.

ABSTRACT

Our aim is to study and implement an AM RECEIVER based on Super heterodyne

principle virtually used in all modern radio and television receivers. This mainly
involves the use of heterodyning (mixing of frequencies). The signal from the
antenna is filtered sufficiently at least to reject the image frequency and possibly
amplified to sufficient strength. The two stages of RF amplifier are used to get
desired frequency and appreciable gain. A local oscillator and mixer in the receiver
produces a sine wave which mixes with that signal shifting it to a very specific
intermediate frequency , usually a lower frequency. The IF signals are filtered and
amplified and possibly processed in additional ways. The demodulator uses the IF
signals instead of the original radio frequency to recreate a copy of the original
modulation.
The results will be tested in Symica DE software.

1
.c

TABLE OF CONTENT

CANDIDATE DECLARATION 2
CERTIFICATE 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 4
ABSTRACT 5
TABLE OF CONTENT 6-7
LIST OF FIGURES 8-9
CHAPTER 1: Introduction 10-19
1.1 Modulation 11
1.2 Amplitude Modulation 12
1.3 Types Of Modulation 14
1.4 Demodulation Techniques 16
1.5 AM Receivers 17

CHAPTER 2: Superheterodyne Radio Receiver 20-21

2.1 Block Diagram 20
2.2 Superheterodyning 20
2.3 Principle 20
2.4 Working 21

CHAPTER 3: Components of Superheterodyne Receiver 22-35

3.1 Low Noise Amplifier 22
3.2 Mixer 25
3.3 Intermediate Frequency Amplifier 27
3.4 Local Oscillator 31
3.5 Detector Stage 33

CHAPTER 4: Hardware 36-39

4.1 Elements used 36

CHAPTER 5: CRO Observations 40-43

5.1 Message Signal 40
5.2 Carrier signal 41
2
.c

5.3 Modulated Signal 42

5.4 Demodulated signal 43

CHAPTER 6: Conclusion 45-46

6.1 Advantages of AM receiver 45
6.2 Applications of AM receiver 45
6.3 Future Scope 46

CHAPTER 7: Symica 47
7.1 Features
7.2 Input Formats
7.3 Output Formats

CHAPTER 8: References 48
8.1 Internet
8.2 Books

TEACHER’s REPORT 49

3
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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1.1. Representation of Amplitude Modulation 12

1.2. AM spectrum 13
1.3 Under Modulation 14
1.4. Critical Modulation 14
1.5. Over Modulation 15
1.6. Tuned RF receiver 17
1.7. Crystal receiver 18
1.8. Regenerative receiver 18
1.9. Synchrodyne Receiver 19
2.1. Superheterodyne receiver block diagram 20
3.1. Low noise amplifier circuit 22
3.2. Low Noise amplifier symica observation 24
3.3. Mixer circuit 25
3.4. Mixer symica observations 26
3.5. IF amplifier circuit 28
3.6. IF amplifier symica observations 30
3.7. Local Oscillator circuit 32
3.8. Envelope Detector Circuit 34
3.9. Demodulation in Symica 35
4.1. Hardware 36
4.2. Resistor 37
4.3. Capacitors 37
4.4. Diode 38

4
.c

4.5. Q2N2222 BJT 39

5.1. Message on CRO 40
5.2. Carrier Signal on CRO 41
5.3. Modulated Wave on CRO 42
5.4. Demodulated Signal on CRO 43

5
 Chapter 1
1.INTRODUCTION

A radio communication system is composed of several communications

subsystems that give exterior communications capabilities. A radio communication
system comprises a transmitting conductor in which electrical oscillations or
currents are produced and which is arranged to cause such currents or oscillations
to be propagated through the free space medium from one point to another remote
there from and a receiving conductor at such distant point adapted to be excited by
the oscillations or currents propagated from the transmitter. One desirable feature
of radio transmission is that it should be carried without wires (i.e.,) radiated into
space. At audio frequencies, radiation is not practicable because the efficiency of
radiation is poor. However, efficient radiation of electrical energy is possible at
high frequencies (>20 kHz). For this reason, modulation is always done in
communication systems.

6
 Chapter 1
1.1. Modulation

Modulation is the process of superimposing the information contents of

amodulating signal on a carrier signal (which is of high frequency) by varying the
characteristic of carrier signal according to the modulating signal.Modulation is
thus a a technique for transferring information or message of lower frequency by
riding it on the higher frequency carrier. This solves the major problem of antenna
size and signal distortion (or noise) in communication system.
Modulation is primarily used in telecommunication technologies that require the
transmission of data via electrical signals. It is considered the backbone of data
communication because it enables the use of electrical and optical signals as
information carriers. Modulation is achieved by altering the periodic waveform or
the carrier. This includes carrying its amplitude, frequency and phase. Modulation
has three different types:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM): Amplitude of the carrier is modulated.

2. Frequency Modulation (FM): Frequency of the carrier is modulated.
3. Phase Modulation (PM): Phase of the carrier is modulated.

A modem is a common example/implementation of a modulation technique in

which the data is modulated with electrical signals and transmitted over telephone
lines. It is later demodulated to receive the data.

