Computer Network

A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network which allows computers to

exchange data. In computer networks, networked computing devices exchange data with each other
using a data link. The connections between nodes are established using either cable
media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.

Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network
nodes.[1] Nodes can include hosts such aspersonal computers, phones, servers as well
as networking hardware. Two such devices can be said to be networked together when one device
is able to exchange information with the other device, whether or not they have a direct connection
to each other.

Computer networks differ in the transmission medium used to carry their signals,
the communications protocols to organize network traffic, the network's size, topology and
organizational intent.

Computer networks support an enormous number of applications such as access to the World Wide
Web, video, digital audio, shared use of application and storage servers, printers, and fax machines,
and use of email and instant messaging applications as well as many others. In most cases,
application-specific communications protocols are layered (i.e. carried as payload) over other more
general communications protocols.

Network Management

Network management refers to the broad subject of managingcomputer networks. There exists a wide variety

of software andhardware products that help network system administrators manage a network. Network

management covers a wide area, including:

 Security: Ensuring that the network is protected from unauthorized users.
 Performance: Eliminating bottlenecks in the network.
 Reliability: Making sure the network is available to users and responding to hardware and software malfunctions.

The process of administering to and supporting an interconnected system of nodes.

Within a typical business context, network management can refer to efforts taken by
a company to manage groups of connected computers, a sales network, a raw
materials supply network or a product distribution network.
OSi Reference

The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes
and standardizes thecommunication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without
regard to their underlying internal structure and technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse
communication systems with standard protocols. The model partitions a communication system
into abstraction layers. The original version of the model defined seven layers.

A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that
provides error-free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications
above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that comprise the contents of
that path. Two instances at the same layer are visualized as connected by a horizontal connection in
that layer.

The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), maintained by the identification ISO/IEC 7498-1.

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is reference model for how applications

can communicate over a network. A reference model is a conceptual
framework for understanding relationships. The purpose of the OSI reference
model is to guide vendors and developers so the digital communication
products and software programs they create will interoperate, and to facilitate
clear comparisons among communications tools. Most vendors involved in
telecommunications make an attempt to describe their products and services
in relation to the OSI model. And although useful for guiding discussion and
evaluation, OSI is rarely actually implemented, as few network products or
standard tools keep all related functions together in well-defined layers as
related to the model. The TCP/IP protocols, which define the Internet, do not
map cleanly to the OSI model.

History[edit]
In the late 1970s, one project was administered by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), while another was undertaken by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative
Committee, or CCITT (the abbreviation is from the French version of the name). These two
international standards bodies each developed a document that defined similar networking models.

In 1983, these two documents were merged to form a standard called The Basic Reference Model
for Open Systems Interconnection. The standard is usually referred to as the Open Systems
Interconnection Reference Model, the OSI Reference Model, or simply the OSI model. It was
published in 1984 by both the ISO, as standard ISO 7498, and the renamed CCITT (now called the
Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union or ITU-T)
as standard X.200.

OSI had two major components, an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model
or seven-layer model, and a set of specific protocols.

The concept of a seven-layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman at Honeywell
Information Services. Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the ARPANET,
NPLNET, EIN, CYCLADES network and the work in IFIP WG6.1. The new design was documented
in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system was divided into layers.
Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacted directly only
with the layer immediately beneath it, and provided facilities for use by the layer above it.

Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in
another host. Service definitions abstractly described the functionality provided to an (N)-layer by an
(N-1) layer, where N was one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host.

The OSI standards documents are available from the ITU-T as the X.200-series of
recommendations.[1] Some of the protocol specifications were also available as part of the ITU-T X
series. The equivalent ISO and ISO/IEC standards for the OSI model were available from ISO, but
only some of them without fees.[2]

Description of OSI layers[edit]

The recommendation X.200 describes seven layers, labeled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lowest layer in this
model.

