Solution to Important Questions of “Power Once the type of generation is decided then the economics of the plant can

be evaluated.
Plant Engineering (ME-407-F) ” Sec A
by V.K.Sharma
Prob1. (mdu 2016 )
(a) Discuss the various factors for selection of power plants.
(b) Calculate the power that can be developed from a
hydroelectric power station having the following data:
Catchment area = 100 sq.km; average value of rainfall =
120cm; Run off = 80%; available head = 300m; overall
efficiency of the power station = 75%.
The capital cost of the plant increases with increase in cycle efficiency
because additional components have to incorporated in the system e.g.
feed water heaters are added in a simple power plant operating on Rankine
cycle.
The consumption of fuel decreases with increase in cycle efficiency hence
the operating cost of the plant decreases. Therefore the increase in capital
cost will be realized in due course of time due to reduced fuel cost.
The effect of efficiency on fixed cost, operating cost & total cost is shown in
the Figure.

Solution
(a)Factors for selecting the type of power plant
(i) Availability of type of fuel (water, rail or pipe connection to the fuel
source & the cost of fuel transport).

(ii) Availability of suitable site for hydro or nuclear power generation.

(iii) Availability of cooling water (if cooling towers are used, the possibility (b) Available head H = 300m
6 2
of adequate make up water) Catchment area A = 100sq.km = 100 x 10 m
Rainfall = 120 cm/annum = 1.2m/annum
(iv) Cost of land (including space for expansion, maintenance workshop & Rainfall collected /annum h= 80% of the total rainfall = 0.8 x 1.2 = 0.96m
storage yards). Overall efficiency of power station ηO = 75% = 0.75

(v) Character of soil. Power developed P

Total quantity of water available for power generation
(vi) Distance from load centers. 6 6 3
A x h = 100 x 10 x 0.96 = 96 x 10 m /year

(vii) Types of load to be met. 6

Quantity of water available/second Q = (96 x 10 )/ 365 x 24 x60 x 60
3
= 3.04 m /s
(viii) With coal fired system, disposal of ash.
Power developed
(ix) Rail, road connection. P = ηO wQh = 0.75 x 9.81 x 3.04 x 300 = 6710kW = 6.712 MW

(x) Danger of earth quakes & density of population in the vicinity in case Prob2. (mdu 2015 )
nuclear plant is being considered.
Discuss the various type of power plants which can be
(xi) Security. installed in India & explain the various factors which govern

1
 the selection of plants. (v) The plant layout is very simple
Solution (vi) Economy in labor
Various type of power plants which can be installed in India are as under:
(iv) Hydroelectric Power Plants
Conventional Power Plants
Water turbine is prime mover in these power plants. Water is stored behind
(i) Steam power plants
a dam. This water is then allowed to flow through water turbine. The kinetic
(ii) Gas turbine power plants energy & potential energy possessed by water is thus converted into
(ii) IC engine power plants mechanical energy which is utilized to run the generator.
(iii) Hydroelectric power plant.
(iv) Nuclear power plant. India has a vast & viable hydro potential for power generation.

