Polymer

A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits.[5] Due to their broad range of
properties,[6] both synthetic and natural polymers play essential and ubiquitous roles in everyday life.[7] Polymers range
from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental
to biological structure and function. Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small
molecules, known as monomers. Their consequently large molecular mass relative to small
molecule compounds produces unique physical properties, including toughness, viscoelasticity, and a tendency to
form glasses and semicrystalline structures rather than crystals. The terms polymer and resin are often synonymous
with plastic.
The term "polymer" derives from the Greek word polus and meros, and refers to a molecule whose structure is composed
of multiple repeating units, from which originates a characteristic of high relative molecular mass and attendant
properties.[2] The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular
mass.[2] The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a definition distinct from the
modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was
proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger,[10] who spent the next decade finding experimental evidence for this
hypothesis.[11]
Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science (which
includes polymer chemistry and polymer physics).
The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains.
Types of Polymers
Natural polymers
The easiest way to classify polymers is their source of origin. Natural polymers are polymers which occur in nature and are
existing in natural sources like plants and animals. Some common examples are Proteins (which are found in humans and
animals alike), Cellulose and Starch (which are found in plants) or Rubber (which we harvest from the latex of a tropical
plant ).
Synthetic polymers
Synthetic polymers are polymers which humans can artificially create/synthesize in a lab. These are commercially
produced by industries for human necessities. Some commonly produced polymers which we use day to day are
Polyethylene (a mass-produced plastic which we use in packaging) or Nylon Fibers (commonly used in our clothes, fishing
nets etc.)
Semi-Synthetic polymers
Semi-Synthetic polymers are polymers obtained by making modification in natural polymers artificially in a lab. These
polymers formed by chemical reaction (in a controlled environment) and are of commercial importance. Example:
Vulcanized Rubber ( Sulphur is used in cross bonding the polymer chains found in natural rubber) Cellulose acetate (rayon)
etc.

What are Natural Polymers?

From trees to tires, from lunch to grocery bags, from breakfast cereal to school clothes: Polymers play an essential role in
the human and natural world. As people become more environmentally aware, many are looking for ways to replace
artificially created items with more sustainable substitutes. Polymers are no exception.
Examples of natural polymers include cellulose, chiton, carbohydrates like starches and sugars, proteins ranging from
skin and muscle to spider silk and wool, DNA, RNA and natural rubber.

A polymer is basically synthesized by joining small molecules or substances into a single giant molecule by a chemical
process. The small molecules which are used in synthesizing a polymer is called as monomer. Natural Polymers are
those substances which are obtained naturally. These polymers are formed either by the process of addition
polymerization or condensation polymerization.
Polymers are extensively found in nature. Our body too is made up of many natural polymers like nucleic acids, proteins,
etc. The Cellulose is another natural polymer which is a main structural component of the plants. Most of the natural
polymers are formed from the condensation polymers and this formation from the monomers, water is obtained as a by-
product.
Some of the Natural polymers also include DNA and RNA, these polymers are very much important in all the life
processes of all the living organisms. This messenger RNA is the one that makes possible peptides, proteins, and
enzymes in a living body. Enzymes inside the living organisms help the reactions to happen and the peptides makes up
the structural components of hair, skin, and also the horns of a rhino. The other natural polymers are polysaccharides or
called as sugar polymers and polypeptides such as keratin, silk, and the hair. Natural rubber is also a natural polymer
which is made of hydrogen and carbon.
Classification
Polysaccharides from Plant Origin
Cellulose
Composition
It is an organic polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4) linked
Dglucose units having the formula (C6H10O5)n. The plant cell wall mainly consist of cellulose, hemicelluloses and
pectin.
Applications:
Microcrystalline cellulose is mainly used in thepharmaceutical industry as a diluent/binder in tablets for both the
granulation and direct compression processes.
Carboxylated methyl cellulose is used in drug formulations, as binder for drugs, film-coating agent for drugs,
ointment base etc.