OSI Model

Protocol
data
Layer Function[3] Examples
unit (PDU
)

DotNetFtpLibrary,[4] SMTP web

Ho 7. Applic High-level APIs, including resource
API,[5] SSH.NET,[6]SnmpSharpNet,[7]
st ation sharing, remote file access
Data HTML Class,[8] HTTP API server[9]
lay
ers
6. Prese Translation of data between a CSS, GIF, HTML, XML, JSON, S/
 ntation networking service and an MIME,
application; including character
encoding, data
compression and encryption/decrypti
on

Managing communication sessions,

i.e. continuous exchange of RPC, SCP, NFS, PAP,
5. Sessio
information in the form of multiple
n TLS, FTP,[10] HTTP,[11] HTTPS, SMT
back-and-forth transmissions
P,[12] SSH,[13] Telnet[14]
between two nodes

Reliable transmission of data

Segment (
segments between points on a
4. Transp TCP)
network, NBF, TCP, UDP
ort /Datagram
including segmentation, acknowledge
(UDP)
ment and multiplexing

Structuring and managing a multi-

3. Netwo node network,
Packet AppleTalk, ICMP, IPsec, IPv4, IPv6
rk including addressing,routing and traffi
Me c control
dia
Reliable transmission of data frames IEEE
lay 2. Data
Frame between two nodes connected by a 802.2, L2TP, LLDP, MAC, PPP, AT
ers link
physical layer M, MPLS

1. Physic Transmission and reception of raw bit DOCSIS, DSL, Ethernet physical
Bit
al streams over a physical medium layer, ISDN, RS-232

At each level N, two entities at the communicating devices (layer N peers) exchange protocol data
units (PDUs) by means of a layer N protocol. Each PDU contains a payload, called the service data
unit (SDU), along with protocol-related headers and/or footers.

Data processing by two communicating OSI-compatible devices is done as such:

1. The data to be transmitted is composed at the topmost layer of the transmitting device
(layer N) into a protocol data unit (PDU).
2. The PDU is passed to layer N-1, where it is known as the service data unit (SDU).
 3. At layer N-1 the SDU is concatenated with a header, a footer, or both, producing a layer N-1
PDU. It is then passed to layer N-2.
4. The process continues until reaching the lowermost level, from which the data is transmitted
to the receiving device.
5. At the receiving device the data is passed from the lowest to the highest layer as a series
of SDUs while being successively stripped from each layer's header and/or footer, until
reaching the topmost layer, where the last of the data is consumed.

Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and security, involve all of the layers (See ITU-
T X.800 Recommendation[15]). These services are aimed at improving the CIA triad -
confidentiality, integrity, and availability - of the transmitted data. In practice, the availability of a
communication service is determined by the interaction between network design and network
management protocols. Appropriate choices for both of these are needed to protect against denial of
service.[citation needed]

Layer 1: Physical Layer[edit]

The physical layer has the following major functions:

 It defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. It defines the
relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium (e.g., a copper orfiber optical
cable, radio frequency). This includes the layout of pins, voltages,
line impedance, cable specifications, signal timing and similar characteristics for connected
devices and frequency (5 GHz or 2.4 GHz etc.) for wireless devices.
 It is responsible for transmission and reception of unstructured raw data in a physical medium.
 It defines transmission mode i.e. simplex, half duplex, full duplex.
 It defines the network topology as bus, mesh, or ring being some of the most common.
 It mostly deals with raw data.

The physical layer of Parallel SCSI operates in this layer, as do the physical layers of Ethernet and
other local-area networks, such as Token Ring, FDDI, ITU-T G.hn, and IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), as well
as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer[edit]

The data link layer provides node-to-node data transfer—a link between two directly connected
nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer. It, among other
things, defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically
connected devices. It also defines the protocol for flow control between them.

IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sublayers:[16]
 Media Access Control (MAC) layer - responsible for controlling how devices in a network gain
access to medium and permission to transmit it.
 Logical Link Control (LLC) layer - responsible for identifying Network layer protocols and then
encapsulating them and controls error checking and frame synchronization.

The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi-Fi,
and 802.15.4 ZigBee, operate at the data link layer.

The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer that can operate over several different physical
layers, such as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.

The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing wires
(power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layerthat provides
both error correction and flow control by means of a selective-repeat sliding-window protocol.

