Presbyterian polity

Presbyterian (or presbyteral) polity is a

method of church governance
("ecclesiastical polity") typified by the rule
of assemblies of presbyters, or elders.
Each local church is governed by a body of
elected elders usually called the session or
consistory, though other terms, such as
church board, may apply.[1] Groups of local
churches are governed by a higher
assembly of elders known as the
presbytery or classis; presbyteries can be
grouped into a synod, and presbyteries
and synods nationwide often join together
in a general assembly. Responsibility for
conduct of church services is reserved to
an ordained minister or pastor known as a
teaching elder, or a minister of the word
and sacrament.

Presbyterian polity was developed as a

rejection of governance by hierarchies of
single bishops (episcopal polity), but also
differs from the congregationalist polity in
which each congregation is independent.[2]
In contrast to the other two forms,
authority in the presbyterian polity flows
both from the top down (as higher
assemblies exercise limited but important
authority over individual congregations,
e.g., only the presbytery can ordain
ministers, install pastors, and start up,
close, and approve relocating a
congregation) and from the bottom up
(e.g., the moderator and officers are not
appointed from above but are rather
elected by and from among the members
of the assembly). This theory of
governance developed in Geneva under
John Calvin and was introduced to
Scotland by John Knox after his period of
exile in Geneva. It is strongly associated
with French, Dutch, Swiss and Scottish
Reformation movements, and the
Reformed and Presbyterian churches.

History
Among the early church fathers, it was
noted that the offices of elder and bishop
were identical, and were not differentiated
until later, and that plurality of elders was
the norm for church government. St.
Jerome (347–420) "In Epistle Titus", vol. iv,
said, "Elder is identical with bishop; and
before the urging of the devil gave rise to
factionalism in religion, so much that it
was being said among the people, 'I am of
Paul, I of Apollos, I of Cephas', the
churches were governed by a joint council
of elders. After it was... decreed
throughout the world that one chosen
from among the presbyters should be
placed over the others."[3] This observation
was also made by Chrysostom (349–407)
in "Homilia i, in Phil. i, 1" and Theodoret
(393–457) in "Interpret ad. Phil. iii", 445.

Presbyterianism was first described in

detail by Martin Bucer of Strasbourg, who
believed that the early Christian church
implemented presbyterian polity.[4] The
first modern implementation was by the
Geneva church under the leadership of
John Calvin in 1541.[4]
Basis
Presbyterian polity is constructed on
specific assumptions about the form of
the government intended by the Bible:

"Bishop" (Koine Greek "episcopos") and

"elder" (Koine Greek "presbyteros") are
(in this view) synonymous terms.
Episcopos means literally overseer and
describes the function of the elder,
rather than the maturity of the officer. A
bishop holds the highest office of the
church (there is no Patriarch or Pope
over bishops).
Preaching (the ministry of the Word) and
the administration of the sacraments is
ordinarily entrusted to specially trained
elders (known as ministers of the Word
and Sacrament,[5] sometimes called
"teaching elders") in each local
congregation, approved for these tasks
by a governing presbytery, or classis,
and called by the local congregation.
In addition to these ministers, there are
also "others … with gifts for government
… commonly call[ed] "elders"[5] or "ruling
elders" (but not in the sense of
"presbyteros").
 Pastoral care, church discipline,
leadership and legislation are
committed to the care of ruling
assemblies of presbyters among whom
the ministers and "ruling elders" are
equal participants.
All Christian people together are the
priesthood (see priesthood of all
believers), on behalf of whom the elders
are called to serve by the consent of the
congregation.

Presbyterianism uses a conciliar method

of church government (that is, leadership
by the group or council). Thus, the
presbyters and "elders" govern together as
a group, and at all times the office is for
the service of the congregation, to pray for
them and to encourage them in the faith.
The elders together exercise oversight
(episcopacy) over the local congregation,
with superior groups of elders gathered on
a regional basis exercising wider
oversight.

Presbyterians typically have viewed this

method of government as approximating
that of the New Testament and earliest
churches. However, sometimes it is
admitted that episcopacy was a form of
government that was used very early in the
church for practical reasons.
Presbyterianism is also distinct from
congregationalism, in that individual
congregations are not independent, but
are answerable to the wider church,
through its governing bodies (presbyteries,
synods and assemblies). Moreover, the
ordained ministry possesses a distinct
responsibility for preaching and
sacraments. Congregational churches are
sometimes called "Presbyterian" if they are
governed by a council of elders; but the
difference is that every local congregation
is independent, and its elders are
accountable to its members, and
congregationalism's wider assemblies are
not ordinarily empowered to enforce
discipline. Thus, these are ruled by elders
only at the level of the congregations,
which are united with one another by
covenants of trust.

