1968: A Divided

America
Hope Fisher
 In 1968, The United States succeeded in their first launch of a 747 around the moon, but

down on Earth, the country was in shambles. 1968 was the most expensive year and arguably the

most violent during the war in Vietnam, (www.History.com, 2009). After the assassination of

Robert F. Kennedy Democrats were uncertain of the country's future. African Americans around

the country felt like they lost their fight for equality the moment Martin Luther King Junior was

assassinated in June. violent riots ripped across the country with the worst in Washington D.C,

Baltimore, and Chicago. 1968 was a year of devastation starting with the Tet offensive, to the

assassinations of both Martin Luther King Junior and Robert F. Kennedy, but the triumph of the

Apollo 8 mission gave Americans the much-needed hope towards the end of the dreadful year.

The United States first became involved in the Vietnam War in 1965, (www.History.com,

2009). We became allies with The Southern Vietnamese forces or The Army of the Republic of

Vietnam to combat communism. The Soviet Union in Russia was spreading its ideology into

Vietnam and would continue. With the cold war beginning, The United States pledged to be hard

on any of The Soviet Union’s allies. (www.History.com, 2008). The leader of the Viet Cong, or

Vietnamese communist, Ho Chi Minh, inspired by The Soviet Union and China, created the Viet

Minh. This was a national liberation movement in Vietnam that started during World War II

while they were being occupied by Japan. (www.History.com , 2008) The United States feared

this could spread to the rest of the world. Over the course of the war in Vietnam over 3 million

people will be killed including over 58,000 Americans. (www.History.com , 2009) Some

100,000 North Vietnamese and 591 Americans would be captured, tortured, and sometimes

executed. (www.ushistory.org 2019). By November 1967, the number of American troops in

Vietnam was approaching 500,000, and U.S. casualties had reached 15,058 killed and 109,527

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wounded. (www.ushistory.org 2019). As the war stretched on, some soldiers came to mistrust the

government’s reasons for keeping them there, as well as Washington’s repeated claims that the

war was being won.

January 30th was The Lunar New Year in Vietnam and on this day the North and South

were going to practice a truce to the bloody war. the North Vietnamese military commander

General Vo Nguyen Giap decided that this day would be the perfect opportunity to conduct a

series of surprise attacks on The Army of the Republic of Vietnam in South Vietnam,

(www.History.com, 2009). 80,000 Viet Cong troops attacked almost every metropolitan city in

South Vietnam by surprise. Surprise attacks were made in the American base Danang and the

embassy in Saigon. Americans who opposed the war called themselves doves and Americans

who were supportive of the war called themselves hawks. In 1965 during “operation rolling

thunder” only 15% of Americans opposed the war, before the Tet offensive in 1968 only 28%,

but six weeks following the Tet Offensive 42% of Americans opposed the war. By April of 1968

doves outnumbered hawks (www.ushistory.org, 2019)

The response of the United States was just as tremendous as the actual war in Vietnam.

The largest anti-war movement in United States history was created through a feeling of passion

for ending the atrocities in Vietnam. Some resorted to violence through their anger for their

government, but many continued their peaceful protest. Throughout the decade thousands of

young people resisted their government (www.nonviolent-conflict.org, 2010). Groups including,

Students, government officials, labor unions, church groups, and middle-class families

increasingly opposed the war as it climaxed in 1968 (www.nonviolent-conflict.org, 2010). At the

beginning of the war, it was small groups on college campuses like the leftist organization

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Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) began organizing “teach-ins” to express their

opposition. One event, in particular, put the movement on the map. On Kent University The

Ohio National Guard shot four students protesting the war. The uneasiness grew as the

movement gained traction across the nation. Their actions eventually did influence major

government decisions and even amendments. Amendment XXVI was created to not allow

anyone to deny anyone the right to vote that is at least eighteen years old. The young people felt

that older people were making decisions for them they could not control themselves. For

example, they were old enough to fight in a war they do not want to fight in but they are not able

to make changes in the government by voting (www.nonviolent-conflict.org, 2010). In their view

we were wrongfully involved in a civil war and in the process are killing innocent civilians by

the thousands. Only 28% of Americans were satisfied with the way Johnson was handling the

war. (www.nonviolent-conflict.org, 2010). In 1968 after the Tet Offensive, those who supported

the war quickly saw no more use in Americans losing lives and money in the cause. Most felt

like they were being lied to the whole war. The beginning of the public distrusting their

government began during this time due to politicians not being truthful about something that was

important to them. The political turmoil in the country turned children on their parents and

neighbors on neighbors.

Martin Luther King Jr. was a social Activist that was most passionate about creating

equality for African Americans. Martin Luther King Jr. played a crucial role in the civil rights

movement from the middle of the 1950s until his death on April 4, 1968. As well as the leader of

The Modern American Civil Rights Movement he was a Baptist minister and founder of the

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) (www.thekingcenter.org 2019). Many see

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Martin Luther King Jr. as one of the best nonviolence and peace leaders in all of history. More

was achieved in just 1955-1968 in terms of civil rights than the 350 years previous.