Cellulose acetate fibers are used in Wound dressings.
Agar
Source
Agar or agar-agar consists of dried gelatinous substance obtained from Gelidium amansii (Gelidaceae) and it is also
obtained from several other species of red algae like, gracilaria (Gracilariaceae) and Pterocladia (Gelidaceae).
Composition
Agar consists of a mixture of agarose and agaropectin. The agarose is a linear polymer which is made up of the
repeating monomeric unit of agarobiose. Whereas, Agarobiose is a disaccharide made up of D-galactose and -
anhydro-L-galactopyranose. Agaropectin is a heterogeneous mixture of smaller acidic molecules that gel poorly.
Applicatons:
Agar is used as Suspending agent, emulsifying agent, gelling agent in suppositories, surgical lubricant, tablet
disintegrants, medium for bacterial culture, laxative.
It is also used for the preparation of jellies, confectionary items, tissue culture studies, and in microbiology study.
Starches
Source
Starch is the principal carbohydrate reserved material in green plants and it is mainly present in seeds and
underground organs. Starch occurs in the form of granules (starch grains). A number of starches are recognized for
pharmaceutical use and these include maize (Zea mays), rice (Oryza sativa), wheat (Triticum aestivum), and potato
(Solanum tuberosum).
Composition
Starch or amylum is a carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined together by glycosidic
bonds. It consists of two polymers, namely amylose (a non-branching helical polymer consisting of α-1, 4 linked D-
glucose monomers) and amylopectin (a highly branched polymer consisting of both α-1,4 and α-1,6 linked D-glucose
monomers).
Applications
Thermoplastic starch is used in packaging, containers, mulch films, textile sizing agents, adhesives
Inulin
Source
It is a polysaccharide obtained from the bulbs of Dehlia, Inula Helenium (Compositae), roots of Dendelion,
Taraxacum officinale (Compositae). Burdock root, Saussurea lappa (Compositae) or chicory roots, Cichonium
intybus (Compositae).
Applications
Inulin with a high degree of polymerization was used to prepare biodegradable colon-specific films in combination
with Eudragit RS that could withstand break down by the gastric and intestinal fluids.
Guar Gum
Source
Guar gum is also called guaran, clusterbean, Calcutta lucern, Gum cyamposis, and Cyamopsis gum, Guarina,
Glucotard and Guyarem21. Guar gum is the powder of the endosperm of the seeds of Cyamopsis tetragonolobus
Linn. (Leguminosae).
Composition
Chemically, guar gum is natural polysaccharide composed of the sugars galactose and mannose It is a
galactomannans which is a linear polysaccharide consisting of (1→4)-diequatorially linked β-D- mannose
monomers, some of which are linked to single sugar sidechains of α-D-galactose attached.21 Guar gum has a
backbone composed of β-1,4 linked- D-mannopyranoses to which, on average, every alternate mannose an α-
Dgalactose is linked 1→6.
Applications
Several modifications of guar gum is used for drug delivery system
Carboxymethyl guar film is used for the formulation of transdermal therapeutic system.
Guar gum is particularly useful for colon delivery because it can be degraded by specific enzymes in this region of
the gastrointestinal tract. The gum protects the drug while in the stomach and small intestine environment and
delivers the drug to the colon where it undergoes assimilation by specific microorganisms or degraded by the
enzymes excreted by these microorganisms.
Polysaccharides from Animal Origin
Chitin
Source
Chitin is the polysaccharide derivative containing amino and acetyl groups and are the most abundant organic
constituent in the skeletal material of the invertebrates. It is mainly found in mollusks, annelids, arthropods. It is also
a constituent of the mycelia and spores of many fungi.
Applications
Chitosan and their derivatives (N-trimethyl chitosan, mono-N-carboxymethyl chitosan) are safe and effective
absorption enhancers to improve mucosal, nasal, peroral drug delivery of hydrophilic macromolecules such as
peptide and protein drugs and heparins.
Chitosan nanoparticles and microparticles are also suitable for controlled drug release.