1.1.1. Advantages of Modulation

1. Reduction in the height of antenna
2. Avoids mixing of signals
3. Increases the range of communication
4. Multiplexing is possible
5. Improves quality of reception

7
.c Chapter 1

1.2. Amplitude modulation

When the modulation is done by combining the amplitude of high frequency
carrier wave with the amplitude of low frequency message wave, then it is
known as amplitude modulation.

Figure 1.1
(Pictorial representation of amplitude modulation)

Voltage of carrier wave at time `t` is given by −

C(t) = AC sinωCt

Voltage of massage wave at time `t` is given by −

m(t) = Am sinωmt

When both the waves are combined and put over a single conductor, their
amplitudes are summed up and the resultant amplitude is higher than the
amplitude of message signal as shown.

The resultant wave after modulation has characteristics of both the waves.
It has the same frequency as that of the carrier wave and the amplitude of
resultant wave is modulated depending upon the amplitude of message
signal, hence it is known as amplitude modulated wave.

8
.c Chapter 1
Therefore, Voltage for amplitude modulated wave at time `t` is given by −

Cm(t) = (AC + Am sinωmt) sinωCt

∴ Cm(t) = AC(1 + Am AC sinωmt) sinωCt

Let,

Am AC = μ
Where,

μ = Modulation index

∴ Cm(t) = AC(1 + μ sinωmt) sinωCt

∴ Cm(t) = AC sinωCt + μAC sinωmt . sinωCt

As we know, the equation of a wave contains a single harmonic function, so

simplifying the above equation, we get −

∴ Cm(t) = AC sinωCt + μ AC 2 cos(ωC - ωm)t - μ AC 2 cos(ωC + ωm)t

As we can observe, it is a combination of 3 waves moving together with
frequencies ωC, (ωC − ωm) and (ωC + ωm).

Figure 1.2
(Spectrum of Amplitude Modulated Signal)

Bandwidth of amplitude modulated wave is 2ωm.

Massage signals are located in side bands.

Operating frequency of amplitude modulated wave is ωC

Demodulation is the reverse of modulation that is a process for retrieving an

information signal that has been modulated onto a carrier.
9
.c Chapter 1
1.3. Types of Amplitude Modulation :
1. Under Modulation
2. Critical Modulation
3. Over Modulation

1.3.1. Under Modulation:

The condition in which the peak values of the modulating signal stay for a long
period of time well below the maximum value for which the transmission system
or the equipment considered is designed.

Figure 1.3
(under modulation representation)

1.3.2. Critical Modulation:

When the modulation index reaches 1.0, i.e. a modulation depth of 100%, the
carrier level falls to zero and rise to twice its non-modulated level.

Figure 1.4
(critical modulation representation)

10
.c Chapter 1

1.3.3. Over Modulation:

The modulation index above 1.0, i.e. 100% modulation depth causes over-
modulation. The carrier experiences 180° phase reversals where the carrier level
would try to go below the zero point. These phase reversals give rise to additional
sidebands resulting from the phase reversals (phase modulation) that extend out, in
theory to infinity. This can cause serious interference to other users if not filtered.

Figure 1.5
(Over modulation representation)

11
 Chapter 1
1.4. Demodulation Techniques
Demodulation is extracting the original information-bearing signal from a carrier
wave.A demodulator is an electronic circuit (or computer program in a software-
defined radio) that is used to recover the information content from the modulated
carrier wave. There are many types of modulation so there are many types of
demodulators. The signal output from a demodulator may represent sound
(an analog audio signal), images (an analog video signal) or binary data (a digital
signal).The process of re-creating original modulating frequencies (intelligence)
from the rf carrier is referred to as DEMODULATION or DETECTION. Each type
of modulation is different and requires different techniques to recover
(demodulate) the intelligence.
The process of detection provides a means of recovering the modulating Signal
from modulating signal. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation.
These terms are traditionally used in connection with radio receivers, but many
other systems use many kinds of demodulators. For example, in a modem, which is
a contraction of the terms modulator/demodulator, a demodulator is used to extract
a serial digital data stream from a carrier signal which is used to carry it through
a telephone line, coaxial cable, or optical fiber.
There are several ways of demodulation depending on how parameters of the base-
band signal such as amplitude, frequency or phase are transmitted in the carrier
signal. For example, for a signal modulated with a linear modulation like AM
(amplitude modulation), we can use a synchronous detector, envelope detector or
product detector. On the other hand, for a signal modulated with an angular
modulation, we must use an FM (frequency modulation) demodulator or a PM
(phase modulation) demodulator. Different kinds of circuits perform these
functions.

12
 Chapter 1
.

1.5. AM Receiver
For extracting the message signal back from the carrier wave we demodulate the
RF signal. For AM demodulation we have different methods:
1.5.1. Tuned RF Receivers
This receiver is composed of one or more tuned radio frequency amplifier stages
followed by detector circuit to extract the message signal.

Figure 1.6
(Block diagram of TRF receiver)

* TRF's disadvantages are "poor selectivity and low sensitivity in proportion to the
number of tubes employed.

* The major problem with the TRF receiver, particularly as a consumer product, is
its complicated tuning. All the tuned circuits need to track to keep the narrow
bandwidth tuning.

