MODULE 1 – Objectives

Module 1 introduces the terminology used in this course. It describes the circumstances likely to require emergency
telecommunications, as well as the roles of the partners involved in the different phases of emergency operations.

1.1 From "Emergency" to "Disaster"

Dictionaries define an emergency as "a serious situation or occurrence that happens unexpectedly and demands
immediate action" – in brief: a situation that emerges. Response to the most common emergencies is based on
experience and preparedness. Individuals acquire experience, and societies have developed and, in many cases,
institutionalised mechanisms of preparedness and response. The first reaction of anyone confronted with an emergency
situation will always be, to

USE WHAT IS AVAILABLE

Help will be required, when the resources available on-site at the time of an emergency situation are not sufficient to
cope with it. "Crying for help" is the next step - the elementary form of emergency communication. At this point, using
what is available might simply mean a loud scream.

Given the limited range of the human voice, and going back from the telecommunication aspect to emergency response
in general, it is obvious that

THE FIRST RESPONSE IS ALWAYS LOCAL

Here we have already discovered a main reason for this course on emergency telecommunications: At any time the
responsibility to assist with whatever means available can fall on every individual member of a community. [example
1.1.a]

(A conference of experts in disaster medicine recently reviewed the possibilities offered by Telemedicine. This
application of technology allows the real time exchange of information between a medical practitioner in the field and
a specialized hospital. Using voice, video and data links, information about the status of the patient can be transmitted
to specialists, who in turn use the same means to provide detailed diagnosis, and advice for treatment.

After two days of presentations and discussions, the experts fully recognized the enormous value telemedicine has in
all cases where the diagnosis of a complex medical problem requires equipment and expertise not available in the
field, and where only the experience and knowledge of a specialist can safe a life.

However: The conference also concluded, that the medical practitioner who needs telemedicine at the site of a mass
casualty event is the wrong person in the wrong place at the wrong time. Consulting with specialists may save the life
of one patient, but in the time spent on the consultations, the practitioner could probably safe the lives of many
others by using nothing more then his or her own know-how and with whatever means are available on-site.)

If the help that the human voice can mobilize is not sufficient, or if this initial way of communicating the urgent need
for help does not reach someone able to respond, we again come back to the first principle - but to do so, we need to
know what is available, and how it can be used. Once more we have just discovered a principle:

BE PREPARED

If and when an emergency cannot be handled with what is locally available, or if the dimension of an emergency
situation is such that local means cannot cope with it, we might be confronted with a disaster. The American Red
Cross defines a disaster as a "situation that causes human suffering or creates human needs that the victims cannot
alleviate without assistance". A dictionary tells us, that a disaster is "an occurrence causing widespread destruction and
distress; a catastrophe; a grave misfortune". The Latin origin of the word signifies "an evil influence of a star or
planet".
The definition of a disaster is relative and, subjectively, any emergency might have a "disastrous" effect on even one
individual affected. For our further considerations however we shall use the Red Cross definition.

A disaster will require the mobilization of resources from beyond the immediate vicinity or neighbourhood. National,
regional or even global response will try to complement the resources of the community. To communicate the needs
will now require the use of telecommunication technology. Independent of the dimension of an event, the use of this
technology will be governed by all three of the above principles. In short:

BE PREPARED TO USE WHAT IS LOCALLY AVAILABLE

Responding to the initially communicated needs will require the exchange of more information. Telecommunications
are the indispensable tool, and providing telecommunication resources is part of the assistance. [example: 1.1.b]

International organizations have established mechanisms to cover their own operational telecommunication
requirements. A typical example is the "Field Comms" concept of the World Food Programme, WFP. It is presented at
URL

www.wfp.org/operations/FieldComms/index.asp?section=5&sub_section=5.

1.2 From Communication to Telecommunication

The dictionary defines communication as "The exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals,
writing, or behaviour. In an even more general sense it also defines it as "interpersonal rapport".

The dictionary defines telecommunication as the "the science and technology of communication at a distance by
electronic transmission of impulses, as by telegraph, cable, telephone, radio, or television". Telecommunication is one
of the elements of social interaction, and it depends on the availability of technological means.

Considering telecommunications in emergency situations we therefore need to focus on its practical and technical
aspects, while always keeping in mind its role in social interaction.

