravity.
1RWH When a bridge deck is modelled by a grillage the slab is represented by both
the longitudinal and transverse members. This means that when self-weight is applied
the acceleration due to gravity should only be applied to the longitudinal members.
Bridge
x A load dataset named Gravity -ve Z will be added to the Treeview.
Bridge Loading >
Gravity
80
Modelling
x In the Treeview select the Gravity -ve Z entry and click on the copy
button.
x In the Treeview select the Edge Beams group and click the paste button.
x With the Assign to lines option selected click the OK button to assign the gravity
loading to the Dead Load loadcase with a factor of 1
The self-weight dead load will be displayed on the edge beams.
x In the Treeview select the Longitudinal Beams group and click the paste
button to gravity loading.
x With the Assign to lines option selected click the OK button to assign the gravity
loading to the Dead Load loadcase with a factor of 1
The self-weight dead load on the internal longitudinal beams will be added to the
display.
6XSHULPSRVHG'HDG/RDG
Superimposed dead load consists of the surfacing loads. These represent the self-
weight of the footways and the surfacing on the road.
Bridge Specify the surfacing loading for the footway:
Bridge Loading >
Surfacing… x Leave the density as 2.4
x Change the thickness to 0.25
x Set the length to 20 and set the width to 2.5
x Click the Apply button to add the loading to the Treeview.

Now specify the tarmac highway surfacing load:
x Change the density to 2.0
x Change the width to 3.5
x Click the OK button to add the loading to the Treeview.

Discrete point and patch loads are positioned by assigning them to points which do
not have to form part of the model.
81
Simple Grillage
Geometry
Point > Enter the coordinates of the mid point of each footway and each notional lane
Coordinates… (10,0.25), (10,3.25), (10,6.75), (10,9.75) and click OK
On the status bar at the bottom of the display, click the Z axis button to
return to a global Z direction view.
x Select the points at the

centre of each footway
by holding the Shift
key down to select Select these
points after the initial points to assign
selection. footway surface
loading
x Drag and drop the
discrete loading dataset
Surface 20x2.5
T=0.25 Density=2.4
(Centre) onto the
selected points.
x Select Include Full

Load from the drop
down list. This will
ensure the portion of
the pavement load
which is overhanging
the edge of the
grillage model is
applied to the edge
beams.
x Update the Number

of Divisions in Patch
Load Y direction to 4
to ensure sufficient
point loads are
applied in the
transverse direction
to represent the
applied load.
x Enter Superimposed DL as the Loadcase and click OK to assign the loading.

The loading will be visualised.
82
Modelling
Now the road surfacing is to be assigned:
x Select the two points at

the centre of each
notional lane.
Select these
x Drag and drop the points to
discrete load dataset assign lane
Surface 20x3.5 T=0.1 surface
Density=2 (Centre) loading
from the Treeview
onto the selected
points.
x Leave the loading

option for loads outside the search area set as Exclude All Load because for this
load type it is irrelevant whether include or exclude is used since the load length,
which is positioned centrally, is the same length as the span length
x Update the Number of Divisions in Patch Load Y direction to 4
x Select Superimposed DL from the Loadcase drop down list.
x Click OK to assign the road surfacing load.
9HKLFOH/RDG'HILQLWLRQ
Bridge
HA loading is to be applied to each notional lane in loadcases 3 and 4. These loads
Bridge Loading > are defined using the UK vehicle loading definitions supplied with LUSAS Bridge.
United
Kingdom… x Select the Lane load (HA load) button.
x Select loading code BD 37/88, change the length to 20 and select the OK button to
add the load dataset to the Treeview.
x Select the Knife edge load (KEL load) button.
x Leave the notional width as 3.5 and the intensity as 120 and click the OK button to
add the load dataset to the Treeview.
x Select the Abnormal load (HB vehicle) button.
x With the axle spacing set to 6 and 45 units of HB load select the OK button to add
the load dataset to the Treeview.
x Click the Close button to close the UK bridge loading dialog.
83
Simple Grillage
$VVLJQLQJ+$/RDGLQJ
x Select the point defined at the centre of the upper notional lane.
x Drag and drop the dataset HA BD37/88 20x3.5 Skew=0 (Centre) from the
Treeview.
x Enter HA upper as the Loadcase, leave other values as their defaults, and click
OK
x Select the point defined at the centre of the lower notional lane.
x Drag and drop the dataset HA BD37/88 20x3.5 Skew=0 (Centre) from the
Treeview.
x Enter HA lower as the Loadcase, leave other values as their defaults, and click
OK
$VVLJQLQJ.(//RDGLQJ
x Select the point defined at the centre of the upper notional lane.
x Drag and drop the dataset KEL 120kN Width=3.5 Offset=0 Skew=0 (Centre)
from the Treeview.
x Enter KEL upper as the Loadcase and click OK
x Drag and drop the dataset KEL 120kN Width=3.5 Offset=0 Skew=0 (Centre)
from the Treeview.
x Enter KEL lower as the Loadcase, leave other values as their defaults, and click
OK
$VVLJQLQJ$EQRUPDO+%/RDGLQJ
x Drag and drop the dataset HB 6m spacing 45 units from the Treeview onto
the selected point.
x Enter HB lower as the Loadcase, leave other values as their defaults, and click
OK
84
6DYHWKHPRGHO
Save
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of grillage will be automatically entered in the File
LUSAS Datafile...
name field.
x Click the Save button to finish and click the Yes button to close any currently
open results files.
JULOODJHRXW this output file contains details of model data, assigned

JULOODJHP\V this is the LUSAS results file which is loaded automatically
,IWKHDQDO\VLVIDLOV
5HEXLOGLQJD0RGHO
successfully.
85
Simple Grillage
JULOODJHBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

File
x Enter the file name as grillage and click OK

File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file grillage_modelling.cmd which is
Utilities x Select the Vertical Z axis option and click OK

Vertical Axis…
File
File
9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
6HOHFWLQJWKHUHVXOWVWREHYLHZHG
of the current model and the load case results for the first load case will be set to be
active by default.
'HIRUPHG0HVKDQG6XPPDU\3ORW
A deformed mesh plot helps highlight any obvious errors with an analysis before
progressing to detailed results processing. The deformed shape will usually show up
errors in loading or supports and may also indicate incorrect material property
assignments (e.g. where the results show excessive displacements).
x If present, delete the Geometry, Attributes and Mesh layers from the
Treeview.
window and select the Deformed mesh layer. Click the Close button to accept the
default deformed mesh properties and display the deformed mesh for loadcase 1.
86
Viewing the Results
Use the Isometric View

button to rotate the
model.
x Step through each of the

loadcases in the
Treeview using the Set
Active option and check
each deformed shape looks
correct.
Return to the view from the global Z direction.
'HILQLQJ(QYHORSHVDQG&RPELQDWLRQV
The design combination will consist of all dead loads and an envelope of all live loads
factored by the appropriate adverse or relieving factor.
Loadcase name Adverse Factor Relieving Factor
Dead Load 1.15 1.10 1.0
Super Dead Load 1.75 1.10 1.0
HA alone 1.5 (*) 1.10 0
HA with HB 1.3 (*) 1.10 0
1RWH According to BS5400 part 1 two safety factors should be applied to adverse

loading. accounts for the uncertainty in the applied loading and is a safety
factor to allow for inconsistencies in the material properties.
1RWH (*) When designing to BD 37/88 the HA lane loading factors also include

additional lane factors. For a two lane structure these are noted in the tables which
follow.
87
Simple Grillage
'HILQLQJD%DVLF/RDG&RPELQDWLRQ
A basic load combination to investigate HA and Knife Edge loads will be defined.
Utilities
Combination 8 will be created in the Treeview .
Combination >
Basic
On the Properties dialog:
Add loadcases (3) HA upper, (4) HA lower, (5) KEL upper, (6) KEL lower
1RWH To add a number of loadcases all together select the first loadcase in the list,
hold down the Shift key and select the last loadcase in the list (scrolling down the list
if necessary) and click the button.
Each loadcase selected then needs a corresponding lane factor to be specified.
x Select the Grid button and update the factors as shown in Factor column of the
following loadcase combination table.
Loadcase name Load Factor Lane Lane Factor

Factor to be used
HA upper 1.5 1.10 0.956 1.5774
HA lower 1.5 1.10 0.956 1.5774
KEL upper 1.5 1.10 0.956 1.5774
KEL lower 1.5 1.10 0.956 1.5774
x Click OK to return to the combination properties dialog.
x Change the combination name to HA + KEL both lanes
x Click OK and Yes to overwrite the combination definition.
'HILQLQJD%DVLF/RDG&RPELQDWLRQ
A basic load combination to investigate HA, HB and Knife Edge loads will also be
defined.
Utilities
Combination 9 will be created in the Treeview.
Combination >
Basic
88
Viewing the Results
Add loadcases (3) HA upper, (5) KEL upper, (7) HB lower

Each loadcase selected needs the factor to be specified.
x Select the Grid button and update the factors as shown in Factor column of the
following loadcase combination table.
Loadcasem name Load Lane Factor Lane Factor

Factor to be used
HA upper 1.3 1.10 0.956 1.367
KEL upper 1.3 1.10 0.956 1.367
HB lower 1.3 1.10 0.956 1.367
x Change the combination name to HB lower, HA + KEL upper
x Click OK and Yes to overwrite the combination definition.
(QYHORSLQJWKH%DVLF/LYH/RDG&RPELQDWLRQV
Utilities
Envelope 10 (Max) and Envelope 10 (Min) will be created in the Treeview.
Envelope
x Change from Results file:1 to Model data in the drop down list
Add combinations (8)HA+KEL both lanes and (9)HB lower, HA+KEL

upper
x Change the envelope name to Live Load Envelope
x Click OK and Yes to overwrite the envelope definition.
1RWH When either a Max or Min smart combination or envelope is modified the

corresponding Max and Min dataset will be updated automatically.
'HILQLQJD6PDUW&RPELQDWLRQ
Smart load combinations take account of adverse and relieving effects for the loadcase
being considered. The Self-weight, Superimposed Dead Load, and the Live Load
89
Simple Grillage
Envelope will all be combined using the Smart Load Combination facility to give the
design combination.
Utilities Combination 12(Max) and Combination 12(Min) will be created in the Treeview.
Combination >
Smart
Add loadcase (1)Dead load and (2)Superimposed DL to the Included panel.
x Change from Results file:1 to Model data in the drop down list
Add (10)Live Load Envelope (Max) and (11)Live Load Envelope (Min) to
the Included panel.
Each loadcase/envelope selected needs the permanent and variable factors to be
specified.
x Select the Grid button and update the Permanent Factor for the Live Load
Envelopes to 0 and ensure the Variable Factor for all loadcases are as shown in
the table.
Loadcase name Variable Factor Permanent Variable

Factor Factor to be
used
(1)Dead Load 0.15 0.10 1.0 0.265
(2)Superimposed DL 0.75 0.925 1.0 0.925
(10)Live Load 1.0 1.0 0 1.0

Envelope (Max)
(11)Live Load 1.0 1.0 0 1.0

Envelope (Min)
x Change the envelope title to Design Combination
x Click OK and Yes to overwrite the combination definition. Both Max and Min
combination datasets will be overwritten.
6HOHFWLQJ/RDGFDVHUHVXOWV
x In the Treeview right-click on Design Combination (Max) and select the Set
Active option.
90
Viewing the Results
x Select My from the drop down list to combine and apply the variable factors based
on the moments about the Y axis and click the OK button.
1RWH When activating a smart combination the selected component is used to

decide if the variable factor should be applied. (The variable component is only
applied if the resulting effect is more adverse) Viewing results for a component other
than the selected component will result in display of the associated values (coincident
effects). When the results of an envelope or smart combination are printed the column
used to compute the combination or envelope is denoted with an asterisk in the
column header.
6HOHFWLQJ0HPEHUVIRU5HVXOWV3URFHVVLQJ
Results are to be plotted for selected longitudinal members of the grillage only. The
grillage wizard automatically creates groups which are useful in the results processing.
x In the Treeview select the Longitudinal Beams with the right hand mouse
button and pick Set as Only Visible
x In the Treeview select Edge Beams with the right hand mouse button and pick
Visible
x Delete the Deformed mesh layer from the Treeview.
x In the graphics window, with no features selected, click the right-hand mouse
button and select the Mesh option to add the mesh layer to the Treeview.
x Click Close to accept the default properties.
A plot showing the bending moment from the design combination is to be displayed
for the selected members of the grillage.
x With no features selected, click the right-hand mouse button in a blank part of the
graphics window and select the Diagrams option to add the diagram layer to the
Treeview.
x Select entity Stress results of component bending moment My
x Select the Diagram Display tab
x Select the Label values option.
x Enter an Angle of 45 degrees
91
Simple Grillage
x Set the Number of significant figures to 4
x Set % of element length to 60
x Click the OK button to display the bending moment diagram.
1RWH Results plots which are to be printed are best created in the page layout view.
This provides a view that will appear similar to the printed output. Labels however
may however be difficult to read in the page layout view since they reflect the size of
the labels on the final printout. When this situation arises the zoom facility may be
used to examine labels of interest more closely.
View x Switch to page layout view.

Page Layout Mode
Utilities x Add a border to the page which contains the title, date and version of the LUSAS
Annotation >
Window border
software in use.
File x Ensure the orientation is set to Landscape. Change the page margins to enable the
Page Setup…
annotation to be added without obscuring the display. Set the left margin to 50, the
right margin to 15 and the top and bottom margins to 10. Click OK
Utilities A summary of results will be added to the graphics window showing the loadcase
Annotation >
name, diagram component, maximum and minimum diagram values, and element
Window summary
numbers in which the maximum and minimum moments occurs.
92
Viewing the Results
x Select the annotation by clicking and holding the left-hand mouse button down
over the base line of any piece of text and then drag it to an appropriate location
on the plot.

1RWH The location of any model feature, element or node can be found by using the
Advanced Selection facility. This can be used to find the location of the maximum and
minimum results values as the element number is output in the window summary text.
As well as creating a results plot, results can be printed for transfer to a spreadsheet
using standard Windows copy and paste.
Utilities
Print results
x Select entity Stress, type Component and location Gauss to obtain a grid of the
wizard… results for the active elements in the display.
6DYHWKHPRGHO
Save
1RWH If the model file is saved after results processing, all load combinations,

93
Simple Grillage
94
Description
6LPSOH6ODE'HFN
'HVFULSWLRQ
A simply supported bridge structure consisting of an in-situ slab deck is to be
analysed. The geometry of the deck is as shown. The slab has 0.5m thick carriageways
and 0.4m thick footways.
10.5m
1.5m
Lane 1
7m
Lane 2
1.5m
45o
1.5m 7m 1.5m
0.5m 0.4m
The structure is subjected to loading defined in the Departmental Standard BD 37/88

Loads for Highway Bridges.
The units of the analysis are kN, m, and tonnes throughout.
95
Simple Slab Deck
2EMHFWLYHV
An diagram showing the bending moments in the slab
.H\ZRUGV
2D, Shell, Bridge Loading, Moving Load, Eccentricity, Basic Load Combination,
Load Envelope, Peak Values, Deformed Mesh, Contours, Graphing, Wood
Armer
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
EULGJHBVODEBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

0RGHOOLQJ
&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the file name as bridge_slab
x Enter the title as Simple Bridge Slab Analysis
x Change the units to kN m t C s
x Select the model template Standard from those available in the drop down list.
x Select the Vertical Z axis option and click OK
96
Modelling
'HILQLQJWKH0DWHULDO
Attributes x Select material Concrete grade Ungraded from the drop down list, leave the units
Material >
Material Library… as kN m t C s and click OK to add the material dataset to the Treeview.
x Select the Concrete Ungraded (kN m t C) option from the Treeview with the
right-hand mouse button and select Set Default to make concrete the default
material for all newly created features.
)HDWXUH*HRPHWU\
Geometry
Line > Enter coordinates of (0, 0), (10.5, 0) to define the lower Line. Use the Tab key to
Coordinates... move to the next entry field on the dialog. With all the coordinates entered click the
OK button.
x Select the line.

Geometry
Surface > Sweep the line through a translation of -1.5, 1.5, 0 and click OK to create a
By Sweeping... Surface which defines the lower footway
x Select the Line at the top of the footway.

Geometry
Surface > Sweep the Line through a translation of -7, 7, 0 and click OK to create a Surface
By Sweeping... which defines the carriageway.
x Select the Line at the top of the carriageway.

Geometry
Surface > Sweep the Line through a translation of -1.5, 1.5, 0 and click OK to create a
By Sweeping... Surface which defines the upper footway.
1RWH When using shell elements it is easier to check the model and interpret the
results if the local Z axis of the elements follow the global Z axis.
x Select the Geometry layer in the Treeview with the right-hand mouse button
and select Properties
x Click on the Show surface axes option and click OK
97
Simple Slab Deck
Rotate the model

to an isometric
view to show the current
(incorrect) direction of
the surface axes.
x Use the Ctrl +A keys

together to select all
the active features in
the model.
Geometry This reverses the surface
Surface >
Reverse
definitions so the local Z axis now corresponds with the global Z axis as shown in the
previous diagram.
x To remove the element axes from the display reselect the Geometry layer in the
Treeview with the right-hand mouse button and select Properties
x Disable the display of axes by deselecting the Show surface axes option and click
OK
Select the button in the status bar at the bottom of the display to return
the model to view from the Z direction.
0HVKLQJ
The slab deck will be meshed using a Surface mesh. The number of elements in the
mesh can be controlled by defining Line meshes on the Lines defining the Surface
boundary. Other methods of controlling mesh density are also available.
'HILQLQJD6XUIDFH0HVK
Attributes x Select a Thick Shell element type which is Quadrilateral in shape with a Linear
Mesh > interpolation order.
Surface...
x Ensure a Regular Mesh with Automatic divisions is selected.
x Enter the mesh dataset name as Thick Shell
x Click the OK button to add the mesh dataset name to the Treeview.
To assign the mesh to the model all features must be selected:
Edit x Select all the features of the model, (the shortcut is to press the Ctrl and A keys at
Select All
the same time).
98
Modelling
x Drag and drop the Surface mesh dataset Thick Shell from the Treeview onto
the selected features.
The mesh will be displayed with each Line being split according to a default number
of divisions.
1RWH One way of controlling the mesh density is by specifying the number of mesh
divisions along each Line. Since Modeller is fully associative, this will control Surface
mesh density.
8VLQJ/LQH0HVK'LYLVLRQV
In this example 8 divisions per Line are required for the longitudinal Lines and
transverse Line representing the carriageway. A number of Line mesh divisions are
defined by default. These can be seen in the Treeview.
x Select the 4 Select these 6

longitudinal Lines as Lines for
shown. Hold the ’Divisions=8’
Shift key down after
selecting the first
Line to add the other
Lines to the
selection.
x Still holding the

Shift key select the 2
transverse Lines of
the surface
representing the
carriageways.
x Drag and drop the Line mesh dataset Divisions=8 from the Treeview onto the
selected features.
The mesh will be re-displayed to show 8 mesh divisions along each selected line.
'HILQLQJWKH7KLFNQHVVDQG(FFHQWULFLW\
The slab is 0.5 m thick in the carriageway region and 0.4 m thick beneath the
footways.
Attributes x Enter a thickness of 0.5
Geometric >
Surface... x Enter the dataset name as Thickness 0.5
99
Simple Slab Deck
x Click the Apply button to define the first geometry dataset and allow another
dataset to be defined.
Eccentricity measured Element local z axis

from mid surface of
0.4m thick slab to nodal
line in element local z
direction.
0.2m
0.25m
Nodal line at
Mid surface of slab centre of 0.5m
in footway region thick slab
1RWH The direction of the eccentricity is measured from the mid-surface of the slab

to the nodal line in the local element direction which follows the local surface
direction. Since in this example the mid-surface of the slab representing the footway is
above the nodal line, and the element local Z axis direction is vertically up, the
eccentricity is input as negative.
x Enter the eccentricity as -0.05
x Change the dataset name to Thickness 0.4

The thickness is now assigned to each Surface.
x Select the Surface representing the carriageway.
x Drag and drop the geometry dataset Thickness 0.5 from the Treeview onto the
selected Surface.
x Select the two footway Surfaces, (hold down the Shift key to add the second
Surface to the selection).
selected Surfaces.
100
Modelling
6XSSRUWV
The more common types of support are provided in the Treeview by default. The
slab deck is to be restrained in the vertical and lateral direction at the end diaphragms.
Before the supports can be assigned a local coordinate system needs to be defined so
the lateral displacement can be restrained in the skew direction along the length of the
end diaphragms.
Attributes x Enter an angle of 45 for the rotation in the XY plane.

Local Coordinate…
x Enter the dataset name as Skew and click OK to add the Local coordinate dataset
to the Treeview.
x Select the transverse Select these 6 Lines

Lines representing the
end diaphragms
(ensure the Shift key
is used to add to the
selection)
x Drag and drop the

local coordinate
dataset Skew onto the
selected Lines.
x Drag and drop the

support dataset Fixed
in YZ onto the selected Lines.
The Assign Support dialog will be displayed.
x Ensure that the dataset is assigned

to All loadcases
1RWH Since the slab is flat the in-

plane rotation degrees of freedom for
the thick shell elements can be
eliminated from the element
formulation by deselecting the
following element option. This will
remove ill-conditioning of the
equations and reduce the problem size.
101
Simple Slab Deck
It should however be noted that if moment supports are to be applied with this option
deselected, rotation about the Z axis must be restrained to eliminate mechanisms in the
solution.
File x Select the Solution tab and select the Element Options button. Deselect the
Model Properties…
option to Assign 6 DOF to all thick shell element nodes and click the OK button
to return to the Model Properties, Click OK to return to the display.
'HILQLQJWKH/RDGV
Four loadcases will be defined:
The self-weight of the slab (ignoring any surfacing loads);
A patch load equivalent to a traffic load over the full length and width of the
upper traffic lane
A knife edge load acting at mid-span of the upper lane.
An HB vehicle in the lower lane.
6HOIZHLJKW
Bridge The self-weight is defined as a gravity acceleration in the negative Z direction. The
Bridge Loading > correct units are automatically calculated when the gravity loading is selected from the
Gravity bridge menu.
/DQH/RDG
The second load will represent a lane load along the upper traffic lane.
Bridge x From the Vehicle Loading dialog select the Lane load (HA Load) button.
Bridge Loading >
United
Kingdom…
x Select loading code BD37/88 from the pull-down list.
x Enter the loaded length as 10.5 and the skew angle as -45 and click OK to add the
lane load to the Treeview.
.QLIH(GJH/RDG
x From the Vehicle Loading dialog select the Knife edge load (KEL load) button.
x Leave the skew angle as 0 and click OK to add the lane load to the Treeview.
102
Modelling
$EQRUPDO/RDGLQJ
x From the
Vehicle
Loading dialog
select the
Abnormal
Load (HB
Vehicle)
button.
x Leave the Axle

spacing as 6
and the
Number of HB
units as 45 and
click OK to add the HB vehicle to the Treeview.
x Select Close to close the Vehicle Loading dialog.
$VVLJQLQJWKH6HOIZHLJKW/RDG
x To assign the gravity loading select all active features using the Ctrl + A keys
together and drag and drop the loading dataset Gravity -ve Z from the
Treeview onto the selected features.
The Loading Assignment dialog will be
displayed.
x Ensure that the Assign to Surfaces

button is selected and click the OK
button to assign the load to Loadcase 1
with Load factor of 1
The load visualisation for Loadcase 1 will
be displayed.
x To rename Loadcase 1 in the

Treeview select Loadcase 1 with the
right-hand mouse button and select the
Rename option. Overtype the loadcase
name with the name Self-weight
103
Simple Slab Deck
$VVLJQLQJWKH/DQH/RDGDQG.QLIH(GJH/RDGV
1RWH Patch loads are assigned to Points which may form part of the model or may
be defined specifically to locate the bridge loads as in this case:
Geometry Enter coordinates as (-1.85, 6.75) and click the OK button to create a new
Point >
Point in the middle of the upper lane.
Coordinates...
The patch and knife edge loads can now be assigned to the Point that has just been
defined.
x Select the Point defined at the centre of the upper traffic lane.
x Drag and drop the loading dataset HA BD37/88 10.5x3.5 Skew=-45 (Centre)
from the Treeview onto the selected Point.
The Loading Assignment dialog will appear.
x Enter the Number of

Divisions in Patch Load
X Direction as 20 and the
Number of Divisions in
Patch Load Y Direction
as 8
x Change the name of the

loadcase to HA & KEL
upper and leave the
Load Factor as 1
x Click on the OK to
complete the assignment.
The patch load will be
visualised on the model.
1RWH If the number of divisions in the Patch Load Y direction was left as zero the
number of divisions in the Y direction would be created proportional to the number of
divisions in the X direction of the patch load.
x Drag and drop the loading dataset KEL 120kN Width=3.5 Offset=0 Skew=0
(Centre) from the Treeview onto the selected Point.
x Enter the Number of Divisions in Patch Load X Direction as 20 and leave the
Number of Divisions in Patch Load Y Direction as 0
104
Modelling
x Select the loadcase name HA & KEL upper from the loadcase drop down list
leave the Load Factor as 1 and click the OK button to assign the load.
$VVLJQLQJWKHPRYLQJ+%9HKLFOH/RDG
The HB vehicle will be assigned to the points using the moving load generator. To use
this facility a line defining the path of the vehicle must be defined.
x Click on a blank area of the model window to clear the current selection.
Geometry
Line > Enter coordinates of (-3.25, 3.25) and (7.25, 3.25) to define a Line describing the
Coordinates... path of the HB vehicle and click OK
x Select the Line just defined.

Bridge x Ensure the Moving vehicle load ID is set to 4:HB 6m spacing 45
Moving Load…
x Set the Starting loadcase number to 3
x Set the option Move the vehicle along path in equal number of divisions to 10
and click OK to generate loadcases 3 to 13 representing the HB load moving
across the bridge.
Use the isometric view button to rotate the model so the load direction can be
visualised.
&KHFNLQJORDGLQJ
Loads on the model may be visually checked at any time by changing the active
loadcase.
x From the Treeview select Load dataset=4 Line=12 Pos=5, click the
right-hand mouse button and select the Set Active option to see the mid-span
position of the moving load.
x This process may be repeated for any loadcase.
6DYLQJWKH0RGHO
The model is now complete and the model data should be saved before running
analysis.
Save
105
Simple Slab Deck
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of bridge_slab will be automatically entered in the
LUSAS Datafile...
File name field.

EULGJHBVODERXW this output file contains details of model data, assigned

EULGJHBVODEP\V this is the LUSAS results file which is loaded
,IWKHDQDO\VLVIDLOV
5HEXLOGLQJD0RGHO
successfully.
EULGJHBVODEBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

File
x Enter the file name as bridge_slab and click OK
106
Viewing the Results
File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file bridge_slab_modelling.cmd
Open... which is located in the \Lusas136\Examples\Modeller directory.

Vertical Axis…
File
File
9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
In this section the results produced by the analysis of the slab will be examined. There
are a number of ways to do this in LUSAS, allowing users to choose the most
appropriate way to present their results. For this problem the following are required:
A plot of the deformed mesh.
A colour-filled contour plot of bending moments in the X direction due to a
load combination.
A graph showing the variation of bending moment along a section of the slab.
A contour plot of Wood-Armer reinforcement moments in the slab.
of the current model and the load case results for load case 1 (Self-weight) are set to
be active by default.
8VLQJ3DJH/D\RXW0RGH
The model was created using a Working Mode view which allows a model of any size
to be created. Results could be viewed using this mode of operation, but in order to
allow additional information to be added without obscuring the model, Page Layout
Mode can be used instead.
In the Treeview select and delete the Attributes and Mesh layers if present.
View The graphics window will resize to show the model on an A4 size piece of paper in
Page Layout Mode
landscape orientation.
File x Ensure that left, right top and bottom margins are set to 60, 10, 10 and 10
Page Setup...
respectively and click OK
This page layout view can also be saved for subsequent re-use with other models.
107
Simple Slab Deck
If necessary, use the

Isometric view button
to rotate the model to the
view shown.
Window Enter the view name as Landscape Page Layout and click OK
Save View...
'LVSOD\LQJWKHGHIRUPHGVKDSH
x In the Treeview select and delete the Geometry layer.
x With no features selected

click the right-hand
mouse button in a blank
part of the Graphics
Window and select the
Deformed mesh option
to add the deformed
mesh layer to the Treeview.
x Click the Close button to accept the default deformed mesh properties values.
The deformed mesh plot for the first loadcase will be displayed.
&RQWRXU3ORWV
Results can be plotted as colour line or filled contour plots. Here, longitudinal bending
moments will be plotted as colour filled contours.
Return the model to the default starting view by pressing the Z axis
field on the status bar at the bottom of the graphics window.
graphics window and select the Contours option to add the contours layer to the
Treeview.
108
Viewing the Results
The contours properties dialog

will be displayed.
x Select Entity Stress

Component moments in the
X direction Mx
x Click the OK button to

display contours of
moments in the X
direction.
5HRUGHULQJWKHGLVSOD\RIWKHOD\HUV

1RWH The order of the layers in the Treeview governs the order in which the
layers are displayed in the graphics window. To see the mesh layer on top of the
contours layer the mesh layer needs to be moved down the Treeview to a position
after the contours layer.
x In the Treeview select the Deformed mesh layer, click the right-hand mouse
button and select the Move Down option. (This can also be done by dragging and
dropping a layer name on top of another layer name).
1RWH Contours of results may be displayed which are either, averaged at the nodes

to give a smoothed contour display, or unaveraged to contour on an element by
element basis. Unaveraged nodal results are useful for checking for sufficient mesh
refinement (since they will display inter-element discontinuities in the solution). They
are also used to prevent the averaging of stresses across elements with dissimilar
material or geometric properties.
0RYLQJLQIRUPDWLRQRQWKHDQQRWDWLRQOD\HU
Text and other objects such as the contour key may be moved after their initial
placement.
x Click on one of the items of text on the contour key. (This will select the key and
enable it to be moved).
x Click and drag the object to a new position on the left-hand margin of the page.
0DUNLQJ3HDN9DOXHV
x With nothing selected click the right-hand mouse button in a blank part of the
graphics window and select the Values option to add the values layer to the
Treeview.
109
Simple Slab Deck
The values properties dialog will be displayed.
x Select Stress contour results of bending moment Mx
x On the same dialog, select the Values Display tab and ensure the Maxima and
Minima check boxes are selected to display the top 1% of results.
x Set the number of significant

figures to 4
x Change the angle to 45

degrees
x Select the Choose Font

button and set the text size to
16 and click OK

redisplay the contours with
peak values marked.
'HILQLQJDQ(QYHORSH
Envelopes are used to automatically assemble the worst effect from a selection of
loadcases, combinations, or other envelopes. In this example an envelope is to be
assembled to show the worst effect from the moving HB vehicle.
Utilities Two envelope datasets will be created in the Treeview.

Envelope
To include just the moving load loadcases in the envelope:
x With Results file: 1 selected from the drop-down list select (3) Load dataset=4
Line 12 Pos=1 from the loadcase panel. To select all HB moving loadcases hold
down the Shift key, scroll down the list and select (13) Load dataset=4 Line 12
Pos=10 and click on the button to add all the selected datasets to the
Included panel.
x Change the name to Moving load lower
x Click OK and Yes to confirm overwrite.
1RWH Changing the properties of the max or min envelope will change the definition

of both envelopes.
110
Viewing the Results
Combinations can be used to view the combined effects of several results loadcases,
combinations or envelopes.
Utilities
Combination >
Basic
The combination properties dialog will appear. Loadcases Self-weight, HA & KEL
upper and the moving load envelope are to be included in the combination.
x Select Self-weight and HA & KEL upper and click the button to add the
loadcases to the combination dataset with a factor of 1
x Change from Results file: 1

to Model data in the drop
down list.
x Select the envelope Moving

load lower (Max) and
click the button to add
the loadcase to the
combination dataset
1RWH By default loadcases

are added to the combination
with a factor of 1. This factor
may be changed by selecting
the loadcase in the Included
panel and changing the load factor in the text box provided. Alternatively the factors
may be changed in a grid by selecting the Grid button.
x Change the combination name to Max Design Combination and click the OK
button to finish and Yes confirm that the combination is to be updated.
1RWH To obtain the correct effect from the combined loads the combination should
only include one occurrence of each loadcase.
6HOHFWLQJDQG9LHZLQJWKH&RPELQDWLRQ5HVXOWV
x In the Treeview right-click on Max Design Combination and select the Set
Active option.
x Select Stress results of component Mx and click OK
111
Simple Slab Deck
The contour plot for Mx from

the load combination will be
displayed.
1RWH The values layer is still

listed in the Treeview so the
maximum and minimum values
of Mx for the load combination
will also be shown.
*UDSKLQJWKH5HVXOWVRID6OLFH
A graph is to be plotted showing the variation in bending moment through a specified
section of the slab.
Utilities If the model is in the XY plane the By Cursor dialog will appear.
Graph Through 2D
x Ensure that Snap to grid is selected and change the grid size to 1
x Click and drag the cursor along the centre of the lower lane (Y=3) to define the
location of a section slice through the slab.

1RWH The Y ordinate of the slice can be seen in the status bar . The X
and Y scales on the sides of the window will also help this selection.
The graph X axis values of distance through the deck are defined by the slice section.
The graph Y axis results now need to be specified on the slice data dialog.
x Select Stress results for Bending Moment in the X direction Mx and click the
Next > button.
The graph Y axis results have now been defined and title information for the graph
can be added.
112
Viewing the Results
x Enter the graph title as

Bending Moment Mx
along lower lane
x Leave the graph X and Y

axis names blank.
x Click the Finish button to

display the graph.
1RWH If the graph axes

labels are left unspecified
default names will be used.
1RWH The graph properties

can be modified by clicking
the RH mouse button in the
graph window and selecting
the Edit Graph Properties
option.
Close the graph window.
Click on the selection mode button to return to normal cursor mode.
:RRG$UPHU5HLQIRUFHPHQW3ORWV
x In the Treeview double-click on the Contours layer.
The contour properties dialog will be displayed.
x With the Stress entity selected, select Component My(B) to display results of
Wood Armer moments in the Y direction in the bottom of the slab.
x Click the Wood Armer button.

The Wood Armer properties dialog will be displayed.
113
Simple Slab Deck
x Enter a Reinforcement skew angle of Transverse

135 degrees. Reinforcement
Direction
x Click the OK button to return to the
contour properties dialog. 135o Longitudinal
Reinforcement
x Click the OK button to display a plot of Direction
Wood Armer contours of My(B) for the
active combination. +ve
&DXWLRQ
0
The selected results
component (My(B)) is different to that being used to compute smart combinations
and/or envelopes (Mx) and therefore the results displayed will be coincident effects.
x Click the OK button to accept this.
&DXWLRQ The contour plot will show bending moment contours My(B) but the
0
Values layer will currently show values of bending moments in the X direction. i.e.
Mx since these were specified previously.
x Click Yes to change the

values layer to show
maxima and minima
values of My(B).
6DYHWKHPRGHO
Save
1RWH When the model

file is saved after results
processing, all load combinations, envelopes, and graph datasets, if defined, are also
saved and therefore do not have to be re-created if the model is amended and a re-
analysis is done at a later date.
1RWH A separate example covers Wood Armer slab assessment in more detail.

114
Description
:RRG$UPHU%ULGJH
6ODE$VVHVVPHQW
'HVFULSWLRQ
A Wood Armer slab
assessment is to be 11.3 degree skew angle
carried out on a 15m
long, 9.8m wide 1.25
single span,
Upper lane
reinforced concrete
Boundaries of Patch loads 3.65
bridge deck. The
deck has a skew
‘
angle of 11.3 degrees

and is 0.9m deep. Positions of Knife 3.65
Lower lane edge loads
A load combination
comprising self 1.25
weight, upper and
lower lane loads, and 15.0
upper and lower
knife edge is to be All dimensions in metres
created from the
results obtained. Slab reinforcement is to be arranged orthogonally and has capacities
of 1700 and 300 kNm in the chosen Mx and My directions.
1RWH In order to create a generic example, no reference is made to any particular

design code or loadcase type.
115
Wood-Armer Bridge Slab Assessment
.H\ZRUGV
2D, Simple Slab, Skew Angle, Wood-Armer Reinforcement, Wood-Armer
Assessment, Safety Factors, Self Weight, General Loading, Knife Edge Loading,
General Patch Loading, Combination, Contour Plotting, Display Peak Values.
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
ZRRGBDUPHUBPRGHOOLQJFPG

carries out the modelling of the
example.
0RGHOOLQJ
&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the file name as wood_armer
x Enter the title as Wood Armer Slab Example
x Select units of kN m t C s from the drop down list provided.
x Select the startup template as Standard
x Select the Vertical Z axis option
by a new user.
116
Modelling
)HDWXUH*HRPHWU\
Geometry
Surface > Enter coordinates of (0, 0), (15, 0), (16.96, 9.8) and (1.96, 9.8) to define the slab
Coordinates... as a single Surface.
Next, the edge of carriageway and
lane widths will be defined by
copying the lower Line of the main
span.
x Select the lower horizontal Select this Line

Line of the model.
Geometry Enter the X translation as
Line >
Copy…
0.25 [this is derived from
1.25*tan(11.3 degrees)]
x Enter the Y translation as 1.25

metres, and click the OK button.
The edge of the lower carriageway will be drawn.
To define 2 notional lane widths of 3.65 metres.
x Select the Line just drawn.

