Foundations of Education

EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS

1. Early Conceptions of Education

1.1. Education for Conformity / Primitive Education

Aims: To survive and to conform to the tribe to which they belong

Contents: Practical and Theoretical Education

Methods: Tell me and show me, trial and error, enculturation, indoctrination

Proponents: Primitives

1.2. Education for the Preservation of Social Stability / Oriental Education

Aims: To impress traditional ideas and customs in order to maintain and perpetuate the long
establish social order

Contents: Moral and Theoretical Training

Methods: Imitation, Memorization

Proponents: Orientals (Chinese, Indians, Egyptians)

1.3. Education for the Development of Individuality / Creek Education

Aims: To promote individual success and welfare through the harmonious development o f the
various aspects of human personality

Spartan: To develop a good soldier in each citizen

Athenian: To perfect man (body and mind) for individual excellence needed for public usefulness

Contents: Spartan— military and physical training Athenians: Liberal education

Methods: Athenian —Principle of individuality

Spartan — Competition and rivalry Proponents: Greeks

 1.4. Education for Utilitarianism / Roman Education

Aim: To educate the Roman youth for reading national ideals

Content: Physical training (martial arts, use of war weapons)

Methods: Elementary— memorization, imitation

Secondary — literary exercises, intensive and on speech grammar

Proponents: Romans

2. MODERN CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION

2.1. Education for Rich, Full Life / Italian or Individualistic Humanism

Aim: To secure rich and full life for each individual through contacts with the ancient

Contents: Grammar, Literature and Mathematics

Methods: Text study, written themes, self-activity and self-expression

Proponent: Vittorino de Feltre

2.2. Northern or Social Humanism Aim: For social reform

Contents: Classical and biblical literature (Religious) Methods: Individualized instruction,

repetition and mastery, motivation, use o (praise and rewards

Proponent: Desiderius Erasmus

2.3. Reformation

Aim: Religious moralism

Content: Physical education, character education, Math, History, Science

Methods: Memorization religious, indoctrination Proponent: Martin Luther

2.4. Counter-Reformation

Aim: To develop an unquestioning obedience to the authority of the church

Content: 4Rs (religion included)Methods: adapting the lesson to the abilities, needs, and
interests of children, reviewing the previous lessons, repetition for mastery, memorization with
understanding use of textbooks

Proponents: Christian Brothers, Jansenists, Jesuits

2.5. Education as Training of the Mind / Formal Discipline

Aims: To train the mind through rigorous exercises in order to develop intellectual capacities; To
form character (Mental, physical and moral)

Contents: Classical Languages and Math; Physical (vigor of the body) Mental (mental power) and
moral (good conduct)

Methods: Formal-sensation, memory and reasoning drill method

Proponent: John Locke

2.6. Rationalism

Aim: To enable man to think for themselves

Contents: Philosophical / scientific knowledge, ethics and morality

Methods: critical analysis, application of reason

2.7. Education in Harmony with Nature / Naturalistic Conception of Education

Aim: To develop the individual in accordance with the laws of human development and to
preserve the natural goodness of man

Contents: Holistic education (physical, moral, intellectual)

Proponent: Jean Jacques Rousseau

2.8. Education for Patriotic Citizenship / Nationalistic Conception

Aim: To develop military preparedness and aggressiveness for the preservation and glorification
of the State

Content: Social Studies

 Methods: Practical

2.9. Education as Psychological Development

Aim: To direct and control growth and development through appropriate educational
procedures

JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI — Social regeneration o f humanity

FRIEDRICH FROEBEL— Development o f the child

JONATHAN HERBART— Moral development

EDWARD LEE THORN DIKE — realize the fullest satisfaction o f human wants

Contents: Math, science, language, arts, history, literature

Methods: principles and Laws of Learning

2.10. Education as a Scientifically Determined Process

Aim: To make education a science Content: Science

Methods: Experimental, problem-solving, scientific method and research

2.11. Education as Social Reconstruction/ Social Experimentalism

Aim: Prepare for progressive rebuilding of the social order

Content Social Studies

Intellectual — critical examination of the social conditions and social problems

Civic: intelligent participation and cooperation in civic affairs

Vocational — social relationships of one's job

Methods: Guidance (including social guidance), intelligent and cooperative participation: Field
Trips, Directed Classroom Study (community life)

II. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS

1. MAJOR PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHTS

I.I. Idealism

1.2. Realism

1.3. Pragmatism/ Experimentalism

2. MODERN PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHTS

2. I. Perennialism

2.2. Essentialism

2.3. Progressivism

2.4. Existentialism

2.5. Social Reconstructionism

(See Module 2: Educational Philosophies)

3. EASTERN PHILOSOPHIES

3.1. Hinduism

• Emphasizes a commitment to an ideal way of life characterized by honesty,

courage, service, faith, self-control, purity and non- violence which can be
achieved through YOGA

 Proponent: Mahatma Gandhi

 Hinduism in Education:

•The teacher shows the way and imparts knowledge by his own
example, responsible for the student's spiritual welfare.

•The students aim to remember everything by heart and gain mastery

of every subject learned

•Teaching methods are oral and memory intensive, discussion and

debates

32. Buddhism
 •Believes in the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS and LAW OF KARMA

 Proponents: Siddharta Gautama

 Buddhism in Education:

•Education is rooted on faith.

•Continuing educational system- to receive additional teaching and

learn from each other during class discussions

33. Confucianism

•Teachers moral life through devotion to the family, loyalty to the elders, love
of learning, brotherhood, civil service, and universal love and justice stresses the

FIVE CARDINAL VIRTUES (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and

sincerity)

 Proponent: Confucius Confucianism in Education:

•Civil service exams

•Religious rituals in the schools

3A. Taoism

•TAO: a way of life, a philosophy advocating simplicity, frugality, and the joys of
being close to nature and being in harmony with the whole universe

•Strongly b elieves in WU WEI (Let things come naturally).

 Proponent: Lau-TzuTaoism in Education:

•Taoist ethics emphasize compassion, moderation and humility

•Physical exercises involves slow and controlled body movements to

achieve mental stillness

35. Zen Buddhism

•Believes in the THIRD EYE (to see things which are invisible to the naked eyes
and to get attuned to the things around us)
 •Encourage meditation (mind-awakening)

•Teaches that the entire universe is one's mind, and if one cannot realize
enlightenment in one's own mind now, one cannot ever achieve enlightenment.

3.6. Islam

•Has Five Pillars: belief in Allah, prayer (5x a day), fasting almsgiving and
pilgrimage)

 Proponent: Muhammad / Mohammed Islam in Education:

•Use ill knowledge is necessary for the bene fit of the self and of humanity.

•A truly Islamic government is required to provide all means to promote

adequate education for its citizens, to the best of its ability.

III. SOCIOLOGICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

SOCIOLOGY

•The science of man and society

•The science of social relationships

•The study of relationship between man and his human environment

•Study of patterns of human behavior

•Study of groups and societies and how they affect the people

SOCIETY — a group of organized individuals who think of themselves as a distinct group and
who live together sharing the same culture occupying the same territory, who interrelates and
interacts with one another, recruits its members by intergroup sexual reproduction and has a
shared comprehensive culture, common shared attitudes, sentiments, aspirations and goals.

SOCIALIZATION

•A process of adapting or conforming to the common needs and interests of social

group

•A process whereby people learn the attitudes, values and actions appropriate to
individuals as members of a particular society, where a member of a group learns and
internalizes norms and standards of the other member among whom he/she has
 Agents of Socialization

a. Family

b. School / Education

c. Church

d. Mass media

Sociology of Education

•Provides a study of the relationships between society and the educational

processes which contribute to the analysis and solution to problems confronting
the educational system

ANTHROPOLOGY

•Science that studies the origin and development of man, his work and achievements
which includes the study of physical, intellectual, moral, social and cultural development
of man, including his customs, mores, folkways and beliefs.

CULTURE

•He shared products of human learning, the set of learned behaviors, beliefs, attitudes,
values, and ideals that are characteristics of a particular society or population

•The complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, morals, customs, and
other capabilities and habits acquire by man as a member of society.

ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

•Language. An abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture;
the foundation of culture; verbal and nonverbal

•Norms. Are established standards of behavior maintained by a society; it must be

shared and understood Sanctions. Penalties or rewards for conduct, concerning social
norms

a. Positive sanctions — pay, promotion, medals, word of gratitude

 b. Negative — fines, imprisonment, threats, stares, ostracism

•Values. Are collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable and proper or
bad, undesirable and improper in a particular culture.

Anthropological- Sociological Implications to Education

•The curricular program of all learning institutions should be examined by the Commission on
Higher Education (CHED) and the Department of Education (Dep Ed) so that those will be
responsive to the needs of the society.

• Parents should be involved in the school projects and activities, and in enculturation and
socialization processes.

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES

Understanding the educational philosophies is very important for three major reasons:

I. What we believe about what is real or the nature of existence or the meaning of life shape
who we are as a teacher.
 2. What we believe about how knowledge is acquired shape our approach to teaching.

3. The way our beliefs about what is right and good and remarkable impact the learning in our
classroom.

Your beliefs and your own philosophy of education will influence all your activities in the classroom
from:

•how you teach, what you teach,

•how you manage your classroom,

•how you relate to the student% parents, and colleague% and;

•how you conduct your professional life. 1

SIX MAJOR EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES

•Idealism - "idea", first systematic philosophy in Western thought Socrates and Plato

FOCUS: Wisdom of goodness; discipline, order, self-control; preservation of cultural heritage o f

the past

AIM: Search for TRUTH through ideas. Education is transformation: ideas can change lives.

CURRICULUM:

•Examining the roots o f the contemporary problems in the past (great

literature/classics etc)

•Education at any level should teach students to think

•Subject-matter curriculum

•Back-to-basics approach in education

Teacher's roles:

•Dealing with abstract notions through dialectic method & connecting analysis with
action.

•Active, posing questions, selecting materials and establishing an environment to

ensure the desired outcomes.

•A role model to be imitated by students

 Methods of Instruction:

1) Lecturing but particularly using dialectic approach

Plato's method of dialogue engaged in systematic, logical examination of all

points of view...ultimately leading to agreement and a synthesis of ideas...this
approach known as the dialectic.

Knowledge is obtained when ideas are brought into consciousness through self-
examination and discourse (epistemology)

2) Questioning

•Searching for truth through Socratic questioning/ dialectic — questioning

individual's point of view (using inductive reasoning, authority lecturing)

•Existentialism— "personal existence"

Soren Kierkegaard (1 81 3 — 18 55) Father of Existentialism

Jean Paul Sartre believed "existence precedes essence" — that is people must create
themselves, and they must create their own meaning.

FOCUS: individuality; the needs of individuals, both cognitively and effectively.

Each person must simply live his/her life &by doing so creates his/her own values, almost as an
afterthought Focus is on humans and their ideas.

AIMS:

•To make the world better

•To train individual for significant and meaningful existence

Education is an activity liberating the individual from a chaotic, absurd world. Individuals are
responsible of consequences. Individuals should be given credit for the creation of concepts like
peace, truth, and Justice.

CURRICULUM:

•Subject- centered

•Literature, History, Arts for Aesthetic expression, and Humanities for ethical values

Teacher's roles:
 •intensely personal one that carries with it a tremendous responsibility• emphasizes
individual choices (there is no common way of viewing world)

•should understand his/her own 'lived world' to help students achieve their b est 'lived
worlds

• Both Teacher and students learn from each other & their relation is more friend to
friend

•must take risks; expose themselves to resistant students; & work constantly to enable
their students to become 'wide awake'.

•Due to the greater experience & knowledge, it is the teacher's responsibility to develop
an educational environment that promotes awareness o f the past and present, and o f
the future possibilities.

•helps students become sensitive to human possibility and understand that they
themselves are both necessarily and Lilly determined by the past (every present is
conditioned by the past, but every present is pregnant with future possibilities for
change and new direction — individuals can change future.

•should understand that the chief requirement is to help students explore the world
and open up new possibilities of the world for students.