Layer 3: Network Layer[edit]

The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable
length data sequences (called datagrams) from one node to another connected to the
same network. It translates logical network address into physical machine address. A network is a
medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has anaddress and which
permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely
providing the content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network
find the way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it through intermediate
nodes. If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on the data link layer
between those nodes, the network may implement message delivery by splitting the message into
several fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and reassembling the
fragments at another node. It may, but need not, report delivery errors.

Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily guaranteed to be reliable; a network layer
protocol may provide reliable message delivery, but it need not do so.

A number of layer-management protocols, a function defined in the management annex, ISO

7498/4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management,
network-layer information and error, and network-layer address assignment. It is the function of the
payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that carries them.[17]

Layer 4: Transport Layer[edit]

The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable-length data
sequences from a source to a destination host via one or more networks, while maintaining the
quality of service functions.
An example of a transport-layer protocol in the standard Internet stack is Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP), usually built on top of the Internet Protocol (IP).

The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow
control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state- and connection-
oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those
that fail. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission
and sends the next data if no errors occurred. The transport layer creates packets out of the
message received from the application layer. Packetizing is a process of dividing the long message
into smaller messages.

OSI defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also
known as TP0 and provides the fewest features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks,
similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network
layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains
functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP
connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries.
Detailed characteristics of TP0-4 classes are shown in the following table:[18]

Feature name TP0 TP1 TP2 TP3 TP4

Connection-oriented network Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Connectionless network No No No No Yes

Concatenation and separation No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Segmentation and reassembly Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Error recovery No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Reinitiate connectiona No Yes No Yes No

Multiplexing / demultiplexing over single virtual circuit No No Yes Yes Yes

Explicit flow control No No Yes Yes Yes

Retransmission on timeout No No No No Yes

Reliable transport service No Yes No Yes Yes

a If an excessive number of PDUs are unacknowledged.

An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a post office, which deals with the
dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. Do remember, however, that a post office
manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes,
such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly
speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such
as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption with IPsec.
While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network-layer protocol, if the
encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport
protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to deliver to an
endpoint. L2TP carries PPPframes inside transport packet.

Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI
definition of the transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and theUser Datagram
Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer-4 protocols within
OSI.

Layer 5: Session Layer[edit]

The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages
and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-
duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination,
and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions,
which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and
recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly
implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer[edit]

The presentation layer establishes context between application-layer entities, in which the
application-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides
a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data units are
encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down the protocol stack.

This layer provides independence from data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating between
application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the
application accepts. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network. It is
sometimes called the syntax layer.[19]

The original presentation structure used the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax Notation
One (ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to anASCII-coded file,
or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML.

Layer 7: Application Layer[edit]

The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI application
layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software
applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the
scope of the OSI model. Application-layer functions typically include identifying communication
partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying
communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of
communication partners for an application with data to transmit. When determining resource
availability, the application layer must decide whether sufficient network resources for the requested
communication exist. In synchronizing communication, all communication between applications
requires cooperation that is managed by the application layer. This layer supports application and
end-user processes. Communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user
authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified.
Everything at this layer is application-specific.

TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP reference model is the network model used in the current Internet
architecture [19]. It has its origins back in the 1960's with the grandfather of the
Internet, the ARPANET. This was a research network sponsored by the Department of
Defense in the United States. The following were seen as major design goals:

 ability to connect multiple networks together seamlessly

 ability for connections to remain intact as long as the source and destination
machines were functioning
 to be built on flexible architecture

The reference model was named after two of its main protocols, TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol) [12] and IP (Internet Protocol).

They choose to build a packet-switched network based on a connectionless

internetwork layer.

Figure 2.1: TCP/IP Network Protocol

A detailed description of the reference model is beyond the scope of this document
and project. The basic idea of the networking system is to allow one application on a
host computer to talk to another application on a different host computer.

The application forms its request, then passes the packet down to the lower layers,
which add their own control information, either a header or a footer, onto the packet.
Finally the packet reaches the physical layer and is transmitted through the cable onto
the destination host. The packet then travels up through the different layers, with each
layer reading, deciphering, and removing the header or footer that was attached by its
counterpart on the originating computer. Finally the packet arrives at the application it
was destined for. Even though technically each layer communicates with the layer
above or below it, the process can be viewed as one layer talking to its partner on the
host, as figure 2.1 shows.