The steam power plants, Gas turbine power plants, IC enginel power plants
& Nuclear power plants are called “Thermal Power Plants” because they
convert heat (primary energy) into electrical energy (secondary energy).
Non conventional Power Plants
(i) Solar thermal power plant
(ii) Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
(iii) Wind energy power plant
(iv) Biomass based power plant
(v) Geothermal energy power plant
Conventional Power Plants
(i) Steam Power Plant
The prime mover in these power plants is steam turbine. The steam is
generated in a boiler & is then expanded in the turbine. The output of the
steam turbine is utilized to run the generator. The fuel used in the boiler is
coal or oil.
(ii) Gas Turbine Power Plants
In these power plants, the prime mover is a gas turbine & the working
medium is gas.
(iii) IC Engine Power Plants
The prime mover in this case is internal combustion engine which can be
either petrol engine or diesel engine.. Mostly diesel engine is used, petrol
engine is used only for small portable units. The Diesel engines are very
suitable for small and medium output power plants due to following reasons
(i) These can be located very near to the load centre
(ii) They maintain high operating efficiency irrespective of load
(iii) These plants can be started quickly 7 put on full load
(iv) Limited cooling water requirement
2
(v) Nuclear Power Plants
The adoption of nuclear energy for the generation of power is inevitable for
our country because we have other sources of generation e.g. oil & gas are
inadequate & may not last for long period of time.
One of the main attraction of nuclear power plant is the large amount of
energy that can be released from a small mass of active material. The
energy obtained by fission of I kg of uranium would give energy equivalent
of 4500 tons of coal or 2000 tons of oil.
A nuclear power plant is a thermal power station in which the heat source is
a nuclear reactor (a device to initiate and control a sustained nuclear chain
reaction ).
Isotopes like U-233, U-235, U-238, Th 232, & Pu-239 and Pu -240 can be
fissioned to get heat energy.
As is typical in all conventional thermal power stations, the heat is used to
generate steam which drives a steam turbine connected to an electric
generator which produces electricity.
(i) Non conventional Power Plants
Solar Power Plant
The basic source of energy produced by the sun is through nuclear
fusion. Sun sends out the energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
We experience this radiation as heat & light.
Solar power is mainly produced by using photovoltaic solar cells which is
made of semi conducting materials that directly converts sunlight into
electricity. Obviously the Sun doesn’t provide constant energy at any spot
on the Earth. Therefore often Solar cells are used to charge batteries which
are used either as secondary energy source or for other applications of
intermittent use such as night lightening or water pumping etc.
A solar power plant offers good option for electrification of
disadvantageous locations such as hilly regions, forests, deserts and
islands where other resources are neither available nor exploitable.
(ii) Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
The oceans cover about 70% of the global surface therefore most of the
sun’s radiation is absorbed by sea water. Thus warm water on the ocean’s
surface flows from the tropics toward poles & cold water circulates at the
ocean bottom from the poles to tropics.
Hence in the tropical regions the water temperature is around 4 to 5ºC
at a depth of 1km whereas at the surface, it remains almost constant at
about 25 to 27 ºC. OTEC system uses the temperature difference
between worm surface water (~27ºC) cold deep water (~4ºC) to
generate electricity.
The technology is viable primarily in equatorial areas where the year-
round temperature differential is at least 20ºC. OTEC generates electricity
by exchanging heat with the warm water from the ocean surface and with
the cold water from the deep ocean.
The exchanged heat drives a Rankine Cycle, which converts it to electricity.
Such plants are called Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Plant.
(iii) Wind energy power plant
The origin for Wind Energy is Sun. When sun ray falls on the earth, it’s
surface gets heated up and as a consequence unevenly winds are formed.
Kinetic energy in the wind is used to run wind turbines but the output
power depends upon the wind speed.
Turbines generally require a wind in the range of 20km/hr.
In practice relatively few land areas have significantly prevailing winds.
Otherwise wind power is one of the most cost competitive renewable
energy today and this has been the most rapidly-growing means of
electricity generation at the turn of 21st century and provides a complement
to a large scale base load power stations.
3
(iv) Biomass based power plant
The energy stored in biomass is called bio energy. Biomass is any organic
matter that has stored energy through the process of photosynthesis.
Biomass includes wood, wood waste, straw, sugar cane, grassy & aquatic
plants, residue from agriculture & forestry, food waste, garbage, organic
compounds of industrial & municipal waste, manure etc.
Conversion of biomass into energy
Burning: Burning stuff like wood, waste and other plant releases stored
chemical energy in the form of heat, which can be used to turn shafts to
produce electricity.
Decomposition: Things that can rot, like garbage, human and animal
waste, dead animals and the like can be left to rot, releasing a gas called
biogas (also known as methane gas).
(v) Geothermal Energy Power Plant :Geothermal energy is a very
clean source of power. It comes from radioactive decay in the core of the
earth which heats the earth from the inside out & thus energy/power can be
extracted due to the temperature difference between hot rock deep in the
earth & relatively cool surface air & water. This requires that the hot rock be
relatively shallow, so it is site – specific & can only be applied in
geologically active area.
As stated above, the geothermal energy from the core of the earth is closer
to the surface in some area than in others. Where hot underground steam
or water can be tapped & brought to the surface & used indirectly to
generate electricity by running the steam/gas turbine.
Factors which govern the selection of plants
The types of power plant to be installed depends upon the source of
energy.
Following factors are considered to select the type of power plant to be
installed:
(i) Availability of type of fuel (water, rail or pipe connection to the fuel
source & the cost of fuel transport).
(ii) Availability of suitable site for hydro or nuclear power generation.
(iii) Availability of cooling water (if cooling towers are used, the possibility of
adequate make up water.
(iv) Cost of land (including space for expansion, maintenance workshop &
storage yards).
(v) Character of soil. Essential features/elements of a hydroelectric power plant
(vi) Distance from load centers. 1. Catchment area 2. Reservoir
(vii) Types of load to be met. 3. Dam 4. Trash Rack
(viii) With coal fired system, disposal of ash. 5. Spillway 6. Conduits
(ix) Rail, road connection. 7. Surge tank 8. Power house
9. Prime mover 10. Draft tube
(x) Danger of earth quakes & density of population in the vicinity in case
nuclear plant is being considered.
1. Catchment area
(xi) Security.
The catchment area of a hydroelectric power plant is the whole area behind
the dam draining into stream or river across which the dam has been built
Prob. 3 (2015, 2014) at a suitable place.
Explain the construction & operation of different
components of hydro-electric power plants. Discuss the 2. Reservoir
various factors which govern the site selection of hydro The main purpose of the reservoir is to store the water during rainy season
plants. & supply the same during dry season.

The purpose of storing water in the reservoir is to get uniform power output
Sol. throughout the year. Storage during the time of surplus for the subsequent
use in times of scarcity is fundamental to the efficient use of water
resource. Water stored is not only used for power generation, but also for
irrigation, flood control & water supply.

A reservoir can be either natural e.g. lake in high mountains or artificial

made by constructing a dam across the river.

3. Dam

Dam is a barrier built over a river to stop the water flow and forms a
reservoir. The function of dam is to increase the height of water level
behind it which ultimately increase the reservoir capacity.
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4. Trash Rack Canal : It is an open waterway excavated in natural ground following its
The water intakes from the dam or from the forebay are provided with trash contour.
rack to prevent the entry of debris which might damage the turbine runners
or chocke up the nozzles of the impulse turbine. Flume : It is an open channel erected on a surface above the ground
supported on a trestle ( bars fixed on pair of legs for support)
5. Spillways
A spillway is a way for spilling of water from dams. Tunnel : A tunnel is a closed channel excavated through an obstruction
Water in the dam after a certain level in the reservoir overflows through such as ridge of higher land between the dam & the power house.
spillway without allowing the increase in water level in the reservoir during
rainy season which could result in damage/failure of dams. Penstock: A penstock is a closed conduit for supplying water under
They are safety valve for a dam
pressure from the head pond or the forebay to to the turbine. The
Types of spillways penstocks are pressure conduits while the non pressure conduits are the
(i) Solid gravity or overall spillways channels & flumes.
(ii) Chute or trough spillways
(iii) Side channel spillways 7. Surge tank
(iv) Saddle spillways
(v) Shaft spillways
(vi) Siphon spillways

