Stretching Transmission Line Capabilities

– A Transpower Investigation
Jitesh Raniga*, BE, Grad.IPENZ

Ramesh K. Rayudu**, BE, ME, TM.IPENZ

This paper presents Transpower’s experience on using dynamic line rating (DLR)
equipment on New Zealand’s high voltage power transmission network. The
equipment is used to dynamically rate the transmission line current carrying
capacity by continuous monitoring. Our experiment involved installation and set-
up of DLR equipment on a 220 kV transmission line and analysis of tension,
temperature and sag data. The main aim of our analysis is to test the reliability of
increased rating through dynamic rating of the circuits. The study has revealed
several interesting outcomes.

Keywords: Dynamic Line Rating; Temperature-Sag method, Application details;

Transpower Investigations, Transmission Line Ratings

*
Transpower NZ Ltd., Level 9, Aurora House, Wellington.
Email: RanigaJ@transpower.co.nz
**
Transpower AI Research Lab, NRE Group, Lincoln University, Canterbury.
Email: RayuduR@transpower.co.nz

1. Introduction
The Government’s objective is to have the continuing availability of energy services, at the lowest cost
to the economy as a whole, consistent with sustainable development. To improve the efficiency of its
transmission services, Transpower is committed to the application of new technologies, where
applicable within the commercial environment, for continuous improvement. The topic central to this
paper is one such application.

During real-time control of country’s power transmission network, the network operators are
compelled to work within strict power quality and capacity regulations under several challenges such as
sudden changes in generation patterns, transmission faults and planned/unplanned maintenance of
transmission. One of the major constraints that affect the siting of generation and equipment
maintenance activities is the capacity of a transmission line.

The design capacity of a transmission line is calculated by making deterministic assumptions about
the ambient temperature, wind speed and other weather related variables. The design operating
temperature is that when the sag is more than that required to meet the statutory ground clearance under
these design assumptions. Some of the variables that affect the conductor sag include weather
conditions, cross section of the conductor and its manufacturer’s specifications. To withstand these
effects the line is usually designed with design safety margins and can operate reliably and safely as
long as the line sag does not violate the design limits [1].

An increase in population along with economic and environmental constraints requires an increase
in the capacity of transmission lines. There are several different ways to increase the capacity of a
transmission line. Some are given below:

• Reconductoring: In the past, the only way to upgrade a line was to reconductor.
Reconductoring can be done using a new single larger conductor, or by using new twin
conductors in parallel, or twinning the existing conductors, along with new conductors of the
same size, to provide a nominal double capacity (only when the remaining life of the existing
conductor is acceptable).
• Increase Operating Temperature: Each HV line is generally rated to a maximum operating
temperature. Increasing this operating temperature to a higher temperature will give an extra
capacity. An issue for concern in this situation would be the possible breaching of statutory
ground clearances when operated at higher temperatures as the conductor spans will sag more

Page 1 Published by The Institution of Professional Engineers New Zealand

 when operated at an increased temperature. To resolve this, the spans breaching the ground
clearances under the new maximum operating temperature will have to be re-strung. This
involves re-tensioning, rearranging insulator configurations and increasing structural heights as
required. The costs associated with restringing to a higher operating temperature are high, but
not as significant as reconductoring.
• Use Dynamic Line Rating: Over the years International studies suggested that the allowable
limits used for rating lines are, at times, conservative. These studies have established that the
conductors can be used to transmit more current without violating the sag limits using Dynamic
Line Rating (DLR) methods with favourable weather conditions. DLR systems monitor actual
sag of a conductor in real time by observing the weather conditions and continuously rate the
line capacity in real time. This results in the line being able to carry loads in excess of its
original design rating while keeping the statutory ground clearances. DLR allows the line to be
operated with an increased line capacity, when the environment allows, while maintaining the
statutory limits.

Transpower has set-up two such pilot DLR systems to monitor some of the circuits in North Island.
This paper discusses the progress made in the use of DLR to dynamically rate the transmission circuits
in New Zealand. In the next section we introduce DLR and how it is used. This is followed by a brief
discussion on overseas experience with the use of DLR. In section 3 our experience on using DLR to
dynamically rate a circuit is described. Our final section discusses our observations as an outcome of
this experiment.