1.5.2. Crystal Receivers

It is a very simple radio receiver used in early days of radio. It needs no other
power source but that received solely from the power of radio waves received by a
wire antenna. It gets its name from its most important component known as crystal
detector (Diode). Crystal radios are passive receivers, while other radios use
an amplifier to make the radio signal louder. Thus, crystal sets produce rather weak
sound and must be listened to with sensitive earphones, and can only receive
stations within a limited range.

13
 Chapter 1
.

Figure 1.7
(Crystal Receiver)

* One of the drawbacks of crystal sets is that they are vulnerable to interference
from stations near in frequency to the desired station. Often two or more stations
are heard simultaneously. This is because the simple tuned circuit does not reject
nearby signals well.

* The crystal detector worsened the problem, because it has relatively the
low resistance, thus it "loaded" the tuned circuit, drawing the significant current
and thus damping the oscillations, reducing its Q factor so it allowed through a
broader band of frequencies and deteriorate the selectivity of the receiver.
1.5.3. Regenerative Receiver
These circuits employ an amount of positive feedback (which is also known as
regeneration) sending part of the output without phase inversion which amplify the
signal. One example is the Schmitt trigger (which is also known as a regenerative
comparator), but the most common use of the term is in RF amplifiers, and
especially regenerative receivers, to increase the gain of a single stage, allowing a
signal to be amplified many times by the same active device.

Figure 1.8
(Block diagram of Regenerative Receiver)

14
 Chapter 1
.

* A disadvantage of this receiver is that the regeneration (feedback) level must be

adjusted when it is tuned to a new station. This is because the regenerative detector
has less gain with stronger signals, and because the stronger signals cause the tube
or transistor to operate on a different section of its amplification curve (i.e. grid V
vs. plate V for tubes; gate V vs drain V for FET's, and base current vs. collector
current for BJT's).

* Other shortcomings of regenerative receivers are the presence of a characteristic

noise (“mush”) in their audio output.

* Regenerative receivers lack an RF amplifier between the antenna and the

regenerative detectors, so any change with the antenna swaying in the wind, etc.
can change the frequency of the detector.

1.5.4. Syncrodyne Receiver

A direct conversion receiver also known as homodyne, syncrodyne or zero IF
receiver is a radio receiver design that demodulates the incoming radio signal using
synchronous detector driven by a local oscillator.

Figure 1.9
(Block Diagram of Syncrodyne Receiver)

* Signal leakage paths occur in the receiver. Local-oscillator energy leak through
the mixer stage to antenna input and then reflect back into mixer stage. The overall
effect is that the local oscillator energy will self-mix and create a DC offset signal.
The offset may be large enough to overload the baseband amplifiers and prevent
receiving the wanted signal.

15
 Chapter 2
2. SUPERHETERODYNE

2.1. Block Diagram

Figure 2.1

2.2. Superheterodyning
"Superheterodyne" is a contraction of "supersonic heterodyne", where "supersonic"
indicates frequencies above the range of human hearing. The word heterodyne is
derived from the Greek roots hetero- "different", and -dyne "power". The main
objective of superheterodyne AM receiver is to receive AM signal by tuned radio
frequency oscillator because compared with the tuned radio frequency
receiver (TRF) design, superhets offer better stability because a tunable oscillator
is more easily realized than a tunable amplifier. Operating at a lower frequency, IF
filters can give narrower passbands at the same Q factor than an equivalent RF
filter.
2.3. Principle
In superheterodyne radio receivers, the incoming radio signals are intercepted by
are intercepted by the antenna and converted into the corresponding current and
voltages. In the receiver, the incoming signal frequency is mixed with a locally
generated frequency. The output of the mixer consists of the sum and difference of
the two frequencies. The mixing of two frequencies is termed heterodyning. Out of
two resultant components, the sum frequency component is rejected and difference
component is selected. The value of the difference frequency component varies
with the incoming frequencies if the local oscillator frequency is kept constant. The
difference frequency can be kept constant by varying the oscillator frequency in
accordance with the incoming signal frequency. In this case, the process is called
superheterodyne and the receiver is called as super heterodyne receiver.

16
 Chapter 1
.

2.3. Working
The diagram has blocks that are common to superheterodyne
receivers. The antenna collects the radio signal. The tuned RF stage with optional
RF amplifier provides some initial selectivity; it is necessary to suppress the image
frequency , and may also serve to prevent strong out-of-passband signals from
saturating the initial amplifier. A local oscillator provides the mixing frequency; it
is usually a variable frequency oscillator which is used to tune the receiver to
different stations. The frequency mixer does the actual heterodyning that gives the
superheterodyne its name; it changes the incoming radio frequency signal to a
higher or lower, fixed, intermediate frequency (IF). The IF band-pass filter and
amplifier supply most of the gain and the narrowband filtering for the radio.
The demodulator extracts the audio or other modulation from the IF radio
frequency; the extracted signal is then amplified by the audio amplifier.
To receive a radio signal, a suitable antenna is required. The output of the antenna
may be very small, often only a few microvolts. The signal from the antenna is
tuned and may be amplified in a so-called radio frequency (RF) amplifier, although
this stage is often omitted. One or more tuned circuits at this stage block
frequencies that are far removed from the intended reception frequency. In order to
tune the receiver to a particular station, the frequency of the local oscillator is
controlled by the tuning knob (for instance). Tuning of the local oscillator and the
RF stage may use a variable capacitor, or varicap diode.[11] The tuning of one (or
more) tuned circuits in the RF stage must track the tuning of the local oscillator.