6. Conduits

A surge tank is a small reservoir in which the water level rises or falls to
reduce the pressure swings (water hammer due to gates admitting water to
the turbine are suddenly closed due to action of governor & vacuum in the
water system due to sudden opening of gates due to increased load
condition)

Headrace is a channel which leads the water to the turbine & a tailrace is a
channel which carries water from the turbine to the river.
A conduit is an open or closed passage through which water flows from
head race ro tail race.
Combination of various types of conduits are as under:
Canals & flumes are open while tunnels, pipelines & penstock or closed.
A surge tank is introduced in the system between the dam & power house
nearest to power house & provide better regulation of water pressure in the
system during variable load conditions..
When the turbine gates are partly closed & water flow in to the turbine is
reduced suddenly, water rises in surge tank. This produces a retarding
head & decreases the velocity of water in the penstock. When the velocity
of the water in the penstock is reduced to the value demanded by the
turbine, the water level of the water in the surge tank starts falling &
fluctuates up & down till its motion is damped out by friction..

5
When there is sudden rise in the load on the turbine, additional water is The draft tube is essential part of reaction turbine installation. It
supplied from the surge tank. This lowers the water surface in the surge supplements the action of the runner by utilizing most of remaining kinetic
tank thus producing an accelerating head which increases the flow of water energy of the water at the discharge end of the runner.
in the penstock. When the discharge of water corresponds to the turbine
demand, the water surface in the tank ceases to fall. The surge tank thus It is connected to the outlet of turbine.
helps in stabilizing the velocity & pressure in penstock & reduces the water
hammer effect. It allows the turbine to be set above the tail race to facilitate inspection &
maintenance.
8. Powerhouse
A power house consists of two main parts, a sub-structure to support the The draft tube can be straight conical tube or an elbow tube. The conical
hydraulic & electric equipment & superstructure to to house & protect these type is used for low pressure units while elbow type is more common.
equipments. The elevation of the turbine with respect to the tailwater is
determined by the necessarily of avoiding the cavitation. Note : The detailed answer is given here. Students can cut short the
details depending on the marks.
The superstructure of most power houses is a building housing all
operating equipments. The generating units & exciters are usually located Factors to be considered for Site selection of Hydro Electric
on the ground floor. The turbine which rotate on vertical axis are placed just power plants
below the floor level while those rotating on a horizontal axis are placed on 1. Availability of water
the ground floor along side the generator. . 2. Water storage capacity
3. Available water head
Equipments in powerhouse are: 4. Accessibility of site
(i) Hydraulic turbines (ii) Electric generators 5. Distance from the load centre
(iii) Governors (iv) Gate valves 6. Type of the land of the site
(v) Relief valves (vi) Water circulation pumps 7. Free from earthquake damage
(vii) Air duct (viii) Switchboard & instruments 8. Less possibility of sediment collection
(ix) Storage batteries (x) Cranes
1. Availability of water
9. Prime Movers Design & capacity of the hydro plant depends on the amount of water
The main purpose of the prime mover is to convert the kinetic energy of available at site.
water into mechanical energy to produce electrical energy. The prime
movers which are in common use are Pelton turbine, Francis turbine, The runoff data along with precipitation at the proposed site along with
Kaplan turbine & Propeller turbines. max. & min. qty. of water available in a year should be made available to
(i) decide the capacity of plant.
10. Draft tube (ii) setting up of peak load plants such as steam, diesel or gas turbine plant.
(iii) provide adequate spillways during flood period.

2. Water storage capacity

There is a wide variation in rainfall all around the year, hence to have a
uniform power output. it is necessary to store excess flow available at
certain times so that it can be used at the times of low flow.

The storage capacity can be estimated with the help of mass curves.

6
To select the site of dam, a careful study should be made of geology &
topography of the catchment area to see if the natural foundations could be
found.
3. Available water head
A large quantity of water at a sufficient head should be available in order
to generate desired quantity of power.
The level of water in the reservoir for a proposed plant should always be
within limits throughout the year.
For a given output , the quantity of water required to be supplied to the
turbine reduces with an increase in effective head.
4. Accessibility to site
The site should be easily available by rail & road.
At any moment sun emits 3.86x1026 W of energy. Earth receives about
1.74 x1017 W of energy. 30-50 MW/km2 can be produced from solar
energy. Estimated solar energy potential is 750GW in India & installed
capacity as on 31.12.14 is 3063MW.
Solar power is mainly produced by using photovoltaic solar cells which is
made of semi conducting materials that directly converts sunlight into
electricity.
Obviously the Sun doesn’t provide constant energy at any spot on the
earth, so its use is limited. Therefore often Solar cells are used to charge
batteries which are used either as secondary energy source or for other
applications of intermittent use such as night lightening or water
pumping etc. A solar power plant offers good option for electrification of
disadvantageous locations such as hilly regions, forests, deserts and
islands where other resources are neither available nor exploitable.