Offices
Elder

The Ordination of Elders in a Scottish Kirk, by John

Henry Lorimer, 1891. National Gallery of Scotland.
There are two types of elder; the teaching
elder (see The Minister below) and the
ruling elder. An excerpt from Miller (1831)
expands this. [6](Chapter 1)

In every Church completely

organized, that is, furnished
with all the officers which Christ
has instituted and which are
necessary for carrying into full
effect the laws of his kingdom,
there ought to be three classes
of officers, viz: at least one
Teaching Elder, Bishop, or
Pastor — a bench of Ruling
Elders — and Deacons. The first
to "minister in the Word and
Doctrine", and to dispense the
sacraments; — the second to
assist in the inspection and
government of the Church; —
and the third to "serve tables";
that is, to take care of the
Church's funds destined for the
support of the poor, and
sometimes to manage whatever
relates to the temporal support
of the gospel and its ministers.
Depending upon the specific
denomination, teaching elders may also be
referred to with terms such as "Minister of
Word and Sacrament".[7]

The elders are persons chosen from

among the congregation and ordained for
this service. Beyond that, practices vary:
sometimes elders are elected by the
congregation, [8] sometimes appointed by
the session, in some denominations elders
serve for life, others have fixed terms, and
some churches appoint elders on a
rotation from among willing members in
good standing in the church. However, in
many churches, ruling elders retain their
ordination for life, even though they serve
fixed terms. Even after the end of their
terms, they may be active in presbyteries
or other bodies, and may serve
communion.[9]

In addition to sitting on the session and

other church courts, ruling elders have
duties as individuals. Again, Miller (1831)
explains, [6](Chapter 9)

It is their duty to have an eye of

inspection and care over all the
members of the congregation;
and, for this purpose, to
 cultivate a universal and
intimate acquaintance, as far as
may be, with every family in the
flock of which they are made
"overseers".

Minister

In some denominations they are called

Ministers of Word and Sacrament, and in
others they are called Teaching Elders.
Ministers called to a particular
congregation are called pastors, and serve
a function analogous to clergy in other
denominations.[5] (Because ruling elders
are often ordained in a fashion nearly
identical to teaching elders, the distinction
between lay and clergy is not as clear
under the Presbyterian system as in
others.[6])

Ministers may be considered equal in

status with the other elders, but they have
a distinct ordination and distinct function.
They are the primary preachers and
teachers, celebrants of sacraments. There
are sometimes further distinctions
between the minister and the other elders.
Some Presbyterian denominations enroll
ministers as members of their respective
congregations, while others enroll the
minister as a member of the regional
presbytery. The presbyteries are
responsible for the ordination of the
ministers.

Until the 20th century, only men had been

eligible for ordination as elders or
ministers of the word and sacrament. This
is widely not the case any longer, although
it is usually considered a demarcation
issue, distinguishing "liberal" from
"conservative" Presbyterian
denominations. In North America, the
Reformed Church in America, Christian
Reformed Church in North America (both
of Dutch Reformed heritage), Presbyterian
Church in Canada, Evangelical
Presbyterian Church, ECO: A Covenant
Order of Evangelical Presbyterians,
Cumberland Presbyterian Church and
Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) are
denominations with presbyterian polity
which allow for the ordination of women.

The general assembly of a denomination

often decides on what grounds a person
may be ordained, but the ordination of
ministers is the right of the presbytery or
classis, and the right to extend a call to a
minister is the privilege of the members of
the parish or congregation. [5][8][10]
Deacon

The office of deacon has different

meanings among different presbyterian
churches. In some churches, deacons
exercise responsibility for practical
matters of finance and fabric, either
separately or together with the elders. In
some cases deacons administer the
welfare matters of the congregation, while
a separate board of management or
trustees administers the other material
business of the congregation, such as its
endowments, salaries and buildings.

Governing bodies
Session

Elders make decisions for the local parish

through an elected council called the
Session (Latin. sessio from sedere "to sit"),
sometimes the Kirk session, church
session, or (in Continental Reformed
usage) consistory. The members of the
session are the pastor(s) of that
congregation (sometimes referred to as a
teaching elder) and the installed ruling or
canon elders (ruling or canon because they
are responsible for measuring the spiritual
life and work of a congregation). In some
Continental Reformed churches, deacons
are members of the consistory; others,
such as the Christian Reformed Church in
North America, distinguish between the
consistory, comprising the pastor and
elders, and the council, which comprises
the pastor(s), the elders, and the
deacons.[11]