Xanthan Gum
Source
Xanthan gum is a high molecular weight extracellular polysaccharide produced by the fermentation of the gram-negative
bacterium Xanthomonas campestris.
Composition
The primary structure of naturally produced cellulose derivative contains a cellulose backbone ( -D-glucose residues) and a
trisaccharide side chain of -D-mannose- - D gluronic acid – -D-mannose attached with the main chain of alternate glucose
residues.
Applications
Xanthan gum is widely used in oral and topical formulations, cosmetics, and in food industry as a suspending and stabilizing
agent.
It has also been used to prepare sustained release matrix tablets.
Alginate
Source
Alginate is a water-soluble linear polysaccharide extracted from brown seaweed.
Composition
It is composed of 1–4 linked -L-glucuronic and -Dmannuronic acid residues.
Applications
Alginate based mesalazine tablets are used for intestinal drug delivery system.
Alginate is also as encapsulation materials for controlled drug delivery to mucosal tissue.
It is also used to prepare mucoadhesive drug delivery systems.
Psyllium
Source
Psyllium mucilage is obtained from the seed coat of Plantago ovata by milling the outer layer of the seeds.
Applications
It has tablet binding properties.
Psyllium husk was used in combination with other excipients such as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose to prepare a novel
sustained release, swellable and bioadhesive gastro retentive drug delivery systems for ofloxacin.

Proteins from Animal Sources

Collagen
Source
Collagen is the primary protein component of animal connective tissues . The most abundant sources of collagen are pig skin,
bovine hide, and pork and cattle bones.
Composition
27 types of collagen exist and composed of different polypeptides, which contain mostly glycine, proline, hydroxyproline and
lysine. The flexibility of the collagen chain depends only on the glycine content .
Applications
Collagen films are used in ophthalmology as drug delivery systems for slow release of incorporated drugs.
It was also used for tissue engineering including skin replacement, bone substitutes, and artificial blood vessels and valves.
Gelatin
By denaturation and/or physical–chemical degradation of collagen, a high molecular weight polypeptide is produced, called
gelatin. Gelatin is also a protein and consists of 19 amino acids. It is water soluble. Elastin, albumin and fibrin are other
proteins from animal sources.
Applications
These widely include emulsifiers, foaming agents, colloid stabilizers, biodegradable film-forming materials, and
microencapsulating agents.
Proteins from Vegetal Sources
Wheat Gluten
Wheat gluten is a protein by-product of the starch fabrication.
Composition
Wheat gluten contains two main groups of proteins, gliadin and glutenin. Gliadins are proteins molecules with disulphide
bonds and have low molecular weight and a low level of amino acids with charged side groups. Glutenins are more
sophisticated proteins, with a three dimensional structure. Their molecular weight is at least ten times higher than that of
gliadins.
Advantages
Wheat gluten materials have the fastest degradation rates.
Gluten is fully biodegradable and the products obtained are non-toxic.
It is readily available in high quantity and at low cost.
Applications
Wheat gluten has been proven to be an excellent film forming agent.
Soy Protein
Source
According to the production method different categories of soy proteins exist: soy protein isolate, soy protein concentrate and
textured soy protein.
Composition
Soy protein isolate is the most refined form of soy protein and contains about 90 percent protein. Soy protein concentrate is
basically soybean without the water soluble carbohydrates. It contains about 70 percent of protein.
Application
It has been used since 1959 as an ingredient in a variety of foods for its functional properties, which include emulsification and
texturizing. Recently the popularity of soy protein has been increasing, mainly because of its health benefits. It has been
proven that soy protein can help to prevent heart problems.
Importance of Natural Polymers over Synthetic Polymers
Biodegradable
Naturally occurring polymers produced by all living organisms. They show no adverse effects on the environment or
human being. In contrary, synthetic polymers, being prepared by the help of chemicals have side effect on atmosphere as
well as on the human being.