5. Distance from the load centre Solar energy is the most readily available source of energy &is free.
If the site is close from load centre, the cost of transmission lines &
It is non-polluting and, therefore, helps in lessening the greenhouse effect.
transmission losses will be reduced.
Solution (ii)
6. Type of the land of the site
Magneto hydrodynamics (MHD)
The land of site should be cheap & rocky.
The MHD generation or, also known as magneto hydrodynamic power
Soil bearing capacity should be very high to take the high stresses
generation is a direct energy conversion system which converts the
developed due to dam structure .
thermal energy of a fuel directly into electrical energy, without any
intermediate mechanical energy conversion, as opposed to the case in all
7. Free from earthquake damage
other power generating plants.
8. Less possibility of sediment collection
Basic Principle
Prob.4 (mdu2014) The principal of MHD power generation is based on Faraday’s law of
Describe in brief the following method of energy generation electromagnetic induction, which states that when an electric conductor
(i) Solar energy moves across a magnetic field, an e.m.f. is induced in it, which produces an
(ii) Magneto hydrodynamics (MHD) electric current.The conductor may be a soild, liquid or a gaseous one.
(iii) Fuel Cell
In conventional generator or alternator, the conductor consists of copper
Solution (i)
windings or strips while in a MHD generator the solid conductors are
Solar energy replaced by a gaseous conductor (high pressure, high temperature
The basic source of energy produced by the sun is through nuclear combustion gas), i.e. an ionized gas.
fusion. Sun sends out the energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
We experience this radiation as heat & light.

7
As shown in the above figure, gases at about 2500°C are passed through
the MHD duct across which a strong magnetic field has been applied. Since
the gases are hot, and partly ionized they form an electrically conducting
conductor moving in the magnetic field. An emf (D.C.) is thus induced,
which can be collected at suitable electrodes. The MHD generator
develops DC power and the conversion to AC is done using an inverter.
. The middle chamber between the electrodes is filled with strong solution of
Solution (iii)
Fuel Cell
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device in which the chemical energy of fuel
is converted directly into electrical energy through electrochemical
reactions without combustion of fuel.
The main components of fuel cell are
1. A fuel electrode (anode)
2. An oxidant electrode (cathode)
3. An electrolyte (A solution of KOH for alkali fuel cell or H2SO4 for acidic
fuel cell).
Figure shows schematic diagram of a fuel cell using hydrogen as fuel,
oxygen as oxidant & alkaline solution of KOH as an electrolyte.
8
It has three chambers separated by two porous electrodes. The porous fuel
electrode is anode (-ve pole) & the other porous oxidant electrode is
cathode (+ve pole). The electrodes are connected through an external
circuit as shown.
KOH. The surface of electrodes is chemically treated to repel the electrolyte
so that there is minimum leakage of KOH into outer chambers.
The anode is supplied H2 gas as fuel & the cathode is supplied O 2 gas as
oxidant.
The gases diffuse through the electrodes & bubble through the electrolyte
solution. Fuel and oxidant react when they come in contact undergoing the
following reaction:
The water formed is drawn off from the side.
-
The electrolyte provides the (OH) ions needed for the reaction.
The electrons liberated at anode find their way to the cathode through an
external circuit. This transfer is equivalent to the flow of a current from the
cathode to anode.
Prob. 5 (mdu 2013)
 What is power plant engineering? What are the different (ii) Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
types of power plants? How the plants are selected? Also (iii) Wind energy power plant
explain basic thermodynamic cycles used in power plant. (iv) Tidal energy power plant
(v) Wave energy power plant
(vi) Geothermal energy power plant
Solution
Power plant engineering deals with study of energy, its sources & (vii) Magneto hydrodynamic (MHD) power plant
utilization of energy for power generation. (viii) Fuel cell
(ix) Biomass based power plant
Different types of power plants are as under: (x) Thermoelectric power plant
1. Steam power plants (xi) Thermionic power plant
2. Hydro-electric power plants
3. Diesel power plants How the plants are selected : Refer to solution of Prob.1
4. Gas turbine power plant
5. Nuclear power plants Basic thermodynamic cycles used in power plants are as under:
6. Non conventional power plants (i) Vapor power cycle (Rankine cycle, Reheat cycle, Regenerative cycle,
Binary vapor cycle)
1. Steam power plants
The prime mover is steam turbine. The steam is generated in a boiler & is (ii) Gas power cycle (Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual combustion
then expanded in the turbine. The output of the turbine is utilized to run the cycle, Gas turbine cycle)
generator. The fuel used in the boiler is coal or oil.
2. Hydro electric power plant Rankine cycle
Water turbine is the prime mover in these power plants. Water is stored
The Rankine cycle is the simplest theoretical cycle using vapor as the
behind a dam. This water is then allowed to flow through water turbine.
working medium. The basic arrangement arrangement of Rankine cycle is
The kinetic & potential energy possessed by water is thus converted into
shown in the following figure along wih TS diagram.
mechanical energy which is utilized to run the generator.
3. Diesel power plant
In these power plants, the prime mover is internal combustion engine,
which can be either a petrol engine or a diesel engine. Mostly diesel engine
is used, petrol engine is used only for small portable units.

4. Gas turbine power plant

In these power plants, the prime mover is a gas turbine & the working
medium is a gas.