2. Dynamic Line Rating

2.1 Introduction
Dynamic line rating (DLR) is a process of calculating maximum current carrying capacity of a
transmission line in real time using real time values of the factors that affect the conductor sag. There
are several methods for calculating DLR. Some use only weather data, some use conductor temperature
monitors and some use conductor tension monitors.

The most widely recognised weather model is used by EPRI’s DYNAMP [1]. DYNAMP is based
on IEEE bare conductor thermal model which can accurately calculate the steady state temperature of a
conductor if the current of the conductor and weather parameters are known. While all parameters can
be known accurately, the system requires continuous physical input of these parameters and the
accuracy is reliant on the parametric data acquired. We have also investigated another product called
LINEAMPS [2] by ElectroTech, USA. LINEAMPS is a system that predicts the ampacity1 of a
transmission line giving upto 7 days forecast by considering real time weather details and historical
weather information related to the line’s location. The main disadvantage of EPRI’s DYNAMP and
LINEAMPS is that they are susceptible to error resulting from variation of the terrain and predicting
weather patterns and therefore cannot predict the ampacity accurately for these microclimates.

Real time measurement of conductor temperature for DLR has been applied since 1977. This
application uses temperature sensors that are line powered and measures the current and temperature
values of the conductor and transmits them to a remote terminal unit through radio signals. This
application provides information on the present status of the conductor. Prediction of future current
capacity of the conductor can be achieved using these sensors if the future weather can be predicted.
The main disadvantage of using temperature sensors is the conductor temperature can vary significantly
over the spans due to varying weather conditions along the line [3].

The DLR method relevant to this paper uses conductor tension monitors developed by The Valley
Group based in Connecticut, USA. The tension monitors used in our investigation are installed between
the dead-end insulators and line structure and are connected to the CAT-1 main-units installed on the
line structures (see Figure 4). Wind and temperatures (both ambient and net radiation) are measured
and stored by the main-unit and the stored information is transmitted to a central location through
normal communication channels. This information is used to calculate the real-time line rating of the
circuit. The advantage of the tension monitoring method is that the measured tension of the conductor
can be related to the complete strain section of the line through the analysis of ruling spans. A detailed
description of this method along with its advantages and disadvantages are provided in the following
sections.

1
A term for current carrying capacity of a transmission line.

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2.2 DLR using tension monitors
The two limitations that govern the capacity limits of a conductor are temperature and ground clearance
(i.e. inversely proportional to the sag of the conductor). In extreme conditions, if a conductor
overheats, it can anneal or the strands in a conductor can separate from each other and corrode through
grease depletion. The overheating causes an increase in sag and a reduction in ground clearance and
can cause a breach of minimum allowable statutory ground clearance. In the past, the sag and
conductor temperatures were estimated based on deterministic ambient temperatures and maximum
current transfer. It is difficult to consider the effects of wind cooling and cloud cover on conductor
temperatures. Dynamic line rating with tension monitors attempts to address both sag and conductor
temperature by using strain gauge tension measurements to calculate the sag and the conductor
temperature. The sag so calculated is accurate and is generally lower than the original design sag for
the same maximum operating temperature. This results in higher line ampacity. Hence it is possible to
estimate the conductor’s ampacity more accurately than in the past.

Dynamic line rating equipment supplied by Valley Group consists of both hardware and software.
Hardware that is installed on lines and line structures consists of two temperature gauges with one fixed
in the direction of the conductor exposed to the sun and wind, and the other hidden away from the sun
and wind (Figure 1). A tension gauge that measures the line tension is placed on the conductor. The
software then uses the measured strain to calculate the sag. The measured ambient temperature at the
line’s location, amount of current passing through the line, and the magnitude of calculated sag are then
used to estimate the ampacity of the line. For the procedure to estimate the current rating using the
measured parameters, the user is directed to [4].

FIGURE 1. Figure of power line showing the connections between load cells2.

FIGURE 2. Illustration showing the main unit and its accessories3.

2
Published with permission from Valley Group, USA. Item 1 depicts the load cells and item 2 is the cable
connecting load cells to the CAT-1 main-unit (Figure 2).
3
Published with permission from Valley Group, USA. Item 2 is same as Item 2 in Figure 1, Item 3 is theCAT-1
main-unit that collects and transmits data, Item 4 is the solar panel that powers Item 3 and Item 5 is transmission
antenna.