In most denominations the pastor serves

as Moderator and presides over the
session (primus inter pares), in which all
elders have an equal vote.[6](Chapter 9) In
some denominations, the pastor is not
given a vote; however, in a sitting body of
an even number or with a quorum of the
session counted she or he can break a tie
by a casting vote.
In the Polity of the Presbyterian Church
(U.S.A.), the pastor and associate
pastor(s) have votes as members of the
session on any and all matters;[12]
however, often she or he refrains from
voting except in tie situations. The Pastor
is not a voting member of the
congregation.[13]

With the Session there is one person,

sometimes an elder but not always, that
will be given the title, "Clerk of Session."
This person is more or less the secretary
for Session. They take notes on each
meeting and is given the ability to keep
meetings on track.
Presbytery

Presbytery flags of the Presbyterian Church of Vanuatu

In presbyterianism, congregations are

united in accountability to a regional body
called the presbytery, or, in Continental
Reformed terminology, the classis, which
comes from the Latin word for "fleet."
Presbyteries are made up of the minister
and an elder 'commissioned' from each
parish, as well as other clergy, such as
theological college professors, chaplains,
and retired ministers. When there is a
larger number of ordained ministers than
ruling elders, additional ruling elders are
appointed to redress the imbalance. The
commissioners of the presbytery are
expected to exercise their own judgement
and are not required to represent the
majority view of their congregations. In
some Dutch Reformed bodies, a classis
serves as a delegated body, which ceases
to exist in between meetings, whereas a
presbytery exists perpetually.
The officers of a presbytery are a
moderator and a stated or principal clerk.
The moderator acts as chair of presbytery
meetings and has a casting, but not
deliberative, vote. As with the moderators
of synods and assemblies, the
moderatorship is a primus inter pares
position appointed by the presbytery itself.
The moderator is addressed as
"moderator" during meetings, but his/her
position has no bearing outside of the
presbytery meeting and affords him/her
no special place in other courts, although
typically the moderator (especially if a
member of the clergy) will conduct
worship and oversee ordinations and
installations of ministers as a "liturgical"
bishop, and other ordinances which are
seen as acts of the presbytery.

The stated or principal clerk takes minutes

and deals with the correspondence of the
presbytery, and is often appointed for an
indefinite term. Presbytery Clerks are the
ecclesiastical administrators and generally
regarded as substantially influential due to
their greater experience of the governance
of the church and their ordering of the
business of the presbytery. They are thus
very much more than secretaries and
often in fact are the lynch pin of the
organisation.
Presbyteries meet at a regularity between
monthly and quarterly, some half-yearly.

Synod

In denominations too large for all the work

of the denomination to be done by a single
presbytery, the parishes may be divided
into several presbyteries under synods and
general assemblies, the synod being the
lower court of the two. In the United
Church of Canada, this is referred to as
"conferences" and "General Council."
However, the United Church of Canada
does not bear the formal ecclesiastical
structure of classic Presbyterianism.
Often all members of the constituent
presbyteries are members of the synod.
Like the commissioners to presbyteries,
the commissioners to synods do not act
on instruction from their congregations or
presbyteries, but exercise their own
judgement. A synod also has a moderator
and clerk, and generally meet less often
than the presbytery.

Some presbyterian churches, like the

Orthodox Presbyterian Church and
Presbyterian Church in America have no
intermediate court between the presbytery
and the general assembly.
General assembly

The general assembly (or general synod) is

the highest court of presbyterian polity.
Each presbytery selects a number of its
members to be commissioners to the
general assembly. The general assembly is
chaired by its own moderator, who is
usually elected to a single term. He or she
is addressed as moderator during
meetings, but like the other moderators,
his/her position has no bearing outside of
the assembly meeting and affords him/her
no special place in other courts. He or she
presides over meetings of the assembly,
and may be called on in a representative
function for the remainder of the year.

The stated clerk and deputy clerk of the

general assembly administer the minutes,
correspondence, and business of the
assembly. In some cases a separate
business convenor is appointed to deal
with the agenda. General assemblies meet
less regularly than their subordinate
courts, often annually, or in the case of the
Presbyterian Church (USA), every other
year.

The General Assembly also has members

serve as Advisory Delegates. There are
four different types of advisory delegates,
each with a focus on a different area in the
Presbyterian Church like young adult,
theological student, missionary and
ecumenical. The role of an advisory
delegate is to speak about issues or topics
that commissioners would usually not
worry about or care to speak about during
a General Assembly meeting. Advisory
Delegates may not present motions or
vote in meetings of the General
Assembly.[14]

The powers of the general assembly are

usually wide-ranging. However, they may
be limited by some form of external
review. For example, the rules of the
Church of Scotland include the Barrier Act,
which requires that certain major changes
to the polity of the church be referred to
the presbyteries, before being enacted by
the general assembly.