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION:

•Inquiry approach

•Question-answer method

•Experimentation

•Self-expressive activities

This orientation stresses the individual, often viewed as in opposition to the norms, values and
expectations of society. It stresses responsibility for choices made as acts of free will, views intuition and
emotion as useful vehicles for understanding and accepts uncertainty in life. (Ganguin, 1 89'7)

Perenniallsm — "persisting" and "enduring" over time, teacher-centered philosophy

Robert Maynard Hutchins- implemented education reform at the University of Chicago, encouraging
modem critical thinking of old ideals; developed the "Great Books"
"The purpose of the university is nothing less than to procure a moral, intellectual, and spiritual
revolution throughout the world," (Hutchins) Mortimer Adler - further developed this curriculum based
on 100 great books of western civilization

FOCUS: Everlasting ideas and universal truths learned from at, history, and literature.

AIM: Raise an enlightened citizen

CURRICULUM: Stems hum the "Great Books," a collection of literature deemed in Western
culture to be foundational, significant, and relevant, regardless of the time period. These books
include the works of Socrates, Aristotle, Homer, Plato, Geoffrey Chaucer, and William
Shakespeare.

Teacher's roles help students to become cultural citizens and to understand the principles of
human knowledge.

Perennialism in the classroom involves students gaining cultural literacy through the Great
Books and proving their understanding through tests, writing, and behavior.

It is also closely associated with the Socratic method of teaching, which promotes an open
dialogue between teacher and student.

It conjures up beliefs that maintain significance from generation to generation, from epoch to
epoch, from culture to culture, e.g. beliefs about excellence, the good life, and mental maturity
(with the assistance of reason) as life's purpose.

•Essentialism — "essential", teacher-centered philosophy

William C. Bagley —pioneered essentialism in America (1938)

"If education abandons rigorous standards and consequently provides no effective stimulus,
many persons will pass through twelve years of schooling to find themselves in a world in which
ignorance and lack of fundamental training are heavy handicaps." (Bagley)

E D. Hirsch Jr. — current essentialist advocate, chairman and founder of the Core Knowledge
Foundation.

Other proponents: James D. Koerner (1959), H. G. Rickover (1959), Paul Copp erman (1978), and
Theodore Sizer (1985).

FOCUS: Rigorous practice with the traditional subjects: reading, writing, math, and science.

AIM: Raise acknowledgeable student.

 CURRICULUM: Structured to develop discipline and a common culture of knowledge.
Essentialists value deep knowledge on a few core sub ects as opposed to more general
knowledge on a wider array of subjects.

Teacher's role:

Teach a strict curriculum with knowledge and authority, but the method was at the teacher's
discretion.

Essentialist's Platform

1. Students were to be taught by an essentialist teacher who is well-educated and

knowledgeable in the core curriculum.

2. Weave community into the curriculum

Reform: To promote the customs of American culture to each student regardless of the school,
to ensure that all schools of varying demographics had a common foundation

3."Pass or fail" approach - the only way a student could progress was to prove knowledge of the
required subjects through grades and testing.

Reconstructionism — "reconstruction"

Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) - founder of social Reconstructionism in reaction against the

realities of World War II. He recognized the potential for either human annihilation through
technology and human cruelty or the capacity to create a beneficent society using technology
and human compassion.

Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a Brazilian whose experiences living in poverty led him to
champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social change. Freire saw teaching and
learning as a process of inquiry in which the child must invent and reinvent the world.

Reconstructionists, believe that systems must be changed to overcome oppression and improve
human conditions.

FOCUS: the addressing of social questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide
democracy

AIM: social reform

 CURRICULUM: Focus on student experience and taking social action on real problems, such as
violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation, and inequality

It is often in opposition to Essentialism. It adamantly opposes the status quo and seeks to
transform society by attacking the power structures and vested interests that perpetuate and
maintain injustice and inequality.

• Progressivism - " progress" John Dewey - foremost proponent

FOCUS: on the whole child, rather than on the content or the teacher. This stresses that
students should test ideas by active experimentation.

AIM: The school should improve the way of life of our citizens through experiencing freedom
and democracy in schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers with students, student-
selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority.