Geometry Enter the X translation as
Line >
Copy…
0.73 [this is derived from
3.65*tan(11.3 degrees)]
x Enter the Y translation as 3.65 Select this Line

metres.
x Enter the number of copies as 2
117
0HVKLQJ
Attributes x Select Thick Plate,
Mesh >
Surface…
Quadrilateral, elements with
Linear interpolation.
x Deselect the automatic

divisions option and enter 10
divisions in the local X
direction and 7 divisions in
the local Y direction.
x Enter the dataset name as

Thick Plate and click the OK
button to finish.
LUSAS will add the Surface mesh dataset to the Treeview.
x Select the whole model using the Ctrl and A keys together.
x Drag and drop the Surface mesh dataset Thick Plate from the Treeview onto
the selected features.
1RWH At any time the mesh (and other features) displayed in the Graphics area may
be hidden or re-displayed. With no features selected click the right-hand mouse button
in a blank part of the graphics window and select Mesh. If a mesh was previously
displayed it will be hidden. If previously hidden it will be displayed. This facility can
be used to simplify the display when it is required.
x Turn off the display of the Mesh as described in the previous note.
*HRPHWULF3URSHUWLHV
Attributes x Enter a Surface element thickness of 0.9 metres. Enter the dataset name as
Geometric >
Surface…
Thickness 0.9. The eccentricity field in the geometric properties dialog can be left
blank or entered as zero as the plate element used does not possess this geometric
property. Click OK
x Select the whole model.
selected features.
118
Modelling
0DWHULDO3URSHUWLHV
Attributes x Select material Concrete from the drop down list, leave grade as Ungraded and
Material >
Material Library… units as kN m t C s and click OK to add the material dataset to the Treeview.
x With the whole model selected, drag and drop the material dataset Concrete
Ungraded (kN m t C) from the Treeview onto the selected features, ensuring
that it is assigned to Surfaces and click OK
6XSSRUWV
the Treeview. Both inclined edges of the slab are to be simply supported in the Z
direction.
x Select the 2 inclined Lines at
either end of the slab. (hold the
Shift key down to add to the
first selection). Select these
Lines
x Drag and drop the support
dataset Fixed in Z from the
features.
x Ensure Assign to lines and All

loadcases are selected and
click OK
The supports will be visualised.
/RDGLQJ
Five load cases will be considered, with an additional two combinations of these loads
created at the results processing stage.
0RGLI\LQJWKH*HRPHWU\WRDVVLJQORDGLQJ
To position knife edge loads additional Points are required at mid-span positions.
119
x Select the 3 horizontal Lines

that define the traffic lane Select these 3 Lines
boundaries. (Hold the Shift
key down to add to the
selection)
Geometry x For each Line enter the number
Line >
By Splitting >
of divisions required as 2
At Equal
Distances... x Ensure the Delete features on
splitting option is selected and
click OK
Additional Points will be created
at mid-span and existing Lines will
be broken into 2 new Lines. The new Points will be used later to define the position of
the mid-span knife edge loads for each traffic lane.
/RDGFDVH6HOIZHLJKW
Attributes x
Select the Body Force tab and define the linear acceleration due to gravity in the
Loading >
Z direction as -9.81
Structural...
x Enter the dataset name as Self Weight and click OK
x With the whole model selected, drag and drop the loading dataset Self Weight
from the Treeview onto the selected features ensuring the loading is assigned
to Surfaces as Loadcase 1 with a load factor of 1 and click OK
The self weight loading will
be displayed.
x In the Loadcases
Treeview right click on
Loadcase 1 and select
the Rename option.
x Rename Loadcase 1 to
Self Weight
120
Modelling
/RDGFDVH/DQHORDGORZHUODQH
x Select the first point,
hold down the Shift
key and select point 2,
3. Select this Point
3 and 4 in the order
shown to define the 4. Select this Point
patch area.
Attributes x Select the Patch tab.
Loading >
Discrete… The coordinates of the
Points selected will be
inserted into the coordinate
fields.
1. Select this Point 2. Select this Point
x Enter a load value of
-15 (kN/m2) for each
coordinate.
x Enter the dataset name as Lane load (lower) and click OK
1RWH The order in which the Points are selected determines the local X and Y
directions of the patch load. The Local X direction is from the first Point to the second
Point selected. The Local Y direction is from the second to the third Point.
x Select the Point shown

at the origin of the
structure.
x Drag and drop the

loading dataset Lane
load (lower) from the
Select this Point to
Treeview onto the assign Patch Loading
selected Point.
x Leave the Options for

loads outside search
area as Exclude all
loads
1RWH Using the drop down list loads which lie outside the search area (the slab
deck in this case) may be treated in a variety of ways. See help for details.
x Enter the Number of Division in Patch Local X Direction as 15
121
x Leave the Number of Division in Patch Local Y Direction as 0 so the number of

loading points in the patch Y direction will be computed automatically from the
aspect ratio of the patch.
x Enter the loadcase as Lane load (lower) with a load factor of 1 and click OK.
The loading will be displayed.
1RWH The coordinates of the patch will be taken from the coordinates of the Points,
therefore the patch load must be assigned to the Point at the origin of the structure.
/RDGFDVH/DQHORDGXSSHUODQH
x Select the Points in the
order shown to define
the patch area for the
upper lane. 3. Select this Point
Attributes x Select the Patch tab. 4. Select this Point
Loading >
Discrete… The coordinates of the 2. Select this Point
inserted in the coordinate 1. Select this Point
fields.
x Enter a load value of

Assign patch load to this Point
-15 (kN/m2) for each
coordinate.
x Enter the dataset name as Lane load (upper) and click OK
x With the Point at the origin of the structure selected, drag and drop the loading
dataset Lane load (upper) from the Treeview onto the selected Point.
x Enter the Number of Divisions in Patch Local X Direction as 15
x Leave the Number of Divisions in Patch Local Y Direction as 0
x Enter the loadcase as Lane load (upper) with a load factor of 1 and click OK
122
Modelling
/RDGFDVH.QLIHHGJHORDGORZHUODQH
x Select the Points in the
order shown to define
the knife edge load
position for the lower 2. Select this Point
lane.
Attributes x Select the Patch tab
Loading > 1. Select this Point
Discrete… x Select the Straight
Line option.
Assign Knife load to this Point.
The coordinates of the
inserted in the coordinate
fields.
x Enter a load value of -32.24 (kN/m2) for each coordinate.
x Enter the dataset name as Knife edge load (lower) and click OK
1RWH The order in which the Points are selected determines the local X direction of
the knife edge load. The Local X direction is from the first Point to the second Point
selected.
x With the Point at the origin selected, drag and drop the loading dataset Knife edge
load (lower) from the Treeview onto the selected Point.
x Enter the loadcase as Knife edge load (lower) with a load factor of 1 and click
OK
123
/RDGFDVH.QLIHHGJHORDGXSSHUODQH
x Select the Points in the order 2. Select this Point
shown to define the knife edge
load position for the upper lane.
1. Select this Point
Attributes x Select the Patch tab and select the
Loading >
Discrete…
Straight Line option. The
coordinates of the Points selected
will be inserted in the coordinate Assign Knife load to this Point.
fields.
x Enter a load value of -32.24

(kN/m2) for each coordinate.
x Enter the dataset name as Knife edge load (upper) and click OK
x With the Point at the origin selected, drag and drop the loading dataset Knife edge
loading (upper) from the Treeview onto the selected Point.
x Enter the loadcase as Knife edge load (upper) with a load factor of 1 and click
OK
9LVXDOLVLQJ/RDGFDVHV
Load cases can be visualised at any
time by activating each loadcase in
the Treeview.
x From the Treeview select the

Lane load (lower) loadcase, click
the right-hand mouse button and
select the Set Active option.
6DYLQJWKHPRGHO
Save
124
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of wood_armer will be automatically entered in the
LUSAS Datafile...
File name field.

ZRRGBDUPHURXW this output file contains details of model data, assigned

ZRRGBDUPHUP\V this is the LUSAS results file which is loaded
,IWKHDQDO\VLVIDLOV
5HEXLOGLQJD0RGHO
successfully.
ZRRGBDUPHUBPRGHOOLQJFPG

example.
File
125
x Enter the file name as wood_armer and click OK

File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file wood_armer_modelling.cmd

Vertical Axis…
File
File
9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
&RPELQDWLRQV
A combination will be created to apply the ultimate limit state (ULS) factors and lane
factors to load cases 1 to 5. Typical ULS and lane factors can be found in relevant
design codes.
'HDGORDGIDFWRU8/6
FRPELQDWLRQ Load Case Factor Factor
Calculation
Dead load factor Jfl = 1.15 Self weight Jfl x Jf3 1.265
Additional factor Jf3 = 1.1 E1 x Jfl x Jf3
Lane load 1.65
(lower)
Lane load E2 x Jfl x Jf3 1.65
/LYHORDGIDFWRUVIRU8/6 (upper)
FRPELQDWLRQ Knife edge load E1 x Jfl x Jf3 1.65
(lower)
Lane factors E1 = 1.0 and
E2 = 1.0 Knife edge load E2 x Jfl x Jf3 1.65
(upper)
Live load factor Jfl = 1.5
Additional factor Jf3 = 1.1
Combinations can be created to view the combined effects of multiple load cases on
the structure.
Utilities
Combination >
Basic
126
Viewing the Results
The combination properties

dialog will appear.
x Ensure Results file: 1 is

selected in the drop-down
list to show the loadcase
results available.
All 5 loadcases should be
included in the load
combination panel.
x Select load case Self weight

hold the Shift key down,
scroll down, and select
Knife edge load (upper).
x Click the button to add the loadcases to the combination dataset.
1RWH To obtain the correct effect from the combined loads in this example the
Combination should only include one occurrence of each load case.
$VVLJQLQJORDGIDFWRUV
x In the Included panel on the Combination dialog, select the Self weight load case
and enter load factor of 1.265 in the load factor text box
x For each of the other 4 load cases, select each loadcase in turn and enter a factor of
1.65
x Select the Grid button to check all the factors are entered correctly and click OK
to return to the combination dialog.
x Click OK followed by Yes to update the combination dataset.
6HOHFWLQJ/RDGFDVHUHVXOWV
x If present in the Treeview delete the Geometry and Attributes layers.
x If not already visible, with nothing selected click the right-hand mouse button in a
blank part of the graphics window and select the Mesh option to add the mesh
layer to the Treeview.
x Click Close to accept the default mesh properties.
127
&RQWRXU3ORWV
Treeview.
The contour properties dialog will be displayed.
0RPHQWVLQWKH;GLUHFWLRQ
x Select Stress contour results.
x Select the MX component.
x Click the OK button to display contours of MX for Combination 6.
x To display the mesh on top of the contours, select the Mesh entry in the
Treeview and drag on drop it on top of the Contours entry in the Treeview.
0DUNLQJ3HDN9DOXHV
x With nothing selected click the
right-hand mouse button in a
blank part of the graphics
window and select the Values
option to add the values layer to
the Treeview.
The properties dialog of the values
layer will be displayed.
x Select the Stress entity.
x Select the MX component.
x Select the Values Display tab and set Maxima and Minima values to display the
moments for the top 0% of results.
x Click the OK button to redisplay the contours with peak values marked.
0RPHQWVLQWKH<GLUHFWLRQ
x Select the MY component.
128
Viewing the Results
x Click the OK button to display

contours of MY for Combination 6.
1RWH The values layer is currently

displaying results for MX.
x Select Yes to change the values

layer results to match those of the
contours layer.
0RPHQWVLQ;<GLUHFWLRQ
x In the Treeview double-
click on the Contours layer.
x Select the MXY

component.
x Select Yes to change the

values layer results to match
those of the contours layer.
:RRG$UPHU5HLQIRUFHPHQW0RPHQWV
1RWH For the following section, it is assumed that the user is familiar with the theory

of Wood Armer as an explanation is beyond the scope of this example. If additional
information is required consult the LUSAS Theory Manual. Initially, the Wood
Armer reinforcement moments Mx(B) in the bottom surface of the slab will be
calculated.
:RRG$UPHU0RPHQWVLQ;GLUHFWLRQRIWKHERWWRPRIWKHVODE
x Select the Mx(B) component to view contour of Wood Armer moments in the X
direction for the bottom of the slab. Click the OK button.
x Select Yes to change the values layer results to match those of the contours layer.
129
From the resulting Wood Armer

plot it can be seen that the
maximum value of Mx(B) is
1545 kNm. This value is
compared with the maximum
slab capacity (1700 kNm) to
determine the safe load carrying
capacity. In this case the slab
passes the assessment.
:RRG$UPHU0RPHQWVLQ<GLUHFWLRQRIWKHERWWRPRIWKHVODE
The Wood Armer moments in the direction of the reinforcement on the bottom
Surface My(B), are now to be examined.
x Select the My(B) component to view contours of Wood Armer moments in the Y
direction for the bottom of the slab.
x Select Yes to change the values layer results to match those of the contours layer
The plot indicates a maximum
applied sagging Wood Armer
moment My(B) of 389 kNm
This exceeds the slab capacity of
300 kNm and therefore this slab
fails assessment.
1RWH Normally the analysis

would be continued to calculate
the reduction in live load that
would be necessary to obtain a
situation where the applied moment My(B) equals the capacity of the slab My*(B).
This would result in a restriction in the load carrying capacity of the slab.
:RRG$UPHU'LVFXVVLRQ
It is generally accepted that the Wood Armer equations when used in the assessment
of the load carrying capacity of slabs provide a safe but conservative estimate of the
130
Viewing the Results
structural capacity. It is possible to obtain significant improvements using alternative

equations based on the fundamental principles of Wood Armer.
1RWH A detailed explanation of the modified equations is beyond the scope of this

example, however the user may find it beneficial to consult the following references:
Concrete Bridge Design to BS5400. L.A Clark. Published by Construction
Press. Appendix A. Equations For Plate Design.
The Assessment of Reinforced Concrete Slabs. S.R Denton, C.J Burgoyne.
The Structural Engineer. Vol. 74. No. 9. May 7.
In outline, the method adopts a safety factor approach, where the user inputs the slab
capacity of the reinforcement and the reinforcement skew angle. Since the slab can
potentially fail in flexure about any axis in the plane of the slab, the method examines
the applied moment field (Mx, My, Mxy) against the moment capacity field (Mx*,
My*, Mxy*) for all possible reinforcement skew angles.
The method returns minimum safety factors for top (hogging) and bottom (sagging)
reinforcement for each nodal position.
1RWH Top and bottom safety factors are possible at any single position due to the

application of mixed moment fields.
:RRG$UPHU$VVHVVPHQW
x In the Treeview delete the Values layer
x In the Treeview double-click on the Contours layer and select the Stress entity
x Select the MUtil(B) component to select contours of Utility factors in the bottom
of the slab.
x Click the Wood Armer button.

The moment capacity of the slab in the
sagging and hogging zones needs to be
entered.
x Enter the Resistive moment in X (top) as

1700
x Enter the Resistive moment in Y (top) as

300
x Enter the Resistive moment in X (bottom)

as -1700
131
x Enter the Resistive moment in Y (bottom) as -300
x Click the OK button to return to the contour dialog.

display contours of
safety for the moment
capacities entered.
1RWH In the Wood Armer

dialog, hogging moment
capacity values are entered
as +ve (positive) values and
the sagging moment
capacity values are entered
as -ve (negative) values.
&KDQJLQJWKH&RQWRXUUDQJH
If a utility factor plot shows values of less than 1.0, the slab is deemed to satisfy the
reinforcement criteria and no live load reduction is necessary.
To help clarify whether any regions of the slab have failed the assessment the contour
range will be modified:
x In the Treeview double-click on the Contours layer and select the Contour
Range tab.
x Set the contour Interval as 0.2 and the Value to pass through as 1

Contours of utility factors
from 0 to 1 will be displayed
showing a small region in the
centre of the slab that has
failed the assessment
according to the moment
capacities used.
132
Description
*ULOODJH/RDG
2SWLPLVDWLRQ
With product option(s): Autoloader.
'HVFULSWLRQ
This example illustrates how the vehicle load optimisation facility is applied to
grillage models.
Centre Line
500
750
250
1400
1450 2400 2400 2400 2400 2400 1450
Cross Section
30400 30400
Abutment
7300
14900
o
Abutment
40
Road carriageway as Central

Radius 500m
defined by kerb lines Support
Carriageway Definition
133
Grillage Load Optimisation
The structure to be analysed consists of steel plate girders supporting an in-situ

reinforced concrete deck slab. Two spans of 30.4m each (skew span measurement)
span between the centreline of the support bearings.
The parapet beams are cast onto the structure after the deck slab has cured. This will
make the edge beam properties different from the internal beams however for
simplicity this will be ignored in this example. This assumption makes both the
internal and edge beam properties the same. The properties are computed assuming 6
transverse beams in each span.
1RWH Autoloader is an optional software product for LUSAS Bridge. It extends the

vehicle loading capabilities in LUSAS Bridge and produces worst-case load effects
more easily than by manual methods. Autoloader generates live load patterns and
estimates the live load effect for the worst combination of load for a given parameter
at a given location in a bridge deck or structure based upon influence surfaces and
influence lines. In this example the Swedish Code of Practice BRO94 is used.
1RWH The section properties stated are for the composite sections ignoring shear lag

effects, i.e. taking into account the full width of the slab. The composite sections have
been transformed using short term concrete modulii and are stated in “steel” units in
the table below.
Section Property Table Area m2 Iyy m4 J m4
Edge Beam/Internal Beams (Uncracked) 0.123590 0.03777 0.000697
Edge Beam/Internal Beams (Cracked) 0.041510 0.01387 5.366E-6
Transverse Beams 0.118800 5.012E-4 9.97E-4
Skew Beam 0.068400 2.886E-4 5.75E-4
Diaphragms 0.057750 2.9E-5 1.07E-4
The structure will be designed to carry full HA loading and 30 units of HB loading as
derived from BD37/88.
Units of kN, m and tonnes are used throughout the analysis.
2EMHFWLYHV
ULS and SLS values for selected locations on the structure.
134
Modelling
.H\ZRUGV
2D, Grillage, Autoloader, Load optimisation, Load visualisation, Influence
surface, Basic Load Combination, Smart Load Combination, Envelope, Print
Results Wizard
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
VSDFHGBEHDPBJHRPHWU\FPG carries out the definition of the section
properties.
VSDFHGBEHDPBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the
example without the loading applied.
VSDFHGBEHDPBORDGHGFPG carries out the modelling of the example
including the loading.
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x Enter the file name as spaced_beam
x Enter the title as Two span grillage analysis with load optimisation
x Select the units as kN m t C s
x Leave the startup model template as None
x Select the Vertical Z axis option.
135
)HDWXUH*HRPHWU\
The grillage geometry will be created using the Grillage Wizard.
Bridge x Select the Set defaults button
Grillage Wizard...
x Select Spaced beam and slab deck and click Next
x The grillage is Straight with 40 degrees skew. Click Next
x Select an Orthogonal grillage arrangement and click Next
x Enter the width of grillage as 12 and the number of longitudinal beams including
edge beams as 6 and click Next
x Change the number of spans to 2
x For each span enter the length of span as 30.4 and change the number of internal
transverse beams to 6
x Click Finish to generate the grillage model.
File The geometric properties are defined in the previous table. These can be read in from
Command Files >
Open…
the command file spaced_beam_geometry.cmd which is located in the
\Lusas136\Examples\Modeller directory (or similar).
$VVLJQLQJ*HRPHWULF3URSHUWLHV
x Select the Edge Beam/Internal Beams (Uncracked) properties from the
Treeview and click on the button.
x In the Treeview select the Longitudinal Uncracked Section group and click
on the button.
136
Modelling
Confirmation of the assignment will appear in the text window.
x Select the Edge Beam/Internal Beams (Cracked) properties from the

Treeview and click on the button.
x In the Treeview select the Longitudinal Cracked Section group and click on
the button.
x Select the Transverse Beams properties from the Treeview and click on the
button.
x In the Treeview select the Transverse Intermediate Beams group and click
on the button.
x In the Treeview select the Transverse Central Beams group and click on the
button.
x Select the Skew Beams properties from the Treeview and click on the
button.
x In the Treeview select the Transverse Skew Beams group and click on the
button.
x Select the Diaphragms properties from the Treeview and click on the
button.
x In the Treeview select the Internal Diaphragms group and click on the
button.
x In the Treeview select the End Diaphragms group and click on the
button.
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x Remove the Mesh layer from the Treeview.
x Double click on the Geometry layer in the Treeview and select Assigned
Attributes from the Colour by drop down list.
x Click the Set button and select Geometric from the Attribute Type drop down list.
137
x With the Generate key option selected click the OK button to return to the
Geometry properties dialog and OK again to display the geometry coloured by
geometric assignment with the key annotated.
x To remove the ‘Colour by Attribute’ assignment double click on Geometry in the

Treeview, select Own Colour from the Colour by drop down list and click OK
to update the display.
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Attributes x Select material Mild Steel from the from down list, leave the units as kN m t C s
Material >
Material Library… and click OK to add the material dataset to the Treeview.
material dataset Mild Steel Ungraded (kN m t C) from the Treeview onto the
selected features and assign to the selected Lines by clicking the OK button.
1RWH Since the geometric properties provided are transformed section properties
Mild Steel properties are assigned to the complete model.
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The deck is supported in the vertical direction at each of the diaphragms. Since there
are no in-plane degrees of freedom no in-plane supports are required. The grillage
wizard automatically restrains the grillage from vertical displacement at each
diaphragm.
138
Modelling
1RWH If in-plane effects such as braking forces are to be considered the grillage

elements should be replaced by 3D beam elements and the appropriate properties and
supports should be assigned.
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In order to use the vehicle load optimisation facility the locations at which the
optimised load combinations are to be calculated and the parameter to be computed
must be chosen. An influence surface is generated for each of the chosen locations and
parameters.
LUSAS can calculate the influence surfaces for any specified position in the structure
using the Muller-Breslau principle whereby the mesh is “broken” at each specified
point and constrained to act in the required manner.
For this example three influence surfaces will be defined.
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The first influence surface will represent the reaction at the centre of the left hand
abutment.
x Remove the Geometry layer from the Treeview.
graphics window select the Mesh option to add the mesh layer to the Treeview
and click Close to accept the default properties.
x Select the node where the fourth longitudinal beam meets the left hand abutment as
shown.
1. Select
this node
3. Select this
2. Select this node and
node and element
element
139
Utilities x Select freedom type W from

Influence…
the drop down list.
x Set the displacement

direction to Positive since
we are interested in the
worst positive reactions.
x Ensure the Influence Axis is

set to Global and the
Influence type is set to
Reactions

LH Abutment - Vertical
Reaction and click OK to
define the influence
parameters.
The second influence surface represents the mid span bending on the lower edge beam
of the first span.
x Select the node at mid span on the lower edge beam as shown.
x Hold the Shift key and select the adjacent element to the right of the node.
Utilities x Select THY from the freedom type drop down list.
Influence…
x Ensure the direction is Negative since we are interested in the maximum sagging
moment which has is represented by a negative sign in LUSAS.
x Ensure the Influence Axis is set to Global
x Set the Influence type to Forces
x Enter the dataset name as Lower Edge Beam - Sagging Moment Span 1 and
click OK to define the influence surface parameters.
The third influence surface represents the hogging moment over the central pier.
x Select the node over the central pier as shown.
x Hold the Shift key and select the adjacent element to the right of the node.
Utilities x Select THY from the freedom type drop down list.
Influence…
140
Modelling
x Ensure the direction is Positive since we are interested in the hogging moment
which is represented by a positive sign in LUSAS.
x Ensure the Influence Axis is set to Global
x Enter the dataset name as Central Pier - Hogging Moment and click OK to
define the influence surface parameters.
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The model is now complete.
Save
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If errors have been made in defining the model that for some reason you cannot
correct, a file is provided to re-create the model information correctly.
VSDFHGBEHDPBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the

example up to this point.
File
x Enter the file name as spaced_beam and click OK

File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file spaced_beam_modelling.cmd
File
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The vehicle load optimiser (Autoloader) automates the creation of load datasets in
accordance with the chosen loading code for the locations and effects specified.
Before invoking the Vehicle Load Optimisation Wizard the kerb lines are defined.
These are best defined by Lines drawn on the model.
141
graphics window select the Geometry option to add the geometry layer to the
Treeview and click Close to accept the default properties.
'HILQLQJ.HUE/LQHV
Geometry x Specify the first point as (-5, 1) the second point as (75, 1). Define the third point
Line >
Arc >
as (35, 20) and select the Direction option for the third point.
From
Coords/Points x Enter the radius as 500
…
x Click OK to define the first kerb line.
Geometry x Specify the first point as (-5.584, 8.2766) and the second point as (75.584, 8.2766)
Line >
Arc >
x Define the third point as (35, 20) and set the Direction option for the third point.
From
Coords/Points
… x Enter a radius of 507.3 and ensure that Minor Arc is selected
x Click the OK button to define the second kerb line.
x Select the first and second kerb line. (Use Shift to add to the initial selection)
9HKLFOH/RDG2SWLPLVDWLRQ
Bridge With the kerbs defined and selected the vehicle load optimisation can begin.
Vehicle Load
Optimisation…
x Select the Defaults
button to reset any
settings from any
previous vehicle load
optimisation runs.
x Enter the results

filename as grillage
x Ensure BD37/88 is
selected from the
Design code drop
down lists.
x Ensure kN m t C s are
selected from the
Units to be used list.
x Select the Optional

code settings button.
142
Modelling
The BD37/88 optional code settings will appear.
x Ensure the
options Use HA
Loading, Use
HB Loading and
Use KEL
Loading are
selected.
x Set the number of

HB units to 30
x Deselect the
option to Use
cusping
x Click OK to set
the selected
options and return to the main vehicle load optimisation dialog.
1RWH Some of the lesser used code options such as the partial load factors may be

modified by editing the advanced options.
x Select the Optional loading parameters button to display the optional loading
parameters dialog.
x Ensure the vehicle library is set as

\lusas136\programs\scripts\atl\VehicleFiles\autoload.vec (or similar)
x Select HB from the drop down Vehicles list.
x Set Longitudinal increment to 0.25 and Transverse increment to 0.25
x Click OK to set the options and return to the main vehicle load optimisation
dialog.
1RWH By selecting ‘Edit Advanced Code Options’ on the Optional code settings

dialog and clicking the Advanced button some of the lesser used loading options may
be modified.
Having specified the loading options the carriageway positions need to be defined. In
this example the carriageway positions are defined from the selected kerb Lines.
x Select the Define carriageways button.
x Select the Kerbs from selection option and click Apply to define the
carriageways and return to the main dialog.
143
Finally the influence surfaces to be utilised must be defined.
x Select the Set influence surfaces button.
x Ensure Generate all influence surfaces is selected.
x Ensure the increment for influence surfaces is set to 0.25
x Ensure the loaded influence area is set to Positive in the drop down list. This will
instruct Autoloader to solve for the worst positive effects on each of the specified
influence surfaces.
x Click OK to set the influence data and return to the main dialog.
The optimisation parameters are now set-up.
x Ensure the Generate influence surfaces, Generate optimised loading and Run
analysis options are all selected and click OK to carry out the load optimisation.
LUSAS Modeller will run the Solver to generate each of the three influence surfaces,
run Autoloader to compute the worst position of vehicles for each influence surface,
generate the loadcases in Modeller, and run the Solver again with the worst loading
applied.
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If errors are listed that for some reason you cannot correct, a file is provided to re-
create the model information correctly, allowing a subsequent analysis to be run
successfully.
VSDFHGBEHDPBORDGHGFPG carries out the modelling of the example

including the loading.
File
x Enter the file name as spaced_beam and click OK

File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file spaced_beam_loaded.cmd which
Open... is located in the \Lusas13\Examples\Modeller directory.
File
144
Viewing the Results
File
LUSAS Datafile... A LUSAS data file name of spaced_beam will be automatically entered in the
File name field.
x Click the Save button to run LUSAS.
9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
of the current model and the results for loadcase 1 are set to be active by default.
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If the load pattern for each loadcase is to be visualised the following can be done:
x In the Treeview select the first loadcase in the Model data section and choose
the Set Active option to display the load pattern.
1RWH The node used to define each influence surface can be visualised by selecting
the Influence dataset in the Treeview and selecting Visualise Assignments
5HDFWLRQV
A plot showing the reactions is to be displayed.
x Delete the Geometry and Attributes layers from the Treeview
x In the Treeview in the Results file: 1 loadcase section, right-click on LH

Abutment - Vertical Reaction - ULS1/positive and select the Set Active option.
145
Treeview.
The values properties will be displayed.
x Select entity Reaction results for the component vertical reaction FZ
x Select the Values Display tab
x Plot the top 10% of the maxima values
x Set the Number of significant figures to 4
x Select the Choose Font button
x Select a font Arial style Bold size of 12
x Click OK to return to the values properties dialog and OK again.
x The design reaction at the fixed bearing (previously selected for influence surface
analysis) for the current loadcase LH Abutment - Vertical Reaction -
ULS1/positive will be displayed.
x In the Treeview in the Results file: 1 loadcase section right-click on LH

Abutment - Vertical Reaction - ULS2/positive and select the Set Active option
to display the reaction value for the current loadcase.
x Select each LH Abutment results file loadcase in turn and Set Active to display the
corresponding reaction value.
Location Quantity ULS1 ULS2 SLS1 SLS2

(Group name)
LH Abutment Vertical 660.2 558.6 558.6 507.8

reaction (FZ)
(Group: End
Diaphragms)
146
Viewing the Results
0RPHQWV
To view the bending moments in an edge beam the groups facility will be used.
x In the Treeview right-click on EdgeBeams group and select the Set as only
visible option. Click Yes to act on sub-groups as well.
&DXWLRQ The values layer should not be used to investigate bending moments at
0
points in the grillage because the values given would be average values for any
number of grillages coming together at a node and not a unique value for the end of
each grillage member. Instead, the Diagrams layer must be used.
x Delete the Values layer from the Treeview
x Add the Diagrams layer to the Treeview
x Select entity Stress results for the bending moment My
x Select the Diagram Display tab
x Select the Label values option, Label only if selected option, and the Window
summary option. Set the % of element length to 50, the font Angle to 45 and the
significant figures to 4
x Click OK to finish.
x In the Treeview from Results file: 1 right-click on Lower Edge Beam -

Sagging Moment ULS1/positive and select the Set Active option.
The window summary shows the maximum and minimum values.
x Use the Zoom in button to enlarge the left-hand end of the lower-beam.
x Drag a box around the beams of interest to view moment values on the beam.
147
By changing the active group and the active loadcase this table of results for design
can be generated.
Location Quantity ULS1 ULS2 SLS1 SLS2

(Group name)
Lower edge beam Sagging -1535 -1298 -1298 -1180

moment (My)
(Group: Edge
Beams)
Central pier Hogging 1565 1304 1301 1182

moment (My)
(Group: Internal
Diaphragms)
148
Description
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2SWLPLVDWLRQ
With product option(s): Autoloader.
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This example uses the Autoloader program to aid in the linear static analysis of a
3-span curved concrete bridge deck subject to typical highway loading.
Points of interest for influence surface generation
The structure is modelled using thick plate elements, representing a deck of inner
radius 75m, outer radius 86m and thickness 0.7m. The deck has a width of 11m
consisting of a 10m wide carriageway region and two 0.5m wide verges. The live
loading is to be calculated for three defined influence surfaces using the Autoloader
facility.
1RWH Autoloader is an optional software product for LUSAS Bridge. It extends the
vehicle loading capabilities in LUSAS Bridge and produces worst-case load effects
more easily than by manual methods. Autoloader generates live load patterns and
estimates the live load effect for the worst combination of load for a given parameter
at a given location in a bridge deck or structure based upon influence surfaces and
influence lines. In this example the Swedish Code of Practice BRO94 is used.
149
Bridge Slab Load Optimisation
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The operations in the creation of the model are as follows:
Sweep a curved deck from a line.
Mesh the Surfaces with thick plate elements (regular mesh).
Define and assign geometric properties to describe the slab thickness.
Define and assign material properties.
Define and assign bearing supports.
Define and assign dead loading.
Define three influence surfaces which will allow calculation of worst-case live
loading for:
1. Mid-span bending, inner curve, first span.
2. Mid-span bending, mid-node, second span.
3. Reaction at the first internal support.
Use Autoloader to calculate the worst case live-loading for the three influence
surfaces.
.H\ZRUGV
2D, Slab, Modelling, BRO94, Element Axes, Influence Surface, Autoloader, Load
Optimisation, Load Combination, Bending Moments, Reactions, Transformed
Results, Peak Values
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
GHFNBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the slab deck for
subsequent use with the vehicle load optimisation (Autoloader) facility.
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x Enter the file name as deck
150
Modelling
1RWH When saving a model for use with Autoloader a filename of 8 or less
characters must be specified.
x Enter the title as Deck analysis using Autoloader
x Select the Vertical Z axis option.
x Click OK
In this model, one span of the complete bridge deck is modelled in its entirety
(including specifying geometric properties, material, supports, etc.) before it is then
copied to form the complete 3-span structural model.
Geometry Enter coordinates of (0,75) and (0,86) to define a Line representing the end of
Line >
the deck.
Coordinates...
x Select the Line just drawn.
Geometry Select the Rotate option and enter an angle of

Surface >
-7.5 degrees in the XY Plane about the origin
By Sweeping..
0,0
x Click OK to sweep the Line to create a surface
151
0HVKLQJ
This analysis will consider only out-of-plane bending effects, and no in-plane
behaviour therefore plate elements will be used.
Attributes x Select Thick plate, Quadrilateral, Linear
Mesh >
elements. Do not specify any mesh discretisation
Surface...
parameters, this will be controlled by the mesh
divisions on the lines.
x Enter the dataset name as Thick plates and click

OK
x With the whole model selected, drag and drop the

surface mesh dataset Thick plates from the
The default number of line mesh divisions of 4 divisions per line will be drawn. This
gives a somewhat coarse mesh so the default number of line mesh divisions will now
be changed.
File x With the Meshing tab selected, set the default number of mesh divisions to 6 and
Model Properties...
click OK
The new mesh divisions will be displayed.
*HRPHWULF3URSHUWLHV
Attributes x Enter a thickness of 0.7
Geometric >
Surface... Plates do not exhibit eccentric behaviour, so leave this
entry field blank.
x Enter the dataset name as Slab thickness and click

OK
x With the whole model selected, drag and drop the geometric dataset Slab
thickness from the Treeview onto the selected features.
0DWHULDO3URSHUWLHV
Attributes x Select material Concrete from the drop down list, leave the units as kN m t
Material >
Material Library… C s and click OK to add the material dataset to the Treeview.
material dataset Concrete Ungraded (kN m t C) from the Treeview onto the
selected features and assign to the selected surfaces by clicking the OK button.
152
Modelling
x Use the maximise button to increase the size of the graphics window.
6XSSRUWV
the Treeview. In this example the deck is to be simply supported so the Fixed in Z
support will be used.
x Select the 2 support Lines shown.
x Drag and drop the support dataset Fixed

in Z from the Treeview onto the
selected Lines.
Select
x Ensure the Assign to Lines and All these 2
loadcases options are selected and click Lines
OK
The supports will be visualised on the model.
To check the location and direction of the
supports:-
Use the isometric view button to rotate
the model.
x To complete the full model of the bridge

deck select the whole model using the Ctrl
and A keys together.
Geometry Select the Rotate option and copy the
Surface >
features selected through an angle of
Copy...
-7.5 degrees in the XY plane about the origin
0,0
x Enter the number of copies as 2 and click the OK button.
153
The full 3-span model of the bridge deck will be created.
6HOI:HLJKW
Bridge x Add Gravity -ve Z to the Treeview.
Bridge Loading >
Gravity
x With the whole model selected, drag and drop the loading dataset Gravity -ve Z
from the Treeview onto the selected features. Ensure the Assign to Surfaces
option is selected and click OK to assign to Loadcase 1 with a load factor of 1
The loading will be visualised on the model.
x Using the right hand mouse button select Loadcase 1 from the Treeview and
select the Rename option. Change the loadcase name to Self Weight
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LUSAS can calculate the influence surface for any specified position on the structure.
Influence surfaces work on the Muller-Breslau principle whereby the mesh is ‘broken’
at node points then constrained to act in the required manner. In this example, three
154
Modelling
specific nodes on the mesh are to be indicated in turn, and influence surfaces
calculated for each node.
Influence surface freedoms can be defined relative to element, global or local
coordinate directions. Since this model is a curved deck a cylindrical local coordinate
system will be used to define the local direction.
Attributes x Select the Cylindrical option enter the dataset name as Cylindrical XY and click
Local Coordinate…
OK to define a cylindrical coordinate system about the origin in the XY plane.
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The first influence surface will represent edge mid-span bending on the inside radius
of the first span.
To make it easier to select the nodes and element required to define the influence
parameters the geometry and the load visualisation will be removed from the display.
x In the Treeview double click on Attributes and select the Loading tab.
Choose the None option and click OK to remove the loading from the display.
x Delete the Geometry layer from the Treeview.
1RWH For external nodes only one element need be selected in order to define an
influence surface.
Use the Zoom in button to enlarge the first 2 spans of the structure
Select normal cursor mode once the required view has been obtained.
x Select the mid-span

node at the inside
edge of the first
span, and holding
the Shift key down,
select the adjacent
element to the right
of the node to add 2. Select this
this to the current element
selection. 1. Select this node
155
Utilities x Select a freedom type of THX with a Negative displacement direction as the
Influence...
maximum longitudinal
sagging moment (-ve) is
required.
1RWH When using cylindrical

coordinates the radial direction
corresponds to the X axis and
the theta direction corresponds
to the Y axis.
x Select the Local option.