5. Nuclear power plant

These power plants are similar to the conventional steam power plants
excepting the nuclear reactor which takes the place of the boiler. Nuclear
plants use use heat energy liberated due to fission chain reaction instead of
combustion of fuel.
Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is compressed
6. Non conventional power plants isentropically to the operating pressure of the boiler. The water temperature
Various non conventional power plants are as under increases somewhat during this isentropic compression process due to a
(i) Solar thermal power plant slight decrease in the specific volume of water. The vertical distance
9
between states 1 and 2 on the T-s diagram is greatly exaggerated for
clarity.
Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as a
superheated vapor at state 3. The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger
where the heat originating from combustion of fuel (oil, gas or any other
source ) is transferred to the water at constant pressure.
The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine, where it expands
isentropically and produces work by rotating the shaft connected to an
electric generator.
The pressure and the temperature of steam drop during this expansion
process in Turbine to the values at state 4, where steam enters the
condenser. At this state, steam is usually a saturated liquid–vapor mixture
with a high quality.
Steam is condensed at constant pressure in the condenser, which is
basically a large heat exchanger, by rejecting heat to a cooling medium.
Steam leaves the condenser as saturated liquid and enters the pump,
completing the cycle.
When all the four process are ideal, the cycle is called Rankine cycle.
Temperature Entropy (T-S) diagram shows that for any given pressure the
/ water.
steam approaching the turbine may be dry saturated at 3, wet (state3 ) or
//
super heated (state 3 ), but fluid approaching the pump is, in each case is
saturated liquid ( state 1). Steam expands reversibly & adiabatically in
/ // / //
turbine from state 3 (or state 3 or 3 to state 4 (or state 4 or 4 ). The
steam leaving the turbine condenses to water in the condenser reversibly at
/ //
constant pressure from state 4 (or state 4 or 4 ) to state 1. The water at
state 1 is then pumped to the boiler at state 2 reversibly & adiabatically.
The water is heated in the boiler to form steam reversibly at constant
/ //
pressure from state 2 to state 3 (or state 3 or state 3 ).
Prob. 6 (mdu 2013)
(a) What are different components of Hydro-electric power
plant.
(b) What is rainfall & run-off measurement?
Solution (a) Refer to Solution of Prob 2
Solution (b)
Rainfall
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The “rainfall” known as “precipitation” may be defined as total
condensation of atmospheric moisture/vapor that reaches the earth in any
form.
The water which precipitates from atmosphere may be in the form of
rainfall, snow fall, dew & mist.
During summer, the evaporation loss from free water surface is
considerably large. The water holding capacity of air in the form of vapor is
also considerably large in hot weather. When this highly moist air mass
cools down by some means below the dew point temperature, the water
vapor from the air precipitates in the form of water & reaches the earth
known as rainfall.
Rainfall in general sense is defined as the total condensation of moisture
from the atmosphere that reaches the earth, including all forms of rains, ice
& snow.
Rainfall is measured in terms of centimeters of water over a given period of
time (usually one year).One centimeter rainfall is defined as follows:
“when the quantity of water collected on a certain plain area due to
rainfall becomes one centimeter in height, one centimeter of rainfall is
said to occur”. It is assumed that there are no losses due to evaporation,
seepage & whatsoever & there is no run off also during the accumulation of
Runoff Measurement
The runoff or stream flow can be determined with the help of following three
methods
(i) Rainfall records
(ii) Empirical formula
(iii) Actual measurement
(i) Rainfall records
In this method consistent rainfall records for sufficiently long period is taken
& then average depth of rainfall over the catchment is determined.
Then considering all the factors which effect the runoff process, a
coefficient is arrived at for that catchment.
 Prob.7 (mdu 2012)
Explain the comparison of hydro power plant with thermal
power plants.

Solution

The runoff can be estimated from rainfall records by multiplying rainfall with
run off coefficient.
Runoff = Rainfall x Runoff coefficient

However this is not an accurate method because estimates of runoff

coefficient can not be very accurate.

(ii) Empirical formula

Empirical relations to determine stream flow can be developed based
on past data for a particular site but can not be relied upon for
general use.

One of important formulae is as under :

Khosla’s formula
R = P – 4.811T where
R = Annual run off in mm
P = Annual rainfall in mm
T = Mean temperature in ºc

(iii) Actual measurement

Direct measurement by stream gauging at a given site for a long period is
the only precise method of evaluating stream flow.

The entire stream cross section is divided into number of parts. The flow is
measured by selecting a channel of fixed cross section & measuring the
water velocity at regular intervals at number of points in the cross section
for different water levels.

The velocity of flow can be measured with the help of current meter. By
integrating the velocities over the cross section for each stage, total flow
can be calculated.

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Prob. 8 (mdu 2012) The hydrograph on the basis of day gives an idea about the flood period
Plot the various curves for estimating stream flow & during the month.
capacity of reservoir for hydro power plant.
The hydrograph on the basis of month gives an idea about the dry period of
the year. This also decides the period during which the water should be
Solution
Various curves for estimating stream flow & capacity of reservoir are collected & to be used during the dry period of the year.
(i) Hydrographs
(ii) Flow duration curves The year wise data provides the information concerning the lean or draught
(iii) Mass curve year. Such information is very essential for deciding the location & size of
the hydel power plant.
Hydrographs
3
Hydrograph is defined as a graph showing the river discharge in m /s with
Flow duration curve
respect to time for a specified time. The time may be hour, week, month Flow duration curve is another useful form to represent the runoff data for
or a year. The discharge may be m3/sec or day-second-meter. the given time. The magnitude of runoff as ordinates against the
corresponding % of time as abscissa results in a so called “flow
A typical hydrograph is shown in the following figure: duration curve” as shown in the following figure.

Flow duration curve shows the percentage of time during the period when
The area under hydrograph gives the total volume of flow. the flow was equal to greater than the given flow.
.We can get the following information from Hydrograph: Flow duration curve is drawn with the help of hydrograph.
(i) Rate of flow at any instant during the duration period considered.
To obtain the flow duration curve, the runoff data are arranged in increasing
(ii) Total volume flow up to that instant as the area under hydrograph
order.
denotes the volume of water in that duration.
The flow is plotted on ordinate & fraction of time on abscissa.
(iii) Average stream flow per month.
The area under the flow duration curve gives the total quantity of runoff
(iv) The minimum and maximum stream flow/runoff for the year.
during a period.
(v) The rate of stream flow, duration & frequency of floods.
The salient features of flow duration curves are as under:
The hydrograph can be drawn taking day, month or year as time as time
(a) A flow duration curve shows the relation between flows & length of time
axis as shown in the figure.
during which they are available.