TELECOMMUNICATIONS ARE THE

LOGISTICS OF INFORMATION EXCHANGE

In this course, we shall review the tools available to provide the right information to the right people at the right
time. In an emergency situation, "the right time" is always "now". Definition of the "right people" will need more
consideration in the following chapters. A full definition of what "the right information" is would go far beyond the
scope of this course. Nevertheless, quantity as well as quality of the information to be handled by telecommunication
related to emergencies will be of prime concern, when we come to consider the various tools and networks. [example
1.2]

Telecommunications are part of what is known as ICT, Information and Communications Technology. We shall look at
the "I" of ICT only to the extent that this is necessary to understand the role of the "T". Computers and their peripherals
are the tools of "Information Management", they allow the processing of the data transported through
telecommunication networks.

1.3 Natural Disaster or Man-made Disaster?

It has been said that all disasters are man-made disasters. There is some truth in this sarcastic view, because disasters
are the product of hazard and vulnerability.

DISASTER = HAZARD x VULNERABILITY

If one of these factors has the value of zero, there will be no disaster. Only the impact of an event with potentially
disastrous consequences on a vulnerable target, such as a society and its infrastructure, causes a disaster. Where there
is no vulnerable target, hazards will not cause a disaster. [illustration 1.1]

The forces creating the hazards causing natural disasters are far beyond human influence. Only an elimination or at
least reduction of the vulnerability will allow us, to influence the result of the calculation.

However, hazards are also created by human activity, and they might cause what is known as man-made disasters.
Technologies, but also society itself, create such hazards with potentially disastrous consequences. Reducing or
eliminating such hazards altogether, lies within the powers of those who created them by their activity in the first
place. The capability to do so is limited however: Technological hazards result from lack of knowledge or from
negligence in the application thereof. Man-made disasters in the strictest sense of the term are the result of social
developments. In both cases, the values given to the prevention of a hazard will determine the capability to bring the
value of the "hazard" factor to zero.

Both factors, hazard and vulnerability, will therefore have to be considered when we study emergency situations
resulting from the impact of a disaster, the different phases, and the roles of the different actors involved.

1.4 From Prevention and Preparedness to Response, Relief, and

Rehabilitation

A disaster starts with the creation of a hazard and the creation of a potentially vulnerable target. Where prevention is
at all possible, it has to start at the earliest possible time. Science and technology, including ICT, provide an increasing
number of means for identification of existing hazards and for identification of potentially critical developments.
Within ICT, telecommunications are most valuable for observation and detection of developments taking place far
away from a potentially vulnerable location, and for continuous remote sensing, often carried out with the help of
satellites.

The first step towards prevention and preparedness consists of research, observation and monitoring. The second step
is the evaluation of the findings. The third step is the application of the knowledge gained in steps one and two: The
creation of awareness and, whenever possible, the earliest possible issuing of warnings, add a new dimension to the
activities. [example 1.4.a]

REACHING THE VULNERABLE

It is this stage that, as we shall see later, telecommunication technology becomes more than just one of many tools in
the arsenal of disaster management - it becomes its key element.

At the moment of impact of a disaster, the information flow changes from a dissemination of information, alerting the
normally very large number of those who are vulnerable, to reporting to those expected to assist. At the same time, he
actual impact of an event may drastically reduce the means of communication available at this time. It is here, that
once more our first principle comes into play: Use what is available.

The mobilization of resources for emergency and disaster response includes the mobilization of telecommunication
resources. The timeliness, but also the appropriateness of all response, depend on the real-time exchange of
information between the site of an event and the bases of the providers of assistance, many of which dispose of their
own, specialized communication networks.

Only recently, new technologies have given telecommunications a new, additional importance in disaster relief:

TELECOMMUNICATIONS ARE A RELIEF COMMODITY

To an increasing degree, telecommunications are being taken for granted, as a commodity or a comfort in daily live.
Deprivation of the ability to communicate at any time – and, with the advent of personal mobile communications, also
from any place – is felt in the same way as the loss of other property or convenience. Beyond their roles as tools in the
hands of the responders, telecommunications are an actual need of the affected population, and their loss has a
serious impact on society. Provision of telecommunication services is, in many cases, a need comparable to the
traditional relief provisions such as food and shelter, and we shall include it in the following considerations. [example
1.4.b]

1.5 From Relief to Rehabilitation and Development

When responding to an emergency situation, it is mandatory to think beyond the initial needs. A disaster is always
also a disruption of a continuous process of development. Whenever possible, emergency assistance provided in
response to an event should also be a contribution to further development, without however introducing elements that
would not be sustainable beyond the acute response phase. [illustration 1.2] [illustration 1.3]

For telecommunication this means, that whenever possible, outside assistance should use sustainable systems, based
on technologies, which can be handed over to local partners at a later time. Such networks can then make a valuable
contribution to the overall development in addition to their role of enhancing preparedness and response in case of
future disasters. When looking at possible technologies, we shall consider the options, but also their limitations.