The local coordinate set
Cylindrical XY will appear
in the drop down list.
x Set the Influence type to

Forces

Edge mid-span bay1
(moment) and click the OK button to add the influence dataset to the
Treeview.
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The second influence surface will represent mid-span bending in the middle of the
slab in the second span.
1RWH For internal nodes two adjacent elements must be selected in order to

correctly define the influence surface. In this example, because the local element x
direction is being used to define the influence surface axes both adjacent elements
must be selected to the same side of the node under consideration as shown.
x Select the node at

mid-span of the
second span, and
holding the Shift key
down, select the 2
adjacent elements to
the right of the node
to add these to the
initial selection.
Utilities x Select a freedom type
Influence...
156
Modelling
of THX with a Negative displacement direction as the maximum longitudinal

sagging moment (-ve) is required.
x Select the Local option. The local coordinate set Cylindrical XY will appear in
the drop down list.
x Enter the dataset name as Middle mid-span bay2 (moment) and click the OK
button to add the influence dataset to the Treeview.
,QIOXHQFH6XUIDFH'HILQLWLRQ0D[LPXP5HDFWLRQ
The third influence surface represents the maximum reaction at the inner edge of the
second pier.
1RWH For influence surfaces showing maximum reactions the mesh does not need to

be ‘broken’ therefore no element need be specified.
x Select the node at the

edge of the first
support as shown.
Utilities x Select a freedom type
Influence...
of W with a Positive
displacement
direction as the
maximum positive
Select this node
reaction is required.
x Specify that the influence axes are defined by the Global axes.
x Ensure the Influence type is set to Reactions
x Enter the dataset name as Inner edge (reaction) and click the OK button to add
the influence dataset to the Treeview.
Select the Auto resize button to rescale the model.

This completes the preparation of the model for influence analysis.
6DYLQJWKHPRGHO
File To save the model.
Save
157
5HEXLOGLQJWKH0RGHO
If errors have been made in the modelling of this example that for some reason you
cannot correct, a file is provided to re-create the model information correctly,
allowing a subsequent analysis to be run successfully.
GHFNBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example including

the loading.
File
x Enter the file name as deck
x Select the Vertical Z axis option and click OK

File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file deck_modelling.cmd which is
File
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IDFLOLW\WRFDOFXODWHWKHZRUVWORDGLQJSDWWHUQV
The Vehicle Load Optimiser (AutoLoader) automates the creation of load datasets in
accordance with the loading code chosen for the locations specified.
Bridge x Select the Defaults
Vehicle Load
Optimisation… button to reset any
settings from a
previous run.
x Enter the results

filename as deck
x Select BRO94 from

the design code drop
down list.
x Select the Optional

code settings button.
The BRO94 optional
code settings dialog will
appear.
158
Modelling
x Ensure the Use UDL Loading option is selected.
x Select Use
alternative
vehicle to try
in place of
UDL loading
and make sure
it is set to All
x Select Change
partial load
factors and set
the ULS load
factors to
1.8,0,0,0 and
the SLS load factors to 1.2,0,0,0
x Click OK to set the selected options and return to the main vehicle load
optimisation dialog.
x Select the Optional loading parameters button and the optional loading
parameters dialog will appear.
x Change the
Vehicle library
to
\lusas136\progra
ms\scripts\atl\Ve
hicleFiles\BRO9
4_100.vec (or
similar)
x Set the Vehicles

selection to None
x Set the
Longitudinal
increment to
0.25 and the
Transverse
increment to 0.25
x Select Edit Advanced loading options and click on the Advanced button to
display the advanced loading options dialog.
159
x Select Use UDL

limit and set it to
500
x Select Use beta

lane factors and
set to 1.0, 0.68,
0.001
x Select Use
alternative
loading curve
and set to
0, 0.001, 500,
0.001
x Click OK to
return to the
optional loading
parameters dialog and OK again to return to the main vehicle load optimisation
dialog.
x Select the Define carriageways button.
x Select Curved and ensure the Number of

carriageways is set to 1
x Select Apply to display the dialog for

entering kerb details in tabular form.
160
Modelling
x Enter the kerb positions as

shown and click OK to return
to the main vehicle load
optimisation dialog.
x Select the Set Influence surfaces

button.
x Ensure the Generate all

influence surfaces option is
selected.
x Set the Increment for influence

surfaces to 0.25
x Ensure the Loaded influence

area is Positive
x Click OK to return to the main

load optimisation dialog.
The definition of the data for the load optimisation is now complete but before
selecting the final OK button (which would run the load optimisation analysis) the
influence surfaces will be visualised:
9LVXDOLVLQJ,QIOXHQFH6XUIDFHV
With the main Vehicle Load Optimisation dialog displayed:
x Deselect the Generate optimised loading option and click the OK button.
The LUSAS Solver will solve for each influence surface in turn. When complete the
Treeview will contain one results file for each influence surface.
x If present, delete the Mesh, Geometry and Attributes layers from the
Treeview.
161
x In the graphics window, with no features selected, click the right-hand mouse
button and select the Deformed mesh option to add the deformed mesh layer to
the Treeview.
x Click Close to accept the default properties and display the influence surface of
the current loadcase.
If required rotate the model to an isometric view.
x From the Treeview right click on each results loadcase and select the Set
Active option to view each influence surface.
Influence surface 1 - Inner
edge moment
Influence surface 2 - Mid span

moment bay 2
Influence Surface 3 - Inner

edge reaction
162
Modelling
*HQHUDWLQJ2SWLPLVHG/RDGLQJ'HILQLWLRQV
Bridge x Select the Generate optimised loading option.
Vehicle Load
Optimisation…
x Use the previously generated influence surfaces by deselecting the Generate
Influence Surfaces option.
x Click OK to run the vehicle optimisation process.
1RWH If additional loadcases are to be added, the ‘Run Analysis’ option should be
deselected so the additional loadcases can be defined after the load optimisation has
been completed. When all loadcases have been defined the analysis should be run
using the button.
1RWH In running this load optimisation 2500 vehicle arrangements are evaluated for
3 influence surfaces. This will take approximately 10 minutes on modern personal
computers but will be slower on older machines. An indication of the time remaining
can be attained by observing the influence surface being evaluated.
Two ULS and SLS loadcases will appear for each influence surface in the
Treeview. The first represents the vehicle loads and the second the equivalent
uniformly distributed lane loads. To view the results of each loadcase the loadcases
for each influence surface must be combined.
9LVXDOLVLQJ/RDG'HILQLWLRQV
The load definition may be visualised for each loadcase.
x In the Model data section

of the Treeview click
the right-hand mouse
button on the loadcase
Edge mid-span bay1
(moment) ULS1/Positive
(2) and pick the Set Active
option. The vehicle
loading positions will be
displayed.
163
x In the Model data section

of the Treeview click
button on the loadcase
Edge mid-span bay1
(moment) ULS1/Positive
(14) and pick the Set
Active option. The
equivalent uniformly
distributed lane loading
will be displayed..
'HILQLQJ&RPELQDWLRQV
The results for the combination of vehicle and equivalent uniformly distributed
loading will now be created. Define a new combination in the Treeview.
Utilities
Combination > On the Combination Properties dialog:
Basic
x From Results file 1: add Self Weight and Edge mid-span bay1 (moment)
ULS1/Postive (2) and Edge mid-span bay1 (moment) ULS1/Positive (14) to the
included panel.
x Change the dataset name to Combination Edge mid-span - ULS1 and click OK
and Yes to overwrite the combination properties.
Other combinations would be created in a similar fashion for each set of results.
3ORWWLQJ6WUHVV&RQWRXUVDQG3HDN9DOXHV
x In the Treeview right-click on Combination Edge mid-span - ULS1 and
Treeview.
The contours properties dialog will be displayed.
x Select the Transformed button and select the Local coordinate set option.
Cylindrical XY will appear in the drop down list. Leave the Shell plane for
resultants as tz and click OK
x Select Entity Stress and Component moments in the theta direction Mt
164
Modelling
x Click the OK button to display contours of moments in the longitudinal direction.
x To display the mesh on top of the contours, select the Deformed mesh entry in the
Treeview and drag and drop it onto the Contours entry in the Treeview.
Treeview.
The values properties dialog will be displayed.
x Select Entity Stress and Component moments in the theta direction Mt
x Select the Values Display tab.
x Deselect the Symbols

display option.
x Deselect the Maxima

option and select the
Minima option since the
sagging moment is
negative. Change the
percentage of values to
display to 1
x Set the number of significant figures to 4
x Click the OK button to display contours of moments in the longitudinal direction

with the minimum sagging moment value displayed.
6DYHWKHPRGHO
Save

165
166
Description
%526ODE
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This example uses a LUSAS command file to generate a bridge model and load it with
BRO94 loadcases. The BRO94 load combination wizard is then used to investigate
worst case positive and negative effects.
The structure is modelled using thick
plate elements, representing a deck of
inner radius 75m, outer radius 86m and
thickness 0.7m. The deck has a width of
11m consisting of a 10m wide
carriageway region and two 0.5m wide
verges.
2EMHFWLYHV
Generation of load combination in accordance with Swedish bridge code
BRO94
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2D, Slab, BRO94 Load Combinations, BRO94 Wizard, Positive Effects,
Negative Effects
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
GHFNBFRPEBORDGHGFPG carries out the modelling of the deck and
defines the characteristic load cases and assigns them to the model.
167
BRO94 Slab Analysis
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x Enter the file name as deck_BRO94
x Enter the title as Slab analysis using BRO94 loading
x Select the units of kN m t C s
x Select the BRO94 startup template.
x Click OK
,PSRUWDQW 1RWH By selecting the BRO94 model template a number of blank

loadcases will be created in the Treeview. These blank loadcases are the
characteristic loadcases that are considered possible within the Swedish code of
practice BRO94. When loads are assigned to these loadcases the BRO94 load
combination wizard will combine them in accordance with the Swedish code.
x Check that the Treeview has been loaded with the blank loadcases.
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File
Command Files > To create a model for analysis open the command file deck_comb_loaded.cmd
Open... located in the \Lusas135\Examples\Modeller directory. After a short while, whilst
the command file runs, the model will be displayed.
Vertical Axis…
File
168
/RDGFDVHVFRQVLGHUHG
In running the previous command file to generate the model the following
characteristic loadcases are created and assigned to the model:
x Dead Load
x Surfacing
x Support yielding 1
x Temperature 3
x Equivalent load 1 to Equivalent load 10
1RWH

Loadcases would
normally be defined using the
Bridge > Bridge Loading >
Sweden menu entry which
would display the dialog
shown. However, because the
purpose of this example is to
concentrate on showing the use
of the BRO94 Combination
Wizard these loadcases have
been defined and assigned in
the previous command file.
The model is now complete and the characteristic loadcases have been applied.
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of deck_BRO94 will be automatically entered in the
LUSAS Datafile...
Filename field.
169
BRO94 Slab Analysis
GHFNB%52RXW this output file contains details of model data, assigned

GHFNB%52P\V this is the LUSAS results file which is loaded
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Combinations for BRO94 are created using the BRO94 Combination Wizard. The
BRO94 combination wizard allows the user to choose which loads to combine into
combinations. By selecting the combination type i.e. Comb4A (Combination 4A),
the wizard defaults the load coefficients to the correct values as stated in table 22-1 of
BRO94. Once all the required permanent, variable and live loads have been selected
the resultant combination can be produced. This resultant combination will be formed
by combining a combination of permanent loads, support yielding combination or
envelope, a combination of variable loads and envelopes of live loading.
1RWH The BRO94 combination wizard can only be used if the BRO94 loadcase
template has been specified to define the characteristic loadcases at the Model Startup
stage.
170
Viewing the Results
Bridge The BRO94 Combination Wizard dialog will appear.

Loading
Combinations >
x Select the Set
BRO94...
defaults button.
x Select
combination
Comb4A
x Ensure the
Number of
variable
loadcases is set
to 4
x Click Next
x For the
permanent load
type selection
ensure the
Dead load and
Superimposed
dead: Deck
surfacing
options are
selected
x Click the Next

button to
continue.
171
BRO94 Slab Analysis
x For the
Support
yielding type
select the
Combine
envelope of
loadcases
option.
x Click the Next

button to
continue.
x No user defined
permanent
loads have been
defined for this
analysis so
ensure the
dialog is left
blank and click
Next to
continue.
172
Viewing the Results
x For the variable

load type
selection pick
Temperature
type Temp 3
x Click Next to
continue.
x No user defined
variable loads
have been
defined for this
analysis so
ensure the
dialog is blank
and click Next
continue.
173
BRO94 Slab Analysis
x Finally, enter
the Equivalent
loads as
datasets 1:54-
64 (see the
Treeview)
x Leave the
Maintenance
and emergency
vehicles blank.
x Select Finish to
generate the
BRO94
Resultant
combinations.
1RWH If a results file is loaded in isolation from a model file then the Equivalent

Loads specified for investigation would be entered as 0:54-64 This is because the
results file would be the first file loaded in this instance rather than the model file as in
this example.
'LVSOD\LQJFRQWRXUVIRU%520D[DQG0LQ(IIHFWV
x If present, delete the Geometry and Attributes layers from the Treeview.
graphics area and select the Contours option to add the contours layer to the
Treeview.
The contours properties dialog will be displayed.
x Select Entity Stress component moments in the X direction MX and click OK

The Contour results for Loadcase 1 - Dead Load will be displayed. (By selecting Page
Setup and changing the left-margin to 30mm the contour key may be repositioned to
the side of the results plot).
174
Viewing the Results
x In the Treeview right-click on BRO94 Combination 4A:Resultant(Max) and

select the Set Active option to view the worst positive effects (i.e. hogging
moments and reactions). Click OK to verify that one or more loadcases are not
currently loaded. (See the explanatory note at the end of the example) Select
results component MX to be used to assess the relieving or adverse affects when
processing the combinations and click OK
175
BRO94 Slab Analysis
x Set combination the BRO94 Combination 4A:Resultant(Min) active to view

worst negative effects (i.e. sagging moments and vertical displacements). Click
OK to verify that one or more loadcases are not currently loaded. Select results
component MX to be used to assess the relieving or adverse affects when
processing the combinations and click OK
1RWH A warning message “One or more loadcases are not currently loaded. Results

will be generated with these loadcases omitted” will appear whenever a smart results
combination includes loadcases that have been provided for use by the BRO94 startup
template but that have not been assigned a loading by the user – because they are not
required, for example. In this example the loadcase BRO94 Combination
4A:Resultant(Max) includes loadcases that, in turn, include a number of allocated
but un-used Support Yielding loadcases.
Additional Results processing can be carried out in a similar manner to that described
in the Simple Slab example.
176
Description
6HFWLRQ6OLFLQJRID
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For software product(s): All
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This example uses the
Slice Resultants
Beams/Shells facility to
investigate the behaviour
of a bridge deck
modelled using thick
shell elements. The
results are converted into
forces and moments of
an equivalent beam
using this facility.
Units used are N m kg C
s throughout.
2EMHFWLYHV
The output requirements of the analysis are:
Forces and bending moments along length for whole structure
Forces and bending moments associated with central girder effective width
.H\ZRUGV
Force, bending moments, slicing, shells.
177
Section Slicing of a 3D Shell Structure
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
VKHOOBVOLFLQJBPRGHOOLQJFPG

structure.
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x Enter the file name as Shell Slicing
x Enter the title as Stress Resultants from Shell Model
x Ensure the Vertical Z Axis option is selected.
x Ensure no startup template is selected.
x Click OK
To generate the model for this example a command file is provided:
VKHOOBVOLFLQJBPRGHOOLQJFPGcarries out the modelling of the structure

File
Command Files > Open the command file shell_slicing_modelling.cmd which is located in the
Open... \Lusas136\Examples\Modeller directory.
After a short while a plan view of the model of the building will be displayed.
Select the isometric button to view the model in 3D.
178
Modelling

Save
Two load cases have been defined in the model that correspond to the self-weight of
the structure and the applied load of a UK HB vehicle. For the post-processing, a
combination has also been defined which combines these two load cases.
Removing all visualisation layers other than the mesh allows visualisation of the
general layout of the model. The deck is 4.21m wide and consists of a concrete slab
and three steel girders as indicated in the following figures. The mesh discretisation of
the model is extremely coarse for the purpose of this example.
1RWH When carrying out this type of slicing on realistic models it is recommended

that a much finer mesh discretisation is used to accurately capture the response of the
structure, particularly if 3- and 4-noded shell elements are being used for the
modelling.
,GHDOLVDWLRQRIWKH%ULGJH6WUXFWXUH
179
1RWH For this example the idealisation of the bridge structure into the analysis

model has been done using only shell elements. Shell elements have been used for the
girder components and also the concrete slab as illustrated. For the modelling, discrete
features have been defined for the top flange and the slab since their materials are not
identical. The slab has an eccentricity to define a bending plane that is not coincident
with the top flange and these two components are combined using an equivalence
attribute.
Top flange and

slab connected
180
Modelling
This is just one of many ways that the idealisation for this type of bridge structure can
be undertaken. The following figure shows the same structure but this time the shell
elements representing the top and bottom flanges of the girder have been replaced by
beam elements running along the top and bottom of the girder with the appropriate
properties for the flange members. In the last figure the whole girder has been
replaced by beam elements with appropriate geometric properties and an eccentricity
to offset the bending plane of the beams.
Beams for top

and bottom
flanges
Shells for web
Actual modelling
location of beam e
Beam representing
complete girder with
eccentricity
The choice of which analysis idealisation should be used depends upon what is
required from the results of the analysis. For instance, if a curved girder analysis is
being performed and the lateral forces in the top and bottom flanges are required then
181
the idealisations shown in the first two figures are suitable but the idealisation shown
in the last figure is not.
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File A LUSAS data file name of Shell Slicing will be automatically entered in the
LUSAS Datafile...
File name field.

9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
of the current model and the loadcase results can be seen in the Loadcase layer with
the self-weight loadcase set to be active by default.
3ORWWLQJ'HIRUPHG6KDSHV
x Delete the Mesh, Geometry and Attributes layers from the Treeview.
Graphics area and select the Deformed mesh option to add the deformed mesh
layer to the Treeview. In the deformed mesh dialog box select the Window
summary option and click the OK button to accept the remaining default values
and display the deformed mesh for the self-weight loadcase.
182
Viewing the Results
x In the Treeview right-click on Vehicle Load and select the Set Active option.
The deformed mesh plot for HB vehicle load will be displayed.
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x Delete the Deformed Mesh and Annotation layers from the Treeview.
Graphics area and select the Mesh option to add the mesh layer to the
Treeview. In the mesh dialog box click the Close button to accept the default
values.
Graphics area and select the Geometry option to add the geometry layer to the
Treeview. In the geometry dialog box click the Close button to accept the
default values.
x In the Treeview right-click on Combination and select the Set Active option.
The results for the combined effects of the factored self weight and HB vehicle
load will now be available.
183
Graphics area and select the Advanced Selection… option. Select the Type and
name option and choose Line from the list and enter 24. Click the OK button to
select line 24 in the model which passes along the centre of the bridge. This line
will be used to define the path along which the slicing will take place.
x Click on the view button to view the model from the positive Z axis.
The current Modeller window should look as follows:
Utilities The slicing dialog will be

Slice Resultants
Beams/Shells
displayed.
x Select the Incremental

distance from start of path
option.
x Enter 0;15@1 into the

associated box which will cut
slices at the start of the line
(0m) and every 1m up to and
including 15m.
x Set the Distance from

reference origin to start of
path (chainage) to 0.0
x Select the Neutral axis option

to calculate the forces and
moments about the sliced
section neutral axis.
x Ensure that the Effective width option is deselected.
x Set the slice Slicename prefix to Slice . This will be the prefix for the naming of
the sliced sections.
184
Viewing the Results
x Click the OK button to start slicing the model.
1RWH Three methods are available for the definition of the slice locations. From

points or nodes in selection allows the definition of the slicing locations by
projection of the points/nodes onto the slicing path. Incremental distances from
start of path allows the definition of progressive slice distances governed by the
supplied increments. These increments can be positive or negative so long as the
accumulated distance is within the path length. The Absolute distances from start of
path allows the definition of known distances along the slicing path for slices to be
taken.
1RWH Smooth corners on path is used to traverse sharp corners in the defined

slicing path. If smoothing is selected then the orientation of the slice plane is set to be
at an angle of half the path angle change at the connection if this location coincides
with a slice. If smoothing is not selected, two slices will be taken at a sharp corner
with angles taken from both lines/arcs at the connection.
The forces and moments for the slices are output in a grid as indicated in the following
figure. The output is relative to the slice axes and consists of the following
information: Slice title, distance associated with slice location, the global coordinates
of the sliced section neutral axis, shear forces (Px and Py), axial force (Pz), bending
moments (Mx and My) and torsion (Mz). If moments are calculated about the path
intersection then the coordinates will be equal to the location on the path associated
with the distances selected.
This grid can be resized and the results copied and pasted into an application such as
Microsoft Excel to generate force and bending moment diagrams as illustrated.
185
x Close the slice output grid.

The locations of the slices are indicated on the model as illustrated below. These
annotations include the physical location of the slice, its title and a local coordinate set
186
Viewing the Results
indicating the axes of the slice. If the option to calculate the forces and moments about
the neutral axis has been selected this local coordinate set will be defined at the
neutral axis location. If however the option to calculate the forces and moments about
the slice path has been selected, the local coordinate set will be defined at the
intersection between the slice path and the slice plane.
x Click on the isometric button to view the model in 3D to view the extents of
the slices.
Utilities x Delete the current slice annotations.

Remove
Beam/Shell Slice
Annotations
187
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(IIHFWLYH:LGWK
x Click on the view button to view the model from the positive Z axis.
Utilities The slicing dialog will be
Slice Resultants
Beams/Shells
displayed.
x Select the Absolute distance

from start of path option.
x Enter 0;2.5;5;7.5;10;12.5;15
into the associated box which
will cut slices at the start of
the line (0m) and every 2.5m
up to and including 15m.
x Set the Distance from

reference origin to start of
path (chainage) to 100 . The
start of the slicing path will
therefore have a
distance/chainage of 100m
and the end of the slicing path
will have a distance/chainage
of 115m.
x Select the Effective width option and enter 2.0 in the associated box. This will
set the effective width to be 2.0m centred on the slicing path (i.e. 1.0m either
side)
x Set the slice Slicename prefix to Girder2 (Eff) . This will be the prefix for the
naming of the sliced sections.
x Click the OK button to start slicing the model.

The forces and moments for the slices are output in a grid as indicated in the following
figure. Copying these results into a spreadsheet application and generating the graphs
gives the force and bending moment diagrams shown.
188
Viewing the Results
x Close the slice output grid.

The locations and extents of the slices through the bridge are indicated on the model
as illustrated below. These annotations include the physical location, title and local
axes as before.
189
x Click on the isometric button to view the model in 3D to view the extents of
the slices.
Utilities x Delete the current slice annotations.

Remove
Beam/Shell Slice
Annotations
1RWH Curved structures can also be sliced using this facility.

190
Description
6HLVPLF5HVSRQVH
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This example examines the Spectral
Response analysis of a 2D braced tower
Diagonal
frame. The geometry is simplified to a
wire-frame or stick representation, with
bracing
each of the structural members being
represented by Point and Line features
only. 9 x 4.5m
high storeys
The model is comprised of thick beam
elements for the concrete column, beam
members, and steel diagonal bracing
members which have pinned end
connections. The structure is fully
restrained against displacement and
rotation at ground level.
7 x 4.0m wide bays
Since the global response of the structure
is required, the model of the tower is
further simplified by meshing each Line with a single element. This will effectively
avoid the extraction of local panel modes for individual beams and columns. These
local modes could be investigated independently in a more detailed analysis.
The spectral response analysis is performed in two distinct stages. Firstly a natural
frequency analysis is performed. This is used here to calculate the first 10 natural
191
Seismic Response of a 2D Frame (Frequency Domain)
modes of vibration of the structure. The eigenvalues, frequencies and eigenvectors

(mode shapes) are stored and used in the subsequent spectral response analysis.
Although the natural frequencies are obtained from an eigenvalue analysis any
information regarding the magnitudes of deformations or moments is non-quantitative.
The second phase of the analysis is the spectral response calculation, in which the
spectral response computation is performed interactively as a results processing
operation using the Interactive Modal Dynamics (IMD) facility. This is an alternative
to performing a non-interactive spectral response analysis in LUSAS.
In a spectral response analysis, the structure is subjected to a support condition
excitation. In this example this is assumed to be the effect of Seismic/Earthquake
motion although any support motion could be envisaged. The excitation is specified as
a spectral curve, in terms of displacement, velocity or acceleration and represents an
envelope of these effects over a measured frequency range. Damping may also be
specified at this stage.
From the spectral analysis participation factors are obtained which indicate, for each
mode, the degree of structural response associated with this applied excitation. A
mode combination is also calculated from which a worst case displacement/moment
envelope may be obtained.
.H\ZRUGV
2D, Plane Frame, Beam, End Releases, Natural Frequency, Eigenvalue, Spectral
Response, Seismic, Axial Force, Shear Force, Bending Moment Diagrams,
Participation Factors, Modal Dynamics, Interactive Modal Dynamics (IMD),
Modal Response, Global Response, Graphing, Animation.
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
WRZHUBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the example modelling.
WRZHUBVSHFWUXPFPG defines a typical spectral curve excitation.
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192
Modelling
&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the file name as tower
x Enter the title as Tower
x Leave the units as N m kg C s
x Select the Standard startup template.
x Select the Vertical Y Axis option.
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1RWH In eigenvalue analyses (and dynamic analyses in general) it is important to
work in strict SI units (N, m, kg). Care must be taken to ensure that these units are
used when specifying parameters, such as feature coordinates, geometric and material
properties and loading values.
Geometry > Enter coordinates of (0, 0), (0, 4.5), (4, 4.5) and
Line >
(4, 0) and click OK to define the first bay of the
Coordinates…
ground level storey.
1RWH Sets of coordinates must be separated by

commas or spaces unless the ‘Grid Style’ method is
chosen. The Tab key is used to create new entry
fields. The Arrow keys are used to move between
entries.
193
*HRPHWULF3URSHUWLHV&ROXPQVDQG%HDPV
Attributes x Select the Thick Beam tab
Geometric >
Line…
and enter geometric Column Beam
properties as shown in the Member Member
table for a column member. Cross-Sectional Area 0.1 0.08
x Enter the dataset name as 2nd Moment of Area 8.333e-4 5.333e-4

Concrete Column and (Y axis)
select the Apply button to
create the dataset and re- 2nd Moment of Area 8.333e-4 5.333e-4
use the dialog. (Z axis)
x Change the values on the Torsional Constant 1.666e-3 1.066e-3

dialog to match those Effective Shear Area in 0.1 0.08
shown in the table for a Z Direction
cross-beam member.
Effective Shear Area in 0.1 0.08
x Change the dataset name to Y Direction
Concrete Beam and click
OK Eccentricity 0.0 0.0
1RWH Whilst in practice column sizes would vary with height and beam sizes may
vary throughout the structure, in this example, for simplicity, all of the concrete
columns and beam sections are of the same size and assumed to be of solid square
section.
x Select the 2 vertical Lines representing the column

members. (Hold the Shift key down to add to the
initial selection).
x Drag and drop the geometry dataset Concrete

Column from the Treeview onto the selected
features.
x Select the horizontal Line representing the Beam.
x Drag and drop the geometry dataset Concrete

Beam from the Treeview onto the selected
Line.
194
Modelling
0DWHULDO3URSHUWLHV&ROXPQVDQG%HDPV
Attributes x Select material Concrete from the from down list, leave the grade Ungraded and
Material >
Material Library... the units as N m kg C s and click OK to add the material dataset to the
Treeview.
The columns and beams are made of concrete.
x Select the whole model by either using the Ctrl and A keys to select all features or
by dragging a box around the model.
x Drag and drop the material dataset Concrete Ungraded (N m kg C) from the
x Ensure that the dataset is assigned to Lines and click OK
0HVKLQJ&ROXPQVDQG%HDPV
As the global response of the structure is required only one beam element need be
used along each Line. This will prevent LUSAS from picking up any panel modes
caused by local vibration of the columns and beams.
Attributes x Select Thick Beam, 2 dimensional, Linear elements.
Mesh >
Line… x Enter the number of element divisions as 1
x Enter the dataset name as Thick Beam and click OK
x With the whole model selected, drag and drop the Line mesh dataset Thick Beam
from the Treeview onto the selected features.
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Now that one bay has been fully defined it will be copied to form the other 6 bays of
the ground storey of the tower. With the whole model selected:
Geometry Enter a translation in the X direction of 4 metres.
Line >
Copy… x Enter the number of
copies required as 6
x Click the OK button

to create 6 additional
bays.
195
Bay 6 of the structure requires diagonal bracing to be added with the ends of both
members being free to rotate about the Z direction in order to model a pinned
connection.
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x Select 2 diagonally opposite Points in bay 6. (Hold the Shift key down to add to
the selection).
Geometry The line will be drawn.
Line >
Points… x Repeat for the other pair of diagonally opposite Points.
*HRPHWULF3URSHUWLHV%UDFLQJPHPEHUV
For the purposes of this example the bracing members are to be defined as Universal
Beams.
Attributes The standard sections dialog will appear:
Geometric >
Section Library…
x From the UK Sections library select the Universal Beams (BS4) section type and
select the 254x146x43kg UB section.
x Ensure that 2D Frame usage is selected.
x Click the OK button to add the Universal Beam dataset to the Treeview.
x Select the 2 diagonal Lines representing the bracing members.
196
Modelling
x Drag and drop the geometry dataset 254x146x43kg UB (m) from the Treeview
onto the selected features.
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Attributes x Select material Mild Steel from the from down list, leave the grade Ungraded and
Material >
Material Library... the units as N m kg C s and click OK to add the material dataset to the
Treeview.
x With the 2 bracing members selected, drag and drop the Material dataset Mild
Steel Ungraded (N m kg C) from the Treeview onto the selected features.
x Ensure Assign to lines is selected and click OK
0HVKLQJ%UDFLQJ0HPEHUV
Only one beam element is to be used along each bracing member. However, the ends
of the bracing members must be free to rotate about the Z direction in order to model
a pinned connection, therefore the existing mesh dataset (as used for the beam and
column members) cannot be used. A new mesh dataset must now be created from the
existing one.
x In the Treeview double-click the Thick beam dataset name.
x Click the End Releases button and set the First Node End Releases and Last
Node End Releases to allow Rotation about Z by selecting the option.
x Click the OK button to return to the Line mesh dialog.
x Change the dataset name to Thick Beam (Pinned Ends) and click the OK button.
x With the 2 Lines representing the bracing members selected. Drag and drop the
Line mesh dataset Thick Beam (Pinned Ends) from the Treeview onto the
selected features.
1RWH The visualisation

of the beam end releases is
shown by default. If it is
required to turn-off their
visualisation select the
Treeview and double click on Mesh, select the Visualise tab and deselect the Beam
end releases option.
The first bay of the ground storey of the tower is now completely defined. The support
conditions are not defined or assigned yet, as this bay will be copied upwards to create
other storeys where supports will not be required.
197
&RS\LQJWKH0RGHO)HDWXUHV
The other storeys of the tower can now be generated by copying selected features
through specified distances in the Y direction.
x Select the whole model using the Ctrl and A keys together.
Geometry Enter a translation in the Y direction of 4.5 metres. Enter the number of copies
Line >
required as 2 and enter the dataset name as Y=4.5. Click the Save button to
Copy…
save the dataset for re-use and click the OK button to finish to generate 2 additional
storeys.
1RWH All attributes assigned to the features on the ground level storey, for example,
line mesh, geometric and material properties, will be duplicated on the other storeys
automatically when the new features are created by copying.
x Drag a box around

the bays shown to Drag a box to select only these bays
create the next level
of the structure.
Geometry Select the dataset
Line >
Y=4.5 from the
Copy…
drop down list and click
the OK button to create
1 copy of the features
selected.
x Drag a box around the bays Drag a box to select

shown to create the next level of only these bays
the structure.
Geometry Select the dataset Y=4.5 from
Line >
the drop down list and click
Copy…
the OK button to create 1 copy of the
features selected.
198
Modelling
x Drag a box around the bay shown Drag a box to select

which will be used to create the only this bay
remaining levels of the structure.
Geometry Select the dataset Y=4.5

Line >
Copy… x Change the number of copies to 4
x Click the OK button to create the remaining levels.
6XSSRUWV
LUSAS provides the more common types of support by
default. These can be seen in the Treeview. The
tower must be fully restrained at the base, therefore 3
degrees of freedom (U, V and rotation about the Z
axis) must be restrained. A fully fixed support type is
therefore required.
199
x Drag a box around the 8 Points along the
base of the structure.
x From the Treeview drag and drop the

support dataset Fully Fixed onto the
selected features, ensure the All loadcases
option is selected and click OK
The model geometry is now complete.
Select these Points
/RDGLQJ
1RWH No static structural loading is required for this analysis as the spectral

combination is carried out during results processing using the results from the natural
frequency analysis which is independent of applied loading. The modelling will now
be completed by defining the controls necessary to extract the natural frequencies.
(LJHQYDOXH$QDO\VLV&RQWURO
Since the first stage of a spectral response analysis involves a computation of the
natural modes of vibration an initial eigenvalue extraction analysis must be carried
out. The solution parameters for eigenvalue analysis are specified using an eigenvalue
control dataset. In this example the first 10 natural modes of vibration of the tower are
computed.
Eigenvalue analysis control properties are defined as properties of the loadcase.
x In the Treeview right-click on Loadcase 1 and select Properties.
x Define the analysis as an Eigenvalue problem and click the Set button.
The Eigenvalue dialog will appear.
200
The following parameters need to be specified:
x Set the Number of eigenvalues as 10
x Ensure the Shift to be applied is set as 0
x Ensure the Type of eigensolver is set as Default
1RWH Eigenvalue normalisation is set to Mass by default. This is essential if the

eigenvectors are to be used for subsequent IMD analysis in results processing as they
are in this case.
x Click the OK button to finish and return to the previous dialog.
6DYLQJWKHPRGHO
Save
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of tower will be automatically entered in the File
LUSAS Datafile...
name field.
201
WRZHURXW this output file contains details of model data, assigned attributes
and selected statistics of the analysis.
WRZHUP\V this is the LUSAS results file which is loaded automatically
,IWKHDQDO\VLVIDLOV
5HEXLOGLQJD0RGHO
successfully.
WRZHUBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

File
x Enter the file name as tower
x Select the Vertical Y Axis option and click OK.