Page 3 Published by The Institution of Professional Engineers New Zealand

2.3 Uses of DLR
Since dynamic line rating provides real-time ampacity of a line, it can be used for several purposes:

• Postponement of construction of more lines. With today’s stringent environmental restrictions

there is a lot of pressure in using the existing transmission lines to their full real time capacity
rather than constructing new lines which results in better use of investment funds for the future.
Since DLR can help monitor transmission lines in real-time the transmission lines can be run at
an enhanced capacity without putting the conductors at thermal risk and breaching the statutory
ground clearance. This enhanced capacity is not available for 100% of the time.
• Postponement of transmission line uprating. Uprating the transmission lines is a preferable
option to new line construction as it is economical with no further impact on the environment.
But it is still more expensive than DLR, (if DLR is proven to be as effective as uprating in terms
of line ampacity.)
• Avoid unnecessary contingency actions. As DLR provides real-time ratings of a circuit, the
system controllers will have a better tool at hand to manage emergencies. DLR during
emergencies can be used to run lines harder and closer to statutory ground clearance limits.

2.4 World-wide applications of DLR

DLR with tension monitors has been installed at 45 utilities in eight countries [1] including Transpower.
The first tension monitor was installed for Virginia Power in 1991 and their real-time monitoring
operations on selected lines have begun in 1998. Their reports suggest that the line flows can be
increased for most ambient conditions and DLR can be used for real-time operation of the lines.
Southwire Company of USA used the tension monitors to monitor ice loads and galloping, and to find a
relationship between ice accretion and wind that cause galloping. Entergy of USA has also used tension
monitors to monitor one of their constrained circuits and report that it allowed a 20% gain on the
monitored line over summer thermal ratings. They also report that DLR has prevented unnecessary
load shedding and also contributed to more economical generation. Several other utilities also report
similar results providing some motivation to select DLR as a viable solution to increase the capacity of
Transpower transmission lines.

3. The DLR Trial

Transpower has trialled two pilot projects to establish the benefits of using DLR. In 1996, two DLR
units were purchased to identify the level of DLR rating available on a circuit. Two units were selected
to consider and compare the difference in the available DLR rating. Transpower circuit capacities are
designed with a redundancy to withstand at least a level of N -1 contingency. Under extreme generation
scenarios some lines become a constraint to power transfer in the event of a contingency. With
increasing load growth these lines have to be utilised more effectively. For this reason, a trial of
Dynamic Line Rating was proposed in 1996 for this circuit.

To identify the worst case scenario for DLR rating, the line was modelled using TL-CADD, a
transmission line modelling tool, and the strain sections with ground clearances closest to the statutory
limits were analysed. To optimise the tension measurement effect, the points of installation were
selected in such a way so as to maximise number of worst clearance strain sections. Another factor to
be considered was the coverage of communications. As the DLR system was going to be in a
datalogging mode where the data would only be downloaded once a month, the most economic means
of communication, cellular telephone, was chosen.

Before installation, the selected sites were tested for acceptable level of cellular telephone coverage.
A full bench test was also carried out to confirm the functionality of the DLR units. As a safety
measure for the line, in the event of a load cell failing, safety strops were attached on either end of the
load cells as shown in figure 3. Installation was carried out live line where the load cells were installed
on the dead-end side of the strain insulator string. The DLR unit box was installed on the waist of the
steel lattice tower as shown in figure 4. Anti-climb guards were installed on each tower for security
reasons. Once installed, the DLR units were ready to be dialled for data download and extraction from
a remote location.

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Figure 3. Photograph of 220 kV transmission line where the load cells are installed on the dead-end side of the
strain insulator set.

Figure 4: Shows the CAT-1 main unit with Solar panels and Net Radiation Sensor (NRS) mounted on the waist of
the 220 kV lattice tower.

Once the data is downloaded, it has to be analysed. To analyse the data, the tension ports of the line
have to be calibrated. Calibration is a process where the behaviour of the line conductor is monitored
during an outage. An outage window was requested for this calibration. When the line is out of
service, the temperature of the net radiation sensor (NRS) is the same as the temperature of the
conductor. Taking into account the NRS temperature (NRT) and the tension points during the period of
outage, the data is plotted to show the calibration points as shown below. This is done for both ports of
the CAT-1 unit.