5 Steps of Data Encaptulation

What is Data Encapsulation – How Data Encapsulation works?

Different type of encryption techniques are used to protect the data or any other information
from leaking and from illegal use. So another important technique is used to protect the data
during transmission is called as data encapsulation. Literally encapsulation means to wrap up or
hide so in data encapsulation different type of protocol layers are used to hide the specifications
and the personal information is called as data encapsulation. It is also called as the data hiding
because in this data is hiding and then transfer from one device to another with the help of
protocols layers.

How Data Encapsulation Works?

Data encapsulation use then similar fashion like other forms odd at encryption while working
and transmitting data. All the data has been encapsulated and deliver from one location to
another in the form of different type pf layers. Different type pf protocols are used in the working
of the data encapsulation but the major protocol that build up the connection between all the
layers of OSI model and provide them an opportunity to communicate with each other while
encapsulation is Protocol Data Unit or PDU. During encapsulation these protocols are attached at
the start called as header and t the end called as trailer to control the activity performance.
Different names are use for different PDU relevant to the information present in the header.

Data Encapsulation Process:

The process of the data encapsulation has different steps at different layers of OSI model. These
steps of process of data encapsulation are as follows

1. Encapsulate TCP Header

2. Encapsulate IP Header
3. MAC Header Encapsulation
4. Physical Layer Encapsulation

TCP Header (Application Layer):

The process of the data encapsulation initiates from the application layer of the OSI model and in
this layer it encapsulates the TCP header and then with the help of PDU communicates it with
the neighboring part. First of all the data present in the layer is converted for the transferring on
the network. The data is transfer to the transport layer for the sake of circuits that decides the
destination, it is called stream. After this stream broken and transport layer header in came into
being that take responsibility of controlling the attached data called as segment.

IP Header Encapsulation (Network Layer):

After the formation of the segment, all the responsibility is move onto the shoulders of the
networking layer that deals with the routing protocols of the OSI layer model such as IP. The
networking protocol layer attached its header to the segment and then transfers it to the DLL. In
the data link layer streams are built again and representing the host destination.

MAC Header (DLL):

The role of the data link layer is that it receives the data packets from the networking layer
protocol and then place them on the communicational medium and another important job of DLL
is that it has to convert packets into frames, then MAC headers come in contact to assigning the
MAC address to the information and decides the destination, if the devices are not similar then it
will routed again.

Role of Physical Layer:

Before placing the frames on the network, place them in the digital signals. Here physical layer
of the OSI model play its role to convert the 1s and 0s of the frame into the digital signals then it
is read by the local networking media.

Reasons of Data Encapsulation:

Every programming has to be done on the basis of some reasons so, data encapsulation also have
some reasons which are listed below

1. trying to use the object again

2. for the sake of independent message or information
3. Keep the architecture legal of object.
Subnetting IP adresses

In the early stages of development of the Internet Protocol,[1] network administrators interpreted an IP
address in two parts: network number portion and host number portion. The highest order octet
(most significant eight bits) in an address was designated as the network number and the remaining
bits were called the rest field or host identifier and were used for host numbering within a network.

This early method soon proved inadequate as additional networks developed that were independent
of the existing networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the Internet addressing
specification was revised with the introduction of classful network architecture.[2]

Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments and fine-
grained subnetwork design. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address were
defined as the class of the address. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for
universal unicast addressing. Depending on the class derived, the network identification was based
on octet boundary segments of the entire address. Each class used successively additional octets in
the network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order classes
(B and C). The following table gives an overview of this now obsolete system.

Historical classful network architecture

 Size Size
Number Addresses
Leading of network of rest Start
Class of per End address
bits number bit bit address
networks network
field field

16,777,216
A 0 8 24 128 (27) 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255
(224)

16,384
B 10 16 16 65,536 (216) 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255
(214)

2,097,152
C 110 24 8 256 (28) 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255
(221)

Classful network design served its purpose in the startup stage of the Internet, but it
lacked scalability in the face of the rapid expansion of the network in the 1990s. The class system of
the address space was replaced with Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993. CIDR is
based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation and routing based on arbitrary-
length prefixes.