File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file tower_modelling.cmd which is
File
File
202
Viewing the Results
9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
of the current model and the load case results for each eigenvalue can be seen in the
Load Case layer with Eigenvalue 1 set to be active by default.
3ORWWLQJ0RGH6KDSHV
Graphics area and select the Deformed mesh
option to add the deformed mesh layer to the
Treeview.
x Click the Close button to accept the default

values and display the deformed mesh for
Eigenvalue 1.
To see other mode shapes:
x In the Treeview right-click on Eigenvalue 2

and select the Set Active option. The deformed
mesh plot for Eigenvalue 2 will be displayed.
x By setting each Eigenvalue to be active the

deformed mesh can be seen for all mode shapes.
1RWH The mode shape may be inverted. This is because the sense is arbitrary since
during vibration deformed shape will appear in both directions.
3ULQWLQJ(LJHQYDOXH5HVXOWV
Eigenvalue results for the whole structure can be displayed in the Text Output
window.
Utilities Ensure Eigenvalues is displayed in the Type combo box and click Finish. The
Print results wizard...
Eigenvalue results will be printed to the Text Output window.
Results File = L:\models\tower.mys ID 1
MODE EIGENVALUE FREQUENCY ERROR NORM
1 147.296 1.93160 0.945062E-12
2 1527.44 6.22017 0.252379E-12
3 7481.98 13.7667 0.992755E-13
203
4 12463.9 17.7683 0.261939E-12

5 16464.9 20.4221 0.968822E-13
6 26008.4 25.6671 0.346929E-12
7 31861.1 28.4087 0.455993E-10
8 33854.1 29.2837 0.157390E-07
9 34920.0 29.7411 0.110320E-06
10 35963.4 30.1822 0.499202E-06
1RWH The frequency in Hertz can be obtained by dividing the square root of the

eigenvalue by 2S, and the period of vibration in seconds is obtained using the
reciprocal of frequency (1/frequency). Values of error norm may vary from those
shown.
&DXWLRQ The system eigenvectors have been normalised (in this case with respect
0
to mass) therefore any derived quantities such as displacement and moment are also
normalised and are not true design values.
x Close the text window by selecting the close button in the top right hand
corner of the window.
6SHFWUDO5HVSRQVH$QDO\VLV
Spectral response calculations are performed using the IMD (Interactive Modal
Dynamics) facility. Setting up the spectral response results involves the following
steps:
Define the Spectral Excitation curve.
Define the dynamic excitation type (support motion acceleration in this
example), direction, and specify the type of results required using a CQC
(Combined Quadratic Combination) for spectral response.
Set the IMD load case to be active.
The spectral combination results can be displayed using a deformed shape plot or
force and moment diagrams.
1RWH Additional damping information may also be set. Unlike results from a natural

frequency analysis, the output values obtained from a spectral combination are design
values.
204
Viewing the Results
6WDJH'HILQLQJD6SHFWUDO([FLWDWLRQ&XUYH
Values for the spectral excitation
curve need to be specified. For this
analysis Acceleration versus Period
values are to be used with a
damping value of 5%.
1RWH The Utilities>Response

Spectra command would normally
be used to define response spectra
data. However, to simplify entering
the required data, the full response
spectrum definition for this example
is contained in a command file.
File x Select the file tower_spectrum.cmd in the \Lusas136\Examples\Modeller
Command Files
Open...
directory and click OK
The message window will display the imported response data and a response spectra
dataset 100:TOWER and corresponding graph datasets containing the spectral data
for period and acceleration will be created in the Treeview.
x To see the values defined, double-click the Response Spectra dataset name
100:TOWER.
x Click the Close button to finish.
6WDJH'HILQLQJWKH'\QDPLF([FLWDWLRQ
Utilities An Interactive Modal Dynamics loadcase IMD 2 will be added to the Treeview.
IMD load case
205
x Select Support Motion

from the Excitation drop
down list and Spectral
from the Results drop down
list. Ensure the Use all
modes option is selected.
x Click the Excitation Set button.
x Select the Acceleration support motion option in the X direction which is

Relative
x Click the OK button to return to the IMD loadcase dialog.
x Click the Results Set button.
206
Viewing the Results
x On the Results dialog set the type of spectral response to CQC Combination with
the damping variation correction set as None. The response spectrum TOWER
read in from the command file will already be selected in the drop down list.
6HOHFWLQJWKH,0'5HVXOWV/RDGFDVH
x In the Treeview right-click on the IMD 2 dataset name and select the Set
Active option.
The spectral combination results are now activated. Any subsequent results plots, such
as deformed shapes or moments, will be for the spectral combination results only.
8VLQJ3DJH/D\RXW0RGH
The model was created using a Working Mode view which allows a model of any size
to be created. Whilst previous results have been viewed using this mode of operation,
in order to allow additional information to be added without obscuring the model,
Page Layout Mode will be used instead.
View The graphics window will resize to show the mesh layer on an A4 size piece of paper.
Page Layout Mode
File If necessary set the page layout to Portrait and click OK

Page Setup…
207
'LVSOD\LQJ5HVXOWVIRU6SHFWUDO&RPELQDWLRQ
A plot showing the tower deformed shape, bending moment and axial force for the
spectral combination is to be displayed.
x Delete the Deformed Mesh layer from the Treeview.
$[LDO)RUFH'LDJUDP
x With no features selected, click the
right-hand mouse button in a blank part
of the Graphics area and select the
Diagrams option to add the Diagrams
x Select Stress results of axial force Fx in

the members .

Results will be calculated for the active
IMD load case and an axial force diagram
of stresses in each member will be
displayed. If necessary, use the Zoom in
button to view results information. These
type of results can also be plotted in
isolation on selected model features. This is
covered later in the example.
1RWH To display the labels on selected members, activate the Mesh layer (right-

click in the Graphics Window and select Mesh) Then, double-click Diagrams in the
Treeview, select the Diagram Display tab, select the Label values option and choose
the Label only if selected option . Select the member for which labels are required.
Remember more than one member can be selected by holding down the Shift key.
208
Viewing the Results
6KHDU)RUFH'LDJUDP
x In the Treeview double-click on the
Diagrams layer. The diagram properties
will be displayed.
x Select Stress results of shear force Fy in

the members.
x A shear force diagram of stresses in each

member will be displayed.
x In the Treeview double-click on the
Diagrams layer. The diagram
properties will be displayed.
x Select Stress results of bending moment

Mz in the members.

A bending moment diagram of stresses in
each member will be displayed.
209
3ULQWLQJ5HVXOWV
1RWH Text and border annotation may be added to the display from the Utilities>
Annotation menu.
Utilities To add a border to the display.
Annotation >
Window border Now view how the results would print.
File
This shows how the bending moment results for the whole model will appear on
Print Preview... printed output.
x Click the Close button to exit the print preview window.

Utilities To remove the border from the display.
Annotation >
Window border
3ORWWLQJ5HVXOWVIRUD6HOHFWHG3DUWRIWKH0RGHO
View The graphics window will resize to show the model in normal working mode.
Working Mode
1RWH Changing from Page Layout to Working Mode will resize and reposition the
annotation. Page layout mode should be used when preparing a view for printing.
Working Mode should be used when viewing on the screen.
If results are to be plotted for a selected part of the structure only, a Group may be
created of the area of interest. For example, to plot results of just the top 4 storeys of
the tower:
x If necessary add the Mesh layer to the Treeview to enable the members to be
selected for label plotting later in the example by clicking the right-hand mouse
button in a blank part of the Graphics area and selecting the Mesh layer.
x In the mesh properties select the Visualise tab and de-select the option to visualise
Beam end releases. Clicking on the OK button.
210
Viewing the Results
x Drag a box around the upper 4 storeys Drag a box

of the tower as shown. around these
Geometry features
LUSAS will add a New Group entry
Group >
New Group to the Treeview for the features
selected.
x In the Treeview, click the right-hand

mouse button on the New Group name,
select the Rename option and enter
Upper 4 storeys for the new name.
Click the mouse in a blank part of the
Treeview to action the rename.
x Click the right-hand mouse button on

the Upper 4 storeys group name, and
select the Set as Only Visible option to
turn on the display of this group only.
The results for just the upper 4 storeys will

be displayed.
x To add values to selected members double click on the

Diagrams layer in the Treeview and select the Diagram
Display tab.
x Select the options to Label values and Label only if

selected
x Set the number of significant figures to 4
x Choose the Label Font button and change the size to 11 and
click OK
x Change the Angle to 25
x Select the Scale tab and set the magnitude to 10
x Click OK and the diagram will be displayed without any

values because no elements have been selected.
x Select the horizontal elements and the labels will appear.
211
1RWH Holding down the Shift key after the first selection will enable labels on more
than one element to be visualised.
5HGLVSOD\WKH:KROH0RGHO
To re-display the whole model in working mode:
Select the Treeview and click the right-hand mouse button on tower Groups, and
select the Visible option to turn on the display of all groups. Select Yes to act on
subgroups as well.
)UHTXHQF\9HUVXV3DUWLFLSDWLRQ)DFWRU*UDSKV
A graph of Participation factors (for the X and Y directions) versus Frequency is to
be plotted. For the current spectral combination, where the applied ground motion is
in the X direction, the graph will show to what extent each structural mode is excited
in the X and Y directions. A large modal participation factor indicates a significant
response in that direction.
8VLQJWKH*UDSK:L]DUG
The graph wizard provides a step-by-step means of selecting which results are to be
plotted on the X and Y axes of the graph. The X axis is always defined first.
Utilities x Ensure the Time history option is selected and click the Next button.
Graph Wizard...
x Select the Named option and click the Next button.
x Select Natural Frequency from the drop down list and click the Next button.
The Y axis results to be graphed are now defined.
x Select Named results and click the Next button.
x Select Participation Factor X axis and click the Next button.

Additional information for the graph may now to be added.
x Enter the Y axis title as Participation Factor
x Ensure that the Show symbols button is selected.
x Click the Finish button to display the graph.
1RWH If no graph or axis titles are entered default names will be used.

212
Viewing the Results
1RWH The sign of the participation factor displayed on the graph is arbitrary as the
mode shape from which it is derived can have a positive or negative amplitude.
LUSAS will create the graph in a new window and display the values used in an
adjacent table. To see the graph at the best resolution enlarge the window to a full size
view.
From the graph it can be seen that the first 3 mode are dominated by the motion in the
X direction.
A graph of Participation factor in the Y direction will now be plotted on top of the
existing graph.
Graph Wizard...
x Select the Previously Defined option. Click the Next button.
x Select Natural Frequency results. Click the Next button.

x Select Named results and click the Next button.
x Select Participation Factor Y axis. Click the Next button.

The results are to be plotted on top of the existing graph so no additional title
information is to be added.
213
x Select the Add to existing graph option and ensure that the previous graph name
Graph Number 1 is selected.
x Click the Finish button.
1RWH The graph properties may be modified by clicking the right-hand mouse
button in the graph display area and selecting the Edit Graph Properties option.
Change the symbols on the second graph dataset.
Edit x Select the Curves tab and the second dataset Participation Factor Y / Natural
Graph Properties...
Frequency from the dropdown list.
x Change the symbol to Square
x Select the Symbol Start Colour and select dark blue
x Select the Line Colour and select the same dark blue
x Click OK to action the change.
The Participation factors for the Y axis are superimposed on the graph. From the
graph it can be seen that the fourth mode shape is dominated by motion in the Y
direction.
214
Viewing the Results
&UHDWLQJ$QLPDWLRQVRI0RGH6KDSHV
The dominant mode shapes (Eigenvalue results 1, 2, 3 and 4) caused by the applied
response spectra will now be animated. To see the deformations in the structure the
deformed mesh layer must be displayed.
x Re-select the window containing the model data and use the maximise button
to increase the size to fill the graphic area.
x Delete the Mesh and Diagram layers from the Treeview.
x Add the Deformed mesh layer and Close the dialog properties.
x In the Treeview right-click on Results File Eigenvalue 1 and select the Set
Active option.
The deformed shape for Eigenvalue 1 will now be displayed.
Utilities x Ensure the Active loadcase button is selected and select the Next button.
Animation Wizard...
x Use a Sine deformation with 14 frames and a deformation magnitude of 6 mm.
x Click Finish to build and display the animation.

To see the
animation at the
best resolution
enlarge the window
to a full size view.
The buttons at the
bottom of the
window may be
used to slow-down,
speed-up, pause,
step through frame
by frame, or stop
the animation.
215
6DYLQJ$QLPDWLRQV
Animations may be saved for replay in LUSAS at any time or saved for display in
other windows animation players.
x Ensure the animation window is the active window.
File x Enter tower_1 for the animation file name. An .avi file extension is automatically
Save As AVI... appended to the file name.
x Animations can be
compressed to save disk
space. A number of
compression formats are
available depending on
what is installed on the
system. Microsoft Video
1 has been found to
provide reliable results.
Click OK
x Repeat the animation

sequence for the other dominant modes.
216
Description
6HLVPLF5HVSRQVH
RID')UDPH
)UHTXHQF\'RPDLQ
For software product(s): LUSAS Civil&Structural and LUSAS Bridge
'HVFULSWLRQ
This example examines the spectral
response of a 2-storey 3D frame.
The geometry of the structure has
been simplified to a wire-frame or
stick representation with each of the
members of the structure being
represented by a line feature only.
Units used are N m t C throughout.
2EMHFWLYHV
Axial force and bending diagram from a CQC combination.
.H\ZRUGV
Seismic, spectral, response, mass participation, interactive modal dynamics,
excitation, eigenvalue, CQC combination.
217
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
'BIUDPHBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the structure.
'BIUDPHBVSHFWUXPB(&FPG defines a typical spectral curve to
Eurocode 8
'LVFXVVLRQ
The mesh definition used on a dynamic analysis is somewhat different from that used
on a static stress analysis. In a static analysis, and with experience, it is usually not
too difficult to estimate where the high stresses are likely to occur. These estimates
can then be used to develop a meshing strategy with a fine mesh in high stress
locations and a coarse mesh in less critical locations. For a dynamic analysis the
interaction between the stiffness and inertia forces will lead to deflected shapes which
can be very different from those expected in a static analysis.
In a dynamic analysis both stiffness and mass distribution has to be considered.
Generally, the best strategy for a dynamic analysis is to have a uniform mesh over the
entire structure but in stiff regions a more coarse mesh can be used. In regions that are
more flexible, or where heavy masses are located, the mesh can be more refined.
In this example the global behaviour of the building is being considered for
earthquake response. The lower frequencies will be dominant in this analysis and a
relatively coarse mesh will suffice. If the higher frequencies are important, or if a
local response due to panel modes for individual beams and columns is to be
considered, a revised mesh with more elements would need to be considered.
The spectral response analysis is performed in two distinct stages:
1. A natural frequency analysis is performed. This is used here to calculate the first
30 natural modes of vibration of the structure. The eigenvalues, frequencies and
eigenvectors (mode shapes) are stored and used in the subsequent spectral
response analysis. In order to carry out a spectral analysis the modes must be
normalised with respect to the mass. Although natural frequencies are obtained
from an eigenvalue analysis any information regarding the magnitudes of
deformations or moments is non-quantitative.
2. A spectral response calculation is performed interactively as a results processing
operation using the Interactive Modal Dynamics (IMD) facility. This is an
alternative to performing a non-interactive spectral response analysis in LUSAS
Solver.
In a spectral response analysis, the structure is subjected to support excitation. In this
example this is assumed to be the effect of seismic motion although any support
motion could be envisaged. The excitation is specified as a spectral curve, in terms of
218
Modelling
period versus acceleration. Damping, implicitly included in the spectral curve, may
also be specified at this stage.
From the eigen analysis, participation factors indicate, for each mode, the degree of
structural response associated with an applied excitation. In the spectral analysis a
mode combination is calculated from which a worst-case displacement/moment
envelope may be obtained.
0RGHOOLQJ
&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the file name as 3D_Frame
x Enter the title as Seismic response analysis to EC8
x Ensure the None startup template is selected.
x Click OK
GBIUDPHBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the structure

File
Command Files > Open the command file 3d_frame_modelling.cmd which is located in the
219
After a short while, whilst the command file runs, a plan view of the model of the
building will be displayed.
Select the isometric button to view the frame in 3D.

Save
1RWH No static structural loading is required for this analysis because a spectral

combination is carried out during results processing using the results from the natural
frequency analysis which is independent of applied loading.
The modelling will now be completed by defining the controls necessary to extract the
natural frequencies.
'HILQLQJ(LJHQYDOXHFRQWUROV
Eigenvalue controls are defined as properties of the loadcase.
220

eigenvectors are to be used for subsequent IMD analysis in results processing as they
are in this case.
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of 3d_frame will be automatically entered in the File
LUSAS Datafile...
name field.

9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
of the current model and the loadcase results for each eigenvalue can be seen in the
Loadcase layer with Eigenvalue 1 set to be active by default.
3ORWWLQJ0RGH6KDSHV
221
layer to the Treeview. Select the Window summary option and click the OK
button to accept the remaining default values and display the deformed mesh for
Eigenvalue 1.
1RWH The window summary displays the values of the eigenvalue and the natural

frequency and also a value for displacement at a node. It should be noted that the
displacement value is non-quantitative and is related to the amount of mass in a
particular mode using the mass normalisation technique. Therefore the only items
that can be found using a basic eigenvalue analysis are the frequency and the mode
shape.
x In the Treeview right-click on Eigenvalue 2 and select the Set Active option.
The deformed mesh plot for Eigenvalue 2 will be displayed.
222
Viewing the Results
By setting each Eigenvalue to be active the deformed mesh can be seen for all mode
shapes.
during vibration deformed shape will appear in both directions.
window.
Utilities Ensure Eigenvalues is displayed in the Type combo box and click Finish.
Print results wizard
The Eigenvalue results will be printed to the Text Output window. For inspection only
the first 10 modes will be printed here.
Results File = C:\Lusas136\Projects\3D_Frame.mys ID
1 Eigenvalues
1 382.904 3.11433 0.168140E-11
2 1011.29 5.06126 0.774353E-12
3 1599.54 6.36527 0.431202E-12
4 1891.32 6.92154 0.236809E-12
5 2336.34 7.69287 0.571844E-12
6 2525.21 7.99777 0.384185E-12
7 3924.31 9.97015 0.421926E-12
8 4153.57 10.2572 0.260236E-12
9 4183.07 10.2936 0.248550E-12
10 6658.98 12.9874 0.380041E-12
eigenvalue by 2x3, and the period of vibration in seconds is obtained using the
shown.
0 to mass) therefore any derived quantities such as displacement and moment are also
223
x Close the text window by selecting the close button in the top right hand corner of
the window.
&KHFNLQJWKH0DVV3DUWLFLSDWLRQ)DFWRU
1RWH In order to carry out a successful response analysis you should ensure that a
significant proportion of the total mass has been accounted for in the analysis. This
requires checking that around 90% of the total mass is in the global x and y directions.
Failure to check that a significant proportion of the total mass has been accounted may
lead to important modes being missed and subsequent errors in the resulting response
analysis results.
Utilities x Ensure Sum Mass Participation Factors is displayed in the Type combo box and
click Finish. The Sum Mass Participation Factors results will be printed to the
Text Output window.
For inspection only modes 20 to 30 will be printed here. In can be seen that the 90%
value has been achieved in mode 22.
Results File = C:\Lusas136\Projects\3D_Frame.mys ID
1 Eigenvalues
MODE SUM MASS X SUM MASS Y SUM MASS Z
20 0.861201 0.933385 0.122995E-01
21 0.870885 0.937375 0.123688E-01
22 0.945303 0.937380 0.123710E-01
23 0.945422 0.937388 0.130555E-01
24 0.945428 0.937470 0.304988
25 0.945451 0.937589 0.308786
26 0.945451 0.937844 0.309070
27 0.945603 0.937844 0.311113
28 0.945603 0.937844 0.311840
29 0.945657 0.938366 0.311848
30 0.945672 0.938456 0.312244
the window.
224
Viewing the Results
6SHFWUDO5HVSRQVH$QDO\VLV
Spectral response calculations are performed using the IMD (Interactive Modal
Dynamics) facility. This involves defining the spectral curve and excitation and
specifying the results required in an IMD loadcase. The spectral results can then be
interrogated by setting the IMD loadcase active.
With spectral response analysis additional damping information may also be set.
Unlike results from a natural frequency analysis, the output values obtained from a
spectral combination are design values.
6WDJH'HILQLQJD6SHFWUDO([FLWDWLRQ&XUYH
Values for the spectral excitation curve need to be specified. For this analysis
Acceleration versus Period values are to be used.
Note. The Utilities>Response Spectra command would normally be used to define
response spectra data. However, to simplify entering the required data, the full
response spectrum definition for this example is contained in a command file. The
command file contains a typical response curve produced to Eurocode 8.
GBIUDPHBVSHFWUXPBHFFPG defines response spectrum to Eurocode EC8.

File
Command Files > Open the command file 3d_frame_spectrum_ec8.cmd which is located in the
The message window will display the imported response data and a response spectra
dataset 200:3D_frame_spectrum and corresponding graph datasets containing the
spectral data for period and acceleration will be created in the Treeview.
x To see the values defined, double-click the Response Spectra dataset name
200:3D_frame_spectrum.
x Click the Close button to finish.
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Utilities An Interactive Modal Dynamics loadcase IMD 2 will be added to the Treeview.
IMD loadcase
x Select Support Motion from the Excitation drop down list and Spectral from the
Results drop down list. Ensure the Use all modes option is selected.
x Click the Excitation Set button.
225
x Ensure the Acceleration support motion option is set to a User specified direction
which is Relative. In the box next to the X direction enter the value of 1.0 and in
the box next to the Y direction enter the value of 0.6.
1RWH Using the user-specified option a single earthquake response can be applied

in multiple directions at the same time. In this case 100% of the earthquake response
is being applied in the X direction at the same time as 60% of the earthquake response
is being applied in the Y direction. In real-life situations, in the absence of additional
data, and depending upon the design code being used, a percentage of the horizontal
earthquake response could also be applied in the vertical Z-direction.
x Click the Results Set button.
x On the Results dialog ensure the type of spectral response is CQC Combination
with the damping variation correction set as None. The response spectrum
3D_frame_spectrum read in from the command file will already be selected in
the drop down list.
1RWH There are a number of different methods of carrying out modal combinations:

1. If the natural frequencies are well separated the square root of the sum of the
squares (SRSS) has been shown to produce acceptable results.
2. For a situation where the modes have close separation of natural frequencies then
an absolute sum (AbsSum) is taken on the assumption that they can peak in phase
with each other.
3. Alternatively a compete quadratic combination (CQC) method can be used (as in
this example) which effectively combines both the SRSS and AbsSum methods as
it accounts for the separation between modes.
1RWH If the defined damping differs from that inherent in the spectral curve a

correction may be applied.
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In the Treeview right-click on the IMD 2 dataset name and select the Set Active
option.
226
Viewing the Results
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A plot showing the tower deformed shape, bending moment and axial force for the
spectral combination is to be displayed.
x In the Treeview right-click the group named Columns and Set as Only Visible
to only view the column members.
x Delete the Deformed Mesh layer from the Treeview .
Graphics area and select the Diagrams option to add the Diagrams layer to the
Treeview.
x Select Stress results of axial force Fx in the members . Select the Diagram
display tab and select the Label values option. Plot values on 80% of the element
length.
227
Results will be calculated for the active IMD load case and an axial force diagram of
force in each member will be displayed. If necessary, use the Zoom in button to view
results information. These type of results can also be plotted in isolation on selected
model features.
x In the Treeview double-click the Diagram layer to view its properties.
x Select Stress results of axial force My in the members .
228
Viewing the Results

Save
229
230
Description
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RID3ODWH*LUGHU
With product option(s): Plus
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The buckling behaviour of 16000
a steel plate girder with

web stiffeners is to be
examined. 500 bearing Stiffeners at 1500 centres 500 bearing
The girder is supported at

both ends by fixed and 10mm web
roller bearing supports. A

cross-slab connection to 15mm stiffeners
the girder provides a

partial lateral restraint. A
Modelling
distributed load Height
= 900
representing transverse
steel decking is applied to
30mm flanges
a selected part of the web All diagram
dimensions are mm
Lateral
of the girder. The steel support
Modelling units used
plates are modelled using are metres
100
thin shell (QSL8)
elements.
200
Units of kN, m, kg are
used throughout the
example.
231
Buckling Analysis of a Plate Girder
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Animation
Buckling load
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Simple Geometry, Plate Buckling, Linear Buckling, Eigenvalue Buckling, Deformed Mesh
Plot, Printing Eigenvalues.
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SODWHBJLUGHUBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.
After running this command file, the example can be continued from the
section titled Running the Analysis.
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For details of how to run LUSAS Modeller see the heading Running LUSAS Modeller
in the Examples Manual Introduction.
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x Enter the file name as plate_girder
x Enter the title as Buckling analysis of a plate girder
x Select units of kN m t C s from the drop down list provided.
x Select the Standard startup template.
232
Modelling

A cross-section of the girder is created initially and swept and copied into a half-
model before mirroring to create the full plate girder model.
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Geometry Enter coordinates of
Line >
(-0.1,0), (0,0) and (0.1,0)
Coordinates...
to define Lines representing the
bottom flange of the girder.
x Drag a box around all the

features just drawn. Select all features
Geometry Enter a translation
Surface >
value of 0.1 in the Y direction to create surfaces that will define part of the end
By Sweeping...
stiffener.
x Drag a box around the 2

line features shown.
Geometry Enter a translation
Surface >
value of 0.8 in the Y Select these features
By Sweeping...
direction to create
surfaces that will define part of
the end stiffener.
The girder has a 500mm long bearing region at the end which
will be created first.
x Select the 6 Lines representing the cross-section of the

girder as shown.
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Geometry Enter a translation value of 0.5 in the Z direction. Click Select
Surface >
the OK button to finish. these 6
By Sweeping... lines
233
Use the Isometric button to view the model to a

similar view to that shown
The bearing region has a stiffener either side of it.
x Select the 4 surfaces representing the 2 web stiffeners.

Geometry Enter a value of 0.5 in the Z direction to copy the
Surface
Copy...
surfaces to define the web stiffeners.
Select these 4
The girder has 1500mm long internal panel sections along surfaces
the its length.
x Select the 6 Lines representing the cross-section of

the girder. If necessary use the Zoom facility to
simplify the selection.
Geometry Enter a translation value of 1.5 in the Z direction.
Surface >
Click the OK button to finish.
By Sweeping... Select
these 6
lines
x Change the view

on the model so that you are
now looking sideways on by
selecting the X coordinates
readout display in the Status
bar.
x Hold-down the Control key

on the keyboard and select the
X coordinates readout again to Select these features
obtain the reverse view
looking along the X-axis.
x Drag a box around all the features shown to select the first panel section and web
stiffener.
234
Modelling
Geometry Enter a value of 1.5 in the Z direction to copy the surfaces used to define the
Surface >
Copy...
web and stiffener.
x Enter the number of copies as 9 and click OK button.

Finally, the other bearing end to the girder has to be created.
Select these features
x Drag a box around all the features shown to select the bearing end of the girder
and web stiffener.
Geometry Enter a value of 15.5 in the Z direction to copy the surfaces used to define the
Surface >
Copy...
web and stiffener.
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Line mesh divisions will be used to control the surface mesh density for the plates. All
Lines defined so far have 4 Line mesh divisions by default. Certain Lines require
different divisions to be specified.
Select the home button to view the girder end on.
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The Lines representing the top flange, lower flange, and part of the web and web
stiffeners require 1 mesh division to be assigned to them.
235
x Drag a box around the area shown and then holding

down the Control key drag separate boxes around
each of the 3 points shown.
1RWH Using the Control key deselects the lines going

into the screen from the previous box-selection. These
lines will therefore remain meshed with 4 line
1. Box
select these
divisions. Selection of lines can be checked by using features
the Isometric button . Using the Home button 2. Hold

will return the model to the views shown here for down
further selection. Control key
and select
x Drag and drop the Line mesh dataset Divisions=1 the 3 inner
features as
from the Treeview onto the selected features. shown
x Drag a box around the area shown and then holding

down the Control key drag separate boxes around 1. Box select
all features
each of the 6 points shown. shown
This deselects the lines going into the screen from the 2. Hold down
selection. Control key
and select
x Drag and drop the Line mesh dataset Divisions=1 the 6 inner
from the Treeview onto the selected features. features
shown
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Attributes x Select Thin Shell, Quadrilateral elements with Quadratic interpolation. LUSAS will
Mesh >
Surface…
select QSL8 elements.
x Enter the dataset name as Thin Shells (QSL8)
236
Modelling
x Select the whole model (Control + A keys)
x Drag and drop the surface mesh dataset Thin

Shells (QSL8) from the Treeview onto the
selected features.
The mesh will be drawn.
Use the Isometric button to view the mesh
on the model.
Use the Zoom in button to check the mesh
definition.
Use the resize button to show the whole
model
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Three steel thicknesses are required to model the web, flanges and web stiffeners.
Attributes x Enter a value of 0.01 for the thickness. The eccentricity can be left blank. Enter the
Geometric >
Surface…
dataset name as Thickness=0.01m. Click the Apply button to create the dataset.
x Amend the thickness to 0.015. Change the dataset name to Thickness=0.015m. Click
the Apply button to create the dataset.
x Amend the thickness to 0.03. Change the dataset name to Thickness=0.03m. Click
the OK button to finish.
Select the home button to view the beam end on.
x Select the whole model (Control + A keys)
x Drag and drop the geometry dataset Thickness=0.015m from the Treeview
237
x Select the Surfaces representing the top and

bottom flanges.
x Drag and drop the geometry dataset

Thickness=0.03m from the Treeview
1. Box select
the top flange
2. Hold down
Shift key and
add bottom
flange to
selection
x Select the Surfaces representing the web.

Thickness=0.01m from the Treeview onto the
selected features.
x Once done, click on a blank part of the graphics

window to deselect the web surfaces.
1. Box
select the
surfaces
of the web
238
Modelling
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1RWH

Once assigned to the
model, attributes such as
geometry may be visualised.
x In the Treeview click

button on the Geometry
layer and select
Properties.
x On the Colour by drop-

down menu select
Assigned Attributes then
select the Set button.
Change the attribute type
to show Geometric
attributes and click OK.
Finally, select Solid on the
geometry properties box
and click OK

Use the Isometric button
to view the model to a similar view to that shown.
x Check that the geometry assignments have been correctly assigned and then switch
off the visualisation. In the Treeview click the right-hand mouse button on the
Geometry layer and select Properties.
x On the Colour by drop-down menu select Own colour then Finally, de-select
Solid on the geometry properties box and click OK
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Attributes Select material Mild Steel from the drop-down list, leave the grade as Ungraded and
Material >
Material units kN m t C and click OK to add the material dataset to the Treeview.
Library…
x With the whole model selected, drag and drop the material dataset Mild Steel
Ungraded (kN m t C) from the Treeview onto the selected features ensuring it
is assigned to all surfaces.
239
6XSSRUWV
Three support conditions are required. A fixed bearing, a rolling bearing and a lateral
restraint to the flange of the girder.
Attributes Set the translation in the X and Z directions to Fixed. Set the spring stiffness in the Y
Support >
direction to 200e8 and specify that the Spring stiffness distribution is stiffness/unit area.
Structural…
Enter the dataset name as Fixed Bearing. Click the Apply button to reuse the dialog
for the other support conditions.
x Set the translation in the Z direction to Free and leave all other translations as
specified previously. Enter the dataset name as Rolling Bearing. Click the Apply
button to reuse the dialog for the next support condition.
x Set the spring stiffness in the X direction to 100e8 Set the translation in the Y and Z
directions to Free. Ensure that the Spring stiffness distribution is stiffness/unit
length Enter the dataset name as Lateral Support. Click the OK button to finish.
Use the Zoom in button to enlarge the view of

the left-hand end support.
x Select the 2 flange Surfaces shown. Take care to

not select the lowest web surface by mistake.
1RWH For features lying underneath others in the

Graphics Window, continually clicking on a feature
will cycle through selecting different features in turn.
x Drag and drop the support dataset Fixed Bearing

from the Treeview onto the selected features,
ensuring that it is assigned to Surfaces.
Use the resize button to show the whole
model.
Use the Zoom in button to enlarge the view of
the right-hand end support. Select
these 2 surfaces
x Select the equivalent 2 lower Surfaces for the
right-hand support.
x Drag and drop the support dataset Rolling Bearing from the Treeview onto the
selected features, ensuring that it is assigned to Surfaces.
240
Modelling
To help assign the lateral supports return the model to

the default home view.
x Drag a box around the Point shown (All Lines in the

same plane will be selected).
x Drag and drop the support dataset Lateral Support

from the Treeview onto the selected features,
ensuring that the support dataset is assigned to Lines.
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In addition to the self-weight, a uniformly distributed load is
to be applied to the flange of the beam.
Attributes With the Body Force tab selected enter a linear acceleration
Loading >
of -9.81 in the Y direction. Enter the dataset name as Self
Structural...
Weight. Click the Apply button to create the loading dataset
and re-use the dialog.
x Select the Global Distributed tab and enter a load of -

10 in the Y direction and specify that the load
Select this Point
distribution is Per unit area. Enter the dataset name as
Imposed Loading and click the OK button to finish.
x Select the whole model
x Drag and drop the loading dataset Self Weight from the Treeview onto the
selected features, assigning it to Surfaces as Loadcase 1.
241
x Select the Surfaces of the top flange as shown

Box select the top
x Drag and drop the loading dataset Imposed Loading flange
from the Treeview onto the selected Surfaces as
Loadcase 1
This completes the modelling of the girder.
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By default an eigenvalue analysis extracts the natural modes
of vibration of a structure. It can also be used to solve
buckling load analysis problems. The solution parameters for
buckling analysis are specified using an eigenvalue control
dataset. In this example only the 1st natural mode of
buckling of the girder is to be investigated.
Eigenvalue analysis control is defined as a property of a
loadcase.
x In the Treeview right-click on Loadcase 1 and select

Properties
x Select the Eigenvalue option and click the Set button.
x Select a Buckling Load solution for the Minimum number of eigenvalues.
x Enter the Number of eigenvalues to be calculated as 1
x Enter the Shift to be applied as 0
x Ensure the type of eigensolver to be used is the Default one
x The Loadcase Properties dialog will be re-displayed. Click the OK button to

finish.
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File A LUSAS data file name of plate_girder will be automatically entered in the
LUSAS Datafile...
File name field.
242
x Click the Save button to finish and click the Yes button to close any currently
open results files.
SODWHBJLUGHURXW this output file contains details of model data, assigned

SODWHBJLUGHUP\V this is the LUSAS results file which is loaded
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successfully.
SODWHBJLUGHUBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

File
x Enter the file name as plate_girder and click OK

File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file plate_girder_modelling.cmd
Utilities x Select the Vertical Y axis option and click OK

Vertical Axis…
File
243
File
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of the current model and the load case results for each eigenvalue can be seen in the
Treeview.
Select an isometric view of the model.
x Delete the Attributes, Geometry and Mesh layers from the Treeview.
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Graphics area and select the Deformed mesh option to add the deformed mesh layer
to the Treeview.
x Update the magnitude to 25 mm. Select the Mesh tab and de-select the Show
nodes option. Click the OK button to display the first eigenmode shape.
244
Viewing the Results
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In an eigenvalue buckling analysis, the load factors are equivalent to the eigenvalues.
Load factors are the values by which the applied load is factored to cause buckling in
the respective modes. Eigenvalue results for the whole model can be displayed in the
text window.
Utilities x Ensure that results type Eigenvalues is selected and click the Finish button.
Print results wizard...
The Eigenvalue results will be printed to the text window with the Load factors being
given in the eigenvalue results column. Error norms may vary.
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The applied load must be multiplied by the first load factor (9.839) to give the value
of loading which causes buckling in the first mode shape. The initial buckling load is
therefore 9.939 x applied dead and live load.
1RWH An applied load of unity could be used in an eigenvalue analysis - in which

case the eigenvalues produced would also represent the critical loads at which the
structure would buckle. However, to prevent potential convergence problems with the
analysis it is more usual to apply actual in-service loading and multiply the applied
load by the eigenvalue to give the critical buckling load for each eigenvalue.
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This example has taken you through the process of carrying out a linear buckling
analysis on a plate girder. Linear buckling analysis is a technique that can be used to
estimate the load that can be supported by a structure prior to structural instability or
collapse. However a number of points should be considered when carrying out this
type of analysis:
245
x Buckling analysis is dependent on applied loading. All the loads on the structure
must be applied in a single loadcase, this being loadcase 1. In addition, load
factors appropriate to the analysis should be included when the loads are assigned.
x Buckling analysis is dependent on the initial model geometry being considered. A

perfectly straight (and undeformed) model will provide different answers from a
model with imperfect geometry. If required, an imperfection can be built into the
initial model by manually defining the appropriate geometry or it can be arrived at
by loading a previous results file, selecting the loadcase of interest and choosing
the File > LUSAS Datafile command and selecting the Deformed mesh factor
option to create a model having deformed geometry appropriate to the eigenvalue
or loadcase chosen.
x An eigenvalue buckling analysis actually requires the use of elements with

geometrically nonlinear capabilities in order to create additional stress terms in the
stiffness matrix. Some elements do not have a non-linear capability. Refer to the
finite element library before such an analysis is commenced.
x The eigenvalue buckling analysis of the structure can only be used to provide the
mode shape of the structure and the critical buckling load. The stresses and
displacements that are obtained are relative to the unit normalised eigenvector and
are generally of no practical use. To obtain member forces for the girder it is
necessary to perform a further linear static analysis with the same combination of
loading on the structure. The stresses and displacements in the structure when the
critical load is applied may be obtained simply by performing a linear static
analysis with the loads factored to the buckling load previously derived. These
may be compared to other limit state criterion to determine the load carrying
capacity of the structure. The critical buckling stress for the mode under
consideration will be obtained from the same analysis. If required this can then be
used with reference to design codes to calculate the value of the slenderness
parameter for lateral torsional buckling OLT and the limiting compressive stress
Vlc.
x This analysis type will provide both local and global buckling modes. However,
engineering judgement is necessary to determine which buckling mode is critical
in order to select the appropriate buckling load factor.
x If a load factor very close to unity is derived, it would normally be prudent to carry
out further investigation, removing some of the assumptions in the initial analysis
and perhaps carrying out a nonlinear analysis.
246
Description
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RID&RQFUHWH%HDP
For software product: LUSAS Civil & Structural or LUSAS Bridge.
With product options: Nonlinear.
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A nonlinear plane stress analysis
All dimensions in millimetres Point Load C-L
is to be carried out on a model of
a reinforced concrete beam. 1200 450
The reinforcement is provided in

the lower face of the beam and
has a total cross-sectional area of
400 mm2. The superposition of
nodal degrees of freedom BAR3 Elements QPM8 Elements
assumes that the concrete and 150
reinforcement are perfectly
bonded. It is assumed that the
self weight of the beam is 300
negligible compared with the
1650 1650
applied load and that the effects
of any shear reinforcement can
be ignored.
Due to the symmetrical nature of the problem, only the left-hand span of the beam is
modelled. The beam is simply supported at the left-hand end with a symmetry support
at the right-hand axis of symmetry. A concentrated vertical load is applied to the top
of the beam 1200mm from the left-hand end. The concrete section is represented by
plane stress (QPM8) elements, and the reinforcement bars are represented by bar
(BAR3) elements. A nonlinear concrete cracking material model will be applied to the
plane stress elements and a von Mises plastic material will be applied to the
reinforcement bars.
247
Nonlinear Analysis of a Concrete Beam
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The behaviour of the beam under cracking/yielding is to be examined by producing
the following:
$'HIRUPHG0HVK3ORWVKRZLQJWKHILQDOGHIRUPHGVKDSH
$/RDG'LVSODFHPHQW*UDSKfor the top node on the axis of symmetry
of the beam.
6WUHVVFRQWRXUSORW showing the stress distribution in the beam.
&UDFNSDWWHUQSORWshowing the crack patterns produced.
$QLPDWLRQ RI VWUHVVHV DQG FUDFN SDWWHUQV for selected load
increments.
$JUDSKRIYDULDWLRQLQVWUHVVthrough selected slice sections through
the beam.
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2D, Plane Stress, Bar elements, Nonlinear Concrete Model, Element Selection,
Concrete Cracking, Steel Reinforcement, Groups, Crack Patterns, Animation,
Graphing, Load Displacement Curve, Slice Sections
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EHDPBQOBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

0RGHOOLQJ
&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the file name as beam_nl
x Enter the title as Nonlinear Concrete Beam
248
Modelling
x Set the units as N mm t C s
x Select the model startup template Standard from those available in the drop down
list.
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Geometry Enter coordinates of (0, 0),
Line >
(1200, 0) and (1650, 0) to
Coordinates...
define two Lines representing the
bottom of the left hand span of the
beam. Click the OK button to
finish. Drag a box to select these 2 Lines
x Select both Lines just drawn by

dragging a selection box around them.
Geometry Enter a translation value of 25 in the Y direction to create the Surface which
Surface >
represents the concrete cover from the face of the beam to the centreline of the
By Sweeping...
reinforcement.
x Select the top Lines of both of the

Surfaces just drawn as shown. Select these 2 Lines
Geometry Enter a translation value of 275 in the Y direction to create the Surface which
Surface >
represents the extent of the concrete above the centreline of the reinforcement.
By Sweeping...
249
The model should appear as shown.
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To simplify the assignment of model attributes certain model features will be grouped
together to allow selection by name in the Treeview as opposed to selection by
cursor in the graphics window. The 2 Lines representing the reinforcement bars are to
be grouped together:
x Ensure the 2 Lines are still selected Select these 2 Lines

as shown.
Geometry A group named New Group will

Group > be created in the Treeview.
New Group
x In the Treeview, click the right

hand mouse button on New Group and select the Rename option. Change the
group name to Bars.
x Click in a blank area of the treeview to action the rename.