Calibration Graph for Tension vs NRT

6800

6400
Tension

6000

5600

5200
0 10 20 30 40 50
o
NRT ( C)

Figure 5: An illustration for calibration graph showing the conductor tension versus NRT.

Page 5 Published by The Institution of Professional Engineers New Zealand

 As shown in Figure 5, the net radiation temperature (NRT) has a range of 5 – 30 oC which gives a
wide range of temperature data to work with. At least a 20 oC temperature variance is required to get a
good set of data. The line that crosses the top of the data points shows the maximum tension the
conductor has at the corresponding NRT. Some points that are above the line are regarded as
turbulence points for higher winds. This line can be extrapolated to establish the behaviour of the
conductor at higher temperatures, which in this case is 50 oC.

Once the calibration is complete, the line is energised. When energised, the NRT temperature is the
same as the conductor temperature without current. Therefore, when a particular tension is read on the
tension monitor, it can be related back to the operating temperature of the conductor. The DLR rating of
the line, which is the additional current needed to get the conductor temperature up to it thermal limit,
can be computed knowing the conductor temperature and the current on the line.

4. Discussion
DLR ratings can have a large variance during the hours of the day. There are certain times of the day
when the DLR rating is higher than, equal to or less than the static. The lower DLR ratings occur when
there is a combination of high ambient temperature, high solar radiation and low wind speed. Our
general observation is that DLR ratings are generally higher than the static rating of the line. The
probability of the low DLR rating occurring during the event of a contingency is very low [5]. The
distribution of DLR rating during the hours of a typical day is shown in Figure 6.

DLR Trial
(September 97)
1000
Averaged Daily Ratings

800 Dynamic Rating

Current (Amps)

600 Winter Rating

Summer Rating
400

Line Load
200

0
0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00
Time of Day (hr)

Figure 6: DLR for a typical summer day with line load, summer and winter static rating and the dynamic rating
available for the day.

As shown in the above curve, the DLR rating is quite low during the hours of early morning. This
begins to rise with daylight when the wind speed increases, due to natural convection [6]. After about
08:00 hours the DLR rating increases significantly due to favourable weather conditions (increased
wind). The DLR rating stays high until 13:00 hours and then gradually starts dropping. The DLR
rating is at its minimum during the day when approaching sunset. It then rises and stays high during the
night until dropping off at about 22:00 hours. The general trend of DLR rating availability is higher
during the day and is at the lowest between dusk and dawn. This coincides with system peak times for
demand.

A cumulative frequency distribution curve was plotted to identify the distribution and availability of
DLR rating as shown in figure 7. Looking at the distribution, there is a large amount of dynamic rating
available for a certain percentage of the time. The DLR rating provides 43% more capacity over the
static rating for 60% of the time, 70% more capacity for 40% of the time and 100% more capacity for
20% of the time. This shows that in the event of a contingency, use of DLR rating can be applied to
relieve constraints. It should also be noted that the DLR rating is available most of the time, but there
will be times during a contingency situation when the required DLR rating is not available. During
these times, other measures such as rearranging generation schedules; etc. should be taken to relieve
constraints.

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 DLR Trial
Normalised Cumulative Frequency Distribution of Rating Capacity based on DLR
(From and including Nov 96 to Apr 99)
Overall Rating Capacity
100%

80%

60%
Time

40%

20%

0%
0 250 500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 1,750 2,000
Rating Capacity (A)

Port One Total (If Iact<300 and Idlr<450, Ifor=450@50oC)

Port Tw o Total (If Iact<300 and Idlr<450, Ifor=450@50oC)

Figure 7:Normalised cumulative frequency distribution curves for DLR rating capacity.

There is also a percentage of time where the DLR rating is less than the static rating. Some of these
cases are caused by very low wind speed periods at times when the ambient temperature is moderate to
high. Other low rating points are caused by insufficient resolution of temperature rise if the line current
is very low, say 300 A. The fact to note here is that when the current load on the line is well below this
arbitrary number, the line can still cope with double capacity, which is under the static current limit, in
the event of a contingency. Therefore the application of DLR rating is not necessarily required when
the line current is low.

The application of DLR system outputs can be analysed and utilised in three different ways namely
clearance warning method (CWM), on-demand rating method or continuous real time rating method.
When using real-time rating systems, only part of the data is needed. The remaining data can be utilised
for engineering studies and also for system planning purpose [7].