(www.thekingcenter.org 2019). Martin Luther King Jr. was the first civil rights leader to suggest

nonviolence resistance instead of any means necessary attitude of many before him, which

included violence. He was the driving force behind events such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott

and the 1963 March on Washington, which helped bring about such landmark legislation as the

Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act. King was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964

and is remembered each year on Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, a U.S. federal holiday since 1986.

In the years leading up to the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr, there was a group of

young African American activists that did not agree with his peaceful approach to making

changes in society. They looked up to another more aggressive civil rights leader Malcolm X

who also condemned Martin Luther King Jr. In response to this, he grew his protests beyond

African Americans to the Vietnam war and unemployment. King was apprehensive to be vocal

about Vietnam because he did not want to go against Lyndon B Johnson after all his help with

the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (www.briticanna.com 2019). In the spring of 1968, while preparing

for a planned march to Washington on behalf of the poor, Martin Luther King and other SCLC

members were called to Memphis and Tennessee, to support a sanitation workers’ strike. On the

night of April 3, King gave a speech at the Mason Temple Church in Memphis. During his

speech in Memphis, he almost foreshadows his untimely death when he has closure with his

happiness and life. “I’ve seen the promised land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to

know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the promised land. And I’m happy tonight. I’m not

worried about anything. I’m not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming

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of the Lord.” (www.thekingcenter.org). On the following day, Martin Luther King was on the

second floor of the Lorraine Motel when he was shot in the back of the head by a sniper. He was

rushed to the hospital where he was pronounced dead only an hour later. Riots across the nation

were sparked by the news of the king’s death. In more than 100 cities people proceed to loot and

burn houses and businesses (www.Britannica.com 2019). In all, some 27,000 people were

arrested, about 3,500 were injured, and more than 40 were killed (www.Britannica.com 2019).

Even though many African Americans no longer agreed with his approach they mutually agreed

that he was courageous and would not have stopped at anything to create an equal world for

everyone.

Lyndon B. Johnson urged Americans to remain peaceful like Martin Luther King would

have wanted for the country. (www.britannica.com 2019). Johnson pushed for the Congress to

pass the Civil Rights Legislation, the final major civil rights legislation for the time. Six days

after King’s death James Earl Ray was arrested and sent to trial to which he was found guilty and

sentenced to 99 years in prison (www.britannica.com 2019). Bystanders saw him running out of

a building near King’s motel moments after the shooting. Even though fifty years after there was

a swirl of conspiracy regarding James Earl Ray not being the real assassin the MLK case was not

reopened and James Earl Ray died in a Nashville Prison in 1998 (www.thekingcenter.org 2019).

The response of Martin Luther King’s assassination created an even wider rift between black and

white Americans. It also fueled the rage of any moderate African American activist to become

more radical due to the outrage of the atrocity. For many, the death of King meant that getting

equality through nonviolence means might not be the answer anymore (wwwBriticanna.com

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2019). The famous Black Panthers, a radical political organization that fought for black rights,

became more prominent starting in 1968 and into the 1970s (www.britannica.com 2019).

Senator Robert Kennedy had just won California as well as South Dakota Presidential

Primaries, a crucial step before the Democratic National Convention only 2 months away

(www.maryferrell.org 2019). He was a savior for the democratic party and the nation thought he

was going to be the best thing for the fractured country. In his 81-day campaign, he visited five

Indian reservations, something not done before or since (www.maryferrell.org 2019). Walking

out of the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles, he was shot several times with a .22 revolver

(www.maryferrell.org 2019). The gunman wrapped a magazine around in pistol and managed to

get close enough to kill the senator. Robert F. Kennedy died the following day and was

pronounced dead on 1:44 A.M. The gunman shot several bystanders, but only one person died

that day. He continued to fire as the bodyguards wrestled him to the ground. The gunman was a

Palestinian synthesizer named Sirhan Bishara Sirhan who was convinced that Robert F. Kennedy

was going to be the person standing in the way of ridding Palestine of their oppression. Later

Sirhan Bishara Sirhan journals were discovered and contained repeated phrases like “Robert F.

Kennedy must be assassinated”.

The aftermath of the assassination of Robert k. Kennedy left the nation shattered. The

deepening self-doubt of America ever being peaceful spread because of the assassination of the

civil rights leader, Martin Luther King just two months previously. “The hopefulness of the early

1960s was replaced by a pervasive cynicism and a conviction that change was impossible within

the bounds of normal politics.” (www.usnews.com 2015). The violent act after violent act

created a very dark feeling all over the country that was at its worst when Robert F. Kennedy

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was assassinated. Many believed that if Robert F. Kennedy was elected president that the US

would have left Vietnam early then in 1975. (www.usnews.com 2015).

James Lovell, William Anders, and Frank Borman all piled into a spacecraft on December 21st

just before 5 A.M and heading for the moon (www.space.com 2018). Apollo 8 was only the

second mission with a crew to leave earth’s orbit (www.space.com 2018). Apollo 7 orbited

Earth, so for Apollo 8 to attempt orbiting the moon seemed like asking for a lot. At the time The

United States was involved in a “space race” with Russia. Starting during the cold war in the late

1950s both the United States and at the time The Soviet Union competed for more advanced

space technology and missions. The United States was competitive and confident that they could

outdo Russia, especially when in 1962 John F. Kennedy claimed that they would land a man on

the moon by the end of the decade.