The Surfaces representing the concrete are to be grouped together. To prevent the
Lines representing the bars from being included, the group Bars will be set invisible.
x In the Treeview right-click the group name Bars. Select the Invisible option.
The features in the group will be hidden.
x Drag a box around the whole

model to select the features
defining the concrete.
Geometry A group named New
Group > Group will be created in
New Group
the Treeview. Drag a box to select only Surfaces
x In the Treeview, click the

right-hand mouse button on New Group and select the Rename option. Change
the group name to Concrete
1RWH In this example, model attributes will be defined but not assigned to the model
straight away. They will be assigned to the model later by making use of the Groups
facility.
250
Modelling
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Separate mesh datasets need to be defined for the reinforcement bars and the concrete.
For the reinforcement bars a uniform mesh is to be used to the right of the applied
load and a graded mesh is to be used on the horizontal lines to the left of the applied
load.
The reinforcement bars will be modelled using Line meshes.
Attributes x Set Generic element type to Bar, Number of dimensions to 2 dimensional and
Mesh >
Line…
Interpolation order to Quadratic
x Ensure the Number of divisions is set to 4
x Enter the dataset name as Bar Elements - Divs=4
x Click the Apply button to create the dataset in the Treeview and leave the
dialog visible to allow additional datasets to be defined.
x Change the Number of divisions to 6 and click the Spacing button.
x Select a Uniform transition ratio of last to first element of 2 and click OK
x Change the dataset name to Bar Elements - Divs=6 graded
x Click the OK button to finish to add the dataset to the Treeview.
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The concrete will be modelled using a Surface mesh with Line mesh divisions to
control the mesh density. The default mesh density of 4 divisions per line is sufficient
for the Surface to the right of the applied load. A graded line mesh will be created for
use on the Surface to the left of the applied load.
Attributes x Select Plane stress, Quadrilateral, Quadratic elements.
Mesh >
Surface…
x Enter the dataset name as Plane Stress - Concrete
x Click the OK button to add the dataset to the Treeview.
x In the Treeview double click the Line mesh dataset name Divisions=6
The Line mesh properties dialog will appear.
x Click the Spacing button.
x Select Uniform transition ratio of last to first element of 2 and click OK
x Change the dataset name to Divisions=6 graded
251
Attributes x With the Bar/link tab selected, enter a value of 400 for the total cross sectional
Geometric >
area of the reinforcement.
Line…
x Enter the dataset name as Steel Area and click the OK button to add the dataset to
the Treeview.
Attributes x Enter a value of 150 for the thickness. Leave the eccentricity blank.
Geometric >
Surface… x Enter the dataset name as Beam Thickness and click the OK button to add the
'HILQLQJWKH0DWHULDO3URSHUWLHV
Nonlinear steel properties will be defined for the reinforcing bar elements.
Attributes x With the Elastic tab selected, enter Young’s modulus as 210e3 and Poisson’s ratio
Material >
Isotropic…
as 0.3 and leave the mass density field blank.
x Click the Plastic option and enter an Initial uniaxial yield stress of 300
x Select the Hardening option, click the Hardening gradient button and enter a
hardening Slope value of 2121 with a Plastic strain of 1
x Enter the dataset name as Nonlinear Steel

Nonlinear concrete material properties will be defined for the Surface elements
representing the concrete.
Attributes x With the Elastic tab selected, enter a Young’s modulus of 42000, a Poisson’s ratio
Material > of 0.2 and leave the mass density field blank.
Isotropic…
x Click the Plastic option and from the drop-down list select the Cracking concrete
(model 82) entry.
x Enter a Tensile strength value of 3.158
x Leave the Fracture energy field blank
x Enter the Strain at end of softening curve as 0.003
x Enter the dataset name as Nonlinear Concrete
252
Modelling
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The various Line and Surface mesh, geometric and material datasets defined
previously will now be assigned to the model using the groups that have been defined.
x In the Treeview right-click the group name Bars. Select the Set as Only
Visible option. The features in the group will be displayed.
x Select the left hand Line of the

two Lines representing the bars.
Select this Line for
x Drag and drop the Line mesh Bar Elements - Divs=6 graded
dataset Bar Elements - Divs=6
graded from the Treeview
onto the selected Line.
Select this Line for
x Select the right hand Line of the
Bar Elements - Divs=4
two Lines representing the bars.
x Drag and drop the Line mesh dataset Bar Elements - Divs=4 from the
Treeview onto the selected Line.
The Line mesh divisions will be
drawn as shown.
x Select both Lines.
x Drag and drop the geometric

dataset Steel Area from the
features.
x Drag and drop the material dataset Nonlinear Steel from the Treeview onto
the selected features. Ensure the Assign to lines option is set and click OK
$VVLJQLQJ$WWULEXWHVWRWKH&RQFUHWH
x In the Treeview right-click the group name Concrete. Select the Set as Only
Visible option.
The Lines in the Bars group will be removed from the display and the Concrete group
will be displayed.
253
x Select the left-top and left-bottom Lines as shown.
x From the Treeview drag and Select this Line

drop the Line mesh dataset
Divisions=6 graded onto the
selected features.
x Select the whole model using the

Ctrl and A keys together.
... and this Line
x Drag and drop the Surface mesh
dataset Plane Stress - Concrete
from the Treeview onto the selected features.
A graded mesh will be drawn on the
left-hand Surface and a uniform mesh
will be drawn on the right-hand
Surface.

Beam Thickness from the Treeview onto the selected features.
x Drag and drop the material dataset Nonlinear Concrete from the Treeview
onto the selected features. Ensure the Assign to surfaces option is selected and
click OK
The mesh on the Lines representing the cover to the centreline of the reinforcement
needs to be altered. This is because they currently have a default Line mesh of 4
divisions per line when only 1 division per line is required.
x Drag boxes to select the 3

Lines as shown. (Remember
to hold the Shift key down
after the first line is selected
so the other lines are added
to the selection)
x Drag and drop the Line mesh Drag 3 boxes to select these 3 Lines
dataset Divisions=1 from the
Treeview onto the selected Lines.
The mesh will be redisplayed with the revised mesh pattern.
254
Modelling
0DNLQJDOOJURXSVYLVLEOH
x From the Treeview right-click the group heading name beam_nl Groups.
Select the Set as Only Visible option. Click the OK button and choose Yes to act
on sub groups as well.
All features in the model will now be
displayed as shown.
6XSSRUWV
the Treeview. The beam is to be simply supported in the Y direction at the left-
hand end and a horizontal restraint in the X direction is required to satisfy the
symmetry requirements at mid-span.
x Select the lowest Select these 2 Lines

Point at the left hand for support ’Fixed in
end of the model as X’
shown.
x Drag and drop the

support dataset
Fixed in Y from the
Select lower Point for
Treeview onto
support ’Fixed in Y’
the selected Point.
Ensure the Assign
to points and All loadcases options are selected and click OK
x Drag a box around the 2 Lines at the right hand end of the model as shown.
x Drag and drop the support dataset Fixed in X from the Treeview onto the
selected Lines. Ensure the Assign to lines and All loadcases options are selected
and click OK
/RDGLQJ
A single concentrated load is to be applied to the Point at the top of the beam. A unit
load will be applied and the load factor in the nonlinear control will be used to control
the magnitude of loading.
Attributes x With the Concentrated tab selected enter a loading value of -1 in the component
Loading >
Structural...
Concentrated load in Y Dir
x Enter the dataset name as Point Load and click OK
255
x Select the Point on Select this Point

the top of the beam as
shown.
x Drag and drop the

loading dataset Point
Load from the
Treeview onto the
selected Point.
x Ensure the Assign to

points option is set and click OK to assign the load to Loadcase 1 with a factor of
1
1RQOLQHDU&RQWURO
Nonlinear analysis control properties are defined as properties of a loadcase. The
nonlinear analysis is to be terminated when the beam deflection at mid span reaches a
limiting value.
x Select the point Select this Point

shown.
x In the Treeview
right-click on
Loadcase 1 and
select Properties
x Define the analysis

as a Nonlinear &
Transient
problem and select the Set button.
256
Modelling
The Nonlinear & Transient dialog will appear:
x Select the Nonlinear option and set Incrementation to Automatic
x The initial load to be applied is the actual load applied to the model multiplied by
the starting load factor. Set the Starting load factor to 5000
x Enter the Max change in load factor as 2000 to restrict the second and
subsequent load increment sizes to ensure sufficient points are obtained to observe
the load deflection behaviour of the beam.
x Change the Max total load factor to 0 as the solution is to be terminated on the
limiting displacement at mid span.
x Change the number of desired Iterations per increment to 10
1RWH If the number of iterations on the previous increment is less than the desired

number the next load increment will be increased (up to the maximum change in load
increment) while if the number of iterations is less than the desired number the next
load increment will be reduced.
x In the Solution strategy section of the dialog, ensure the Maximum number of
iterations is set to 25
257
x Leave the Residual force norm as 0.1 and the Incremental displacement norm
to 1 so convergence of the solution at each load increment will be achieved when
the out of balance forces are as less than 0.1% of the reactions and the iterative
change in displacements is less than 1% of the displacements for that load
increment.
x Select the Advanced button in the Incrementation section of the dialog.
x Select the Terminate on value of limiting variable option.
x The selected point will appear in the Point number drop down list.
x Set the Variable type to V to monitor the deflection at the selected point in the Y
direction.
x Enter a value of -3 so the analysis is terminated when the central deflection

reaches this value.
x Click OK to return to the Nonlinear & Transient dialog.
x Click OK to save the changes and OK again to set the loadcase properties.
One additional setting is required for this analysis to ensure no element mechanisms
are induced as the material yields.
File x Select the Solution tab.
Model Properties…
x Click on the Element Options and select the Fine integration for stiffness and
mass option.
x Click the OK button to return the Model Properties dialog.
258
6DYHWKHPRGHO
The model is now complete and the model data is to be saved before an analysis is run
using the LUSAS Solver.
Save
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of beam_nl will be automatically entered in the File
LUSAS Datafile...
name field.

During the analysis 2 files will be created:
EHDPBQORXW this contains the statistics of the analysis, for example how
much disk space was used, how much CPU time was used, and any errors or
warning messages from LUSAS, and so on. Always check the LUSAS output
file for error messages.
EHDPBQOP\V this is the LUSAS results database which will be used for
results processing.
The LUSAS results file will be displayed in the Treeview.
,IWKHDQDO\VLVIDLOV
5HEXLOGLQJD0RGHO
successfully.
259
EHDPBQOBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

File
x Enter the file name as beam_nl

File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file beam_nl_modelling.cmd which is
File
File
9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
of the current model and the loadcase results for load increment 1 are set to be active
by default.
&KDQJLQJWKH$FWLYH5HVXOWV/RDGFDVH
x In the Treeview right-click on the last load increment Increment 10 Load
Factor = 0.165E+05 and select the Set Active option.
'HIRUPHG6KDSH
x If present in the Treeview delete the Geometry, Attributes and Mesh layers
to clear the display.
graphics window and select
the Deformed mesh option
to add the deformed mesh
x Click Close to accept the

default properties and view
the deformed mesh for the
260
Viewing the Results
final load increment.
&UHDWLQJD/RDGYHUVXV'LVSODFHPHQW*UDSK
A graph of displacement at mid-span is to be plotted against the applied load. To do
this a node on the line of
symmetry is selected:
Select this Node
x With the Deformed mesh
layer visible, select the top
node on the axis of symmetry
as shown.
8VLQJWKH*UDSK:L]DUG
The graph wizard provides a step-by-step means of selecting which results are to be
plotted on the X and Y axes of the graph. The X axis is always defined first.
Graph Wizard...
x Ensure the Nodal results is selected and click Next
x Select entity Displacement for component resultant displacement RSLT
x The node number selected earlier will be displayed in the drop-down list.
x Click the Next button.

x Select the Named option and click Next
x Select Total Load Factor from the drop down list.
x Click the Next button.
261
x Leave all title

information blank and
click the Finish button
to display the load
deformation graph.
1RWH Graphs can be

modified using the right
hand mouse button in the
graph window and
selecting the Edit Graph
Properties option.
Close the graph

window.
Use the maximise button
to increase the
size of the graphics
window.
9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWVIRU6HOHFWHG(OHPHQWV
The model contains two element types: Bar elements modelling the steel
reinforcement and Plane Stress elements modelling the concrete. To investigate the
results for the concrete only the plane stress elements must be active.
x Select Concrete from the Treeview with the right-hand mouse button and
choose the Set as Only Results only option.
0D[LPXP3ULQFLSDO6WUHVV&RQWRXU3ORWV
x Delete the Deformed mesh layer from the Treeview.
Treeview.
The properties dialog will be displayed.
262
Viewing the Results
x Select entity Stress for

component of stress in the
x direction, SX

display contours of stresses
for the final load increment.
9LHZLQJ&UDFN3DWWHUQV
graphics window and select the Vectors option to add the vectors layer to the
Treeview.
The properties dialog will be displayed.
x Select Stress contour results of type Crack
x Select Vector Display tab and for the Tension vectors select the Choose Pen
option and change the line colour to Black
x Select the Scale tab and with the Use local scale option selected specify a
magnitude of 2
x Click the OK button to display

the cracking pattern for final
load increment superimposed
onto the stress contours.
$QLPDWLQJWKH5HVXOWV
As an alternative to viewing results individually for each loadcase, the change of
stress due to the increasing load increments can be animated instead. To ensure
consistent contour values throughout the animation the interval of the range of
contours is to be specified.

The contour properties will be displayed.
x Select the Contour Display tab and deselect the Contour key option to remove
the key from the display.
x Select the Contour Range tab and click the Interval option and set the contour
interval as 1
263
x Click the Maximum button and set the maximum value as 3
x Click the Minimum button and set the minimum value as -16
x Click the Set as global range and Use global range options.
x Click the OK button to redisplay the stress contours using the new contour range.
8VLQJWKH$QLPDWLRQ:L]DUG
Utilities x Select the Load History option and click the Next button.
Animation Wizard...
x Select Results File: 1 from the drop-down list.
x Select the All

loadcases option
and select the
Finish button to
create the
animation
sequence.
1RWH The buttons

at the bottom of the
window may be used
to slow-down, speed-
up, pause, step
through frame by
frame, or stop the
animation.
6DYLQJ$QLPDWLRQV
Animations may be saved for replay windows animation players.
x Ensure the animation window is the active window.
File x Enter beam_nl for the animation file name. An .avi file extension is automatically
Save As AVI... appended to the file name. Click Save
264
Viewing the Results
x Animations can be
compressed to save disk
space. A number of
compression formats are
available depending on
what is installed on the
system. Microsoft Video
1 has been found to
provide reliable results.
Click OK
Close the animation

window choosing not to save changes.
Enlarge the model window to a full size view.
&UHDWLQJDVOLFHVHFWLRQRIUHVXOWV
In this example a graph is to be plotted of the variation in stress through the specified
section of the beam. The X axis values of distance are defined by the section slice.
The Y axis results are specified from the graph wizard dialog.
Utilities x Ensure the Snap to grid option is selected and a grid size of 100 is specified.
Graph Through 2D
1RWH The snap to grid dialog will only appear if the model is viewed in the XY
plane. If necessary, return the model to the default starting view by clicking
on the status bar at the bottom of the graphics window.
x Using the screen ruler as a

guide, click and drag the
cursor as shown to define the
location of a section slice
through the beam at a
distance of 1600 from the
left-hand end.
x Select Stress results for

Stress SX and click the Next
button.
x Leave all title information blank.
265
x Click the Finish button to create

the graph of stress through the
section of beam.
$GGLQJ$GGLWLRQDO5HVXOWVWRD*UDSK
Window x Re-select the window containing the results contours. The cursor will still be in
1 LUSAS View
beam_nl.mdl Window 1
section slice mode.
x Using the screen rulers as

a guide, click and drag the
cursor as shown to define
the location of a section
slice through the beam at a
distance of 1000 from the
left-hand end.
x Select Stress results for

Stress SX and click the
Next button.
x Click the Add to existing graph option.
266
Viewing the Results
x Click the Finish button to add the

results for the second slice
section to the existing graph.
267
268
Description
6WDJHG
&RQVWUXFWLRQRID
&RQFUHWH7RZHU
ZLWK&UHHS
For software product(s): LUSAS Civil & Structural and LUSAS Bridge
With product option(s): Nonlinear.
'HVFULSWLRQ
A 20m high concrete tower of a 4 at 1000 mm
type that could be used for a cable
stayed bridge is to be constructed
in four stages, each 5 metres high.
The formwork is struck 14 days 5000 mm
after each stage is cast and the
casting sequence between each
stage is 60 days. 5000 mm
The geometry has been made

unrealistically simple to allow the 5000 mm
example to concentrate on the
definition of the creep properties
and running a creep analysis. 5000 mm
Units used are N mm t C

throughout.
Idealisation of tower
269
Staged Construction of a Concrete Tower with Creep
2EMHFWLYHV
A comparison of the moments at the base of the tower after each construction
stage.
Maximum displacement of the tower after each construction stage and the
change in the maximum displacement value due to long-term creep.
.H\ZRUGV
Birth, death, staged construction, activate, deactivate, long-term, creep, CEB-
FIP concrete model, age, casting,
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FRQFUHWHBWRZHUBPRGHOOLQJFPG

example.
FRQFUHWHBWRZHUBJHRPHWULFBSURSHUWLHVFPG generates geometric

datasets for the tower.
FRQFUHWHBWRZHUBPDWHULDOBSURSHUWLHVFPG generates material

datasets for the tower.
'LVFXVVLRQ
Concrete is generally unique among structural materials in that it interacts with its
environment undergoing unavoidable physical and chemical volume changes. The
process of hydration and the molecular structure of concrete give it certain
characteristics such as ageing, creep and shrinkage. These characteristics as a group
are known as time dependent deformations.
When building large bridges and structures from concrete it is often necessary to
consider a staged construction process, which may often take months if not years to be
completed. In doing so, the same basic analysis problems arise; the characteristics of
the first concrete placed are much changed when the last section of concrete is placed.
It is this combination of staged construction with the time-dependent effects that needs
to be considered when designing these large structures.
0RGHOOLQJ
270
Modelling
&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the file name as concrete_tower
x Enter the title as Concrete creep example to model code CEB-FIP 1990
1RWH Model units of N, mm must be selected when CEB-FIP concrete model code
(1990) is being used.
'HILQLQJWKH*HRPHWU\
Geometry > Enter coordinates of (0, 0, 0), and (1000, 5000,0), to define the
Line >
first lift of column.
Coordinates…
x Select the line just drawn.
Geometry Enter a translation in the X direction of 1000 and in the Y
Line >
direction of 5000
Copy…
x Enter the number of copies required as 3 and click OK
271
'HILQLQJDQG$VVLJQLQJ0HVK$WWULEXWHV
Attributes x The tower is to be modelled
Mesh >
Line…
with Thick nonlinear beam
elements (BTS3 elements)
with 6 divisions.

Thick nonlinear beam Div
= 6 and click OK.
Select all lines on the model and
drag and drop the Thick
nonlinear beam Div = 6 mesh
from the Treeview onto the
selected features
*HRPHWULF3URSHUWLHV
In this example, the tower is
formed in four separate
lifts/stages and each lift is
considered as a separate construction stage in the analysis model. Each of the stages
has different section property to represent the tower tapering from a larger section at
the bottom to a smaller section at the top. Section properties for each stage are
calculated using the standard section property calculator (available from the Utilities
menu). In practice, each construction stage may well consist of a number of elements
of reducing cross-section size as they go up the tower and these would be grouped
together to represent each stage.
In this example the geometric properties of the tower will be defined by a command
file and then assigned to the model.
File
Command Files > Open the command file concrete_tower_geometric_properties.cmd which is
x From the Treeview assign each geometric property to a line on the model with
the largest section property RSS D=3000 B=2000 (mm) assigned to the line at the
bottom, on the first stage and the next largest to the second stage and so on. To do
this, select each line in turn in the Graphics Window and drag and drop the
property from the Treeview onto the Graphics Window. Click OK in the Line
Mesh Assignment dialog that appears.
272
Modelling
If the geometric properties were to be defined manually the following menu command
would be used and the following details entered:
Attributes Stage 1 – 3000mm x 2000mm A = 6E6
Geometry >
Iyy = 4.5E12
Line…
Izz = 2E12
Kt = 4.69531E12
Asz = 5E6
Asy = 5E6
Stage 2 - 2300mm x 1600mm A = 3.68E6

Iyy = 1.62227E12
Izz = 785.067E9
Kt = 1.79087E12
Asz = 3.066667E6
Asy = 3.066667E6
Stage 3 – 1600mm x 1300mm A = 2.08E6

Iyy = 443.733E9
Izz = 292.933E9
Kt = 593.735E9
Asz = 1.73333E6
Asy = 1.73333E6
Stage 4 – 1000mm x 1000mm A = 1E6

Iyy = 83.3333E9
Izz = 83.3333E9
Kt = 140.833E9
Asz = 833.333E3
Asy = 833.333E3
0DWHULDO3URSHUWLHV
For this particular example a different material assignment has to be produced for
each section because the nominal size of the section is a material parameter which
changes as the tower reduces in size from bottom to top. All other values remain
unchanged.
The CEB-FIP creep material properties of the tower will be defined by a command
file and then assigned to the model.
File
Command Files > Open the command file concrete_tower_material_properties.cmd which is
273
x To view the material properties defined, double-click on the dataset Concrete

CEB-FIP creep stage 1 (N,mm,t,C) in the Treeview and click the Close
button to return to Modeller.
x Assign each material property to a line on the model assigning Creep Stage 1 to
the line at the bottom representing the first stage and Creep Stage 2 to the line
representing the second stage and so on.
If the material properties were to be defined manually the following menu command
would be used resulting in the dialog shown being displayed:
Attributes x The Young’s modulus
Material >
Specialised >
at 28 days, Poisson’s
CEB-FIP ratio, mass density, and
concrete… coefficient of thermal
expansion would be
specified as shown on the
dialog in the same way as
for a linear isotropic
material.
x In addition, the mean

compressive strength at
28 days, relative
humidity and cement
type are required.
x Lastly, the nominal size

needs to be entered. This
is computed as 2A/u
where A is the area of the cross-section (mm2) and u is the length of the perimeter
of the cross-section that is in contact with the atmosphere (mm). For the section
on stage 1 the section is 2000mm by 3000mm resulting in a nominal size of 1200
mm.
274
Modelling
6XSSRUWV
Attributes x A fully fixed support is required therefore all degrees of translation
Support >
Structural...
and rotation in the X, Y and Z axes must be set as Fixed, as well as
the Hinge Rotation but not the Pore pressure. Enter a dataset name
of Fully Fixed
x Select the point at the base of the tower and from the Treeview
drag and drop the support dataset Fully Fixed onto the selected
feature, ensure the All loadcases option is selected and click OK
/RDGLQJ
Attributes x Self weight is the only loading to be considered on the model. This
Loading >
Structural...
is applied as a Body Force of -9810 mm/s2 in the Y direction.
Name the dataset as Self Weight
Self weight loading will not be applied yet. Instead, it will be applied when defining
the staged construction processes.
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The age of section within a creep analysis is important because the material properties
are dependent upon it. The age of a section is specified in days between the casting of
the section and when it is first activated in the analysis.
In this example the age of each section is taken as 14 days. Sections are also activated
at 14 days. This represents concrete being cast in-situ and the first loading taking
place 14 days after the concrete is cast (i.e. when the formwork is struck.)
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Attributes x It is assumed that all sections in the
Age…
tower will be cast and the formwork
struck 14 days after the component
was first activated. (If this was not
the case separate age attributes
would be created and assigned to
each section as required.)
x Name the dataset as 14 days to

formwork strip
x Assign the age attribute to all lines on the model.
275
1RWH If a construction includes precast sections, the age of a component might be

80 days, while the component may be activated at day 28 in the analysis for example.
&UHDWLQJ$FWLYDWLRQDQG'HDFWLYDWLRQGDWDVHWV
In order to carry out a creep analysis on the model the construction stages are
modelled using the birth and death facility within LUSAS.
Attributes x Select the Activate tab and enter the dataset name as Activate
Birth & Death …
x Select the Deactivate tab and enter the dataset name as Deactivate, leave the
percentage to redistribute as 100% and select OK
0RGHOOLQJRI&RQVWUXFWLRQ6WDJH
x In the Treeview rename Loadcase 1 to be Stage 1 by selecting Loadcase 1
with the right-hand mouse button and using the rename option.
All elements in the model not required for the first stage analysis need to be de-
activated.
x In the graphics window select

the top three stages of the
tower.
x From the Treeview and

with the top three stages
selected, assign the
deactivation dataset
Deactivate ensuring that it is
assigned to loadcase Stage 1
$VVLJQLQJORDGLQJ
x Now select the bottom stage
and assign the Self Weight Assign deactivation
loading to Stage 1 dataset to top 3 stages
of construction
Assign self-weight to
1st stage only
276
Modelling
'HILQLQJORDGFDVHSURSHUWLHV
x In the Treeview select Stage
1 using the right-hand mouse
button and select the Loadcase
properties.
x On the Loadcase properties

dialog select the Nonlinear &
Transient option and then
select the Set button.
x On the Nonlinear & Transient dialog select the Nonlinear option in the top-left
hand corner and leave the incrementation type as Manual.
x Select the Time domain option half-way down the dialog on the left. Select a
Viscous time domain from the drop-down options. Enter the initial time step as 4,
the total response time as 60, deselect the automatic time stepping option and set
the maximum number of time steps or increments as 15
x In the incremental LUSAS file output section enter a plot file value of 15 to write
out the results every 15 increments. This will simplify the viewing of the results in
the loadcase Treeview
1RWH The total response time of 60 represents the 60-day time interval until the

next stage of the analysis is activated.
277
x Having set all the Nonlinear & Transient options select OK on each dialog to
return to the Modeller working window.
&RQVWUXFWLRQ6WDJHVWR
Stages 2 to 4 require loadcases to be generated to specify the duration of the
construction process. Lines on the model must be selected according to the
construction stage being considered and activation datasets must be assigned to these
lines.
278
Modelling
6WDJH
The elements in the second construction stage must be activated
Utilities x Enter the Loadcase name as Stage 2 and select
Loadcase…
OK
x In the Treeview select Stage 2 using the Assign activation

right-hand mouse button select Set active dataset to the 2nd
stage of construction
x In the graphics window select the second stage
of the tower.
x With the second stage selected, assign the

activation dataset Activate from the
Treeview ensuring that it is assigned to loadcase
Stage 2
$VVLJQLQJORDGLQJ
x Now select the bottom two stages and assign the
Self Weight loading to these stages, ensuring
Assign self-weight to
that it is assigned to Loadcase Stage 2
1st and 2nd stages
x In the Treeview select loadcase Stage 2 using the right-hand mouse button and
select Properties.
x In a similar manner to that used when defining the loadcase properties for Stage 1
select the Nonlinear & Transient option and then select the Set button.
x Set the incrementation type to Nonlinear with Manual control. Select the Time
domain option and select a Viscous time domain. Enter the initial time step as 4,
the total response time as 120 (to represent two stages of the 60-day casting
sequence) and the number of time steps as 15. Select OK on each of the dialogs
displayed to return to the Modeller working window.
9HULI\LQJVHOIZHLJKWDQGDFWLYDWLRQDVVLJQPHQWV
x If you need to verify loading assignments such as self weight or to check when
particular lines (and hence elements) become active in an analysis select a line on
the model using the right-hand mouse button and select Properties. Select the
Activate tab. Note that the ‘greyed-out’ loadcase is simply the current loadcase
and may not be the actual loadcase that the properties are assigned to. Selecting
the Activate entry in the table of Assigned properties will show the loadcase to
which the activation is assigned.
279
6WDJH
The elements in the third construction stage now need to be activated.
Utilities x Enter the Loadcase name as Stage 3 and select
Loadcase…
OK Assign activation
dataset to the 3rd
x In the Treeview select Stage 3 using the stage of construction
right-hand mouse button select Set active
x In the graphics window select the third stage of

the tower.
x With the third stage selected, assign the

activation dataset Activate from the
Treeview ensuring that it is assigned to loadcase
Stage 3
$VVLJQLQJORDGLQJ
x Now select the bottom three stages and assign
the Self Weight loading to these stages, ensuring
that it is assigned to Loadcase Stage 3 Assign self-weight to
1st, 2nd and 3rd stages
select Properties.
the total response time as 180 (to represent three stages of the 60-day casting
sequence) and the number of time steps as 15
280
Modelling
6WDJH
The elements in the fourth construction stage need to be activated.
Utilities x Enter the Loadcase name as Stage
Loadcase…
4 and select OK
x In the Treeview select Stage 4

using the right-hand mouse button
select Set active
x In the graphics window select the

fourth stage of the tower. Assign activation
dataset to the 4th
x With the fourth stage selected, stage of construction
assign the activation dataset
Activate from the Treeview
ensuring that it is assigned to
loadcase Stage 4
$VVLJQLQJORDGLQJ
x Now select all four stages and
assign the Self Weight loading to Assign self-weight to all
these stages, ensuring that it is construction stages
assigned to Loadcase Stage 4
select Properties
the total response time as 240 and the number of time steps as 15
/RQJWHUPORDGFDVH
This investigates long-term effects on the tower over time.
Utilities x Enter the Loadcase name as Long-term
Loadcase…
x Select the Nonlinear & Transient option and then select the Set button. Set the
incrementation type to Nonlinear with Manual control. Select the Time domain
281
option. Select a Viscous time domain. Enter the initial time step as 1, the total
response time as 1000 (days) and the number of time steps as 20
x Select the Automatic time stepping option and then select the Advanced button
x On the Advanced time step parameters

dialog select the Exponent for increasing
time step (CEB-FIP) option and leave the
value set as 3
x Having set all the Nonlinear & Transient

options select OK on each of the dialogs
displayed to return to the Modeller
working window.
1RWH Specifying an exponent to increase

the time step as an analysis progresses is very
useful when considering long-term effects. In
the early stages creep strains increase at a
faster rate and a smaller time step is beneficial for more accurate solutions. With
concrete the rate of increase in creep strain reduces with time and hence larger time
steps can be taken for a more economical solution without losing accuracy.
File
1RWH All lines in the model are now activated so no activation dataset needs to be
assigned to the model for this loadcase. Also, because no additional self-weight
loading is to be applied to the model the self-weight loading from Stage 4 will be used
by default.
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of concrete_tower will be automatically entered in
LUSAS Datafile...
the File name field.

282
FRQFUHWHBWRZHURXW this output file contains details of model data,

assigned attributes and selected statistics of the analysis.
FRQFUHWHBWRZHUP\V this is the LUSAS results file which is loaded
,IWKHDQDO\VLVIDLOV
LUSAS Modeller before saving the model and re-running the analysis. Note that a
common error is to forget to assign attribute data (such as geometry, mesh, supports,
loading etc.) to the model.
5HEXLOGLQJD0RGHO
successfully.
FRQFUHWHBWRZHUBPRGHOOLQJFPG

example.
File
x Enter the file name as concrete_tower

File
Command Files > Open the command file concrete_tower_modelling.cmd which is located in the
File
File
283
9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
of the current model and the load case results for each time step can be seen in the
Loadcase layer. Time step 0 is set to be active by default.
Bending moments of Mz at the base of the tower are to be investigated for each stage
of the construction process, that is, after 60 days, 120 days, 180 days, 240 days and
for a long-term loadcase. A summary of results on each results plot also allows a
comparison of maximum displacements for each stage.
6WDJHUHVXOWV
x In the Treeview right-click on Time step 15 Time = 0.600E+2 (60 days) and
x Delete the Geometry and Attributes layers from the Treeview.
x With no features selected click the right-

hand mouse button in a blank part of the
Graphics window and select the Deformed
mesh option to add the deformed mesh
layer to the Treeview. Click the
Window summary option. Select the
Mesh tab and click the Show activated
only option. Click the OK button to display
the deformed mesh for Time step 15.
x Add the Diagrams layer to the

Treeview. On the dialog, select Stress
contour results from the entity drop down
list and component Mz. Select the
Diagram Display tab and select the
Deform option.
x Add the Values layer to the Treeview.