17
 Chapter 3
3.1. Low Noise Amplifier (LNA)
3.1.1. Definition
A low-noise amplifier (LNA) is an electronic amplifier that amplifies a very low-
power signal without significantly degrading its signal-to-noise ratio. An amplifier
increases the power of both the signal and the noise present at its input. LNAs are
designed to minimize additional noise. LNAs are designed by minimizing noise by
considering trade-offs that include impedance matching, choosing the amplifier
technology (such as low-noise components) and selecting low-
noise biasing conditions
The input module of the full system is an LNA high bandwidth transistor amplifier
that amplifies the signal before it is sent through the anti-imaging filter. This
amplifier is a three stage BJT amplifier comprised of an emitter follower, common
emitter, and emitter follower. We expect an input voltage off of an antenna of
between microvolt and hundreds of microvolt levels, so we have a gain of about
100. We chose the emitter follower for the input and output stage because of it’s
high input impedance and low output impedance.

Figure 3.1
(LNA Circuit)

3.1.2. The sensitive role of the LNA

The function of the LNA is to take the extremely weak and uncertain signal from
the antenna, usually on the order of microvolts or under -100 dBm, and amplify it
to a more useful level, usually about one-half to one volt (Figure 1). To help put
this in perspective, in a 50 Ω system, 10 μV is -87 dBm and 100 μV equals -67
dBm.

18
 Chapter 3
While providing this gain itself is not a major challenge with modern electronics, it
is severely compromised by any noise that the LNA may add to the weak input
signal. This noise can overwhelm any benefits of the amplification that the LNA
adds.

The LNA functions in a world of unknowns. As the front end of the receiver
channel, it must capture and amplify a very low-power, low-voltage signal plus
associated random noise that the antenna presents to it within the bandwidth of
interest. In signal theory, this is called the unknown signal/unknown noise
challenge, the most difficult of all signal-processing challenges.

For LNAs, the primary parameters are noise figure (NF), gain, and linearity. Noise
is due to thermal and other sources, with typical noise figures in the 0.5 to 1.5 dB
range. Typical gain is between 10 and 20 dB for a single stage.

Nonlinearity is another issue for the LNA, as the resultant harmonics and
intermodulation distortion corrupt the received signal and make demodulating and
decoding it with sufficiently low bit error rate (BER) more difficult. Linearity is
usually characterized by the third-order intercept point (IP3), which relates
nonlinear products caused by the third-order nonlinear term to the linearly
amplified signal; the higher the IP3 value, the more linear the amplifier
performance.

Power consumption and efficiency in the LNA are generally not the primary
concerns. By their nature, most LNAs are fairly low-power devices with current
consumption from 10 to 100 mA, and they are providing voltage gain to
subsequent stages, not delivering power to a load. Also, there are only one or two
LNA channels in the system (the latter usually in diversity antenna designs such as
for Wi-Fi and 5G interfaces), so any savings from using a lower-power LNA
would be modest.

Other than their operating frequency and bandwidth, there is a relatively large
amount of functional similarity among LNAs. Some LNAs also include gain
control so the amplifier can handle a wide dynamic range of input signals without
overload and saturation. Such widely varying input-signal strength is a common
occurrence in mobile applications where the base station-to-phone path loss can
have a wide range, even during a single connection cycle.

The routing of input signals to an LNA, and the output signals from it, is as
important as the specifications of the part itself. Therefore, designers must use
sophisticated modeling and layout tools to realize the LNA’s full performance
potential. A superior part can easily be degraded by poor layout or impedance
matching, so it is critical to use vendor-provided Smith charts, along with credible
models of the circuit to support simulation and analysis software.

19
 Chapter 3
For these reasons, nearly all vendors of high-performance LNAs which operate in
the GHz range offer an evaluation board or verified pc-board layout since every
aspect of test setup is critical, including layout, connectors, grounding, bypassing,
and power.

3.1.3. Symica Observations

Figure 3.2
(LNA Observations in Symica)

20
 Chapter 3
3.2. Mixer

The transition between RF and IF occurs in the mixer. The mixer is a block that
multiplies the two input signals (the RF signal and the local oscillator), and whose
output is two copies of the RF signal whose frequencies equal the addition and
subtraction of the frequency of the two inputs. This stage is followed with a filter
that isolates out the local oscillator RF signal, which reduces the signal to the
standard 455kHz level of the AM range. This frequency reduction of the RF signal
is what made this AM receiver in to what is known as a super heterodyne receiver.
At first, we attempted to build this block out of a simple reverse biased diode
(pictured below). In isolation, the single diode mixer appeared to work well, giving
an expected output of addition and multiplication of the two input signals.
However, it was soon apparent that this mixer would not meet the specs necessary
for our radio because the addition component of the output was too large, and was
saturating the output of the following cascode amplifier. With a bit of testing, we
resolved this problem by feeding the filtered and amplified RF signal directly into
the base of the first transistor of the IF filter stage. The signal is mixed by applying
the local oscillator directly to the emitter resistor of this transistor. This acted like a
diode, and applied this operation up through the collector (so that the output of the
stage is addition and subtraction of the frequencies). This worked significantly
better than the separate diode because it was not an amplitude dependent on the
inputs and did not include the other harmonics that were dominant in the single
diode output.