12
(b) Flow duration curves are most useful for preliminary studies.
(c) Flow duration curves can be used for comparisons between streams.
(d) Flow duration curve allows the evaluation of low level flows.
(e) It is used in design of drainage system & in flood control studies

Mass curve
Mass curve is a graph of cumulative values of a water quantity (runoff)
against time as shown in the following figure.

If two straight line A/ B/ & A// B// are parallel to AB & tangent to the mass
curve at its lowest point C and highest point D respectively, then the vertical
/ //
intercept A A represents the storage volume required to permit continuous
release of water at this average discharge rare over the entire period.

Prob. 9 (mdu may 2012)

The slope of the curve at any point indicates the rate of flow at that
particular time. If the curve is horizontal, the flow is zero & if there is a high (a) Explain Wind Power Plant
rate of flow, the curve rises steeply. (b) Explain geothermal power plants.

Used for estimating the capacity of reservoir needed to produce a certain Solution (a)
dependable flow from fluctuating discharge of a river. The schematic diagram of a wind power generator is shown in the figure
As shown in the following Figure, the slope of the straight line AB joining
the end points of the mass curve represents the average discharge/flow
over the considered period.

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It consists of: There are many local hot spots just below the surface where the
1. Wind turbine or rotor having propeller types of blades. temperature is much higher than expected.
2. Wind mill head – it houses speed increaser, drive shaft, clutch,
coupling etc. Ground water when comes in contact with these hot spots, either dry or wet
3. Electric generator. steam is formed. By drilling holes to these locations, hot water & steam can
4. Supporting structure. be tapped & these can be used for power generation or space heating.

The wind mill head performs the following functions Source of earth’s internal energy.
(i) It supports the rotor housing & the rotor bearings. 70% comes from the decay of radioactive nuclei with long half lives that
(ii) It also houses control mechanisms like changing the pitch of the
are embedded within the Earth.
blades for safety devices etc.
Some energy is from residual heat left over from Earth’s formation.
The supporting structure is designed to withstand the wind load during
gusts. Its type & height is related to cost & transmission system
The rest of the energy comes from meteorite impacts.
incorporated.
The blades are generally made of composite material like fiber reinforced
plastic (FRP). This material is less costly & gives high strength to weight Different Geothermal Energy Sources
ratio. 1. Hydrothermal convective systems
(i) Vapor dominated or dry steam fields.
(ii) Liquid dominated system or wet steam fields.
A typical wind mill has its blade in 25 m to 40m in diameter & can
(iii) Hot water fields
produce 120kW of power at a speed of 300-400 rpm.
2. Geopressure sources
Estimated energy potential in India is 100GW (at 80m height) & as on 3. Petro-thermal or hot dry rocks (HDR)
31.12.14, the installed capacity is 22465Mw 4. Magma resources
5. Volcanoes
Advantages of wind power
(i) It is available free & inexhaustible. 1. Hydrothermal system
(ii) Fuel provision & transport are not required. System in which water is heated by contact with hot rock which can be
(iii) It is clean & non polluting. either vapor dominated or liquid dominated.
(iv) Has low maintenance cost.
(v) Ideal choice for rural & remote areas & areas which lack other energy In order to utilize the energy of hydrothermal system, wells are drilled
sources either to intercept a fissure or the reservoir. The depth of the well is in the
range of 600m to 2km although there may be deeper wells.
Solution (b)
The word ‘Geothermal, comes from combination of Greek word ‘geo’ (i) Vapor dominated or dry steam system
means earth & ‘thermal’ means heat.

Geothermal energy is the heat of earth’s own interior.

As we travel down the earth’s surface, there exists a temperature gradient

of +30ºC per km.

14
 As this hot water flows upwards through wells in the ground, the pressure
decreases & due to throttling action, some of the hot water converts into
steam.

Mixture is further throttled in a separator & dry steam is then separed from
the brine.

The dry steam is used to run the steam.

The steam after expansion in turbine is condensed in a direct type of
condenser.

Some amount of condensate is cooled further in cooling tower. The

remaining condensate & separated brine/water is injected back into the
reservoir.

(b) Binary cycle system

Dry steam fro earth may contain solid particles is passed through
centrifugal separator to remove solid particles & separated steam is then
supplied to the turbine.

The steam after expansion in turbine is condensed in a condenser.

The condensate collected from the condenser is injected back into the
reservoir to make geothermal reservoir a sustainable one.

(ii) Liquid dominated or wet steam system

(a) Flash steam system

Use geothermal reservoir of water with lower temperature of about 107ºC

to 180ºC.

The hot water or brine from underground is circulated through a heat

exchanger & pumped back for reinjection in the ground.
The heat of hot water in the heat exchanger is utilized to generate the
vapor of low boiling fluid usually an organic compound or refrigerants.

The generated vapor is used to run the turbine. The water & working fluid
are kept separated during the whole process.

2. Geopressurized system
Most common & use geothermal reservoir of water with temperature
Geopressurized resources are from formations where moderately high
greater than 180ºC. temperature brines are trapped in a permeable layer of rock under high
pressures at great depths. These brines often contain dissolved methane
15
that can be extracted for use as a fuel. The water & methane are trapped Figure shows the schematic diagram of thermoelectric power generator.
in sedimentary formations at a depth of about 3 to 6km. The temperature
of the water is in the range of 90ºC to 200ºC. Three forms of energy can
be obtained from geopressurized reservoirs : thermal energy, hydraulic
energy from the high pressure & chemical energy from the burning of the
dissolved methane.