CURRICULUM: derived from student interests and questions. Teacher's role: Provide
experiences so that students can learn by doing Learning is rooted in the questions of learners
that arise through experiencing the world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem
solver and thinker who makes meaning through his or her individual experience in the physical
and cultural context.

Progressives view change as natural and progress as both Inevitable and d a continuing
evolution based on previous experiences. Celebrating the ability to reflect and reason as both an
individual and society strength. Progressives accept uncertainty, stress individual and social
growth, and utilize the techniques of the scientific method to better understand the world.

TEACHER'S LICENSURE

Board of Professional Teachers

Board LOW

Republic Act No. 7836 - "Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994."

An Act to Strengthen the Regulation and Supervision of the Practice of Teaching in the
Philippines and Prescribing a Licensure Examination for Teachers and for Other Purposes Be it
enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in Congress assembled:

Statement of Policy - The state recognizes the vital role of teachers in nation-building and
development through a responsible and literate citizenry. Towards this end the State shall
ensure and promote quality education by proper supervision and regulation of the licensure
examination and professionalization of the practice of the teaching profession.
 Objectives - This Act has the herein objectives: a. the promotion, development and
professionalization of teachers and the teaching profession; and b: The supervision and
regulation of the licensure examination.

Definition of Terms - For purposes of this Act, the following terms shall mean:

Teaching - refers to the profession concerned primarily with classroom instruction at the
elementary and secondary levels in accordance with the curriculum prescribed by the
Department of Education, Culture and Sports, whether on part-time or full-time basis in the
private or public schools.

Teachers - refers to all persons engaged in teaching at the elementary and secondary levels,
whether on fulltime or part-time basis, including industrial arts or vocational teachers and all
other persons performing supervisory and/ or administrative functions in all schools in the
aforesaid levels and qualified to practice teaching under this Act.

Board - refers to the Board for Professional Teachers duly established and constituted under this
Act.

Commission - refers to the Professional Regulation Commission.

Inhibition Against the Practice of the Teaching Profession

Except as otherwise allowed under this Act, no person shall practice or offer to practice the
teaching profession in the Philippines or be appointed as teacher to any position without having
previously obtained a valid certificate of registration and a valid professional license from the
Commission.

Essay questions: Answer straightforwardly the following questions.

Note: Answers are limited to three sentences only

I. Why is it vital to have teacher licensure?

2. Relate your teaching practice or experience from the result of your answers in WHAT IS YOUR
EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY? Questionnaire (See Table I and 2 of Illustration section).

3.Devise a directory containing a list of philosophies you practice in particular teaching-learning

contexts.
4. Construct a group professional pledge in congruence with the discussion. (Note: Limited to one
sentence)

For example: "As group of professional teachers, we pledge for lifelong academic excellenceand
dedication to teaching; more importantly, we'll make sure to think of our students' differences, needs,
and their welfare in creating a brighter future for them. "

B. Identification

Identify which educational philosophy is being described below:

Idealism,Perinnialism,Existentialism, Essentialism, Reconstructionism, Progressivism

Educational philosophy that:

1.Focuses on student experience and taking social action on real problems, such as

violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation, and inequality.

2.Emphasizes individuality.

3.Aims to raise enlightened citizen and Stems their curriculum from the "Great Books,"

4.Values deep knowledge on core subjects5. Aims to improve the way of life of our citizens through
experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. 6. Has a teacher's responsibility to develop an
educational environment that promotes awareness of the past and present, and of the future
possibilities.

7.Deals with abstract notions through dialectic method & connecting analysis with action

8.help students to become cultural citizens and to understand the principles of human knowledge

9.Views that teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which the child must invent and reinvent
the world.
10.Uses "Pass or fail" approach - the only way a student could progress was to prove knowledge of the
required subjects through grades and testing

C. Multiple Choice Test

Choose the correct answer.