Figure 3.3
(Mixer Circuit)

21
 Chapter 3
Symica observations

Figure 3.4
(Mixer Observations in Symica)

22
 Chapter 3
3.3. Intermediate Frequency Amplifier

It is an amplifying circuit in a radio frequency (RF) receiver that processes and

enhances a down converted or modulated signal. Signal frequency spectrum down
conversion is achieved by multiplying the radio-frequency signal by a local
oscillator signal in a circuit known as a mixer. This multiplication produces two
signals whose frequency content lies about the sum and difference frequencies of
the centre frequency of the original signal and the oscillator frequency. A variable
local oscillator is used in the receiver to hold the difference signal and centre
frequency is constant as the receiver is tuned. The constant frequency of the down
converted signal is called the intermediate frequency (IF), and it is this signal that
is processed by the intermediate-frequency amplifier.
The IF filter existed to limit the frequency response to 455 kHz, with a bandwidth
of about 10 kHz around the center point. This is necessary because the mixer
component has an output of two frequencies, the sum and difference of the LO
frequency and RF frequency. The IF filter was constructed of alternating high-Q
filters and transistor amplifier stages. The high-Q filters were made using the
tunable 455kHz transformers from 6.101 Laboratory 1. I used two of these filters
for each of the arms of the system (radio and spectrum sweep), with all four being
tightly tuned to the IF frequency of the system.
The transistor amplifier that buffered the input of each of these transformers was a
simple 2BJT cascade amplifier. These amplifiers were loaded by the input LC tank
of the transformers. These provided very high gain because of the large impedance,
but were unideal because the equivalent impedance of load varied largely with
each transformer. It was necessary to tune the amplification of each by testing
various combinations of attenuation methods, such as emitter resistor values and
resistors in series with the transformer load. It was challenging to find a point
where there was a good balance between limiting saturation and having a high
enough gain to see a wide range of input signal magnitudes, but we were
empirically able to find amplification stages that were effective for the purpose.

23
 Chapter 3

Figure 3.5
(IF circuit)

Unfortunately, radio frequency signals both higher and lower than the local
oscillator frequency by a difference equal to the intermediate frequency will
produce the intermediate frequency. One of these is the desired signal; the
undesired signal is called an image Aside from demodulation and conversion, the
purpose of each stage of a radio receiver is to improve the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) through a combination of signal amplification and noise /interference
suppression. Unlike the broadband tunable radio-frequency amplifier, the
intermediate-frequency amplifier is designed to operate over a narrow band of
frequencies centered about a dedicated fixed frequency (the intermediate
frequency); therefore, the intermediate-frequency amplifier can be an extremely
efficient stage. If the intermediate frequency is on the order of a few megahertz, the
undesirable images may be efficiently rejected, but narrow-band filtering for noise
and adjacent-channel-signal rejection is difficult and expensive because of the high
ratio of the intermediate frequency to the bandwidth of the intermediate-frequency
amplifier. If the intermediate frequency is much smaller, say, on the order of a few
hundred kilohertz, then inexpensive and more selective filters are possible that can
separate the desired signal from closely packed adjacent signals, but they do not
reject images very well. A high-quality double-conversion receiver combines the
best of both approaches by

24
 Chapter 3
cascading both high- and low-frequency intermediate-frequency stages that are
separated by a second fixed-frequency mixer.
The superheterodyne structure is common for television, ground-based and satellite
communications, cell phones, ground-based and airborne radar, navigation, and
many other receivers. The intermediate-frequency amplifier function is ubiquitous.
The stages of an intermediate frequency amplifier ("IF amplifier" or "IF strip") are
tuned to a fixed frequency that does not change as the receiving frequency changes.
The fixed frequency simplifies optimization of the IF amplifier. The IF amplifier is
selective around its center frequency fIF. The fixed center frequency allows the
stages of the IF amplifier to be carefully tuned for best performance (this tuning is
called "aligning" the IF amplifier). If the center frequency changed with the
receiving frequency, then the IF stages would have had to track their tuning. That
is not the case with the superheterodyne.
Typically, the IF center frequency fIF is chosen to be less than the desired reception
frequency fRF. The choice has some performance advantages. First, it is easier and
less expensive to get high selectivity at a lower frequency. For the same bandwidth,
a tuned circuit at a lower frequency needs a lower Q. Stated another way, for the
same filter technology, a higher center frequency will take more IF filter stages to
achieve the same selectivity bandwidth. Second, it is easier and less expensive to
get high gain at a lower frequency. When used at high frequencies, many
amplifiers show a constant gain–bandwidth product (dominant pole) characteristic.
If an amplifier has a gain–bandwidth product of 100 MHz, then it would have a
voltage gain of 100 at 1 MHz but only 10 at 10 MHz. If the IF amplifier needed a
voltage gain of 10,000, then it would need only two stages with an IF at 1 MHz but
four stages at 10 MHz.
Usually the intermediate frequency is lower than the reception frequency fRF, but in
some modern receivers (e.g. scanners and spectrum analyzers) a higher IF
frequency is used to minimize problems with image rejection or gain the benefits
of fixed-tuned stages. The Rohde & Schwarz EK-070 VLF/HF receiver covers
10 kHz to 30 MHz. It has a band switched RF filter and mixes the input to a first IF
of 81.4 MHz. The first LO frequency is 81.4 to 111.4 MHz, so the primary images
are far away. The first IF stage uses a crystal filter with a 12 kHz bandwidth. There
is a second frequency conversion (making a triple-conversion receiver) that mixes
the 81.4 MHz first IF with 80 MHz to create a 1.4 MHz second IF. Image rejection
for the second IF is not a major problem because the first IF provides adequate
image rejection and the second mixer is fixed tuned.
In early superhets, the IF stage was often a regenerative stage providing the
sensitivity and selectivity with fewer components. Such superhets were called
super-gainers.