Biocompatible and non-toxic
Chemically, nearly all of these plant materials are carbohydrates in nature and composed of repeating monosaccharide
units. Hence they are non-toxic as compared to synthetic polymers.
Economic
Natural polymers are cheaper and their production cost is less than synthetic material.
Safe and devoid of side effects
Safe and devoid of side effects They are found in a natural form and hence, safe and having no side effects whereas
synthetic polymers being prepared by using chemicals have side effects.
Easy availability
Natural polymers are growing in the form of herbs in many counties being economical than synthetic polymers and having
no side effect and keeping in view their huge application in many industries, they are produced in large quantity hence
their availability is ensured than synthetic polymers.
Drawbacks of Natural Polymers
Microbial contamination
During production, they are exposed to external environment hence there are chances of microbial contamination.
Batch to batch variation
Synthetic manufacturing is controlled procedure with fixed quantities of ingredients while production of natural polymers is
dependent on environment and various biotic and abiotic factors.
The uncontrolled rate of hydration
Due to differences in the collection of natural materials at different times, as well as differences in region, species, and
climate conditions the percentage of chemical constituents present in a given material may vary.
Slow Process
Natural polymers have a slow rate of production as the production rate is depends upon the environment and many other
factors.
Heavy metal contamination
There are chances of Heavy metal contamination often associated with herbal excipients.
Conclusions
Perspectives and Conclusions
From the foregoing, it is obvious that natural polymers such as starch, gelatin and chitosan are no longer mere traditional
excipients for use as binders, disintegrant or diluents, but are now being applied widely as therapeutic drug carriers. The
efficiency of delivery and release of bioactive molecules from these systems is influenced by factors such as polymer
type, drug loading, polymer breakdown, molecular weight, particle size, interactions between the drug and polymer and
several other technological and pharmacotechnical factors. Natural polymers may not for now enjoy the robustness of
easy amenability to formulation design as compared to synthetic polymers, but their excellent biocompatibility and safety
makes them very important in the preparation of various drug delivery systems with the potential to achieve the
formulator’s desire for target or protected delivery of bioactive agents. However, increasing works needs to be done in the
near future on these polymers. It is important to note that apart from being safe, natural polymers are relatively very
cheap. A major limitation to the use of some of the natural polymers such as starch appears to be its higher sensitivity to
acid attack; however, modification has been proved to impart acid-resistance to the products. It is therefore important to
optimize the process of transition of these polymer granules from their native micro- to the artificial submicron levels in
greater detail and also pay greater attention to the toxicological profiles of the nanoscale polymer-derivatives. This is
because, although generally regarded as safe, derivatives of these natural polymers and in fact at submicron levels may
pose some safety challenges especially as carriers in drug delivery systems. The physicochemical properties of polymers
depend largely on their botanical or biological source, therefore, there is a greater need now than ever before for
scientists to begin to source for even cheaper polymers from our natural environment; plants, animals and
microorganisms alike. Conclusively, if the Pharma Industries, governments and donor agencies will take the risk of
investing more in natural product research in nanodrug delivery, then the answer to the current “saftetyphobia” by
regulatory agencies may soon be at hand.
The challenge of using natural polymers or developing new biomaterials is not only to understand their mode of action in
nature but also to correctly coordinate the complex interplay between chemistry, biology, physics, and engineering. The
number of possible parameters seems to be endless because not only pure polymers on their own are considered but
also different blends thereof, with the possibility to even include chemical steps to further functionalize and tailor the
final material properties. However, the main challenges that are currently faced are the low-cost manufacturing and the
scale-up of surface modifications (eg, micro- and nanopatterned) to mimic nature's choice of materials (eg, promising
adhesion mechanism of geckos or frogs) and to use them in a different (eg, wet) environment to provide new solutions in
biomedicine and tissue engineering.
However, novel materials are to be expected in future. The marine environment shares similarities with the human body,
with both being water-based saline systems. As a result, the sea has to represent a prolific source of inspiration for
various biomedical applications, from scaffolds for tissue engineering to adhesives in drug delivery systems.