1. Religious rituals in the classroom and in the school programs prove the deep natural religiosity of the
Filipinos. Which philosophy has greatly contributed to this tradition?

a Buddhism

b.Confucianism

c.Hinduism

d.Islam

2. If military training was the focus of Spartan education, what was the goal of Athenian education?

a Intellectual training

b.Training of mind and body

c.Religious training

d.Vocational training

3.Which program is in line with Confucius' assertion that there should be no distinction of classes in
teaching?

a Education for All (EFA)

b.Back-to-basics

c.Values education

d.Moral recovery program

4. What do you call a person who believes that his/her culture is superior over the others?

a Cultural relativist

b.Ethnocentric
c.Ethical relativist

d.Xeno centric

5. Which economic system upholds the unlimited right to private property and pursuit o f pro fit?

a Communism

b.Socialism

c.Capitalism

d.Moderate capitalism

6. In order to make Roman education truly utilitarian, how should the day-to-day lessons be taught?

a. Taught in the students' native dialect

b.Taught interestingly through the play way method

c.Related and linked to the events happening in everyday life

d.Practiced at home under the guidance of their respective parents

7. Giving education the highest budgetary allocation, the Philippine government recognizes the possible
contribution of its figure citizens to the national development goals of the Philippine society. Which
stressed this goal of education for social transformation?

a Athenian education

b.Followers o f Christ

c.Greek education

d.Roman education

8. Which of the following situations presents a value conflict?

a The teacher and his students have class standing as their priorities.

b.The teacher and the administrator follow a set of criteria in giving grades.
c.The teacher has students whose parents want their children to obtain higher grades than what they
are capable of getting.

d.The teacher sets high expectations for her intelligent students such as getting higher grades.

9. Which situation shows that a sense of nationhood is exemplified?

a The class conducted a debate using Filipino as medium

b.The class is required to watch the TV sitcom of Ellen to improve their English communication skills.

c.The class opted to make a choral rendition of the theme song of a foreign movie.

d.When the teacher asked her Grade II students in what country they wish to live, most of them chose
Europe.

10. Which of the following is NOT a function of the scho ol?

a The education o f illiterate parents

b.The establishment of at least one primary school for boys and girls in each municipality

c.The hiring of tribal tutors to teach children

d.The provision of vocational training for school age children

11. Which philosophy of education influences the signing of the National anthem in schools?

a Nationalism

b.Naturalism

c.Pragmastism

d.Socialism

12. Who among the following believes that learning requires disciplined attention, regular homework,
and respect for legitimate authority?

a Essentialist

b.Progressivist
c.Realist

d.Reconstructionist

13. Which of the following is the main function of the philosophy of education?

a Reconsider existing educational goals in the light of society's needs

b.Provide the academic background prerequisite to learning

c.Define the goals and set the direction for which education is to strive

d.Aid the learner to build his own personal philosophy

14. Home room advisers always emphasize the importance of cleanliness of the body. Children are
taught how to wash their hands before and after eating. What is this practice called?

a Folkway

b Laws

c.Mores

d.Social norm

15. A teacher who subscribes to the pragmatic philosophy of education believes that experience should
follow learning in her teaching. Which of the following does she do to support her belief? a Encouraging
learners to memorize factual knowledge

b.Equipping learners with the basic abilities and skills

c.Providing learners opportunities to apply theories and principles

d.Requiring learners full mastery ofthe lesson

16. Which philosophy influenced the cultivation of reflective and meditative skills in teaching?

a Confucianism

b.Extentialism

c.Tao ism
d.Zen Buddhism

17. Which does NOT describe culture?

a Learned

b.Stable

c.Borrowed

d.Adaptive

18.Which Eastern philosophy emphasizes compassion, moderation and humility?

a Islam

b.Buddhism

c.Hinduism

d.Taoism

19. One of the following quotations does not conform to the Christian doctrine of Education for
Humanitarianism Which one is it?

a Do unto others as you would like others do unto you.

b.Love thy neighbor as thyself

c.Not on bread alone is man to live but on every utterance that comes from the mouth of God.

d.Whatever good things we do to our poor, helpless brothers, we do it for God.

20. Scouting and Citizen's Army Training (CAT) give training in character-building, citizenship training,
etc. which leads to the creation of a new social order and a new society eventually. What philosophy
supports this?

a Existentialism

b.Perennialism

c.Progressivism
d.Social reconstructionism