Biology Study Sheet
Stuff to Study
-Evolution Booklet 1 (Theories,
Evidence, Mechanisms, Natural
Selection)
-Evolution Booklet 2 (Human
Evolution Notes)
-Ape Homonid Comparison
Worksheet
- Homo Futurus Video Sheet
Theories
Creationism: “Intelligent Design”,
created by God.
Lamarkism: “Theory of Use and
Disuse” also called “Theory of Bullshit”.
Darwinism: “Natural Selection”
Variation occurs and competition to
pass on that phenotype.
Neo-Darwinism: Combination of gene
theories, DNA, and Darwinism.
Exam is on
Thursday:
8.35-10.35
Structures
Comparable Structures: Share
phenotype and therefore DNA and a
common ancestor.
Homologous Structures: Similar
structures, but different functions. Eg.
Our leg and a horsie’s leg.
Comparative Embryology: How all
vertebrate embryos look alike.
Vestigial Structures: Remnant organs
that are not selected for but still present
in DNA. Eg. Whale hips
Analogous Structures: Similar structure
and function, however different
anatomy. Eg. Fish and whale fins.
Definitions:
Evolution: The change in time.
Macroevolution: Large changes over large periods.
Microevolution: Small changes over small periods.
Gradualism : Slow, steady changes.
Punctuated Equilibrium: No change for a long time, then a
mass change.
Savannah Hypothesis: Binocular vision (Seeing depth) and
upright walking were the selected phenotypes to see over
the Savannah tall grasses. The ‘Little Foot’ fossil disproves
this. He possesses a central foramen magnum and a cup
shaped pelvis (= Bipedalism) Also inward facing legs for his
centre of gravity. However, his opposed toes mean that he
lives in the trees, proving that they could walk upright
without the environmental change.
Bipedalism: Walking on two legs.
Quadrapedalism: Walking on four legs.
Superposition: Relative dating of fossils by the depth they
were found. The older the fossil, the deeper it is found and
vice versa.
The Fossil Record: A record of the fossils that is comprised of
dates made by superposition and carbon dating. Note the
fossil record is very incomplete because of the rare
conditions fossils can be made in. It also shows progressions
from:
Simple Advanced
Unicellular  Multicellular
Marine  Terrestrial
Slow changes  Rapid Changes
Invertebrates  Vertebrates
Autotrophs  Heterotrophs
Reptiles  Birds
Transitional Organisms: Organisms that have the features of
two different organisms. Eg. Buck beak the Hippogriff and
Archaeopteryx.
Divergent Evolution: Change in environment and mutations
for favourable phenotypes. A.k.a Adaptive Radiation.
Biogeography: Location of living organisms around the
world. Remember that the world started as Pangaea then
split up into Laurasia in the north, and Gondwana in the
south. See widdle picture.
Phylogeny Tree/Evolutionary Pathway: A whole tree of
evolution. Not even joking. Note that always starts with C.A,
common ancestor.
Arboreal: Tree-dwelling.
Hominid: Human-Like.
Pongid: Ape-Like.
Foramen Magnum: The hole at the base of the skull where
 Radiometric Dating and Drawing Graphs
These are very easy – Just put the percentage of
either Carbon-12/14 or Uranium on the y-axis and
the age on the x-axis. The curve should look like
this :
Hominid vs. Pongid Skulls
Primates have the following characteristics:
Fossil
Hominid (Human-Like)
Skull Teeth Even size (for speech)
Parabolic Jaw
Lack of prominent eyebrow ridge
Prominent chin
Larger cranial capacity
Central Foramen Magnum
Flat facial angle
Pelvis Short, broad, with rear flange for attachment
of buttock muscles
Limbs Arms shorter than legs
More dexterous thumb
Arched foot with big toe
Spine S- shaped
Definitions Continued:
Prehensile tail : A tail that is dexterous. For
tree swinging.
Sphenoid: Bone that dictates how the rest of
the skull will develop. (What that video was
about) Develops in embryos at 8 weeks, and
has changed 5 times over the course of
evolution.
See Hominid and Pongid legs,
hips and spine for comparison.
Full table of comparisons
below:
Significant Features
Pongid (Ape-Like)
Teeth uneven, large canines
Square jaw
Prominent eyebrow ridge
Receding chin
Smaller cranial capacity
Foramen Magnum at back
Sloped facial angle
Long, flat, no flange
Arms longer than legs
Less dexterous thumb
Flat foot with opposable toe
Curved
 HOW TO TURN YOURSELF INTO A FOSSIL Evolutionary Trends and Associated Problems

1. Kill yourself. Go and decay Trend Problem

somewhere like in water or tar. Brain is becoming Teeth are overcrowding
2. Make an impression or mould in the larger and more as jaw is shrinking.
soft mud. complex.
3. Let yourself be covered in Nose is becoming less Lower back troubles from
compressing rock. broad. slipped disc. Load carried
4. Your mould fills with minerals and is on two limbs, not four.
hardens to rock. Note that actual bones Face becoming smaller Hernias are created
are never found, it’s a rock shaped from and vertical, loss of because the gut is no
the mould. Metamorphic rock never eyebrow ridges. longer hung from the
holds fossils because the heat and spine as in 4-legged
pressure destroys them. animals.
Tooth size reduction. Childbirth problems
associated with pelvis
shape and larger babies
heads.
Pelvis becoming Skin cancer through loss
shorter and broader to of body hair.
Areas of Controversy within Human Evolutionary accommodate
Models attachment of leg
muscles.
(This was a test ‘hint’ WINK WINK LULZ) Varicose veins (heart
- Different opinions from different problems) because the
scientists (Lumpers and splitters) heart has to pump blood
This is because: vertically through upright
- There is natural variation between fossils person.
of different age and sex. Flat feet from upright
- Old equipment used walking.
- Fossils are incomplete.
- Specialisation into species is supposed to
be based on reproductive physiology,
which is impossible in fossils, so it is based
on anatomical variation.

Question will probably be like, “Suggest reasons

why there is a difference between opinions of
scientists in evolutionary pathways?”