Today, remnants of classful network concepts function only in a limited scope as the default
configuration parameters of some network software and hardware components (e.g. netmask), and
in the technical jargon used in network administrators' discussions.

Private addresses
Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for communications with
all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be uniquely assigned to a particular computer or
device. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed
and public address space needed to be conserved.

Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with each
other via TCP/IP, need not have globally unique IP addresses. Three non-overlapping ranges of
IPv4 addresses for private networks were reserved in RFC 1918
. These addresses are not routed on the Internet and thus their use need not be coordinated with
an IP address registry.
Today, when needed, such private networks typically connect to the Internet through network
address translation (NAT).

IANA-reserved private IPv4 network ranges

Start End No. of addresses

24-bit block (/8 prefix, 1 × A) 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 16777216

20-bit block (/12 prefix, 16 × B) 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 1048576

16-bit block (/16 prefix, 256 × C) 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255 65536

Any user may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network administrator will divide a block
into subnets; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range of
192.168.0.0 through 192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24).

IP address classes
<< Back

1st Octet Hosts per

1st Octet Network/Host Number
High Default Network
Class Decimal ID (N=Network, of
Order Subnet Mask (Usable
Range H=Host) Networks
Bits Addresses)
126 (27 – 16,777,214
A 1 – 126* 0 N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0
2) (224 – 2)
16,382 65,534 (216 –
B 128 – 191 10 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0
(214 – 2) 2)
2,097,150
C 192 – 223 110 N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 254 (28 – 2)
(221 – 2)
D 224 – 239 1110 Reserved for Multicasting
 E 240 – 254 1111 Experimental; used for research

Note: Class A addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 cannot be used and is reserved

for loopback and diagnostic functions.

Private IP Addresses
Class Private Networks Subnet Mask Address Range
A 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
B 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.0.0 255.240.0.0 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
C 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255

IP

1. Short for Internet Protocol

address, an IP or IP address is a number (example shown right)
used to indicate the location of a computer or other device on a
network using TCP/IP. These addresses are similar to those of your
house; they allow data to reach the appropriate destination on a
network and the Internet.
IPv4 vs. IPv6
As the Internet and technology evolve, there has been an increasing demand
for IP addresses. To help meet the demand for IP addresses, there are two
types of addresses used today, IPv4 and IPv6. Although you may only deal
with an IPv4 address in your local home, school, or small office you should
also be aware of IPv6 addresses for when you encounter them.
Example of an IPv4 address:
45.79.151.23
Example of an IPv4 address:
2601:681:4200:c5c0:516:f0bb:ac3b:46bd
IP address classes
With an IPv4 IP address there are five classes of available IP ranges: Class
A, Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E, while only A, B, and C are
commonly used. Each class allows for a range of valid IP addresses, shown
in the following table.
Class Address Range Supports

Class A 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 Supports 16 million hosts on each of 127 networks.

Class B 128.1.0.1 to 191.255.255.254 Supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks.

Class C 192.0.1.1 to 223.255.254.254 Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks.

Class D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 Reserved for multicast groups.

Class E 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.254 Reserved for future use, or Research and Development Purpose

Ranges 127.x.x.x are reserved for the loopback or localhost, for

example, 127.0.0.1 is the loopback address.
Range 255.255.255.255 broadcasts to all hosts on the local network.
IP address breakdown
Every IP address is broken down into four sets of octets and translated
into binary to represent the actual IP address. The below table is an example
of the IP 255.255.255.255. If you are new to binary, we highly recommend
reading our binary and hexadecimal conversions section to get a better
understanding of what we're doing in the below charts.
IP: 255 255 255 255

Binary value: 11111111 11111111 11111111 111

Octet value: 8 8 8

For an example, let's break down the IP "166.70.10.23" in the following

table. The first row contains the separate sections of the IP address, the
second has binary values, and the third row shows how the binary value
equals the section of the IP address.
IP: 166 70 10 23

Binary value: 10100110 01000110 00001010 00010

Numerical value: 128+32+4+2=166 64+4+2=70 8+2=10 16+4+

Automatically assigned addresses

There are IP addresses that are automatically assigned (dynamic allocation)
when you set up a home network. These default addresses are what allow
your computer and other network devices to communicate and broadcast
information over your network. Below are the most commonly assigned
default addresses for home networks.
192.168.1.0 0 is the automatically assigned network address.