On the dialog, select Stress contour results
from the entity drop down list and
component Mz. Select the Values Display
tab and select the Deform option. Ensure
the Maxima option is selected to show the
top 1% of results and click OK
284
Viewing the Results
6WDJHUHVXOWV
x In the Treeview right-click on Time step
30 Time = 1.20E+2 (120 days) and select the
Set Active option.
6WDJHUHVXOWV
In the Treeview right-click on Time step 45
Time = 1.80E+2 (180 days) and select the Set
Active option.
285
6WDJHUHVXOWV
Active option.
/RQJWHUPORDGFDVH
Active option.
For the long-term loadcase the bending moment
has not changed from the stage 4 analysis since no
additional loading has been applied to the model.
However, it can be seen from the results that the
deflection has increased due to the effect of the
creep deformations.
286
Description
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For software product(s): LUSAS Civil & Structural and LUSAS Bridge
With product option(s): Nonlinear
'HVFULSWLRQ
The construction of a
balanced cantilever
segmentally constructed
bridge is to be modelled.
A complete analysis of a
balanced cantilever
segmentally constructed
bridge is a complex and
large analysis to undertake.
In this example the geometry has been simplified to concentrate on the definition of
the staged construction process and the definition of tendon properties. An internal
span of the bridge is modelled with segments being placed from adjacent piers with a
final closing segment to join the two constructions together as shown on the next
diagram.
287
Segmental Construction of a Post Tensioned Bridge
Each stage of the construction analysis considers a 6m long section being added to the
construction.
Units used are kN m t C s throughout.
The example incorporates staged construction and the assignment of multi tendon
prestress loading.
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Maximum moments during construction
.H\ZRUGV
Staged Construction, Multiple Tendon Prestress
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
VHJPHQWDOBEULGJHBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the
structure.
0RGHOOLQJ
288
Modelling
&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the file name as Segmental Bridge
x Enter the title as Segmental bridge including prestress and creep
x Ensure units of kN m t C s are selected.
x Ensure the Vertical Y Axis option is selected.
x Click OK
'HILQLQJWKH*HRPHWU\
Geometry > Enter coordinates of (0, 0, 0), and (6, 0, 0), to define the first segment of the
Line >
bridge and click OK
Coordinates…
x Select the line just drawn.
Geometry Enter a translation in the X direction of 6
Line >
Copy… x Enter the number of copies required as 4 and click OK
289
'HILQLQJDQG$VVLJQLQJ0HVK$WWULEXWHV
Attributes x The bridge is to be
Mesh >
Line…
modelled with Thick
nonlinear beam
elements (BTS3
elements) with 6
divisions.

Thick nonlinear beam
and click OK
x Select all lines on the

model and drag and drop
the Thick nonlinear
beam mesh from the
Treeview onto the
selected features.
x Click OK to accept
default element
orientation.
*HRPHWULF3URSHUWLHV
The bridge is formed from box sections of a constant width and depth. Five
construction stages are to be modelled. Each of the stages uses the same section
properties.
In this example the geometric properties have already been calculated and will be
defined manually and then assigned to the model.
290
Modelling
Attributes x Select the Thick Beam tab

Geometric > and enter the box section
Line…
properties as A = 5.36886,
Iyy = 17.4844, Izz =
4.63749, J = 7.98955, Asz =
3.87119, Asy = 2.55135 and
e = 0.0. Enter the dataset
name as Box Section and
click OK.
x Select all the lines on the

model (Ctrl A) and drag and
drop the Box Section
geometry material from the
Treeview onto the
selected features
'HILQLQJWKH0DWHULDO
Attributes x Select material Concrete grade Ungraded from the drop down list, leave the
Material >
Material Library... units as kN m t C s and click OK to add the material dataset to the Treeview.
x Select all lines on the model and drag and drop the Concrete Ungraded (kN m t
C) material from the Treeview onto the selected features.
1RWH For this example a tensile allowable tensile stress of 4 N/mm2 and allowable
compressive stress of 20 N/mm2 will be considered for the concrete section.
6XSSRUWV
Attributes x A fully fixed support is required so all translations in the X, Y and Z and rotation
Support >
Structural...
about the X, Y and Z axes must be Fixed. Enter a dataset name of Fully Fixed
and click OK
x Select the points at the ends of the bridge model and from the Treeview drag
and drop the support dataset Fully Fixed onto the selected features, ensure the All
loadcases option is selected and click OK
/RDGLQJ
As well as the self-weight of the structure the effects of the prestress force will also be
considered in this analysis. Firstly, the self-weight will be defined.
291
Bridge A loading dataset named Gravity –ve Y will be created in the Treeview.
Bridge Loading >
Gravity
1RWH If using the Civil version a gravity load may be defined from the
Attributes>Loading>Structural>Body Force menu by specifying –9.81 as Linear
acceleration in the Y direction.
1RWHSelf-weight loading is computed from the gravitational acceleration specified

and the density of the concrete. This will be applied during the definition of the staged
construction process.
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In order to carry out a segmental construction analysis on the model the construction
stages are modelled using the birth and death facility.
Attributes x Select the Activate tab, enter the dataset name as Activate
Birth & Death …
x Select the Deactivate tab, enter the dataset name as Deactivate, leave the
percentage to redistribute as 100% and click OK
0RGHOOLQJRI&RQVWUXFWLRQ6WDJH
x In the Treeview rename Loadcase 1 to be Stage 1 by selecting Loadcase 1 with
the right-hand mouse button and using the Rename option.
All elements in the model not required for the first stage analysis need to be de-
activated.
x In the graphics window select the three lines defining segments that are not
required in stage 1.
292
Modelling
x From the Treeview and with the three segments selected, assign the
deactivation dataset Deactivate ensuring that it is assigned to loadcase Stage 1
and click OK
$VVLJQLQJ/RDGLQJ
x Now select the lines of the active segments. Assign the Gravity –ve Y loading to
Stage 1 and click OK
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x In the Treeview select Stage 1 using the right-hand mouse button and select the
Loadcase properties.
x On the Loadcase properties dialog select the Nonlinear & Transient option and
then select the Set button.
x On the Nonlinear & Transient dialog select the Nonlinear option in the top-left
hand corner, leave the incrementation type as Manual and click OK to accept all
default entries. Click OK again to exit the loadcase properties dialog.
&RQVWUXFWLRQ6WDJHVWR
Stages 2 and 3 require loadcases to be generated to specify the duration of the
construction process. Lines on the model must be selected according to the
construction stage being considered and activation datasets must be assigned to these
lines.
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The elements in the second construction stage must be activated
x In the graphics window select the segments to be added in Stage 2 of the

construction sequence.
293
x With the second stage selected, assign the activation dataset Activate from the
Treeview. Enter Stage 2 in the loadcase combo box and ensure that Set as the
active loadcase is checked.
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x Now select all the active segments and assign the Gravity –ve Y loading ensuring
the loadcase is set to Stage 2

1RWH As the Stage 1 loadcase has been set as nonlinear with manual control the
subsequent loadcase controls do not need to be defined as they will take the properties
defined in loadcase 1.

1RWH If you need to verify loading assignments such as self-weight or to check
when particular lines (and hence elements) become active in an analysis select a line
on the model using the right-hand mouse button and select Properties. Select the
Activate tab. Note that the ‘greyed-out’ loadcase is simply the current loadcase and
may not be the actual loadcase that the properties are assigned to. Selecting the
Activate entry in the table of Assigned properties will show the loadcase to which the
activation is assigned.
6WDJH
The elements in the third construction stage now need to be activated.
x In the graphics window select the segment to be added in Stage 3 of the

construction sequence.
x With the middle segment selected, assign the activation dataset Activate from the
Treeview. Enter Stage 3 in the loadcase combo box and ensure the Set as the
active loadcase is checked.
294
Modelling
$VVLJQLQJ/RDGLQJ
x Now select all of the active segments and assign the Gravity –ve Y loading
ensuring the loadcase is set to Stage 3
1RWH The active elements at each stage can be visualised by removing the
Geometry layer, selecting the Show activated only option on the mesh properties
dialog and then activating each loadcase in turn.
This completes the definition of the model geometry.
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If a previous analysis of this example has failed you need to return here to continue
after having run the command file stated.
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To assign the
prestress loading the
multiple tendon
prestress facility will
be used to assign the
equivalent prestress
force to the loadcases
already created.
Civil/Bridge x Ensure that the
Prestress Wizard >
Multiple Tendon...
BS5400 design
code is selected
from the drop
down list.
x Ensure that the

User defined
option for elastic
shortening is
selected and then click Set losses… to proceed to the Elastic Shortening –
Incremental dialog.
295
x Enter the losses as 100, 95 and 90 percent. (Use

the Tab key to create each new line. )
x Click OK to return to the first dialog.
x Click Next to proceed to the Tendon Profile

dialog.
7HQGRQ3URILOH
x Enter the dataset name as Short tendon profile
and click the Create button.
x Select the option Local coordinates mapped to

lines
x Enter the tendon profile into the grid as
X Y Z
0 1 0
6 1 0
x Enter the dataset name as Long tendon profile and click the Create button.
x Enter the tendon profile into the grid as
X Y Z
0 1 0
12 1 0
x Enter the dataset name as Full tendon profile and click the Create button.
x Ensure the 3 Columns option is selected.
x Read the file \Lusas136\Examples\Modeller\Tendon_profile.csv into a

spreadsheet, select all the cells and copy (Ctrl C) and paste (Ctrl V) the values
into the tendon profile grid.

1RWH Select the top left-hand corner of the grid to select all the cells prior to the
copy.
296
Modelling
X Y Z
0 1 0
0.978755 0.743539 0
1.96189 0.504416 0
2.9491 0.282704 0
3.94007 0.078474 0
4.93449 -0.10821 0
5.93206 -0.27729 0
6.93246 -0.42872 0
7.93538 -0.56244 0
8.94051 -0.67842 0
9.94753 -0.77662 0
10.9561 -0.857 0
11.966 -0.91955 0
12.9768 -0.96424 0
13.9882 -0.99106 0
15 -1 0
16.0118 -0.99106 0
17.0232 -0.96424 0
18.034 -0.91955 0
19.0439 -0.857 0
20.0525 -0.77662 0
21.0595 -0.67842 0
22.0646 -0.56244 0
23.0675 -0.42872 0
24.0679 -0.27729 0
25.0655 -0.10821 0
26.0599 0.078474 0
27.0509 0.282704 0
28.0381 0.504416 0
29.0212 0.743539 0
30 1 0
297
x Click Next to proceed to the Tendon Properties dialog.
7HQGRQ3URSHUWLHV

1RWH The Multi-strand
prestressing system being
considered here consists
of 12 15mm diameter
strands that give a
nominal area of
1800mm2. This equates
to a single nominal
diameter of 47.87mm
x Enter the dataset name

as Strand Properties
and click the Create
button
x Enter the diameter as

47.87
x Enter duct friction as 0.2
x Accept the defaults for the remaining properties by clicking the Next button.
7HQGRQ/RDGLQJ
as Tendon 1 and click
the Create button.
x Enter the prestress

force as 2E3
x Ensure that jacking

from End 1 only is
selected and enter the
slip as 2E-3
x Ensure the profile

combo box is set to
Short tendon profile
and the property
combo box is set to
Strand Properties
298
Modelling
x Enter the dataset name as Tendon 2 and click the Create button.
x Enter the prestress force as 2E3
x Ensure that jacking from End 2 only is selected and enter the slip as 2E-3
x Ensure the profile combo box is set to Short tendon profile and the property
combo box is set to Strand Properties
x Ensure that the jacking from End 1 only is selected and enter the slip as 2E-3
x Change the profile combo box so that Long tendon profile is displayed and the
property combo box so that Strand Properties is displayed.
x Ensure that the jacking from End 2 only is selected and enter the slip as 2E-3
x Change the profile combo box so that Long tendon profile is displayed and
ensure the property combo box is set to Strand Properties
x Ensure that the jacking from End 1 and End 2 is selected and enter the slip as
4E-3 at each end.
x Change the profile combo box so that Full tendon profile is displayed and ensure
the property combo box is set to Strand Properties
x Click Next to proceed to the Tendon Loading Assignment dialog.
299
7HQGRQ/RDGLQJ$VVLJQPHQW
x Click the New button
and the Assignment
will change to 1
x Drag the dialog so that

the analysis model can
be clearly seen in the
graphics window
x Select the line tendon

1 acts on.
x On the Tendon Loading Assignment dialog click the Copy from selection button
and the selected line number will be entered in the text box.
x Ensure the tendon combo box has Tendon 1 displayed.
x In the loadcases section of the dialog, click the check box for Stage 1

1RWHAll the loadcases below the one clicked should become selected. If you click
lower down the list the items below the selection will be de-selected.
x Click the New button and the Assignment will change to 2.
300
Modelling
x Select the line tendon 2 acts on.
x Click the Copy from selection button and the selected line number will be entered
in the text box.
x Change the tendon combo box so that Tendon 2 is displayed.
x Click the New button and the Assignment will change to 3.
x Select the lines tendon 3 acts on.
x Click the Copy from selection button and the selected line numbers will be
entered in the text box.
x Click New and the Assignment will change to 4.
301
x Select the lines tendon 4 acts on.
displayed in the text box.
x Click New and the Assignment will change to 5.
x Select the lines tendon 5 acts on. (All the lines in the model.)
displayed in the text box.
x Ensure that the compute loading and generate report options are selected. A
report will be generated in the directory that you are currently working in but this
can be changed if required.
x Select the Finish button to generate the equivalent prestress loading.

The prestress loading will be added to the analysis model and an HTML report will be
opened automatically in the default web browser. This report is also saved into the
specified folder.

1RWH Saving the model file also saves all the multiple tendon prestress input. This
allows the prestress definition and assignment data to be modified by re-entering the
multiple tendon prestress wizard.
302
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of Segmental Bridge will be automatically entered in
LUSAS Datafile...
the Filename text box.

VHJPHQWDO EULGJHRXW this output file contains details of model data,

assigned attributes and selected statistics of the analysis.
VHJPHQWDO EULGJHP\V this is the LUSAS results file which is loaded
,IWKHDQDO\VLVIDLOV
written to an output file in addition to the text output window. Select Yes to view the
output file. Any errors listed in the text output window should be corrected in LUSAS
Modeller before saving the model and re-running the analysis. Note that a common
error is to forget to assign attribute data (such as geometry, mesh, supports, loading
etc.) to the model. If the errors cannot be identified the model may be rebuilt and the
prestress loading redefined.
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provided to enable you to re-create the model up to the point of defining the Prestress
Loading.
VHJPHQWDOBEULGJH_PRGHOOLQJFPG

carries out the geometric
modelling of this example.
303
File
x Enter the file name as Segmental Bridge

File
Command Files > Open the command file segmental_bridge_modelling.cmd which is located in
Open... the \Lusas136\Examples\Modeller folder.
File
The geometry of the model has been created. Now return to the section entitled
Prestess Loading earlier in this example and re-define the tendon properties.
9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
of the current model and the load case results for each stage can be seen in the
Treeview.
Bending moments of Mz over the segments are to be investigated for each stage of the
construction process. A summary of results on each results plot also allows a
comparison of maximum displacements for each stage.
6WDJHUHVXOWV
x In the Treeview set Increment 1 active. Note that Increment 1 corresponds to
Stage 1.
layer to the Treeview. Set the deformation factor to 1E3. Click the Window
summary option. Select the Mesh tab and click the Show activated only option.
Click OK to display the deformed mesh for stage 1.
x Add the Diagrams layer to the Treeview. On the dialog, select Stress results
from the entity drop-down list and component Mz. Select the Diagram Display
tab. Select the Label values and Window summary options. Ensure that the
Deform option is selected. Set the % of element length to 60. Set the Angle to 90
degrees and the number of significant figures to 4. Click OK to display the
bending moment diagram for the active elements for stage 1.
304
Viewing the Results

1RWH The maximum deflection and maximum and minimum bending moments are
shown in the window summary.
6WDJHUHVXOWV
x In the Treeview right-click on Increment 2 (representing Stage 2) and select
the Set Active option.
6WDJHUHVXOWV
x In the Treeview right-click on Increment 3 (representing Stage 3) and select
the Set Active option.

1RWH For any construction stage the top and bottom fibre stress can be computed
using the stress recovery facility located under the Bridge> Beam Stress Check
menu.
305
306
Description
'1RQOLQHDU6WDWLF
$QDO\VLVRID&DEOH
6WD\HG0DVW
For software product: LUSAS Civil & Structural or LUSAS Bridge.
With product options: Nonlinear.
'HVFULSWLRQ
A 10m tall mast with three supporting
guy cables is to be analysed. The guy
cables are spaced at 120q intervals
around the mast and are fixed at ground
level at a radius of 7m. Both the mast
and cables are made of steel with a
Young’s Modulus of 210e9 Pa, Poisson’s
Ratio of 0.3 and a mass density of 7800
kg/m3. Units of N, m and kg are used
throughout.
Four load types are to be considered:
1. Initial force in the cables of 5000N.
2. Self-weight of the structure.
3. Horizontal wind load of 500 N/m distributed along the length of the mast.
4. A horizontal point load acting at the top of the mast of 5000 N.
2EMHFWLYHV
307
3D Nonlinear Static Analysis of a Cable Stayed Mast
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3D, Thick Nonlinear Beam, Nonlinear Control, Geometric Nonlinear Analysis,
Axial Force Diagram, Shear Force, Bending Moment Diagram
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PDVWBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

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x Enter the file name as mast
x Enter the title as Mast
x Set the units as N m kg C s
x Select the model startup template Standard from those available in the drop-down
list.
308
Modelling
'HILQLQJWKH*HRPHWU\
Geometry Enter co-ordinates of (0, 0, 0) to define a point at the bottom of the mast.
Point >
Coordinates...
x Select the Point

Geometry Sweep the Point 10 in the Y direction (vertical).
Line >
By Sweeping...
Geometry Enter co-ordinates of (-7, 0, 0),

Point >
Coordinates...
(3.5, 0, 6.0622) and (3.5, 0,
-6.0622) to define points where the
guy cables are fixed to the ground
Select the isometric view button
to rotate the model so that all
points are visible
x Define a cable by selecting a base

Point followed by an apex Point.
Use the Shift key to make multiple
selections)
Geometry The lines defining the cable will
Line >
Points...
be drawn.
x Repeat for the other two pairs of points.
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To simplify the assignment of model attributes and assist with post processing the
features will be grouped together.
Switch on the AutoSelect lower features button. This will select associated
Points when Lines have been selected.
x Select the Line representing the mast.

Select the New Groups button.
x In the Treeview, click the right-hand mouse button on New Group and select the
Rename option. Change the group name to Mast.
x Click on a blank part of the graphics window to deselect the mast Line.
309
x Holding down the Shift key, select the three Lines representing the cables.
Select the New Groups button.
x In the Treeview, click the right hand mouse button on New Group and select the
Rename option. Change the group name to Cables.
Switch off the AutoSelect lower features button
0HVKLQJ
The Line features are to be meshed using three-dimensional nonlinear beam elements.
Attributes Select Thick nonlinear beam, 3 dimensional, Linear elements.
Mesh >
Line...
x Enter the dataset name as ‘Mast’ and click the Apply button.
x Change the number of divisions per line to 10.
x Change the dataset name to Cables and click the OK button
x Select the mast.
x Drag and drop the mesh dataset Mast from the Treeview onto the selected Line
features using a default element orientation.
x Select a line representing a cable and holding down the Shift key, select the other
2 lines representing the cables.
x Drag and drop the mesh dataset Cables from the Treeview onto the selected Line
features using a default element orientation.
*HRPHWULF3URSHUWLHV
The mast will be defined as a Circular Hollow Section (CHS).
Attributes x From the UK Sections library select the CHS (EN10210) section type and select
Geometric >
Section Library...
the 168.3x8 CHS section.
x Select 3D frame usage.
x Click the OK button to add the CHS dataset to the Treeview.

The 10mm diameter guy cables will be defined with very low bending properties in
order to not attract any bending moments. A value of 1/100th of the actual bending
stiffness for the 10mm diameter cable will be used. The torsional constant and shear
area values are left unaltered.
310
Modelling
Attributes x With the Thick Beam

Geometric
Line..
tab selected, enter the
values shown in the
dialog.
Note that these properties
can be derived by using the
standard section property
calculator.

as 10mm Cable and
The cable geometry dataset
will be added to the
Treeview.
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x In the Treeview, right-click on the group name Mast. Choose the Select
Members option. Click Yes to act on sub groups.
x Drag and drop the geometry dataset 168.3x8 CHS (m) from the Treeview onto
the selected Line.
x In the Treeview, right-click on the group name Cables. Choose the Select
Members option. Click Yes to deselect members already selected. Click Yes to
act on sub groups.
x Drag and drop the geometry dataset 10mm Cable from the Treeview onto the
selected Lines.
0DWHULDO3URSHUWLHV
A linear approximation to steel properties will be used for all members of the frame.
Attributes x Select material Mild Steel, Ungraded, N m kg C s and click OK.
Material
Material Library...
x Select the whole model (Control + A keys) and drag and drop the material dataset
Mild Steel Ungraded (N m kg C) from the Treeview onto the selected
features.
311
6XSSRUWV
The Standard template provides the more common types of support by default. These
can be seen in the Treeview. The structure will be supported at the base of the mast
with a fully fixed support condition. The cables will be supported in translation
directions only.
x Select the Point at the base of the
mast.
x Drag and drop the support dataset

Fully Fixed from the
Treeview onto the selected Point
for all loadcases.
x Select the 3 Points at the base of

the three cables.
x Drag and drop the support dataset

Pinned from the Treeview
onto the selected Points for all
loadcases.
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x Four load types will be considered: Initial stresses in the cables, self-weight,
horizontal wind Load, and a point load acting at the top of the structure. The
loading will be assigned to four loadcases.
/RDGW\SH,QLWLDO6WUHVV
An initial force in the guy cables of 5000 N is to be defined and assigned to the
model. Since the elements used to represent the mast and cables are BTS3 elements
which are formulated using forces and strains (see the Element Reference Manual for
details) the force is entered using the Stress and Strain tab on the following loading
dialog:
Attributes x Select the Stress and Strain tab.
Loading
Structural...
x Ensure the Stress and Strain Type is set to Initial
x Enter a value of 5000 in row 1.
x Enter the dataset name as Initial Stress
312
Modelling
The copy and paste facility will be

used to assign this loadcase to the
cable group.
x In the Treeview, right-click on

the loading dataset Initial Stress
and select the Copy option.

the group name Cables and select
the Paste option.
x Ensure that the loading is assigned

as Loadcase 1 with a load factor
of 1
/RDGW\SH6HOI:HLJKW
Load type 2 represents the self-weight of the structure. This is modelled using a Body
Force loading dataset which is an acceleration loading simulating the force of gravity
acting upon the structure. The self-weight will be assigned to both Loadcase 2 and
Loadcase 3 for reasons that are explained during the Nonlinear Analysis Control
section of this example.
Attributes x Select the Body Force tab. Enter
Loading
Structural...
a linear acceleration of -9.81 m/s2
in the Y direction. Enter the
dataset name as Self Weight
x Select the whole model (Control

+ A keys) and drag and drop the
loading dataset Self Weight from
the Treeview onto the selected
features.
x Enter a loadcase name of

Loadcase 2 using a load factor of
1
x With the whole model still

selected, repeat the drag and drop
of the Self Weight loading dataset entering a loadcase name of Loadcase 3 using
a load factor of 1
313
/RDGW\SH+RUL]RQWDO:LQG/RDG
Load type 3 is a horizontal wind load of 500 N/m distributed along the length of the
mast.
Attributes x Select the Global Distributed tab
Loading
Structural...
and select the Per Unit Length
button. Enter a value of -500 N/m
in the X direction. Enter the
dataset name as Distributed
Wind Load.

the loading dataset Distributed
Wind Load and select the Copy
option.

the group name Mast and select
the Paste option.
x Enter a loadcase name of

Loadcase 4 using a load factor of 1
/RDGW\SH&RQFHQWUDWHG3RLQW/RDG
A point load of 5000 N is acting at the top of the mast.
Attributes x Select the Concentrated tab. Enter a value of -5000 in the X direction. Enter the
Loading
Structural...
dataset name as Point Load
x Select the Point at the top of the mast then drag and drop the loading dataset Point
Load from the Treeview onto the selected Point.
x Ensure that the loading is assigned as Loadcase 4 with a load factor of 1
1RQOLQHDU$QDO\VLV&RQWURO
Nonlinear control properties are defined as properties of a loadcase and must therefore
be set for all four loadcases required for this analysis.
/RDGFDVH
x In the Treeview, right-click on Loadcase 1 and select the Properties option.
x Rename the loadcase to Initial Stress in Cables
314
Modelling
x Define the analysis as a Nonlinear & Transient problem and select the Set
button.
x Select Nonlinear incrementation with Manual control.
x Use default settings for this initial manual loadcase. Do not modify the dialog.
x Click the OK button as necessary to finish.
/RDGFDVH
Loadcase 2 uses Automatic load incrementation. In doing so, the load is applied as a
very small initial step to overcome any potential convergence problems. The number
of Iterations per increment determines how the load step is varied from one
increment to the next. The analysis generally converges in 2 or 3 iterations. By
setting this value to 12 the load step will rapidly increase.
1RWH In LUSAS, the use of automatic nonlinear incrementation immediately

following a manual nonlinear incrementation (as in this case) causes the results from
the previous analysis to be retained and used as the starting point for the subsequent
analysis.
x In the Treeview right-click on Loadcase 2 and select the Properties option.
x Rename the loadcase to Self Weight
button.
x Select Nonlinear incrementation with Automatic control.
x Enter the Starting load factor as 0.01
x Enter the Max total load factor as 1
x Set the Iterations per increment to 12
x In the Incrementation section of the dialog select the Advanced button. Enter
the Stiffness ratio to switch to arc length as 0. Click the OK button.
x Ensure that the Solution strategy and Incremental LUSAS file output are set to
Same as previous loadcase.
/RDGFDVH
Loadcase 3 reapplies the Self-weight in a single Manual load step. This effectively
freezes the self-weight load allowing the wind loadcase 4 to be incrementally
315
increased. If an Automatic (loadcase 4) nonlinear control were to follow a previous

Automatic (loadcase 2) nonlinear control then the loading would be overwritten.
1RWH So in LUSAS, using manual nonlinear incrementation immediately following

an automatic nonlinear incrementation (as in this case) allows a subsequent automatic
nonlinear incrementation to be applied without overwriting any previous loading.
x In the Treeview, right-click on Loadcase 3 and select the Properties option.
x Rename the loadcase to Self Weight Freeze.
button.
x Select Nonlinear incrementation with Manual control.
x Use default settings for this manual loadcase. Do not modify the dialog.
x Ensure that the Solution strategy and Incremental LUSAS file output are set to
same as previous loadcase.
/RDGFDVH
Loadcase 4 applies the wind and point load using Automatic load incrementation. In
a similar manner to that used for loadcase 2.
x In the Treeview, right-click on Loadcase 4 and select the properties option.
x Rename the loadcase to Wind and Point Load
button.
x Select Nonlinear incrementation with Automatic control.
x Enter the Starting load factor as 0.01
x Enter the Max total load factor as 1
x Set the Iterations per increment to 12
x In the Incrementation section of the dialog select the Advanced button. Enter
the Stiffness ratio to switch to arc length as 0. Click the OK button.
x In the Solution strategy section of the dialog deselect the Same as previous
loadcase option and then select the Advanced button. Set the Maximum number
of line searches to 0 and click OK
316
'HILQLQJD*HRPHWULF1RQOLQHDUDQDO\VLV
An additional setting is required to allow a geometric nonlinear analysis to take place:
File x Select the Solution tab.
Model Properties
x Click on the Nonlinear options button and select the Co-rotational Formulation
geometric nonlinearity option.
x Click the OK button to return the Model Properties dialog.
6DYHWKH0RGHO
The model is now complete and the model data is to be saved before an analysis is run
using the LUSAS Solver.
Save
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of mast will be automatically entered in the File name
LUSAS Datafile...
field.

During the analysis 2 files will be created:
PDVWRXW this contains the statistics of the analysis, for example how much
disk space was used, how much CPU time was used, and any errors or warning
messages from LUSAS, and so on. Always check the LUSAS output file for
error messages.
PDVWP\V This is the LUSAS results database which will be used for
results processing.
The LUSAS results file will be displayed in the Treeview.
317
,IWKHDQDO\VLVIDLOV
5HEXLOGLQJD0RGHO
successfully.
PDVWBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

File
x Enter the file name as mast
x Select the Vertical Y axis option and click OK

File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file mast_modelling.cmd which is
File
9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
of the current model and the loadcase results for the first loadcase (in this case the
initial stress in cables) are set to be active by default.
1RWH The first increment relates to the initial stress loadcase. The first set of load
factor increments relate to the self-weight loadcase. Increment 7 relates to the
‘freezing’ of the self-weight loadcase prior to loading the structure with the wind and
point load. The remaining load factor increments relate to the application of the wind
and point loading on the on the pre-stressed structure
318
Viewing the Results
'HIRUPHG0HVK3ORW
x If present in the Treeview
delete the Geometry, and
Attribute layers.
x With no features selected, click

the right-hand mouse button in a
blank part of the graphics window
and select the Deformed mesh
option to add the deformed mesh
x Click Close to accept the default

properties and view the deformed
mesh for the first results loadcase
Initial Stress in Cables
x Delete the Mesh layer
$[LDO)RUFH'LDJUDPIRU,QLWLDO6WUHVVHV
x With no features selected,
click the right-hand mouse
button in a blank part of the
graphics window and select
the Diagrams option to add
the diagrams layer to the
Treeview.
x Select entity Stress of

component Fx (axial force)
x Select the Diagram display

tab and select the Label
values option
319
&RPELQHG,QLWLDO6WUHVVDQG6HOIZHLJKW
x In the Treeview right-click on
results Increment 7 and select the
Set active option.
This shows axial force from the
combined effect of the initial stress
and the self-weight on the mast.
&RPELQHG,QLWLDO6WUHVV6HOI:HLJKWDQG:LQG/RDG
x In the Treeview right-click on
the last results increment in the
Treeview for a Load Factor = 1.0
and select the Set active option.
This shows axial force for the
combined effect of the initial stress,
the self-weight and the wind loading
on the mast.
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x In the Treeview, right-click on the group name Mast and select the Set as
Only Visible option. Click Yes to act on sub groups.
320
Viewing the Results
6KHDU)RUFH'LDJUDPIRUWKHPDVW
x In the Treeview double-click on the Diagrams entry and select Stress results
for axial force Fy. Click Apply to update the graphics window.
x In the Treeview double-click on the Diagrams entry and select Stress results
for bending moment Mz which is the bending moment in the plane of the wind and
point loading
Axial force Fx Shear force Fy Bending moment Mz
3ORWWLQJ5HDFWLRQVDWWKH0DVWDQG&DEOH6XSSRUWV
x In the Treeview delete the Diagrams layer.
x In the Treeview, right-click on the group name Mast Groups and select the
Set as Only Visible option. Click Yes to act on sub groups.
321
Treeview. Select results of entity Reaction of component RSLT.
x Select the Values Display

tab and plot 100% of
Maxima values
3ULQWLQJD5HVXOWV6XPPDU\RI5HDFWLRQV
With the last results increment for a load factor 0.1E1 still selected in the Treeview:
Utilities x Select entity Reaction for type Component at location Node.
x Click Finish to view the tabulated results summary
1RWH The values of FZ, MX and MY for node 1 vary slightly from those shown
from machine to machine. These values are effectively zero.
322
Description
'&RQVROLGDWLRQ
XQGHUD6WULS
)RRWLQJ
For software product(s): LUSAS Civil & Structural.
With product option(s): Nonlinear.
'HVFULSWLRQ
The pore water 5m
q = 3450 kN/m2
pressure
dissipation and Ground level
settlement in a soil
following the
application of a 10m
distributed load is
to be investigated.
100m
Horizontal
Young’s modulus of the soil E’= 34.7 x 103 kN/m2
Centre line
displacement at
the left edge is Poisson’s ratio X = 0.35
restrained to Density U = 1.9 t/m3
model the
Bulk modulus of water Kw = 2.2 x 106 kN/m2
symmetrical
boundary Void ratio e = 1.174
condition. Vertical Unit weight of water J w = 9.812 kN/m3
displacement at
Soil permeability kx=ky=kz=1.0 x 10-8 m/s
the base of the soil
is restrained as the
soil rests on solid rock. The pore pressure at ground level is prescribed to zero.
Units of kN, metres, tonnes and seconds are used throughout.
323
2D Consolidation under a Strip Footing
2EMHFWLYHV
Settlement at the centre of the footing with time.
Pore pressure distribution immediately after application of the load (undrained
response)
Pore water pressure dissipation with time at the centre of the footing
.H\ZRUGV
Consolidation, Pore Water Pressure, Time Stepping, Nonlinear, Transient,
Settlement, Two Phase Materials, Default Assignments, Graphing
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
SZSBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

0RGHOOLQJ
&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the File name as pwp
x Enter the title as Consolidation under a Strip Footing
x Select the units as kN m t C s from the drop down list provided.
x Select the Vertical Y axis option
324
Modelling
0HVK'HILQLWLRQ
Since this analysis requires the modelling of pore water pressure, plane-strain two
phase elements will be used.
Attributes x Select the Plane Strain two phase, Quadrilateral, Quadratic elements. Ensure
Mesh >
Surface...
the Regular mesh option is selected with Automatic divisions so that Modeller
uses the mesh divisions assigned to each line.
x Give the dataset the name Plane Strain Two Phase and click the OK button to
add the mesh dataset to the Treeview.
x In the Treeview click on the mesh dataset Plane Strain Two Phase with the
right-hand mouse button and select the Set Default option. This will ensure all
newly created surfaces will be assigned the elements defined in this mesh dataset.
0DWHULDO3URSHUWLHV
For consolidation analysis both the elastic and two-phase soil properties need to be
defined. The overall ‘equivalent’ bulk modulus of the soil is related to the bulk
modulus of the pore fluid and the bulk modulus of the solid soil particles by the
formula:
1 n (1 n) n
|
Ke Kf Ks Kf
Where
Ke is the equivalent bulk modulus of the soil
Kf is the bulk modulus of the pore fluid
Ks is the bulk modulus of the solid soil particles
n is the porosity of the soil
The porosity of the soil is related to the void ratio by the formula:
e
Porosity n = 0.54
1 e
325
Attributes x Enter the isotropic material properties for the soil as Young’s Modulus 34.7E3,
Material > Poisson’s Ratio 0.35 and Mass density 1.9
Isotropic...
x Click on the Two phase check box at the top right-hand corner of the dialog.
x Enter the properties as Bulk modulus of solid particles as 2.2E6, Bulk modulus of
fluid 2.2E6, Porosity of medium 0.54, Unit weight of fluid phase 9.812, and
Permeability in global X, Y and Z directions 1E-8
1RWH By using these parameters for bulk modulus the undrained bulk modulus of
the soil will be equivalent to that of the pore fluid
x Enter the dataset name as Fissured Clay and click the OK button to add the
326
Modelling
x In the Treeview click on the dataset Fissured Clay with the right-hand mouse
button and select the Set Default option. This will ensure all newly created
features will be assigned the properties defined in this material dataset.
)HDWXUH*HRPHWU\
Geometry
Surface > Enter coordinates of (0, 0), (5, 0), (5, 10) and (0, 10) to define the soil under the
Coordinates... load. Use the Tab key to move to the next entry field on the dialog. When all
coordinates have been entered click the OK button.
Geometry
Surface > Enter the coordinates of (5, 0), (100, 0), (100, 10), (5, 10) to define the
Coordinates... remainder of the soil.
0HVK*UDGLQJ
Attributes x Define a Line mesh with element type None and 16 divisions.
Mesh >
Line...
x Select the Spacing button.
x Choose the Uniform transition option and set the Ratio of first to last element
to 0.1
x Click OK to accept the spacing properties.
x Give the dataset name as Null 16 Graded and click the Apply button to add the
dataset to the Treeview and keep the dialog active.
x Define a Line mesh with 12 divisions.
x Enter the Uniform transition option and set the Ratio of first to last element to 5
x Give the dataset name as Null 12 Graded and click OK to add the dataset to the
Treeview.
327
Select these 2 horizontal Lines

and assign "Null 16 Graded"
Select these 3 vertical Lines and assign "Null 12 Graded"
x Select the horizontal lines of the larger surface as shown and assign the mesh
dataset Null 16 Graded
x Select all the vertical lines as shown (Use the Shift key to add to the initial
selection) and assign the mesh dataset Null 12 Graded
1RWH If the mesh is graded with the smaller elements at the wrong end of a line
reverse the line by selecting the line using the Geometry>Line>Reverse menu
selection.
6XSSRUWV
Define a support to prescribe zero pore pressure.
Attributes
x Click on the option to fix the Pore pressure.
Support >
Structural...
x Enter the dataset name as Fixed PWP and click the OK button.
Assign the supports to the model.
x Select the vertical Line on the left-hand side of the model and drag and drop the
support dataset Fixed in X from the Treeview onto the selection. With the
Assign to lines option selected click OK to assign the support dataset to All
loadcases
x Select the 2 horizontal Lines representing the base of the soil and drag and drop
the support dataset Fixed in Y from the Treeview onto the selection. With the
328
Modelling
Assign to lines option selected click OK to assign the support dataset to All
loadcases
x Select the Line at ground level on the right-hand side of the model away from the
load application and drag and drop the support dataset Fixed PWP from the
Treeview onto the selection. With the Assign to lines option selected click OK to
assign the support dataset to All loadcases
/RDGLQJ
Attributes x Select the Face tab.
Loading >
Structural...
x Enter loading of 3450 in the Y Direction
x Enter a dataset name of Distributed Load and click the OK button.
x Select the top line on the left-hand side of the model and drag and drop the
Distributed Load dataset onto the selection. With the Assign to lines option
selected click OK to assign the loadcase dataset to Loadcase 1 with a Factor of 1
$QDO\VLV&RQWURO
With this consolidation problem an automatic time stepping procedure is adopted.
This is because consolidation is a typical diffusion process in which the field changes
rapidly at the start of the process before settling down to a steady state condition a
considerable time after the initial load is applied. The automatic time stepping
procedure enables the time step to be modified so that the small time steps required at
the start of the problem can be increased as the analysis progresses. In some cases the
overall response time can be orders of magnitude larger than the initial time step.
The initial time step is important since the early variations in pore pressure must be
accurately accounted for. Vermeer and Verruijt suggest the following criteria for
determining the initial time step where 'h is the minimum distance between nodes.
JZ 9.812
't t ( 'h)2 x 0.14 2 | 100 secs
6(k 6 x 34.7 E 3 x 1E 8
1RWH The distance between two nodes can be determined by selecting the two nodes
and then picking the Utilities>Mesh>Distance between Nodes entry.
329
x In the Treeview double-click on Loadcase 1 to display the loadcase properties.
x Click on the Nonlinear & Transient control option and click the Set button to
enter the control properties dialog.
In the Incrementation section:
x Select the Nonlinear option and choose Manual incrementation.
x Select the Time domain option and chose Consolidation from the drop down list.
x Enter an Initial time step of 100
x Select the Automatic time stepping option.
x Select the Advanced button in the Time domain section of the dialog.
330
x Set the Time step incrementation

restriction factor to 2
x Set the Minimum time step to 100
x Set the Maximum time step to 1E7
x Set the Minimum time step for

termination to 0
x Click OK to return to the Nonlinear

and Transient control dialog.
x Set the Max time steps or increments

to 50
x Click OK to accept the settings and

OK again to set the loadcase control.
6DYLQJWKHPRGHO
File
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of pwp will be automatically entered in the File name
LUSAS Datafile...
field.
x Click the Save button to solve the problem.