25
 Chapter 3
Symica observations

Figure 3.6
(IF amplifier test waveform in symica)

26
 Chapter 3
3.4. Local oscillator

The tuned and amplified signal then enters one port of the mixer. The local
oscillator signal enters the other port. The performance of the mixer is crucial to
many elements of the overall receiver performance. It should be as linear as
possible. If not, then spurious signals will be generated and these may appear as
'phantom' received signals.
The signal is then fed into a circuit where it is mixed with a sine wave from a
variable frequency oscillator known as the local oscillator (LO). The mixer uses a
non-linear component to produce both sum and difference beat frequencies
signals, each one containing the modulation contained in the desired signal. The
output of the mixer may include the original RF signal at fRF, the local oscillator
signal at fLO, and the two new heterodyne frequencies fRF + fLO and fRF − fLO. The
mixer may inadvertently produce additional frequencies such as third- and higher-
order intermodulation products. Ideally, the IF bandpass filter removes all but the
desired IF signal at fIF. The IF signal contains the original modulation (transmitted
information) that the received radio signal had at fRF.
Historically, vacuum tubes were expensive, so broadcast AM receivers would save
costs by employing a single tube as both a mixer and also as the local oscillator.
The pentagrid converter tube would oscillate and also provide signal amplification
as well as frequency shifting.
The frequency of the local oscillator fLO is set so the desired reception radio
frequency fRF mixes to fIF. There are two choices for the local oscillator frequency
because the dominant mixer products are at fRF ± fLO. If the local oscillator
frequency is less than the desired reception frequency, it is called low-side
injection (fIF = fRF − fLO); if the local oscillator is higher, then it is called high-side
injection (fIF = fLO − fRF).
The mixer will process not only the desired input signal at f RF, but also all signals
present at its inputs. There will be many mixer products (heterodynes). Most other
signals produced by the mixer (such as due to stations at nearby frequencies) can
be filtered out in the IF amplifier; that gives the superheterodyne receiver its
superior performance. However, if fLO is set to fRF + fIF, then an incoming radio
signal at fLO + fIF will also produce a heterodyne at fIF; the frequency fLO + fIF is
called the image frequency and must be rejected by the tuned circuits in the RF
stage. The image frequency is 2 fIF higher (or lower) than the desired frequency fRF,
so employing a higher IF frequency fIF increases the receiver's image
rejection without requiring additional selectivity in the RF stage.

27
 Chapter 3

To suppress the unwanted image, the tuning of the RF stage and the LO may need
to "track" each other. In some cases, a narrow-band receiver can have a fixed tuned
RF amplifier. In that case, only the local oscillator frequency is changed. In most
cases, a receiver's input band is wider than its IF center frequency. For example, a
typical AM broadcast band receiver covers 510 kHz to 1655 kHz (a roughly
1160 kHz input band) with a 455 kHz IF frequency; an FM broadcast band receiver
covers 88 MHz to 108 MHz band with a 10.7 MHz IF frequency. In that situation,
the RF amplifier must be tuned so the IF amplifier does not see two stations at the
same time. If the AM broadcast band receiver LO were set at 1200 kHz, it would
see stations at both 745 kHz (1200−455 kHz) and 1655 kHz. Consequently, the RF
stage must be designed so that any stations that are twice the IF frequency away are
significantly attenuated. The tracking can be done with a multi-section variable
capacitor or some varactors driven by a common control voltage. An RF amplifier
may have tuned circuits at both its input and its output, so three or more tuned
circuits may be tracked. In practice, the RF and LO frequencies need to track
closely.