Hot dry rock is another potential geothermal resource. These reservoirs are
generally hot impermeable rocks at depth shallow enough to be accessible
(< 300m). To extract heat from such formations, the rock must be
fractured & a fluid circulation system is developed. Although hot dry rock
resources are virtually unlimited in magnitude around the world, only those
at shallow depths are currently economical.

Prob. 10 (mdu may 2012)

(a) Explain thermoelectric power generation.
(b) Explain thermionic power generation.

Solution (a)
Thermoelectric power generation.
The term thermoelectric is combination of two words thermo and electric
and as its name indicates thermal means heat energy and electric means
electrical energy. Thermoelectric power generators are the devices which
are used to convert temperature difference between two junctions into
electrical energy.
A working of thermoelectric generator is based on Seebeck effect.
In a thermoelectric generator loop, the dissimilar thermoelectric materials A
& B are joined at hot end, while the other ends are kept cold & connected to
load.
An electric voltage or emf is then generated between cold ends. A DC will
flow in a circuit as long as the heat is supplied at the hot end & heat is
removed from cold ends.

When the junction of two dissimilar materials is maintained at two different
temperatures an emf is developed. This is called Seebeck effect.
ΔV = α ΔT where
ΔV = emf , ΔT = Temperature difference between two junction
α = Seebeck coefficient
A thermo-electrical generator basically consists of heat source, which is
kept at high temperature and a heat sink, which is maintained at a
temperature less than the heat source. The temperature difference
between heat source and heat sink causes direct current to flow through
the load.
For a given thermocouple, the voltage & electric power output are
increased by increasing the temperature difference between the hot &
cold ends.
In a thermoelectric generator, large amount current & low voltage is
developed.
In order to get sufficient voltage & power output, several thermocouples
may be connected in series.
The source of heat for electric generator may be small oil or gas burner, a
radio-isotope or direct solar radiation.