Regions
British Isles

The word "Presbyterianism," when

capitalized, often refers specifically to
churches founded on principles of
presbyterian polity in the British Isles and
their derivatives in other countries.[15]
France

Huguenot Cross

In France, presbyterianism was

represented by the Eglise Reformée de
France. There are also Lutherans and
Evangelicals. The logo is a Huguenot
Cross (Croix Huguenote) with the burning
bush.
Italy

The origins of the Waldensian Evangelical

Church lie in the medieval Waldensian
movement for religious reform. The
Waldensians adopted Calvinist theology
during the Reformation and became the
Italian branch of the Reformed churches.
In 1975 the Waldensian Church joined with
the Italian Methodist Church to form the
Union of Waldensian and Methodist
Churches, which is a member of the World
Council of Churches, the World
Communion of Reformed Churches, and
the World Methodist Council.
Cultural influences
Robert Burns published a brief irreverent
poem, On A Celebrated Ruling Elder, as
an elegy for a Scottish Presbyterian.[16]

See also
Christian federalism
Presbyterianism
Reformed churches
Congregational church
Moderators and clerks in the Church of
Scotland
General Assembly of the Church of
Scotland
 Moderator of the General Assembly
of the Church of Scotland
Presbyterian Historical Society
For a full list of individual denominations
see List of Christian
denominations#Reformed Churches and
List of Christian
denominations#Presbyterianism

References and notes

1. For example, the Church of the Nazarene,
which subscribes to a body of religious
doctrines that are quite distinct from those
of most properly named Presbyterian
denominations (and which instead
descends historically from the Wesleyan
Holiness Movement), employs a blend of
congregationalist, episcopal, and
presbyterian polities; its local churches are
governed by an elected body known as the
church board or simply "board members";
the term elder in the Nazarene Church has a
different use entirely, referring to an
ordained minister of that denomination.
2. Bannerman, James (1868). The church of
Christ : a treatise on the nature, powers,
ordinances, discipline, and government of
the Christian church (Vol 2 ed.). Edinburgh:
T. T. Clark. pp. 201–331. Retrieved
16 August 2018.
3. W.A. Jurgens, "The Faith of the Early
Fathers." The Order of St. Benedict, Inc.,
1979, pg. 194
4. "Presbyterianism, n." OED Online. Draft
revision March 2007. Oxford University
Press. Retrieved on February 8, 2008,
http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50187
752 .
5. Westminster Assembly, 1645A "The Form
of Presbyterial Church-Government"
(ASSEMBLY AT EDINBURGH, February 10,
1645, Sess. 16. ACT of the GENERAL
ASSEMBLY of the KIRK of SCOTLAND,
approving the Propositions concerning Kirk-
government, and Ordination of Ministers).
Online at CRTA , retrieved on September 6,
2006.
6. Miller, Samuel (1842), An essay on the
warrant, nature, and duties of the office of
the ruling elder in the Presbyterian Church ,
Edinburgh: [s.n.]
7. Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), 2007. "Book
of Order"
8. Catholic Encyclopedia 1914,
Presbyterianism by J. A. MCHUGH. Online
edition retrieved on September 6, 2006.
9. Presbyterian Publications Office, London,
1884, "The Qualifications and Duties of
Elders", in Matthews, George D. ed "Alliance
of the Reformed Church Holding the
Presbyterian System, Minutes and
Proceedings of the Third General Council,
Belfast, 1884"
10. As an example of qualifications for
office as teaching elder, many
denominations require a period of
theological education at university level.
11. Christian Reformed Church of North
America Church Order Article 35 a-b(2015)
12. PCUSA Book of Order G-10.0101
13. PCUSA Book of Order G-7.0308
14. "General Assembly" (PDF).
15. Benedict, Philip (2002). Christ's
Churches Purely Reformed: A Social History
of Calvinism. New Haven: Yale University
Press. p. xiv. ISBN 978-0300105070.
16. Burns, Robert. "On A Celebrated Ruling
Elder" available online in English translation
from The World Burns Club . Retrieved on
August 25, 2006.

External links
World Alliance of Reformed Churches
Catholic Encyclopedia 1914,
Presbyterianism by J. A. MCHUGH.
Online edition
Samuel Miller, 1831. An Essay, on the
Warrant, Nature and Duties of the Office
of the Ruling Elder, in the Presbyterian
 Church (New York). Book in the public
domain, available online at The Internet
Archive and CRTA .
Westminster Assembly, 1645 "The Form
of Presbyterial Church-Government"
online at reformed.org

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