SZSRXW this output file contains details of model data, assigned attributes
and selected statistics of the analysis.
SZSP\V this is the LUSAS results file which is loaded automatically into
the Treeview to allow results processing to take place.
331
,IWKHDQDO\VLVIDLOV
If the analysis fails, the output file will provide information relating to the nature of
the error encountered. Use a text editor to view the output file and search for
‘ERROR’. A common mistake made when using LUSAS Modeller for the first time is
to forget to assign particular attribute data (geometry, mesh, supports, loading etc.) to
the model. Any errors listed in the output file should be fixed in LUSAS Modeller
before saving the model and re-running the analysis.
5HEXLOGLQJD0RGHO
If errors are listed that for some reason cannot be corrected by the user, a file is
provided to re-create the model information correctly, allowing a subsequent analysis
to be run successfully.
SZSBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

File
x Enter the file name as pwp

File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file pwp_modelling.cmd which is
File
9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
Loadcase results can be seen in the Treeview. If the analysis was run from within
LUSAS Modeller the results will be loaded on top of the current model and the load
case results for the first time step are set active by default.
x If present, delete Geometry, Mesh and Attributes from the Treeview.
6HWWOHPHQW
graphics area and select Deformed mesh to add the deformed mesh layer to the
Treeview.
332
Viewing the Results
x Select the Specify factor option, specify a factor of 1 and click OK to visualise
the deformed mesh for the first time step.
A graph of the deformation over time will be created using the graph wizard.
x Zoom into the Select this node

left-hand side
of the model
and select the
node on the
centre line at
the centre of the
footing.
Utilities x With the Time
Graph Wizard... history option
selected click
Next
Firstly define the
data to be used for
the X axis.
x Selected the
Named option
and click Next
x Select
Response Time from the drop down list and click Next
Secondly define the data for the Y axis.
x With the Nodal option selected and click Next
x Select Displacement from the Entity drop down list and DY from the Component
drop down list.
x The selected node number will appear in the Selected node drop down list. Click
Next
333
x Select the
logarithmic
scale option for
the X Scale and
enter Manual
values of
minimum 100
and maximum
10e6
respectively.
Enter suitable
text for the graph
titles and click
Finish to display
the graph of
settlement over
time under the
strip footing.
Close the graph window
Maximise the graphics window.
3RUHZDWHUSUHVVXUH
The distribution of pore pressure is to be shown using contours.
graphics area and select Contours to add the contours layer to the Treeview.
x Select Displacement from the Entity drop down list and PRES from the
component drop down list.
x Select the Contour Range tab, select the interval option and set the interval to
250
x Click the OK button to display contours of the undrained pore pressure

distribution (Time step 0) immediately after the loading is applied.
334
Viewing the Results
1RWH The dissipation of pore water pressure with time may be observed by creating
an animation of the contour display.
x To observe the distribution of pore water pressure at a particular time after the
application of loading activate the appropriate time step from the Treeview by
selecting the time step with the right-hand mouse button and choosing the Set
Active option.
The dissipation of pore water pressure under the footing is to be presented on a graph.
x Select the node on the centreline under the footing as before.

Utilities x With the Time history option selected click Next
Graph Wizard...
Firstly define the data to be used for the X axis
x Selected the Named option and click Next
x Select Response Time from the drop down list and click Next
Secondly define the data for the Y axis
335
x Select Displacement from the Entity drop down list and PRES from the
Component drop down list.
Next
x Ensure the
logarithmic
scale option for
the X Scale is set
with Manual
values of
minimum 100
and maximum
10e6
respectively.
Enter suitable
text for the graph
titles and click
Finish to display
the graph of the
pore water
pressure over
time under the centre of the strip footing.
Close the graph window.
Maximise the graphics window.

As the pore water dissipates the load is carried by the soil. The increase in effective
stress in soil can be observed on a graph of effective stress against response time.
x Ensure the node on the centreline under the footing still selected.
Utilities x With the Time history option selected click Next
Graph Wizard...
Firstly define the data to be used for the X axis
x Select the Named option and click Next
x Select Response Time from the drop down list and click Next
Secondly define the data for the Y axis
336
Viewing the Results
x Select Stress from the Entity drop down list and SY from the Component drop
down list.
Next
x Ensure the
logarithmic
scale option for
the X Scale is set
with Manual
values of
minimum 100
and maximum
10e6
respectively.
Enter suitable
text for the graph
titles and click
Finish to display
the graph of the
pore water
pressure over
time under the centre of the strip footing.
337
338
Description
'UDLQHG1RQOLQHDU
$QDO\VLVRID
5HWDLQLQJ:DOO
For software product(s): LUSAS Civil & Structural.
With product option(s): Nonlinear
'HVFULSWLRQ
The behaviour of a single Original ground level
propped retaining wall is to 20m
be investigated in the long
term. Drained soil
parameters are used Excavation
to15.26m 20m Z
throughout.
Horizontal displacement is
restrained at the left and right
hand edge and both
horizontal and vertical Wall 1m thick
101m
displacement is restrained at
the base of the soil as the soil
rests on solid rock.
The wall is ‘wished-in-place’
in that construction of the
wall is not modelled.
Units of kN, metres, tonnes
and seconds are used
101m
throughout.
339
Drained Nonlinear Analysis of a Retaining Wall
2EMHFWLYHV
Displacement of the wall toe towards the excavation
Surface heave immediately behind the wall
Contours of plastic strain around the excavation
Prop force per m length of wall
Bending moment in the wall at 10m depth
.H\ZRUGV
Retaining wall, Drained, Nonlinear, Excavation, Surface heave, Plane strain,
Prop force, Bending Moment
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
GUDLQHGBZDOOFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

0RGHOOLQJ
File > New to start a new model file. Modeller will prompt for any unsaved data and
display the New Model Startup dialog .
&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the File name as drained_wall.
x Enter the title as Drained analysis of a propped retaining wall.
x Select the units as kN m t C s from the drop down list provided.
x Leave the startup template as template None.
340
Modelling
1RWH It is useful to save the model regularly as the example progresses. This
allows a previously saved model to be re-loaded if a mistake is made that cannot be
corrected easily by a new user.
0HVK'HILQLWLRQ
The surfaces are to be meshed using plane-strain quadrilaterals with a quadratic
interpolation order (QPN8).
Attributes x Select the Plane Strain, Quadrilateral, Quadratic elements. Ensure the
Mesh >
Surface...
Regular mesh option is selected with Automatic divisions so that Modeller uses
the mesh divisions assigned to each line.
x Give the dataset the name Plane Strain quads and click the OK button to add the
mesh dataset to the Tree-view.
x In the Tree-view click on the mesh dataset Plane Strain quads with the right-
hand mouse button and select the Set Default option. This will ensure all newly
created surfaces will be assigned the elements defined in this mesh dataset.
*HQHUDO)LHOG9DULDWLRQV
Utilities The Young’s Modulus of the soil and the in situ stresses vary with depth and therefore
Variation >
Field...
general field variations are required.
x Enter the function as -6000*Y and the dataset name as y_mod for the
definition of Young’s Modulus with depth and click Apply to add the dataset
to the Tree-view and keep the dialog active.
x Enter a new function as 20*Y and the dataset name as sig_v for the definition
of vertical stress and click Apply.
x Enter a new function as 2*20*Y and the dataset name as sig_h for the
definition of horizontal stress and click OK.
1RWH The LUSAS convention assumes that negative stresses are compressive. The
Y coordinate datum is at ground level and so increasing depth will lead to increasingly
negative Y coordinates. The variations as entered will ensure that stresses increase
negatively with depth while the Young’s Modulus increases positively with depth.
)HDWXUH*HRPHWU\
x Delete the Mesh layer from the Tree-view.
341
Geometry
Line > Enter coordinates of (0, 0), (20, 0), (21, 0), (25, 0) and (101, 0) to define four
Coordinates... lines representing the original ground level (all Z coordinates should be zero or left
blank). Use the Tab key to move to the next entry field on the dialog. When all
coordinates have been entered click the OK button.
x Press CTRL-A to select all the Lines just drawn.

Geometry
Surface > Ensure the Translate option is selected and enter a value of –1.5 in Y.
By Sweeping...
x Click OK to sweep the Lines to create the Surfaces.
Drag a box around these 4 Lines
x Select the bottom four horizontal Lines by dragging a box around them.
Geometry
Surface > Ensure the Translate option is selected and enter a value of –1.5 in Y.
By Sweeping...
x Click OK to sweep the Lines to create the Surfaces.
Repeat the preceding commands eight times, selecting the bottom four lines of the
model each time and sweep the lines by –2.0, -2.13, -2.13, -2.0, -2.0, –2.0, -2.49 and –
2.25 metres in Y as above.
Point B
Point A
x Select Point A shown.

Geometry
Point > Ensure the Translate option is selected and enter a value of –81 in Y.
Move...
x Click OK to move the Point.
342
Modelling
x Select Point B shown.

Geometry
Point > Ensure the Translate option is selected and enter a value of –33.25 in Y.
Move...
Select these 2 lines
x Select the two Lines shown.

Geometry
Surface > Ensure the Translate option is selected and enter a value of –81 in Y.
By Sweeping...
Click OK to sweep the Lines to create the Surfaces.
343
Select this point
x Select the Point shown.

Geometry
Point > Ensure the Translate option is selected and enter a value of 38 in X.
Move...
Select these points
x Select the two Points shown.
344
Modelling
Geometry
Line > Create a Line between the two selected Points.
Points...
Select these 4 lines
x Select the Line just drawn along with the three Lines as shown.
Geometry
Surface > Create a Surface from the four selected Lines.
Lines...
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Attributes x Define a Line mesh with element type None and 1 division.
Mesh >
Line...
x Give the dataset name as Null 1 and click the Apply button to add the dataset to
the Tree-view and keep the dialog active.
x Enter the Uniform transition option and set the Ratio of first to last element to 4
x Give the dataset name as Null 5 Graded and click Apply to add the dataset to the
Tree-view and keep the dialog active.
345
x Enter the Uniform transition option and set the Ratio of first to last element to
0.2
x Give the dataset name as Null 10 Graded and click OK to add the dataset to the
Tree-view.
Lines to assign Null 1 dataset
x Select the lines as shown and assign the mesh dataset Null 1.
346
Modelling
Lines to assign Null 5 graded dataset
x Select the horizontal lines as shown and assign the mesh dataset Null 5 Graded.
Lines to assign Null 10 graded dataset
x Select the remaining lines as shown and assign the mesh dataset Null 10 Graded.
graphics window and select Mesh to add the mesh layer to the Tree-view.
Click the Close button to accept the default settings.
347
1RWH If the mesh is graded with the smaller elements at the wrong end of a line
reverse the line by selecting the line using the Geometry>Line>Reverse menu
selection.
0DWHULDO3URSHUWLHV
An isotropic elastic material will be used for the retaining wall while an isotropic
nonlinear material utilising the Mohr-Coulomb failure surface will be used for the
soil.
Attributes
Material >
Isotropic...
With the Elastic tab selected enter the isotropic material properties for the wall as
Young’s Modulus 28E6 kN/m2, Poisson’s Ratio 0.15 and Mass Density 2.03874
tonne/m3.
x Enter the dataset name as Concrete Wall.
x Click the Apply button to add the dataset to the Tree-view and keep the dialog
active.
x With the Elastic tab selected enter the isotropic material properties for the soil as
Young’s Modulus 1 # y_mod, Poisson’s Ratio 0.2 and Mass Density 2.03874
tonne/m3.
1RWH The 1 # y_mod indicates that the Young’s Modulus is defined by a variation
scaled by a factor of 1 (spaces are significant when typing this data in). As an
alternative to typing in the formula, enter 1 in the grid location and click on the
button. Select the y_mod variation from the list.
348
Modelling
x Click the Plastic option and from the Model drop-down list select the Mohr-
Coulomb (model 65) entry.
x Enter an Initial cohesion value of 0
x Enter an Initial friction angle value of 25
x Enter an Final friction angle value of 25
x Enter a Dilation angle value of 25
x Enter a Cohesion hardening value of 0 in the tension section
x Enter a Limiting plastic strain value of 1000 in the tension section
x Enter the dataset name as Nonlinear Soil.
x Click the OK button to add the dataset to the Tree-view.
349
Assign the materials to the model.
Surfaces to assign Concrete Wall material
NOTE: Mesh not shown for clarity
x Select the ten surfaces that form the retaining wall as shown and drag and drop the
material dataset Concrete Wall from the Tree-view onto the selection. With
the Assign to surfaces option selected click OK to assign the material dataset.
Geometry
Group > Create a group containing the wall elements only and right-click over the group
New Group... and rename it Wall.
x Right-click on the Wall group and select Invisible.
x Select the whole visible model by pressing Ctrl-A.
x Drag and drop the material dataset Nonlinear Soil from the Tree-view onto the
selection. With the Assign to surfaces option selected click OK to assign the
material dataset.
x Right-click on the Wall group in the Tree-View and select Visible.
6XSSRUWV
Define supports to prescribe zero horizontal displacement as well as zero horizontal
and vertical displacement.
Attributes
x Click on the option to fix the Translation in X.
Support >
Structural...
x Enter the dataset name as Fixed in X and click the Apply button to add the dataset
350
Modelling
to the Tree-view and keep the dialog active.
x Click on the option to fix the Translation in Y.
x Enter the dataset name as Fixed in X and Y and click the OK button to add the
dataset to the Tree-view.
Assign the supports to the model.
x Select the vertical Lines on the left-hand side and right-hand side of the model and
drag and drop the support dataset Fixed in X from the Tree-view onto the
selection. With the Assign to lines option selected click OK to assign the support
dataset to All loadcases.
x Select the 3 horizontal Lines representing the base of the soil and drag and drop
the support dataset Fixed in X and Y from the Tree-view onto the selection.
With the Assign to lines option selected click OK to assign the support dataset to
All loadcases.
x Select the 2nd Point from the left-hand edge at the top of the model which
represents the top corner of the concrete wall and drag and drop the support
dataset Fixed in X from the Tree-view onto the selection. With the Assign to
Points option selected click OK to assign the support dataset to All loadcases.
This support represents the prop.
351
/RDGLQJ
The initial in situ ground conditions must be established in the first loadcase of the
analysis, carried out using a stress and strain type load and a gravity (body force) load.
Attributes x Select the Stress and Strain tab from the Structural Loading Datasets dialog.
Loading >
Structural...
x Ensure the Stress And Strain Type is set to Initial and enter 1 # sig_h in line 1.
x Enter 1 # sig_v in line 2.
x Enter 1 # sig_h in line 4 and ensure that all other entries are 0.
x Enter the dataset name as In situ stress.
x Click the OK button to add the dataset to the Tree-view.
Attributes x Select the Body force tab from the Structural Loading Datasets dialog.
Loading >
Structural...
x Enter –9.81 in Linear acceleration in Y Dir.
x Enter the dataset name as Gravity.
352
Modelling
Assign the loads to the model.
x Select the whole model by pressing Ctrl-A and drag and drop the loading dataset
In situ stress from the Tree-view onto the selection. With the Assign to
Surfaces option selected click OK to assign the loading dataset to Loadcase 1.
x With the whole model selected drag and drop the loading dataset Gravity from the
Tree-view onto the selection. With the Assign to Surfaces option selected
click OK to assign the loading dataset to Loadcase 1.
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The Birth and Death feature must be used to simulate the removal of soil during
excavation in front of the wall. Excavation will take place over eight loadcases.
Attributes x Select the Deactivate tab, ensure that the Percentage to Redistribute is set to 100
Birth and Death...
and enter the dataset name as Excavation.
x Click OK to add the dataset to the Tree-view.

Assign the deactivation to the model.
x Select the top surface in front of the retaining wall and drag and drop the
deactivation dataset Excavation from the Tree-view onto the selection. With
the Assign to surfaces option selected enter the Loadcase name as Excavation to
–1.50m and click OK to assign the dataset.
353
x Select the next surface down in front of the wall and drag and drop the
deactivation dataset Excavation from the Tree-view onto the selection. With
the Assign to surfaces option selected enter the Loadcase name as Excavation to
–3.00m and click OK to assign the dataset.
x Repeat the above command six times, selecting the next surface down each time
and renaming the loadcases Excavation to –5.00m, Excavation to –7.13m,
Excavation to –9.26m, Excavation to –11.26m, Excavation to –13.26m and
Excavation to –15.26m respectively.
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The retaining wall analysis must be carried out using a nonlinear analysis control due
to the presence of the Mohr-Coulomb nonlinear material.
x In the Tree-view right-click on Loadcase 1 and rename the loadcase to In situ.
x In the Tree-view double- click on In situ to display the loadcase properties.
x Click on the Nonlinear & Transient control option and click the Set button to
enter the control properties dialog.
In the Incrementation section:
354
x Select the Nonlinear option and choose Manual incrementation.

In the Solution strategy section:
x Set the Max number of iterations to 50.
x Set the Residual force norm to 0.01.
x Set the Incremental displacement norm to 0.01.
x Click OK to accept the settings and OK again to set the loadcase control.
6DYLQJWKHPRGHO
File
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of drained_wall will be automatically entered in the
LUSAS Datafile...
File name field.
x Click the Save button to solve the problem.

The LUSAS results file will be added to Tree-view.
GUDLQHGBZDOORXW this output file contains details of model data, assigned

GUDLQHGBZDOOP\V this is the LUSAS results file which is loaded
automatically into the Tree-view to allow results processing to take place.
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If the analysis fails, the output file will provide information relating to the nature of
the error encountered. Use a text editor to view the output file and search for
‘ERROR’. A common mistake made when using LUSAS Modeller for the first time
is to forget to assign particular attribute data (geometry, mesh, supports, loading etc.)
355
to the model. Any errors listed in the output file should be fixed in LUSAS Modeller
before saving the model and re-running the analysis.
5HEXLOGLQJD0RGHO
If errors are listed that for some reason cannot be corrected by the user, a file is
provided to re-create the model information correctly, allowing a subsequent analysis
to be run successfully.
GUDLQHGBZDOOFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

File
x Enter the file name as drained_wall

File
Command Files > To recreate the model open the command file drained_wall.cmd which is
File
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Loadcase results can be seen in the Tree-view. If the analysis was run from within
LUSAS Modeller the results will be loaded on top of the current model and the load
case results for the first time step are set active by default.
x If present, delete Geometry, Mesh and Attributes from the Tree-view.
:DOO'LVSODFHPHQW
x In the Tree-view right-click over the 8th result loadcase (Excavation to –
13.26m) and Set Active.
graphics window and select Deformed mesh to add the deformed mesh layer to
the Tree-view.
356
Viewing the Results
x Select the Specify factor option and specify a factor of 5. Click on the Mesh tab
and select the option to Show activated only. Click OK to visualise the deformed
mesh for the 8th loadcase magnified by a factor of 5.
A graph of the deformation of the wall toe will be created using the graph wizard.
x Zoom into the top left-hand side of the model and select the node at the wall toe.
357
Select this node
Utilities x With the Time history option selected click Next.

Graph Wizard...
Firstly define the data to be used for the X axis.
x Selected the Named option and click Next.
x Select Loadcase ID from the drop down list and click Next.
x With the Nodal option selected and click Next.
x Select Displacement from the Entity drop down list and DX from the Component
drop down list.
Next.
x Enter suitable text for the graph titles and click Finish to display the graph of
displacement of the wall toe towards the excavation.
358
Viewing the Results
x Close the graph window.
x Maximise the graphics window.
359
6XUIDFH+HDYH
x Select the node at the top of the back of the wall.
Select this node

Graph Wizard...
x Select Displacement from the Entity drop down list and DY from the Component
drop down list.
Next.
heave behind the wall.
360
Viewing the Results
3ODVWLFVWUDLQ
The distribution of plastic strain around the wall is to be shown using contours.
x In the Tree-view right-click over the group Wall and select Show No Results.
graphics window and select Contours to add the contours layer to the Tree-
view.
x Select Plastic strain from the Entity drop down list and EPE from the component
drop down list.
x Select the Contour Range tab and set the Maximum to 0.01 (1% strain).
x Click the OK button to display contours of the plastic strain distribution around
the wall.
361
3URS)RUFH
x Delete the Deformed Mesh and Contours layers from the Tree-view.
x Click the right-hand mouse button in a blank part of the graphics window and
select Mesh to add the mesh layer to the Tree-view. Click the Close button to
accept the default settings.
x Zoom in to the top left-hand side of the model and select the node at the top of the
wall that is supported in the X direction.
362
Viewing the Results
Select this node

Graph Wizard...
x Select Reaction from the Entity drop down list and RSLT from the Component
drop down list.
Next.
heave behind the wall.
363
1RWH The resultant reaction has been graphed in the above figure. Since the wall is
propped only in the horizontal (X) direction at this location (see Supports section)
there is no reaction in the vertical direction and therefore the resultant reaction is
identical to the horizontal reaction.
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x Right-click over the group Wall in the Tree-view and select Set as Only
Visible.
Utilities x Ensure the Snap to grid option is selected and enter a value of 1 for Grid size.
Graph Through 2D...
x Click on OK.
x Draw a line with the mouse through the wall at 10m depth as shown below.
364
Viewing the Results
x Select Resultant effects from 2D model and select Bending stress in the list and
click Next.
x Enter suitable text for the graph titles and click Finish. A graph is drawn and the
bending moment (and other information) is displayed in the Text output pane.
365
The bending moment reported is 4280 kN/m2 per metre run of the wall.
366
Description
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With product option(s): IMDPlus
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This example
examines the seismic
response of a 2D
plane frame founded
on an elastic
medium. The model
is an extension of the
Seismic Response of
a Plane Frame
example.
Units used are N m
kg C s throughout.
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Displacements, velocities and accelerations at the top of the tower
Secondary response spectra at the top of the tower
Forces and moments in a column at the base of the tower
367
Seismic Analysis of a 2D Frame (Time Domain)
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Seismic, time domain, response, mass participation, interactive modal dynamics,
excitation, eigenvalue, Secondary Response Spectra.
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,0'3OXVB'B7RZHUFPG carries out the modelling of the structure.
KRUL]RQWDOSUQ DQG YHUWLFDOSUQ define horizontal and vertical
earthquake accelerations. These two files contain two earthquake records each.
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The Seismic Response of a Plane Frame is revisited in this example. The frame is
founded in a plane strain elastic medium and the response of the structure is evaluated
in the time domain using IMDPlus.
The model is comprised of thick beam elements for the concrete columns, beam
members, and steel diagonal bracing members, which have pinned end connections.
The number of beam elements representing the components of the structure has been
increased from 1 per line to 4 per line to provide greater definition of the deformed
shapes. In addition to this modification, all support restraints have been removed from
the frame and an additional 4.5 m length has been added to the base of each column to
allow embedment of the column bases into the elastic medium.
The elastic medium is modelled as a 108m by 20m block which is fully restrained
along its base and with cyclic translation constraints assigned to the sides. These
constraints provide support to the sides of the elastic medium without the need to
apply physical restraints, thus allowing direct and shear behaviours in the elastic
medium.
The seismic response analysis is performed in two distinct stages. A natural frequency
analysis is performed first. This is used to calculate the first 50 natural modes of
vibration of the combined structure and elastic medium. The eigenvalues, frequencies
and eigenvectors (mode shapes) are stored and used in the subsequent IMDPlus
analysis. Although the natural frequencies are obtained from an eigenvalue analysis
any information regarding the magnitudes of deformations or stresses / moments is
non-quantitative.
The second phase of the analysis utilises the IMDPlus option which performs
enhanced time domain solutions using Interactive Modal Dynamics (IMD). This is an
alternative to performing a spectral response analysis and allows the excitation of the
structure using acceleration time histories instead of spectral excitation curves.
In the IMDPlus solution, the structure is subjected to a support condition excitation
governed by time histories of acceleration in the model global axes. In this example
368
Modelling
this is assumed to act along the base of the elastic medium in the form of horizontal
and vertical accelerations. It should, however, be noted that no deconvolution of the
records has been carried out to convert the surface responses recorded for these
earthquakes to at-depth acceleration time histories to be input into the analysis. As a
consequence, the ground level accelerations in the analysis will not correspond to the
measured values. Two earthquake records are used in the analysis, the first being the
1940 El Centro earthquake and the second being the 1994 Northridge earthquake. The
two earthquake responses are computed during a single analysis. Only the first 10
seconds of each seismic event is analysed in this example.
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x Enter the file name as IMDPlus 2D Tower
x Enter the title as Seismic analysis of 2D tower on elastic medium
x Ensure the Vertical Y Axis option is selected.
x Click OK
,0'3OXVB'B7RZHUFPG carries out the modelling of the structure

369
File
Command Files > Open the command file IMDPlus_2D_Tower.cmd which is located in the
After a short while the following view of the model of the building will be displayed.
1RWH No static structural loading is required for this analysis because only the
dynamic loading is considered during the results processing based on the results from
the natural frequency analysis.
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370

eigenvectors are to be used for subsequent IMD analysis.

Save
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of IMDPlus 2D Tower will be automatically entered
LUSAS Datafile...
in the File name field.

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Loadcase layer. Eigenvalue 1 is set to be active by default.
3ORWWLQJ0RGH6KDSHV
Graphics window and select the Deformed mesh option to add the deformed mesh
and display the deformed mesh for Eigenvalue 1.
371
shape.
shapes.
The deformed mesh plot for Eigenvalue 2 will be displayed.
during vibration the deformed shape will appear in both directions.
window.
Utilities x Ensure Eigenvalues is displayed in the Type combo box and click Finish.
The Eigenvalue results will be printed to the Text Output window. For inspection only
the first 10 modes are shown here.
372
Viewing the Results
Results File = C:\Lusas136\Projects\IMDPlus 2D Tower.mys ID 1

Eigenvalues
1 143.132 1.90409 0.234947E-10
2 1479.53 6.12184 0.277476E-11
3 7142.43 13.4506 0.460022E-11
4 11469.2 17.0446 0.102627E-11
5 13575.0 18.5434 0.283251E-12
6 15302.9 19.6882 0.161696E-11
7 22094.5 23.6572 0.320544E-05
8 23573.1 24.4359 0.116691E-06
9 23650.2 24.4758 0.800365E-06
10 23791.2 24.5487 0.115036E-09
eigenvalue by 2S, and the period of vibration in seconds is obtained using the
shown.
0 to mass) therefore any derived quantities such as displacement and moment are also
the window.
1RWH In order to carry out a successful IMDPlus analysis you should ensure that a
requires checking that around 90% of the total mass has been achieved in the global
directions. If less than 90% has been achieved, no further modes need be included if
and only if the mode of vibrations omitted cannot be excited by the input acceleration
time histories or if a significant proportion of the structure is restrained by support in
these directions and therefore cannot participate in the modes of vibration. The
acceptability of the included modes of vibration will vary from analysis to analysis but
failure to check that a significant proportion of the total mass has been accounted may
lead to important modes being missed and subsequent errors in the analysis results.
Text Output window.
373
For inspection only modes 40 to 50 will be printed here. In can be seen that the 90%
value has not been achieved and is discussed below.
Results File = C:\Lusas136\Projects\IMDPlus 2D Tower.mys ID 1
Eigenvalues
40 0.813596 0.582695 0.000000E+00
41 0.813596 0.636640 0.000000E+00
42 0.813597 0.749977 0.000000E+00
43 0.813598 0.750094 0.000000E+00
44 0.813599 0.750110 0.000000E+00
45 0.813603 0.753794 0.000000E+00
46 0.813603 0.791096 0.000000E+00
47 0.813604 0.791819 0.000000E+00
48 0.813618 0.792532 0.000000E+00
49 0.813618 0.792532 0.000000E+00
50 0.813618 0.792748 0.000000E+00
1RWH In this analysis, a significant proportion of mass is restrained along the base

of the elastic medium. For the 50 modes of vibration, 81.36% and 79.27% of the total
mass is achieved in the horizontal and vertical directions. In order to achieve 90%
total mass in both the horizontal and vertical directions 160 modes of vibration with
an upper frequency equivalent to 97.2 Hz is required. For the purposes of this
example, the number of modes of vibration has been restricted to 50.
the window.
x Delete the Deformed mesh and Annotation layers from the Treeview.
Graphics window and select the Geometry option to add the geometry layer to the
Treeview. Click the Close button to accept the default settings.
Graphics window and select the Mesh option to add the mesh layer to the
374
Viewing the Results
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Seismic response calculations are performed using the IMDPlus (Interactive Modal
Dynamics) facility. This involves defining the excitation and specifying the results
required.
1RWH With a seismic response analysis, additional

damping information may also be set. Unlike results
from a natural frequency analysis, the output values
obtained from a seismic response are design values.
Utilities x Select IMDPlus from the Utilities menu to
IMDPlus
access this facility. The following dialog will be
displayed.
x Select the Run Seismic Analysis option
1RWH All other IMDPlus features are disabled for

two-dimensional analyses.
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The input for the seismic analysis is defined in this dialog. The input consists of the
earthquake acceleration records, included modes and damping along with
interpolation options.
x Select
horizontal.prn in
the X-Direction
Earthquake
Record(s) by
browsing to the
Lusas136\Example
s\Modeller
directory.
x Select vertical.prn
in the Y-Direction
Earthquake
Record(s) by
browsing to the
Lusas136\Example
s\Modeller
directory.
375
x Ensure the Direction Factors in the X and Y directions are set to 1 and 0.66667
x Ensure Included modes is set to All. If this is not the case, click on the
Modify… button and turn the All modes option on.
x Ensure Default damping (5%) is selected. If a different damping is displayed,

click on the Modify… button and set the Default damping to 5
x Ensure the All frequencies included option is selected.
x Click the Next button to proceed. When prompted about less than 90% total
mass participation detected choose Yes since we are aware of this (see Checking
Mass Participation Factor).
1RWH The Browse buttons can be used instead of entering the directional

earthquake file names. As each file is loaded, the contents are checked to ensure that
they are in the correct format.
1RWH Under the Modify dialog for the modes, individual modes can be included or

excluded from the seismic analysis and total mass participations for the excitation
directions are reported.
1RWH Under the Modify dialog for the damping, control over the inclusion of over-

damped modes can be adjusted if viscous modal damping has been included in the
original eigenvalue analysis. To include viscous modal damping, Rayleigh damping
parameters must be defined in the material properties assigned to the model or a
separate damping attribute defined and assigned to the model. This allows direct
mirroring of step-by-step dynamic solutions and the inclusion of frequency dependent
damping.
1RWH Four methods of interpolation are available in IMDPlus. The default All

frequencies included will solve the seismic analysis using all of the frequencies
included in the eigenvalue analysis. Limit frequencies to Nyquist frequency will limit
the included frequencies to the Nyquist frequency which is governed by the time step
of the earthquake records and defined as 1/2Gt. Linear interpolation of records allows
the specification of an alternative time step for the analysis where the earthquake
records are linearly interpolated to this time step. Cubic spline interpolation of records
allows the specification of an alternative time step for the analysis where the
earthquake records are interpolated with a cubic spline to this time step. This last form
of interpolation should generally not be used for measured earthquake records as it
can smooth the peak responses but is often more appropriate for synthesised
earthquake records.
376
Viewing the Results
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The output control dialog will be available from which all of the results for the model
are available.
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The displacement of the top of the tower will be investigated initially. Enter the
following information into the output control dialog.
x Select Node and

enter 2496. This is
the node at the top
right of the tower
x Select
Displacement
results of DX &
DY
x Select Response
time history
x Select Peak
response
summary
x Select Generate
graphs in
Modeller and
earthquake 1 in the
Earthquake to graph list box
x Click the Apply button to proceed.
The horizontal (DX) and vertical (DY) displacements of the top of the tower are
displayed on the graph for the first 10 seconds of the 1940 El Centro earthquake. Peak
displacements are also output to Notepad and indicate absolute peak displacements of
0.085 m in the X-direction, 0.006 m in the Y-direction and a peak rotation of 0.003
radians (Record 1).
377
# /--------- Record 1 ----------\ /--------- Record 2 ----------\

# Entity | Time Value | | Time Value |
Peak_Pos_DX 5.060000000 0.8052632538E-001 9.590000000 0.2138168808E-001
Peak_Neg_DX 2.125000000 -0.8533321973E-001 9.345000000 -0.2608242714E-001
Abs_Peak_DX 2.125000000 0.8533321973E-001 9.345000000 0.2608242714E-001
Peak_Pos_DY 2.120000000 0.5616511457E-002 9.355000000 0.2026752198E-002
Peak_Neg_DY 5.070000000 -0.5387073692E-002 9.595000000 -0.1689282708E-002
Abs_Peak_DY 2.120000000 0.5616511457E-002 9.355000000 0.2026752198E-002
Peak_Pos_THZ 2.125000000 0.2571477138E-002 9.355000000 0.9068863616E-003
Peak_Neg_THZ 5.065000000 -0.2505309281E-002 9.595000000 -0.7782130720E-003
Abs_Peak_THZ 2.125000000 0.2571477138E-002 9.355000000 0.9068863616E-003
1RWH Displacements are relative to the supports.

x Close the Notepad application and graph window.
x When the graph is displayed click on the IMDPlus output control toolbar
button to return to the output control dialog.
In the IMDPlus analysis we have analysed two earthquake combinations at the same
time. We are therefore also interested in the displacement response of the top of the
tower for the second earthquake. In order to achieve this enter the following
information into the output control dialog.
x Select earthquake 2 for graphing in the Earthquake to graph list box
378
Viewing the Results
The horizontal (DX) and vertical (DY) displacements of the top of the tower are
displayed on the graph for the first 10 seconds of the 1994 Northridge earthquake.
Peak displacements are also output to Notepad and indicate absolute peak
displacements of 0.026 m in the X-direction, 0.002 m in the Y-direction and a peak
rotation of 0.001 radians (Record 2).
# /--------- Record 1 ----------\ /--------- Record 2 ----------\

Peak_Pos_DX 5.060000000 0.8052632538E-001 9.590000000 0.2138168808E-001
Peak_Neg_DX 2.125000000 -0.8533321973E-001 9.345000000 -0.2608242714E-001
Abs_Peak_DX 2.125000000 0.8533321973E-001 9.345000000 0.2608242714E-001
Peak_Pos_DY 2.120000000 0.5616511457E-002 9.355000000 0.2026752198E-002
Peak_Neg_DY 5.070000000 -0.5387073692E-002 9.595000000 -0.1689282708E-002
Abs_Peak_DY 2.120000000 0.5616511457E-002 9.355000000 0.2026752198E-002
Peak_Pos_THZ 2.125000000 0.2571477138E-002 9.355000000 0.9068863616E-003
Peak_Neg_THZ 5.065000000 -0.2505309281E-002 9.595000000 -0.7782130720E-003
Abs_Peak_THZ 2.125000000 0.2571477138E-002 9.355000000 0.9068863616E-003
379
9HORFLW\3ORWV
In addition to the displacement response of the top of the tower we are also interested
in the velocities experienced by the tower. Enter the following information into the
output control dialog.
x Select Velocity results of VX & VY
x Select earthquake 1 for graphing in the Earthquake to graph list box
x Click Apply to proceed
The horizontal (VX) and vertical (VY) velocities of the top of the tower are displayed
on the graph for the first 10 seconds of the 1940 El Centro earthquake. Peak velocities
are also output to Notepad and indicate absolute peak velocities of 1.129 m/s in the X-
direction, 0.089 m/s in the Y-direction and a peak rotational velocity of 0.040 rad/s
(Record 1).
# /--------- Record 1 ----------\ /--------- Record 2 ----------\

Peak_Pos_VX 2.270000000 1.128587005 9.410000000 0.4226833572
Peak_Neg_VX 2.005000000 -0.9644122019 9.655000000 -0.3836416493
Abs_Peak_VX 2.270000000 1.128587005 9.410000000 0.4226833572
Peak_Pos_VY 1.990000000 0.7860514586E-001 9.645000000 0.3673477681E-001
380
Viewing the Results
Peak_Neg_VY 2.295000000 -0.8930664691E-001 9.410000000 -0.4903966074E-001

Abs_Peak_VY 2.295000000 0.8930664691E-001 9.410000000 0.4903966074E-001
Peak_Pos_RVZ 2.010000000 0.3389750498E-001 9.650000000 0.1621511670E-001
Peak_Neg_RVZ 2.270000000 -0.4006077369E-001 9.410000000 -0.1865577027E-001
Abs_Peak_RVZ 2.270000000 0.4006077369E-001 9.410000000 0.1865577027E-001
1RWH Velocities are relative to the supports.