Figure 3.7
(local oscillator circuit)

28
 Chapter 3
3.5 Detector Stage

Demodulation is a key process in the reception of any amplitude modulated

signals.
Demodulation is the process by which the original information bearing signal, i.e.
the modulation is extracted from the incoming overall received signal.
The process of demodulation for signals using amplitude modulation can be
achieved in a number of different techniques, each of which has its own advantage.
The detector circuit is employed to separate the carrier wave and eliminate the side
bands. Since the envelope of an AM wave has the same shape as the message,
independent of the carrier frequency and phase, demodulation can be accomplished
by extracting envelope. An increased time constant RC results in a marginal output
follows the modulation envelope. A further increase in time constant the discharge
curve become horizontal if the rate of modulation envelope during negative half
cycle of the modulation voltage is faster than the rate of voltage RC combination
,the output fails to follow the modulation resulting distorted output is called as
diagonal clipping : this will occur even high modulation index. The depth of
modulation at the detector output greater than unity and circuit impedance is less
than circuit load (Rl > Zm) results in clipping of negative peaks of modulating
signal. It is called “negative clipping “.
An envelope detector is an electronic circuit that takes a high-frequency signal as
input and provides an output which is the envelope of the original signal.
The capacitor in the circuit stores up charge on the rising edge, and releases it
slowly through the resistor when the signal falls. The diode in series rectifies the
incoming signal, allowing current flow only when the positive input terminal is at a
higher potential than the negative input terminal.
Most practical envelope detectors use either half-wave or full-wave rectification of
the signal to convert the AC audio input into a pulsed DC signal. Filtering is then
used to smooth the final result. This filtering is rarely perfect and some "ripple" is
likely to remain on the envelope follower output, particularly for low frequency
inputs such as notes from a bass guitar. More filtering gives a smoother result, but
decreases the responsiveness; thus, real-world designs must be optimized for the
application.

29
 Chapter 3

Figure 3.8
(Envelope Detector Circuit)

Definition Of Envelope
Any AM or FM signal can be written in the following form

X(t)= R(t) . cos (wt + Ø(t))

In the case of AM, Ø(t) (the phase component of the signal) is constant and can be
ignored. In AM, the carrier frequency is also constant. Thus, all the
information in the AM signal is in R(t). R(t) is called the envelope of the signal.
Hence an AM signal is given by the function

X(t)= (C + m(t)) .coswt

with m(t) representing the original audio frequency message, C the carrier
amplitude and R(t) equal to C + m(t). So, if the envelope of the AM signal can be
extracted, the original message can be recovered.

30
 Chapter 3
Symica observations

Figure 3.9
(Demodulated wave observed in symica)

Software Used

 Symica DE

31
 Chapter 4
4. Hardware

Figure 4.1
(Hardware fabricated on PCB)

4.1. ELEMENTS USED

4.1.1. Resistors
An electronic or electrical resistor is a passive two - terminal electrical
component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic
circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide
voltages and bias active elements. The electrical function of a resistor is specified
by its resistance.
The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's
law:
V=I.R

32
 Chapter 4

Figure 4,2
(Resistor)

4.1.2. Capacitors
A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores potential
energy in an electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While
some capacitance exists between any two electrical conductors in proximity in
a circuit, a capacitor is a component designed to add capacitance to a circuit.

Figure 4.3
(Capacitors)

33
 Chapter 4
4.1.3. Diode
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in
one direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance in one
direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode,
the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with
a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode has
two electrodes, a plate (anode) and a heated cathode. Semiconductor diodes were
the first semiconductor electronic devices.

Figure 4.4
(Diode)

34
 Chapter 4
4.1.4. BJT
A bipolar jumction transistor (BJT) is a semiconductor device that is used
to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed
of semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an
external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals
controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor
can amplify a signal.

Figure 4.5
(BJT Q2N2222)

The 2N2222 is a common NPN bipolar junction transistor (BJT) used for general
purpose low-power amplifying or switching applications. It is designed for low to
medium current, low power, medium voltage, and can operate at moderately high
speeds.
The 2N2222 is considered a very common transistor, and is used as an exemplar of
an NPN transistor. It is frequently used as a small-signal transistor, and it remains a
small general purpose transistor of enduring popularity.

Manufacturer Vce Ic PD fT

ST Microelectronics
40 V 800 mA 500 mW/1.8 W 300 MHz
2N2222A

35
 Chapter 5
5.CRO OBSERVATIONS

MESSAGE SIGNAL

Amplitude = 8.2V
Frequency = 100HZ

Figure 5.1
(Message observed on CRO)

The sinusoidal message using a function generator at 100 Hz is transmitted to the

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) and the observations are made.
The amplitude of the message can be varied from the function generator and can be
measured with digital multi-meter (DMM).

36
 Chapter 5
CARRIER SIGNAL

Amplitude = 9.2V
Frequency = 8.7KHz

Figure 5.2
(Carrier signal observed on CRO)

The carrier signal is transmitted to the CRO by using function generator adjusted at
desired frequency and amplitude. Both the amplitude and frequency of the carrier
wave can be varied from the function generator and the strength (amplitude) of the
carrier signal can be measured using DMM.

37
 Chapter 5
MODULATED SIGNAL

Amplitude = 62.5mV

Figure 5.3
(amplitude modulated wave as observed on CRO)

The amplitude modulation is achieved by varying the amplitude of the carrier in

accordance with the instantaneous value of the message signal. The depth of
modulation (or modulation index, m=Am/Ac) can be varied by varying the values of
amplitude of the message and carrier signals from the respective function
generators. Accordingly, the cases of over modulation , under modulation or
critical modulation are witnessed.