• Clearance Warning Method: When the sag of a line is approaching the statutory clearance
limits, the CWM has an algorithm to compute the rate of change of sag, calculates the maximum
allowable current and the time to reach that current [7]. The remote DLR system calls the
operator with this warning which gives the operator the time to back off the present load to the
maximum allowable safe load. The main advantage of using CWM is to allow simple
application of DLR when approaching the legal limits without utilising the SCADA system for
unnecessary data computations.
• On-Demand Rating Method: When the operator requires the need and use of DLR data, the data
can be requested on demand [7]. The actual DLR limits can then be computed to assist in a
decision making process. This method is advantageous when used for lines which are often
overloaded during contingency. The use of this method is optimised when used with CWM
which complements safety when approaching limits.
• Continuous Real Time Rating: When real time rating is used in a continuous mode, the DLR
data is transmitted frequently via substation RTU to the SCADA system. This allows the
operator to have access to the real time rating of the circuits concerned and to make better load
flow judgements based on this data [7]. The benefit of having access to continuous real time
rating gives the operator better tools to predict DLR ratings for different times of the day.
Having predicted ratings for the different times of the day can allow the electricity market to use
this information to relieve pricing constraints which can benefit the end user of electricity.
Continuous real time ratings also significantly mitigate the low current rating problem because
they can use adaptive algorithms to calculate ratings during periods of low current, which are
based on measured NRT and statistically determine effective wind speed for the time of the day.

Page 7 Published by The Institution of Professional Engineers New Zealand

5. Conclusions
The major issue that limits the flow of power in transmission network is its designed limiting capacity.
The analysis and operation of DLR system has shown a significant increase in the ampacity of a
transmission line. This increased ampacity is the ampacity additional to the conventional methods of
rating transmission lines. With a tension monitoring method, the sags of a line can be monitored closely
to keep within statutory clearance limits. At Transpower, we have trialled the tension monitoring
method of using DLR on some of the 220 kV circuits of which the results are discussed in the paper. In
general we have observed that the transmission line capacities can be increased, using DLR, during the
hours of daylight which generally coincides with system peak times. However aspects such as power
system stability, availability of spinning reserve, etc have to be considered before the practical
implementation of DLR. It should be noted that DLR does not increase the ampacity of the line beyond
its design thermal limit. It was also observed that transmission constraints can be relieved using DLR
which will ease constraints on pricing and eventually benefit the end user.

6. Acknowledgements
The Authors wish to thank Nick Coad, Doug Goodwin, Trevor Jacobs, S. Kamalanathan, Chandra
Kumble, Ian Leslie, Kelvin McGrath, Roy Noble, Brett Piper, and Mary Therese Sullivan of
Transpower for their support and comments. The Authors also wish to thank Robert Lake of Worley
Consultants Limited for his data analysis and review, and Tapani Seppa of The Valley Group, Inc.,
USA for his comments.

7. References
1. Seppa T O, Adams Jr. H W, Douglass D A, Coad N, Edris A, Olivier P, Thrash Jr. F R. 1998, Use
of On-line Tension Monitoring for Real-time Thermal Ratings, Ice Loads, and Other Environmental
Effects, CIGRE Meeting 1998, pp 1-5, Paper No. 22-105.
2. Wook M B, Choi M, Deb A K, 1997, Line-Rating System Boosts Economical Energy Transfer,
IEEE Computer Applications in Power, pp 36-39.
3. Seppa T O, 1992, A Practical Approach for Increasing the Thermal Capabilities of Transmission
Lines, IEEE/PES Summer Meeting, pp 1536-1542.
4. Seppa T O, 1995, Accurate Ampacity Determination: Temperature-Sag Model for Operational
Real-time Ratings, IEEE Transactions on power delivery, pp 1460-1470, V 10 No. 3.
5. Reason J., 1995, Transmission Line Uprating/Dynamic Rating, Electrical World, August 1995, pp
22-25.
6. Seppa T. O., Cromer, E., Whitlatch, W.F., 1992, Summer Thermal Capabilities of Transmission
Lines in Northern California based on a Comprehensive Study on Wind Conditions, IEEE Power
Delivery.
7. Stephen R., 1998, Real Time Monitoring – revised document for final comment 18 December 1998,
Convenor Cigre Panel SC22, WG12.

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