16
 A typical couple operating at hot & cold junction temperature of 600ºC &
200ºC can develop 0.1V & 2A i.e. about 0.5W. A 1kW device could
require about 5000 couples in series.
Solution (b)
Thermionic power generation.
Thermionic generator is used for direct conversion of heat energy into
electrical energy by thermionic emission.
Thermionic emission is the emission of electrons from heated metal &
some oxide surfaces. All metals & some oxides have free electrons which
are released on heating.
Thermionic generator consists of two electrodes of different work functions,
with a very small gap (about 1mm or less) between them & held in a
container or tube having a high vacuum or filled with ionized cesium vapor.
One metal electrode is heated until it becomes hot enough to release
electrons from its surface. The hot metal electrode acts as a cathode & is
called the emitter.
The emitted electrons from emitter travel through small gap to the opposite
colder electrode. The colder electrode collects electrons & termed as
collector.
The collector becomes –vely charged (anode) & is cooled to maintain it at
low temperature.
17
The electrons from collector (anode) can return to emitter (cathode) through
an external load, thereby producing a DC or power.
In order to materialize a substantial electron emission rate (per unit area of
emitter) & hence a significant current output as well as high efficiency, the
emitter temperature in thermionic converter containing cesium should be at
least 1000ºC, the efficiency is then 10%. Efficiency as high as 40% can
be obtained by operating at still higher temperatures.
Materials used
Emitter : Tungsten (W), Molybdenum (Mo), Platinum (P)
Collector : Ni, Mo, Ag,
Prob. 11 (mdu may 2012)
(a) What is rainfall & run off. Explain with example.
(b) Write short notes on selection of Plants.
Sol. (a)
Rainfall
The “rainfall” known as “precipitation” may be defined as total
condensation of atmospheric moisture/vapor that reaches the earth in any
form.
The water which precipitates from atmosphere may be in the form of
rainfall, snow fall, dew & mist.
During summer, the evaporation loss from free water surface is
considerably large. The water holding capacity of air in the form of vapor is
also considerably large in hot weather. When this highly moist air mass
cools down by some means below the dew point temperature, the water
vapor from the air precipitates in the form of water & reaches the earth
known as rainfall.
Rainfall in general sense is defined as the total condensation of moisture
from the atmosphere that reaches the earth, including all forms of rains, ice
& snow.
Rainfall is measured in terms of centimeters of water over a given period of
time (usually one year).One centimeter rainfall is defined as follows:
“when the quantity of water collected on a certain plain area due to
rainfall becomes one centimeter in height, one centimeter of rainfall is
said to occur”. It is assumed that there are no losses due to evaporation,
seepage & whatsoever & there is no run off also during the accumulation of
water.
Runoff
As the rain falls, a portion of it is evaporated directly by the sun, another
large portion is taken by vegetation & growing corps particularly in growing
season & some percolates into the ground. The percolating water may be
partly absorbed by the roots of vegetation. The remaining water flows
through the catchment area on the surface of earth & is known as
“run off”.
The catchment area of a hydro-site is the total area behind the dam,
draining water into the reservoir. Thus
Runoff = Total precipitation – Total evaporation
Part of the precipitation is absorbed by the soil & seeps or percolates into
ground & will ultimately reach catchment area through underground
channels.
Total run off = Direct runoff over the land surface + Runoff
through seepage
The unit of runoff is m /s or day – second meter.
3
Day second meter = discharge collected in the catchment area at the
3 (xi) Thermionic power plant
rate of 1 m /s for one day.
Day second meter = 1x24x3600= 86400 m3/day
Factors affecting the runoff
1. Rainfall pattern : The runoff is more if the rainfall is heavy.
2. Character of catchment area. : The topography, shape, its vegetal
cover & nature of the surface & subsurface geology have a great influence
on runoff. The steep & rocky surface gives more runoff.
3. Shape & size of the catchment area : Large catchment area gives
more runoff
4. Vegetation : Vegetation, particularly of of forest, has considerable effect
upon runoff because it consumes a portion of the runoff.
5. Geology of the area : Rocky area gives higher runoff than softy or
sandy area.
Weather conditions : Low temperature, high relative humidity & low winds
give high runoff.
Sol. (b) Refer to sol. Of Prob 1
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Prob. 12 (mdu may 2011)
(a) Describe various methods of Unconventional generation
of electric power.
(b) Describe Rankine cycle in brief.
Solution (a)
Various methods of Unconventional generation of electric
power
(i) Solar thermal power plant
(ii) Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
(iii) Wind energy power plant
(iv) Tidal energy power plant
(v) Wave energy power plant
(vi) Geothermal energy power plant
(vii) Magneto hydrodynamic (MHD) power plant
(viii) Fuel cell
(ix) Biomass based power plant
(x) Thermoelectric power plant
(i) Solar power plant: Solar power is mainly produced by using
photovoltaic solar cells which is made of semi conducting materials that
directly converts sunlight into electricity.
Obviously the Sun doesn’t provide constant energy at any spot on the
Earth, so its use is limited. Therefore often Solar cells are used to charge
batteries which are used either as secondary energy source or for other
applications of intermittent use such as night lightening or water pumping
etc. A solar power plant offers good option for electrification of
disadvantageous locations such as hilly regions, forests, deserts and
islands where other resources are neither available nor exploitable.
(ii) Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC): A large amount of
solar energy is collected & stored in tropical (closer to equator) ocean.
OTEC system uses the temperature difference between worm surface
water (~27ºC) cold deep water (~4ºC) to generate electricity by
exchanging heat with the warm water from the ocean surface and with the
cold water from the deep ocean. The exchanged heat drives a Rankine
Cycle, which converts it to electricity. OTEC Plants have very low
efficiencies (~ 2.5%) hence large amount of water volumes to produce
appreciable amount of electricity.
(iii) Wind energy power plant :The origin for Wind Energy is Sun.
When sun ray falls on the earth, it’s surface gets heated up and as a
consequence unevenly winds are formed. Kinetic energy in the wind is
used to run wind turbines but the output power depends upon the wind
speed.
Turbines generally require a wind in the range of 20km/hr.
In practice relatively few land areas have significantly prevailing winds.
Otherwise wind power is one of the most cost competitive renewable
energy today and this has been the most rapidly-growing means of
electricity generation at the turn of 21st century and provides a complement
to a large scale base load power stations.
(iv) Tidal energy power plant :Tides are periodic rise & fall in sea
water level & are generated by the gravitational effect of the sun and the
moon on the earth & rotation of earth causing cyclical movement of the
seas.
The main feature of tidal cycle is the difference in water surface elevations
at the high tide & low tide which is utilized to operate a hydraulic turbine for
converting the tidal energy into electrical energy by means of an attached
generator. These large underwater turbines are placed in areas with high
tidal movements, and are designed to capture the kinetic motion of the
ebbing and surging of ocean tides in order to produce electricity.
(v) Wave Energy Power Plant: Wave energy or wave power is
essentially power drawn from waves. Waves are caused by the wind
blowing over the surface of the ocean. In many areas of the world, the wind
blows with enough consistency and force to provide continuous waves
along the shoreline. Ocean waves contain tremendous energy potential.
Wave power devices extract energy from the surface motion of ocean
waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface.
Wave energy is produced when electricity generators are placed on the
surface of the ocean. The energy provided is most often used in
desalination plants, power plants and water pumps. Energy output is
determined by wave height, wave speed, wavelength, and water density.
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(vi) Geothermal energy Power Plant : Geothermal energy is a very
clean source of power. It comes from radioactive decay in the core of the
earth which heats the earth from the inside out & thus energy/power can be
extracted due to the temperature difference between hot rock deep in the
earth & relatively cool surface air & water. This requires that the hot rock be
relatively shallow, so it is site – specific & can only be applied in
geologically active area.
As stated above, the geothermal energy from the core of the earth is closer
to the surface in some area than in others. Where hot underground steam
or water can be tapped & brought to the surface & used indirectly to
generate electricity by running the steam/gas turbine.
(vii) Refer to Sol of Prob 3
(viii) Refer to Solution of Prob 3 (iii)
(ix) Biomass based power plants: The energy stored in biomass is called
bio energy. Biomass is any organic matter derived from living, or recently
living organisms that has stored energy through the process of
photosynthesis. It exists in one form as plants and may be transferred
through the food chain to animals' bodies and their wastes.
Biomass includes Woody biomass, grassy & aquatic plants, residue from
agriculture & forestry, food waste, garbage, organic compounds of
industrial & municipal waste, manure etc.
Conversion of biomass into energy
Burning: Burning stuff like wood, waste and other plant releases stored
chemical energy in the form of heat, which can be used to turn shafts to
produce electricity.
Decomposition: Things that can rot, like garbage, human and animal
waste, dead animals and the like can be left to rot, releasing a gas called
biogas (also known as methane gas).
(ix) Refer to Solution of Prob 8
(xi) Refer to Solution of Prob 8
Solutiob (b) Refer to solution of Prob 4
Prob. 13 (mdu may 2011)
(a) Explain the factor for selection of site for hydroelectric
Power Plant.
(b) What is hydrograph? How can a flow duration curve can
be obtained from hydrograph.

Solution (a) Refer to Sol of Prob.2

Solution (b) Refer to Sol of Prob 7

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