38
 Chapter 5
DEMODULATED SIGNAL

Amplitude = 1.2V

Figure 5.6
(output message observed on CRO)

The output is achieved by using envelope detector as a demodulator to extract

mssage from the carrier. The envelope detector takes a high – frequency and
provides the output which is the envelope of the transmitted message signal.
The capacitor in the circuit stores up charge on the rising edge, and releases it
slowly through the resistor when the signal falls. The diode in series rectifies the
incoming signal, allowing current flow only when the positive input terminal is at a
higher potential than the negative input terminal.

39
 Chapter 5
TABLE OF COMPONENT:

COMPONENTS VALUE QUANTITY COST

BATTERY 9V dc 1 15
DIODE IN4007 2 2
CAPACITOR 102nanofarad 5 5
100 microfarad 2 2
OP-AMP 741C 1 25
CRYSTAL 16 MHz 2 25
OSCILLATOR
TRANSISTOR Q2N2222 1 2
RESISTOR 680 ohm 2 2
33 kilo-ohm 2 2
10 kilo-ohm 4 4
SOFT PCB 1 15
SINGLE WIRE 5m 5
BATTERY CAP 1 5

40
 Chapter 6
6. Conclusion
After so much work out on this project, we finally got our devices work in the way
that we specified. The input frequency to this superheterodyne receiver is 100Hz
which is free band given from function generator. The superheterodyne receiver
which we are making is able to receive the high frequency signal that can be
transmitted from geostationary satellite. When these frequencies will trasmit
through different layers of atmosphere there will be some changes in the conditions
of these layes. By using this receiver we can observe those changes and can
amplitude modulate those frequencies from earth. In this way AM receiver using
superheterodyne principle will give the desired frequency and will be useful in
various applications.
The high frequency testing is successfully verified in the symica software.

6.1. Advantages of AM Receiver

 Easy to produce in a transmitter

 Simple in design.
 AM is simple to tune on ordinary receivers, and that is why it is used for almost all
shortwave broadcasting.
 No variation in bandwidth. It remains constant over the entire frequency range.
 High selectivity and sensitivity.
 High adjacent channel rejection.

6.2. Application of AM Receiver

 Short wave Broadcasting

 A geographic information management system (GIS) is applied to perform the
automated mapping and facility management (AM/FM) of power distribution
systems for contingency load transfer.
 Contingency load transfer for distribution system operation can be enhanced
significantly with the application of AM/FM systems to determine the switches
to be operated and the corresponding spatial locations of the switches.
 Designing and building wireless communications or broadcast equipments
particularly radio recievers.
 In electronic warfare.
 In microwave recievers.
 Weather sensing.

41
 Chapter 6
6.3. Future Scope

 To overcome obstacles such as image response, in some cases multiple stages

with two or more IFs of different values can be used.
 With a 455 KHz IF it is easy to get adequate front end selectivity with
broadcast band (under 1600 KHz) signals.
 Microprocessor technology allows replacing the superheterodyne receiver
design by a software degined radio architecture, where the IF processing after
the initial IF filter is implemented in software.
 Radio transmitters may also use a mixer stage to produce an output frequency,
working more or less as the reverse of a superheterodyne receiver.

42
 Chapter 7
7. Symica

Symica Design Environment integrates all the tools necessary for circuit design
and simulation — library manager, schematic editor, symbol editor, hierarchy
editor, simulation environment, input/output translators, etc. — and allows the user
to manage the operation of the various components. The design environment also
facilitates the preparation and execution of simulations and the inspection and the
interpretation of the simulation results.

7.1.Main features:
 mixed-mode design with multiple views: schematic, symbol, config, functional
(Verilog HDL), Verilog-A, spicenl (SPICE-netlist)
 creation of parametric cells
 hierarchical navigation
 global nets, buses and bundles support
 design and electrical rules check with double-click positioning on errors
 enhanced printing functionality with vector Enhanced Metafile (EMF)
schematic output

7.1.1.Advanced features:

 multi-option search and replace

 auto-wiring option
 on-canvas editing
 multi-object property editing

7.2.Input formats:
 HSPICE® netlist and model decks
 Spectre® netlist and model decks
 Verilog-A description
 Verilog HDL description
 SKILL® description of graphical designs

7.3.Output format:
 SPICE netlist
 SKILL® description of graphical designs
 EMF format of schematic

43
 Chapter 8
8. References

8.1. Internet:
o http://web.mit.edu/6.101/www/s2014/projects/esquivel_Project_Proposal.pdf
o http://web.mit.edu/6.101/www/s2014/projects/esquivel_Project_Final_Report.p
df
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_radio
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_circuit
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superheterodyne
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunchrodyne
o http://www.electroschematics.com/9043/am-receiver-circuit/

8.2. Books:
o Principle of communication system
-by Taub& Schilling
o Modern digital &analog communication
-by B.P. Lathi
o Electronic communication systems
-by Kennedy & Davis
o Analog & Digital communications
-Schaum’s Outlines

44
 Teacher’s Remark

 Initiative Cooperativeness &

Participation::_______________________________________________
 Aesthetic Presentation,Visual Appeal , Expression &
Neatness::__________________________________________________
 Content Accuracy, Creativity,Originality , Analysis Of Different
Perception::_________________________________________________
 Overall
Remarks::___________________________________________________
 Date Of
Submission::________________________________________________
 Total Marks::________________________________________________
 Teacher’s
Signature::_____________________________________________________

45