$FFHOHUDWLRQDQG6HFRQGDU\5HVSRQVH6SHFWUD3ORWV
The acceleration response of the top of the tower is now required. Enter the following
x Select Acceleration results of AX & AY
x Select Generate Secondary Response

Spectra
x Click on the Modify… button to bring

up the dialog shown to the right
x Set the Minimum damping and

Maximum damping to 5.0 and the
Damping increment to 0.0
x Click the OK button and Yes to confirm

that only a single damping ratio is to be
used
x Click the Apply button to proceed. Choose No when asked whether to show
average, maximum and minimum SRS envelopes.
The horizontal (AX) and vertical (AY) accelerations of the top of the tower are
displayed on the graph for the first 10 seconds of the 1940 El Centro earthquake. Peak
accelerations are also output to Notepad and indicate absolute peak accelerations of
14.482 m/s2 in the X-direction, 6.399 m/s2 in the Y-direction and a peak rotational
acceleration of 2.083 rad/s2 (Record 1).
Secondary Response Spectra are also generated for the horizontal and vertical and
horizontal directions in two additional graphs. These graphs represent the peak
acceleration responses of a range of single degree of freedom oscillators with known
381
natural frequencies and damping should they be attached to the node at the top of the
tower.
# /--------- Record 1 ---------\ /--------- Record 2 ----------\

Peak_Pos_AX 4.815000000 14.48218091 9.360000000 8.351762138
Peak_Neg_AX 2.355000000 -14.25905470 9.595000000 -7.771368984
Abs_Peak_AX 4.815000000 14.48218091 9.360000000 8.351762138
Peak_Pos_AY 1.025000000 6.398934667 9.435000000 1.722979792
Peak_Neg_AY 3.410000000 -5.044900945 9.350000000 -1.441126790
Abs_Peak_AY 1.025000000 6.398934667 9.435000000 1.722979792
Peak_Pos_RAZ 1.050000000 2.083218926 9.610000000 0.4533942448
Peak_Neg_RAZ 1.030000000 -2.022323516 9.370000000 -0.5864685896
Abs_Peak_RAZ 1.050000000 2.083218926 9.370000000 0.5864685896
382
Viewing the Results
x Close the Notepad application and graph windows.
383
'LVSOD\LQJ(OHPHQW5HVXOWVIRU6HLVPLF$QDO\VHV
In the previous section we have investigated the displacement, velocity and
acceleration response of the top of the tower. We will now look at the forces and
moments in one of the columns at ground level for the structure. Enter the following
x Select Element and enter 656. This is the beam element located immediately
above ground level in the second column from the right.
x Select End 2 of the element which corresponds to the ground level.
x Select Stress results of Fx
x Deselect Peak response summary

The time history of the axial force (in N) in the column is displayed on the graph for
the first 10 seconds of the 1940 El Centro earthquake. Similar graphs can also be
generated for the shear force and bending moment by selecting Fy (in N) and Mz (in
Nm) from the output control dialog.
384
Viewing the Results
x Click on the IMDPlus output control toolbar button to return to the output
control dialog.
x Select Stress results of Fy
385
x Click on the IMDPlus output control toolbar button to return to the output
control dialog.
x Select Stress results of Mz
x Click the Finish button to finish output processing.
386
Viewing the Results
387
388
Description
6HLVPLF$QDO\VLVRI
D')UDPH7LPH
'RPDLQ
'HVFULSWLRQ
This example examines the
seismic response of a 2-storey
3D frame in the time domain.
The geometry of the structure
has been simplified to a wire-
frame or stick representation
with each of the members of
the structure being
represented by a line feature.
Units used are N m kg C s
throughout.
2EMHFWLYHV
Maximum deflections in X-, Y- and Z-directions
Deformed mesh plots associated with maximum deflections
Envelopes of axial force and bending diagrams from modal combination.
389
.H\ZRUGV
Seismic, time domain, response, interactive modal dynamics, excitation,
eigenvalue, modal combination.
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
'BIUDPHBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the structure.
HZSUQ QVSUQ DQG XSSUQ define the east-west horizontal, north-
south horizontal and vertical earthquake accelerations.
'LVFXVVLRQ
The mesh definition used in a dynamic analysis is somewhat different from that used
on a static stress analysis. In a static analysis, and with experience, it is usually not
too difficult to estimate where the high stresses are likely to occur. These estimates
can then be used to develop a meshing strategy with a fine mesh in high stress
locations and a coarse mesh in less critical locations. For a dynamic analysis the
interaction between the stiffness and inertia forces will lead to deflected shapes which
can be very different from those expected in a static analysis.
In a dynamic analysis both stiffness and mass distribution has to be considered.
Generally, the best strategy for a dynamic analysis is to have a uniform mesh over the
entire structure. If refinement is to be carried out a more coarse mesh can sometimes
be used in stiff regions. In regions that are more flexible, or where heavy masses are
located, the mesh should be more refined.
In this example the global behaviour of the building is being considered for
earthquake response. In this analysis the lower frequencies will be dominant and a
relatively coarse mesh will suffice. If the higher frequencies are important, or if a
local response for individual beams and columns is to be considered, a revised mesh
with more elements would need to be used.
The seismic response analysis is performed in two distinct stages. A natural frequency
analysis is performed first. This is used here to calculate the first 30 natural modes of
vibration of the structure. The eigenvalues (frequencies) and eigenvectors (mode
shapes) are stored and used in the subsequent seismic response analysis. In order to
carry out a seismic analysis the eigenvectors must be normalised with respect to the
mass. Although natural frequencies are obtained from an eigenvalue analysis any
information regarding the magnitudes of deformations or moments is non-quantitative.
The second phase of the analysis utilises the IMDPlus option which performs
enhanced time domain solutions using Interactive Modal Dynamics (IMD). This is an
alternative to performing a spectral response analysis and allows the excitation of the
structure using acceleration time histories instead of spectral excitation curves. In the
IMDPlus solution, the structure is subjected to support excitation governed by time
390
Modelling
histories of acceleration in the model global axes. In this example, the seismic
excitation is applied directly to the bases of the columns using the first 2.5 seconds of
the 1940 El Centro earthquake.
0RGHOOLQJ
&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the file name as IMDPlus 3D Frame
x Enter the title as Seismic analysis of a 3D frame
x Click OK
GBIUDPHBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the structure

File
Command Files > Open the command file 3d_frame_modelling.cmd which is located in the
After a short while a plan view of the model of the building will be displayed.
Select the isometric button to view the frame in 3D.
391

dynamic loading is considered during the results processing.
'HILQLQJ(LJHQYDOXHFRQWUROV
392


Save
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of IMDPlus 3D Frame will be automatically entered
LUSAS Datafile...
in the File name field.

393
9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
Loadcase layer with Eigenvalue 1 set to be active by default.
6HLVPLF5HVSRQVH$QDO\VLV
Seismic response calculations are performed using
the IMDPlus (Interactive Modal Dynamics) facility.
This involves defining the excitation and specifying
the results required.
1RWH With a seismic response analysis, additional

damping information may also be set. Unlike results
from a natural frequency analysis, the output values
obtained from a seismic response are design values.
IMDPlus
access this facility. The following dialog will be
displayed.
'HILQLQJWKH6HLVPLF3DUDPHWHUV
The input for the seismic analysis is defined in this dialog. The input consists of the
earthquake acceleration records, included modes and damping along with
interpolation options.
394
Viewing the Results
x Select e-w.prn in the X-Direction Earthquake Record(s) by browsing to the

Lusas136\Examples\Modeller directory
x Select n-s.prn in the Y-Direction Earthquake Record(s) by browsing to the

x Select up.prn in the Z-Direction Earthquake Record(s) by browsing to the

x Ensure that the Direction Factors are set to 1.0 in the X-Direction, 1.0 in the Y-
Direction and 0.66667 in the Z-Direction
x Ensure Included modes is set to All. If this is not the case, click on the

x Select the Linear interpolation of records option and enter a time step of
0.0025 (Half the time step of the original earthquake records
x Click the Next button to proceed. When prompted about significant missing total
mass choose Yes as only 31.22% is included in the Z-Direction (vertical) for 30
modes.
395
'LVSOD\LQJ1RGH'LVSODFHPHQW5HVXOWVIRU6HLVPLF
$QDO\VLV
The output control dialog will be available from which all of the results for the model
are available.
'LVSODFHPHQW3ORWV
The displacement of the top of the central column will be investigated initially. Enter
the following information into the output control dialog.
x Select Node and

enter 61. This is the
node at the top of
the central column
of the frame.
x Select
Displacement
results of DX, DY
& DZ
x Select Response
time history
x Select Peak
response
summary
x Select Modal
combination/facto
r history and click
on the Options… button. Set the Minimum mass participation factor
percentage to include as 1.0 and click on OK
x Select Generate graphs in Modeller
x Click the Finish button.
The horizontal (DX and DY) and vertical (DZ) displacement of the top of the column
are displayed on the graph for the first 2.5 seconds of the 1940 El Centro earthquake.
Peak displacements are also output to Notepad and indicate absolute peak
displacements of 0.0047 m in the X-direction, 0.0248 m in the Y-direction along with
additional output for the Z-direction and rotations about each of these axes. From this
output we can identify times of 2.470 seconds and 2.4875 seconds which correspond
396
Viewing the Results
to the absolute peak displacements in the X and Y directions respectively. This

information will be used in the next section to visualise the deformed shapes using
modal combinations.
# /------------- Record 1 -------------\

# Entity | Time Value |
Peak_Pos_DX 2.470000000 0.4663135508E-002
Peak_Neg_DX 1.980000000 -0.4455951386E-002
Abs_Peak_DX 2.470000000 0.4663135508E-002
Peak_Pos_DY 2.487500000 0.2476895940E-001
Peak_Neg_DY 2.335000000 -0.2302689595E-001
Abs_Peak_DY 2.487500000 0.2476895940E-001
Peak_Pos_DZ 1.080000000 0.6531172505E-004
Peak_Neg_DZ 1.012500000 -0.9521431232E-004
Abs_Peak_DZ 1.012500000 0.9521431232E-004
Peak_Pos_THX 2.325000000 0.5255381645E-004
Peak_Neg_THX 2.500000000 -0.5547175753E-004
Abs_Peak_THX 2.500000000 0.5547175753E-004
Peak_Pos_THY 2.465000000 0.1603536929E-004
Peak_Neg_THY 2.000000000 -0.1634602760E-004
Abs_Peak_THY 2.000000000 0.1634602760E-004
Peak_Pos_THZ 2.377500000 0.4130097092E-003
Peak_Neg_THZ 2.477500000 -0.4316076879E-003
Abs_Peak_THZ 2.477500000 0.4316076879E-003
397
'LVSOD\LQJ'HIRUPHG0HVK3ORWVIURP0RGDO
&RPELQDWLRQV
When the IMDPlus analysis was carried out in the previous section, the Modal
combination/factor history option was selected and caused IMDPlus to generate a
command file in the current working directory called Modal_Combinations-
rec001.cmd. These combinations can now be generated in Modeller by loading this
command file.
0RGDOB&RPELQDWLRQVUHFFPG defines the modal combinations for all

time steps in the seismic analysis.
File
Command Files > Open the command file Modal_Combinations-rec001.cmd in the current
Open... working directory.
The combinations will appear under the original model in the Treeview.
x Delete the Geometry and Attributes layers from the Treeview.
x In the Treeview click the right-hand mouse button on the Local Coordinate
entry and select Hide all definitions
x In the Treeview click the right-hand mouse button on the Mesh and select
Properties. Select and alternative colour to the default and under the Visualise
tab turn off the Beam end releases option. Click the OK button.
Graphics area and select the Deformed Mesh option to add the deformed mesh
and display the deformed mesh.
x In the Treeview right-click on the 10988:Response Time = 2.470000000

dataset name and select the Set Active option to set this combination active. The
deformed mesh will now be displayed for this instance in time as shown below.
398
Viewing the Results
x In the Treeview right-click on the 10995:Response Time = 2.487500000

dataset name and select the Set Active option to set this combination active. The
deformed mesh will now be displayed for this instance in time as shown below.
1RWH Standard post-processing such as displaying contours can be performed on

these modal combinations to allow the global behaviours at instances in time to be
investigated.
399
'LVSOD\LQJ(QYHORSHV2YHU:KROH(DUWKTXDNH
Plots showing the maximum and minimum axial force and bending moment in the
columns for the entire earthquake duration are to be displayed.
Utilities Create an envelope
Envelope
x Enter Whole Earthquake for the name
x Select Model Data in the list
x Hold down the shift key and select combinations 10000 to 11000 in the list and
click on the >> button to add all combinations to the envelope
x Click the OK button and confirm overwriting of the envelope
x In the Treeview right-click the group named Columns and Set as Only
Visible to only view the column members.
x Delete the Mesh and Deformed Mesh layers from the Treeview.
Graphics area and select the Diagrams option to add the Diagrams layer to the
Treeview.
x Select Stress results of axial force Fx in the members. Select the Diagram
display tab and select the Label values option. Plot values on 80% of the
element length.
x In the Treeview right-click on the Whole Earthquake(Max) envelope and

select the Set Active option to set this envelope active.
x Select Associated values, Stress and Fx and click the OK button to finish. The
envelope will now be assembled over the 1000 modal combinations generated by
IMDPlus.
400
Viewing the Results
x In the Treeview right-click on the Whole Earthquake(Max) envelope and

select the Set Active option to set this envelope active and select Associated
values, Stress and My and click the OK button. When informed that the
component is different to the one used in the drawing layers click the Yes button
to update the diagrams layer. The envelope will now be assembled over the 1000
modal combinations generated by IMDPlus.
401
Utilities To check these results we will utilise IMDPlus again. Select IMDPlus from the
IMDPlus
Utilities menu to access this facility.
x Click the Next button to accept the last input for the seismic control dialog and
proceed to the Output control dialog. When prompted about the total mass
participation click the Yes button to continue.
x Select Element and enter 22 which is the central column and select All ends.
x Choose Stress and component Fx.
x Deselect the Response time history.
x Deselect the Modal combination/factor history.
x Click the Finish button and click the Yes button to confirm that both ends of the
beam element are to be processed.
The peak forces and moments in element 22 will be output to a Notepad application in
the format indicated below.
402
Viewing the Results
# /------------- Record 1 -------------\

# Entity | Time Value |
Peak_Pos_Fx1 1.012500000 17746.44942
Peak_Neg_Fx1 1.080000000 -12103.61757
Abs_Peak_Fx1 1.012500000 17746.44942
Peak_Pos_Fx2 1.080000000 12103.61757
Peak_Neg_Fx2 1.012500000 -17746.44942
Abs_Peak_Fx2 1.012500000 17746.44942
Peak_Pos_Fy1 2.327500000 13265.87907
Peak_Neg_Fy1 2.497500000 -14792.31132
Abs_Peak_Fy1 2.497500000 14792.31132
Peak_Pos_Fy2 2.497500000 14792.31132
Peak_Neg_Fy2 2.327500000 -13265.87907
Abs_Peak_Fy2 2.497500000 14792.31132
Peak_Pos_Fz1 2.472500000 5874.929631
Peak_Neg_Fz1 1.980000000 -5582.634918
Abs_Peak_Fz1 2.472500000 5874.929631
Peak_Pos_Fz2 1.980000000 5582.634918
Peak_Neg_Fz2 2.472500000 -5874.929631
Abs_Peak_Fz2 2.472500000 5874.929631
Peak_Pos_Mx1 2.280000000 1.398946369
Peak_Neg_Mx1 2.192500000 -0.9690831036
Abs_Peak_Mx1 2.280000000 1.398946369
Peak_Pos_Mx2 2.192500000 0.9690831036
Peak_Neg_Mx2 2.280000000 -1.398946369
Abs_Peak_Mx2 2.280000000 1.398946369
Peak_Pos_My1 1.980000000 8475.199866
Peak_Neg_My1 2.472500000 -8929.849651
Abs_Peak_My1 2.472500000 8929.849651
Peak_Pos_My2 1.980000000 8607.662981
Peak_Neg_My2 2.472500000 -9047.435020
Abs_Peak_My2 2.472500000 9047.435020
Peak_Pos_Mz1 2.327500000 20309.93364
Peak_Neg_Mz1 2.497500000 -22643.30809
Abs_Peak_Mz1 2.497500000 22643.30809
Peak_Pos_Mz2 2.327500000 20283.65630
Peak_Neg_Mz2 2.497500000 -22621.16456
Abs_Peak_Mz2 2.497500000 22621.16456
Comparison of the results shows good agreement between the envelope and IMDPlus
results. Exact agreement would have been obtained if all modes were included in the
modal combinations used for the envelope instead of the 1% minimum participating
mass selected earlier.
1RWH IMDPlus uses the beam end sign conventions as indicated in the on-line help

under Element Reference Manual – Appendices – Sign Conventions – Engineering
Beam Elements hence the change in sign of the forces and moments at the two ends.
x Close the Notepad application.
403
404
Description
7UDLQ,QGXFHG
9LEUDWLRQRID
%ULGJH
'HVFULSWLRQ
This example
examines the
response of a rail
bridge to the
passage of a train.
Units used are N
m kg C s
throughout.
2EMHFWLYHV
Maximum deflections and accelerations in X-, Y- and Z-directions for train
speeds of 15 m/s and 70 m/s,
Peak deflections and accelerations in the vertical direction for a speed range of
15 m/s to 70 m/s in 5 m/s intervals,
405
Train Induced Vibration of a Bridge
Stress resultants and peak stress resultants in main girder web.
.H\ZRUGV
Moving load, time domain, response, interactive modal dynamics, eigenvalue.
$VVRFLDWHG)LOHV
,0'3OXVB5DLOB%ULGJHFPG carries out the modelling of the structure.
HFB7\SHSUQ contains the axle loads of the train set.
0RGHOOLQJ
&UHDWLQJDQHZPRGHO
x Enter the file name as IMDPlus Rail Bridge
x Enter the title as Dynamic Train Loading of Rail Bridge
x Click OK
,0'3OXVB5DLOB%ULGJHFPG carries out the modelling of the structure

406
Modelling
File
Command Files > Open the command file IMDPlus_Rail_Bridge.cmd which is located in the
After a while a plan view of the model of the building will be displayed.
Select the isometric button to view the bridge in 3D.
x Delete the Attributes layer from Treeview.
407

dynamic loading is considered during the results processing which is defined later.
'LVFXVVLRQ
The bridge is approximately 16.5m long and 4.75m wide and carries a single track
with ballast and concrete sleepers. The primary structure is constructed from steel and
is modelled using shell elements. For this analysis, modelling of the ballast/track-
bridge interaction has been carried out using a full 3D solid representation of the
ballast with the sleepers modelled with thick beam elements laid along the top of the
ballast. The rails of the track have been modelled using thick beam elements spanning
between the sleepers and the whole ballast/track model is connected to the bridge deck
using a tied slideline. The bridge and ballast model has been represented with a coarse
mesh and therefore the results from this analysis will be inaccurate. For analysing
actual structures it is recommended that a finer mesh be used which can capture both
the vibration modes of the bridge and the movement of the load across the bridge
more accurately.
408
Modelling
To allow the loading of the rails to be distributed to the 3D solid elements using
discrete point loads the track modelling uses weak weightless shell elements which
span between the beam elements representing the rails. The track representation is
409
shown in the figure (Note: The line down the centre of the track – Line 12000 – is
used to define the path of the train across the bridge and will be used later in this
example). In order to avoid any adverse dynamic behaviour of the weak weightless
shell elements, only one division is used to span between the two rails thus providing
full support to the shells without adding stiffness to the model.
'HILQLQJ(LJHQYDOXH&RQWUROV
x Set the Eigenvalues required to Range
x Ensure the Range is set to Frequency
x Set the Minimum frequency as 0
x Set the Maximum frequency as 50
x Set the Number of eigenvalues as 0 to solve for all frequencies in the range
410


Save
5XQQLQJWKH$QDO\VLV
File A LUSAS data file name of IMDPlus Rail Bridge will be automatically
LUSAS Datafile...
entered in the File name field.

9LHZLQJWKH5HVXOWV
Loadcase layer. Eigenvalue 1 is set to be active by default.
1RWH In order to carry out a successful IMDPlus analysis you should ensure that a
requires checking that around 90% of the total mass has been achieved in the global
directions. If less than 90% has been achieved, no further modes need be included if
and only if the mode of vibrations omitted cannot be excited by the dynamic input or
if a significant proportion of the structure is restrained by support in these directions
and therefore cannot participate in the modes of vibration. The acceptability of the
included modes of vibration will vary from analysis to analysis but failure to check
that a significant proportion of the total mass has been accounted may lead to
important modes being missed and subsequent errors in the analysis results.
411
Text Output window.
In can be seen that the 90% value has not been achieved in any direction for this
analysis and is discussed in the note below.
Results File = C:\Lusas136\Projects\IMDPlus Rail Bridge.mys ID 1

Eigenvalues
1 0.674825E-04 0.212923E-05 0.529060
2 0.680469E-04 0.105492 0.529086
3 0.681515E-04 0.529492 0.529099
4 0.127960E-03 0.529967 0.547994
5 0.127960E-03 0.529967 0.547994
6 0.127962E-03 0.529967 0.547996
7 0.127962E-03 0.529971 0.547996
8 0.128659E-03 0.529971 0.548006
9 0.128659E-03 0.529983 0.548006
10 0.128688E-03 0.529983 0.548021
11 0.354611E-03 0.529983 0.549631
12 0.354656E-03 0.529988 0.549632
13 0.354700E-03 0.530062 0.549632
14 0.397609E-03 0.530063 0.549832
15 0.397610E-03 0.530627 0.549832
16 0.397983E-03 0.530627 0.549833
17 0.400117E-03 0.546638 0.549833
18 0.883152E-02 0.546638 0.554234
19 0.106556E-01 0.546779 0.554352
20 0.116155E-01 0.546883 0.554507
1RWH In this analysis we are only including modes of vibration with frequencies up
to and including 50 Hz with frequencies higher than this value considered
insignificant for the analysis. As a consequence, only 1.2% of the total mass is
achieved in the X-direction, 54.7% is achieved in the Y-direction and 55.5% is
achieved in the Z-direction.
the window.
412
Viewing the Results
Utilities x Ensure Mass Participation Factors is displayed in the Type combo box and click
Finish. The Mass Participation Factors results will be printed to the Text Output
window.
Results File = C:\Lusas136\Projects\IMDPlus Rail Bridge.mys ID 1
Eigenvalues
MODE MASS PF X MASS PF Y MASS PF Z
1 0.674825E-04 0.212923E-05 0.529060
2 0.564393E-06 0.105490 0.260914E-04
3 0.104603E-06 0.424000 0.128339E-04
4 0.598086E-04 0.474464E-03 0.188952E-01
5 0.190246E-10 0.664716E-06 0.448858E-09
6 0.151273E-08 0.729118E-10 0.193522E-05
7 0.144056E-09 0.397064E-05 0.771623E-08
8 0.697570E-06 0.349134E-08 0.934185E-05
9 0.106785E-09 0.115757E-04 0.145105E-08
10 0.287602E-07 0.405120E-08 0.156835E-04
11 0.225923E-03 0.475684E-07 0.160995E-02
12 0.449882E-07 0.524738E-05 0.579885E-06
13 0.443183E-07 0.742919E-04 0.324852E-06
14 0.429091E-04 0.625934E-07 0.199707E-03
15 0.592500E-09 0.564250E-03 0.811905E-09
16 0.372699E-06 0.122450E-07 0.915874E-06
17 0.213401E-05 0.160114E-01 0.208417E-06
18 0.843141E-02 0.263683E-06 0.440069E-02
19 0.182410E-02 0.140362E-03 0.117808E-03
20 0.959827E-03 0.104250E-03 0.155790E-03
From these mass participation factors the major modes of vibration of the bridge are
mode 1 in the Z-direction (vertical) and mode 3 in the Y-direction (lateral).
the window.
3ORWWLQJ0RGH6KDSHV
x Delete the Mesh, and Geometry layers from the Treeview.
413
and display the deformed mesh for Eigenvalue 1. This mode of vibration is the
primary mode in the vertical direction as determined in the Checking the Mass
Participation Factor section.
shapes.
The deformed mesh plot for Eigenvalue 3 will be displayed. This mode of
vibration is the primary mode in the lateral direction for the whole bridge as
determined in the Checking the Mass Participation Factor section.
414
Viewing the Results

shape.

during vibration the deformed shape will appear in both directions.
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Moving load calculations are performed using the IMDPlus (Interactive Modal
Dynamics) facility. In order to carry out the moving load analysis of the train across
the bridge we need to carry out three stages:
1. Define the path along which the load will travel
2. Convert the loading along this path into modal forces for the IMDPlus
analysis
3. Run IMDPlus to calculate the response of the bridge
x Delete the Deformed mesh and Annotation layers from the Treeview.
415
x With nothing selected, click the right-hand mouse button in a blank part of the
Graphics area and select the Mesh option to add the undeformed mesh layer to the
Graphics area and select the Geometry option to add the model geometry layer to
the Treeview. Click the Close button to accept the default settings.
To solve for the passage of the train across the bridge the path for the moving load
must be defined. This is carried out using the current selection which will be set to
include line 12000.
Graphics area and select the Advanced Selection option. Choose Line from the
dropdown list and enter 12000 in the textbox next to it. Click the OK button to
add this line to the selection. The line along the centre of the track will now be
selected for the definition of the train path.
1RWH The path can be built from multiple lines and arcs but these must form a

continuous path without branching.
1RWH Before an IMDPlus analysis can be carried out the load that is going to pass

over the structure must be defined using either discrete point or patch loads. For this
example this has already been carried out with a single axle of unit load defined as a
discrete point load. Defining a single axle allows multiple load configurations to be
analysed through the composite axle definition method in IMDPlus without needing to
carry out the path and modal force stages for each layout. For railways the axle
lengths remain constant over all of the train set and this method would normally be
used. For moving loads where axles are of different widths the full definition of the
load must be carried out with the path and modal force stages carried out for each
layout.
416
Viewing the Results

IMDPlus
access this facility. The following dialog
will be displayed.
x Select the Setup Moving Load Path

option
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On startup of the moving load generation
dialog, all valid discrete loads and
search areas will be made available in
the loading options along with
information about the path defined by
the current selection.
In this example, a single discrete load
called Unit Axle Load which defines the
unit loading from a single axle of the
train is present along with a search area
that is assigned to the weak weightless
shells.
x Ensure 1:Unit Axle Load is selected

from the Moving load dataset list.
x Select 1:Track_Search_Area from

the Search area ID list for the
assignment of the discrete loading.
417
1RWH Using search areas targets the application of the loading to the required

features as described in the Modeller User Manual.
x Click on the Advanced button to adjust the inclusion of load characteristics.
x Choose the Include

Full Load option for
loads outside the
search area and click
the OK button.
x Set the Incremental distance to 0.1
x Click the OK button to proceed.

The program will now generate the loading information for the 274 locations of the
unit axle along the path before returning to the Main IMDPlus Control dialog. This
process will take approximately 5 minutes on a 2.4 GHz processor but does not need
to be repeated unless the lateral configuration of the load changes. For a railway this
will not happen but it may be required for highway analyses where the axle lengths
and tyre configurations could vary.
1RWH The discrete loading locations defined by this dialog will be saved into three

models with a maximum of 100 loadcases each and the analyses performed
automatically. These models will have the same file basename as the original model
with a numeric indicator appended to it (e.g. _00001, _00002, etc) and are required
for the modal force calculation stage.
418
Viewing the Results
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In the previous stage the passage of the train axle across the structure has been
defined. The modal forces for the IMDPlus solution now need to be calculated using
the Modal Force Calculator.
x Click the Setup Modal History

Information button to proceed.
x Click the OK button to accept

the default information and
proceed.
1RWH This process may take a few minutes but does not need to be repeated unless

the moving load path or configuration in Stage 1 is changed.
419
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All of the raw moving load information has now been defined for the IMDPlus
analysis. The next stage is to define the included modes, damping and speed
parameters for the IMDPlus analysis.
x Click on the
Run Moving Load
Analysis button to
continue.
x Ensure the Modal

forces associated
with passage
contains IMDPlus
Rail Bridge.mfh . If
this is not the case,
browse to the
current working
directory and select
this file.
x Click on the
Use composite axle
definition method
option since we are
using a unit load axle definition.
x Click on the Browse button next to the Composite axle configuration file text
box and locate the ec1-3_Type3.prn file in the \Lusas136\Examples\Modeller
directory. Select the file and click the OK button to load this axle configuration.
x Ensure the Included modes is set to All. If this is not the case, click on the

x Enter the Minimum Speed as 15
x Enter the Maximum Speed as 70
x Enter the Speed Increment as 5
x Deselect the IMDPlus determining time step (Nyquist) option so we can specify
the required time step
420
Viewing the Results
x Enter the Solution time step as 1E-3
x Click the Next button to proceed. When prompted about significant missing total
mass choose Yes as only 1.16% of the total mass is included in the global X-
direction, 54.68% of the total mass is included in the global Y-direction and
55.45% of the total mass is included in the global Z-direction. For this analysis we
are only interested in the contributions of modes of vibration up to and including
50Hz which means that we are not going to achieve the 90% total mass target.
The information entered above will analyse the passage of the train across the bridge
for a speed range of 15 m/s to 70 m/s in increments of 5 m/s (or 54 kph to 252 kph in
increments of 18 kph). The quiet time allows for the decay of the response of the
bridge after the train has passed across and the solution time step forces the time step
to be used in the analyses.
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The output control dialog will be available which controls the results output for the
model.
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The response of the mid-span of the bridge for the range of speeds selected will be
investigated. Initially we will look at the displacements of the mid-span for a single
speed of 15 m/s (or 54 kph).
Enter the following information into the output control dialog.
x Select Node and enter

4856. This is the node in
the centre of the bridge
deck at the mid-span of
the bridge.
x Select Displacement
results of DX, DY & DZ
x Select Response time

history
x Select Generate graphs

in Modeller
x Set the Speed to graph

as 1:15 which indicates
421
that the first speed of 15 m/s is being processed
x Click the Apply button to proceed. The IMDPlus analysis will now run and a
warning message will be displayed.
x Click on Yes to view the warnings. The warning issued is ***WARNING***

Results may be unreliable with high oversamples for the first four speeds
analysed. If there are a significant number of warnings in an analysis then the
size of the incremental distance used in the Moving Load Generation stage may
need to be decreased. For this analysis we can ignore this warning and close the
file.
1RWH The warning/error log file must be closed before any graphs will be

generated.
x When the graph has been displayed, close the graph and click on the IMDPlus
output control to return to the output control dialog
422
Viewing the Results
The vertical acceleration response of the mid-span for a single speed of 15 m/s (or 54
kph) will now be investigated. Enter the following information into the output control
dialog.
x Select
Acceleration results
of AZ for the
vertical component
only
x Click the Apply

button to proceed.
1RWH IMDPlus does not need to be rerun since the acceleration results were

computed at the same time as the displacement results.
423
Previously we have investigated the displacement and acceleration response of the
mid-span of the bridge deck for a single train speed. We will now look at the peak
positive and negative vertical displacement and acceleration responses of the mid-
span over the speed range of 15 m/s to 70 m/s as specified in the moving load analysis
control dialog previously.
x Select Displacement results of DZ for the vertical component only
x Deselect the Response time history option
x Select the Peak response summary option and select Positive/Negative
x Click the Apply button to display a graph of displacement versus speed at the
mid-span. When prompted about the warnings click the No button since these are
the same oversample warnings seen previously.
424
Viewing the Results
x Select Acceleration results of AZ for the vertical component only
x Click the Apply button to display a graph of acceleration versus speed at the mid-
span.
425
6WUHVV5HVXOWDQW3ORWVIRU6KHOOV
In the previous section the displacement and acceleration response of the bridge mid-
span were investigated. We will now look at the stress resultants in the web of one of
the main girders. Enter the following information into the output control dialog.
x Select Element and enter 1225. Set Gauss point to 1. This is the element in
approximately the centre of the middle panel of the nearest girder.
x Select Stress results of Nx which is the stress resultant in the along bridge
direction
x Select the Response time history option
426
Viewing the Results
x Deselect the Peak response summary option
x Set the Speed to graph as 12:70 which indicates that the twelfth and last speed
of 70 m/s is being processed
x Click the Apply button to display a graph of Nx versus time for gauss point 1 of
element 1225. When informed about the oversample warning click the No button.
x Select Stress results of Mx which is the moment in the along bridge direction
x Click the Apply button to display a graph of Mx versus time for gauss point 1 of
element 1225. When prompted about the warnings click the No button since these
are the same oversample warnings seen previously.
427
x Deselect the Response time history option
x Select the Peak response summary option and select Absolute
x Click the Finish button to display a graph of absolute peak Mx versus speed for
gauss point 1 of element 1225. When prompted about the warnings click the No
button since these are the same oversample warnings seen previously.
428
Viewing the Results
429
430

Examples Manual Civil and Bridge

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Examples Manual Civil and Bridge

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Powerful FE technology for specialist applications

LUSAS Civil & Structural

Tel: +44 (0)20 8541 1999

Running the Analysis .......................................................................................................331

500 100 250 1500 10

'HVFULSWLRQ contains a summary of the example, defining geometry,

x Enter coordinates of (10, 20).

x Select the Blank model option.

&DXWLRQ A caution is used to alert attention to something which could cause an

x Run LUSAS Modeller using a method appropriate to the machine in use.

x Click the OK button on the Tips dialog.

When running LUSAS for the first

For a new model

x Use the Default

x Enter the title as

x Leave the units as N

x Select the model

x Select the Vertical Y axis option.

x Click the OK button.

separated by commas or spaces unless

x Select the Points on the left-hand side of the model.

x Select the 2 Lines shown (Hold

x Enter the dataset name as Thick Beam then click OK

x Select the whole model. (Ctrl and A keys together)

x With the whole model selected

x Click the Apply

Universal Beam dataset to the Treeview.

x Select 2D Frame usage.

x Drag and drop the geometry

x Drag and drop the geometry Select this Line

x Select the 2 points on the right-

x In the Layers Treeview double-click on Geometry to display the geometry

x Select the 4 Lines to

x Enter the dataset name as Sway Load and click OK.

x Select the Point at the top

x Drag and drop the

x Click the OK button to assign the loading with a factor of 1.

 IUDPHBGRXW this output file contains details of model data, assigned

IUDPHBGBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

x Enter the file name as frame_2D

x Select the Vertical Y axis option and click OK

1RWH By default the maximum displacement is scaled to the magnitude defined on

x Delete the Mesh layer

x Ensure Results file: 1 is

x Select Loadcase 1, hold the

x Set the number of

x Click the OK button

x Select Stress results of axial force Fx in the members

x Select the Label only if selected option.

x Change the number of significant figures to 4

x Click the OK button to finish.

x Now add labels to

This completes the example.

` Re-scale imported features to establish analysis units of length (m).

x Use the default working folder.

x Enter the title as Imported DXF file of slab

x Set the units as kN m t C s

x Leave the model template as None

x Click the OK button.

Delete these Features

Use the Zoom in

x Select the Point on

x With the Shift key

Use the Zoom in

'HVFULSWLRQ contains a summary of the example, defining geometry,

&DXWLRQ A caution is used to alert attention to something which could cause an

IUDPHBGRXW this output file contains details of model data, assigned

IUDPHBGBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

1RWH By default the maximum displacement is scaled to the magnitude defined on

&DXWLRQ Even though the lines defining

To produce areas of

1RWH It is normally good practice to ensure

VODEBGHVLJQRXW this output file contains details of model data, assigned

VODEBGHVLJQBPRGHOOLQJFPG carries out the modelling of the example.

1RWH The crack checking calculation is independent of the previous reinforcement