The Apollo 8 mission was the last minute decision for NASA because they were

originally planning on doing more tests on the lunar and command module before setting off.

Time was running out and they wanted to get Americans to the moon before The Soviet Union.

"NASA officials realized that this was risky since Apollo 7 had not yet qualified the spacecraft

when their tentative decision was made," (www.space.com 2018). The rocket used to launch

Apollo 8 was also more powerful than they have ever used on a crewed spacecraft, the Saturn V.

(www.space.com 2018). After only four months of planning, not the normal twelve to eighteen

months the crew was ready. (Spacecraft commander Borman and crewmember Lovell were also

crewmates on the Gemini 7 mission, which aimed to test endurance. They spent nearly 14 days

living together in a small spacecraft. Borman had also distinguished himself by serving on a

review board investigating the Apollo 1 fatal fire in 1967. 69 hours 8 minutes after takeoff the

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spacecraft was put into orbit around the moon. Christmas morning the crew gave their famous

lines over the public broadcast on television, while officially in orbit around the moon. One of

the crew members, Borman said this, “The most beautiful, heart-catching sight of my life, one

that sent a torrent of nostalgia, of sheer homesickness, surging through me. It was the only thing

in space that had any color to it. Everything else was either black or white. But not the Earth.”

(www.theguardian.com 2008). Shortly after William Anders took the famous “Earthrise” photo

they made their way back home. The legacy of Apollo 8 showed that it was possible to bring

humans safely to the moon, so the next step could be landing on the moon. The Apollo 8 mission

made it possible for the Apollo 11 mission in 1969 to successfully be completed. In a very much

divided America everyone agreed on being a proud American when the Apollo 8 mission was

successful, black, white, hippie, rich, and poor. That Christmas brought something beautiful back

to that year for Americans. Apollo 8 had done something not thought humanly possible and the

fact that it was done by their own country brought people together.

1968 was the most tumultuous year in American History. Between the Anti-War

Movement and the Civil Rights Movement, and the assassination of both the leader of the civil

rights movement and Robert F. Kennedy, Apollo 8, in contrast, was the best event the country

needed to come back together after a rocky year. The beginning of the year started out

devastating as Americans watched powerless possibly as their loved ones were in danger. The

Tet Offensive in the Vietnam War was the moment most Americans realized the danger of this

conflict. The anti-war movement was larger than ever and we're not going to stop until there

were some changes made. Just a few months later a national hero to both black and white

Americans, Martin Luther King Jr. is assassinated in the same town he made history several

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years before. Even when America could not handle any more cause and heartbreak the

Democratic Candidate and an inspiration to many, Robert F. Kennedy was shot and killed in his

hotel in Los Angeles. Apollo 8 achieved the impossible both in bringing humans to the moon and

united a country that was tearing apart at the seams.

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 Bibliography

https://www.history.com/topics​/​vietnam-war​/​vietnam-war-history “Vietnam” 29 October 2009.

This source was a useful overview of the major parts of the Vietnam War.

https://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/us-anti-vietnam-war-movement-1964-1973/ “The US
Anti-Vietnam War Movement (1964-1973)” January 2010. This source was useful for
understanding the US Anti-War Movement.

http://www.ushistory.org/us/55c.asp “The Tet Offensive” April 9, 2019. This source was useful
in furthering my understanding of the Tet Offensive.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H4FkCvC3Gx4&t=101s “Tet Offensive War Footage”

January 22, 2011. This video was useful because I could get the view of people in Vietnam at the
time.

https://www.maryferrell.org/pages/Robert_Kennedy_Assassination.html “The Robert Kennedy

Assassination” April 22, 2019. This source was useful in learning about the gunman of RFK.

https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2015/06/04/how-robert-f-kennedys-death-shattered-the-n
ation “How Robert F. Kennedy's Death Shattered the Nation” June 5, 2015. This source gave a
better look into the aftermath of the nation.

https://thekingcenter.org/about-dr-king/ “About Dr. King”. April 22, 2019 This source was a
good overview of who MLK was.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/assassination-of-Martin-Luther-King-Jr “Assassination of
Martin Luther King Jr.” March 29, 2019. This source gave me more information on the
assassination of MLK.

https://www.space.com/17362-apollo-8.html “Apollo 8: First Around The moon” September 18,

2018. This source gave me information about apollo 8.

https://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/orbital-missions/apollo
8.cfm “Apollo 8 (AS-503)”. April 22, 2019. This source gave me a deeper of understanding of
the apollo 8 mission.

https://qz.com/1268223/apollo-8-helped-america-survive-1968-a-year-remarkably-similar-to-201
8/ “Apollo 8 helped America survive 1968—a year remarkably similar to 2018” May 4, 2018.
This source helped me understand how America responded to Apollo 8.

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https://www.theguardian.com/science/2008/nov/30/apollo-8-mission “The Mission that Changed
Everything” November 29, 2008

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