192.168.1.1 1 is the commonly used address used as the gateway.

192.168.1.2 2 is also a commonly used address used for a gateway.

192.168.1.3 - 254 Addresses beyond 3 are assigned to computers and devices on the network.

192.168.1.255 255 is automatically assigned on most networks as the broadcast address.

If you have ever connected to your home network, you should be familiar
with the gateway address or 192.168.1.1, which is the address you use to
connect to your home network router to change its settings. Another
common IP range that may be used is 10.0.0.3-254.
Getting an IP address
By default the router you use will assign each of your computers their own
IP address, often using NAT to forward the data coming from those
computers to outside networks such as the Internet. If you need to register
an IP address that can be seen on the Internet, you must register
through InterNIC or use a web host that can assign you addresses.
Anyone who connects to the Internet is assigned an IP address by their
Internet Service Provider (ISP), which has registered a range of IP
addresses. For example, let's assume your ISP is given 100 addresses,
109.145.93.150-250. In this range, the ISP owns addresses 109.145.93.150
to 109.145.93.250 and can assign any address in that range to its
customers. So, all these addresses belong to your ISP until they are
assigned to a customers computer. In the case of a dial-up connection, you
are given a new IP address each time you dial into your ISP. With
most broadband Internet service providers, you are always connected to the
Internet your address rarely changes. It remains the same until the service
provider requires otherwise.
The above picture is taken from our "How do computers connect to each
other over the Internet?" document and gives a good overview of how a
computer can talk to another computer over the Internet using an IP
address.
Other IP address questions and answers
 See your IP address and other system settings.
 How to determine an IP address.
 How do I determine the IP address of another computer or website?
 Help with ping, winipcfg, and other network commands.
 How do I determine the physical location of an IP address?
 How can I hide my IP address?
 Computer network and network card help and support.
2. A Linux and Unix command that allows the user to configure their
network settings. See the ip command page for further information.
IPv4 addresses
Decomposition of an IPv4 address from dot-decimal notation to its binary value.

In IPv4 an address consists of 32 bits which limits the address space to 4294967296 (232) possible
unique addresses. IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private
networks (~18 million addresses) or multicast addresses(~270 million addresses).

IPv4 addresses are canonically represented in dot-decimal notation, which consists of four decimal
numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g., 172.16.254.1. Each part represents a
group of 8 bits (octet) of the address. In some cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be
presented in various hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations.

IPv6 addresses
Decomposition of an IPv6 address fromhexadecimal representation to its binary value.

The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to
explore new technologies to expand the addressing capability in the Internet. The permanent
solution was deemed to be a redesign of the Internet Protocol itself. This new generation of the
Internet Protocol was eventually named Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995.[3][4] The address
size was increased from 32 to 128 bits (16 octets), thus providing up to
2128 (approximately3.403×1038) addresses. This is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future.

The intent of the new design was not to provide just a sufficient quantity of addresses, but also
redesign routing in the Internet by more efficient aggregation of subnetwork routing prefixes. This
resulted in slower growth of routing tables in routers. The smallest possible individual allocation is a
subnet for 264 hosts, which is the square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels, actual
address utilization rates will be small on any IPv6 network segment. The new design also provides
the opportunity to separate the addressing infrastructure of a network segment, i.e. the local
administration of the segment's available space, from the addressing prefix used to route traffic to
and from external networks. IPv6 has facilities that automatically change the routing prefix of entire
networks, should the global connectivity or the routing policy change, without requiring internal
redesign or manual renumbering.

The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes and,
where appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient routing. With a large address space, there is no
need to have complex address conservation methods as used in CIDR.

All modern desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for the IPv6
protocol, but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as residential networking
routers, voice over IP (VoIP) and multimedia equipment, and network peripherals.