In all stages, development activities should consider not only existing hazards and vulnerabilities, but also the inherent
risk of development activities to increase either of these factors, and consequently the risk of disasters. Furthermore,
they should include measures to prevent disasters or at least to improve preparedness to cope with
emergencies. [example 1.5]

In the case of telecommunications, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) recommends, that in all
telecommunication development projects due consideration be included for the use of systems in possible emergency
situations. We shall come back to this important recommendation, when discussing the regulatory framework of
emergency telecommunications in a later module of this course.

1.6 Who are the Actors and how do they Communicate?

Once an emergency becomes a disaster, a multitude of institutions and organizations will be involved in the response.
These partners have one common goal - the alleviation of human suffering. At the same time, they have their own
structures and corporate cultures, and coordination is a prime but not easy task Coordination depends on
telecommunication. [example 1.6.a]

In the prevention and preparedness phase there are the observers and the analysers, providing the information to
the decision makers. In this phase, all tasks are of a continuous nature. For the exchange of information, they use
mostly permanent communication links, provided either by public services or by dedicated, private networks.
Reliability is a prime consideration; security might be an additional concern.

In the alert phase, the speed of dissemination of reliable information becomes the prime issue. The decision makers,
typically the government authorities responsible for initiating actions, need to reach the public. Depending on local
conditions, they will in most cases be able to rely on existing networks and on the media.

Dissemination of information however is not limited to direct links from authorities to individual citizens: Reaching the
largest possible number of individuals needs a re-distribution of the information by those who received it first. Social
structures determine the mechanisms for such a pyramid scheme. It is thus the responsibility of each individual in turn
to also act as alerter, again following the principle of using what is available.

Alerting the handicapped, those not able to receive an alert or to understand its meaning, needs particular
consideration when an alert system is being designed. The same applies in respect to those, not able to take necessary
action without additional assistance. [example 1.6.b]

To be able to do so, needs awareness of what is available. In one of the next modules, we will look at the potential of
various communications means as multipliers.

In the impact phase of a disaster, in the widest sense upon the occurrence of an emergency, the information flow
changes its direction. A "cry for help", a request for assistance, will be directed from those affected to those expected
to help.
On the local level, the request for help is addressed to the institutional rescue services. In case of major disasters, the
request goes to the providers of national, regional, or even international assistance. In all cases, the normal channels
of the information exchange might already be affected by the event itself: The physical impact of an event might have
destroyed essential parts of existing telecommunication infrastructure, and in any case public networks will not be able
to handle the sudden surge in traffic load. Institutional providers of emergency services maintain their own, non-public
networks, which will come into play only once the responders reach the affected location.

International response is commonly mobilized through global, public networks. Overload of these systems is likely to
affect the possibilities of obtaining the information needed to provide appropriate assistance. The overload-proof
broadcast network of the media provides only some of the information the international responders need. For
specialized information, they need access to two-way communication links that cannot be overloaded by public traffic.
Disaster resistant, non-public networks are in some cases maintained as a backup tool. In the same way as the local
emergency services, international responders will be able to use most of their own telecommunications links only once
they reach the site of the event and complete the set-up of the necessary equipment or the extensions to an existing
infrastructure of their network.

In the relief phase, assessment of the often rapidly changing situation and coordination of assistance need a
continuous exchange of information in two dimensions: Vertically, between the on site relief operations and their
headquarters, horizontally on two levels, among the different teams in the field and between the headquarters on
national and international level.

Finally, in the rehabilitation phase, and even more so in the transition from relief to development, an additional
factor needs to be considered: Sustainability. The tools of rapid response are not necessarily suitable for local long-
term use. During the acute phase of disaster response, telecommunication needs to be established literally "at all
cost"; in order to be an element of sustainable development, telecommunication must be affordable.

In the following modules of this course, we shall look at the capabilities as well as the limitations of different
telecommunication tools in all phases, from monitoring and alert to response and rehabilitation. We shall look at what
technology can offer, we will look at the limits set by the physical laws governing electronic networks, and we shall
also have to look at the restrictions imposed by the administrative and regulatory environment of telecommunications.

1.7 Professionals and Volunteers

In the context of emergency and in particular in disaster response the difference between professionals and volunteers
is not a difference of qualification. The fact, that time and location of a disaster are almost without exception
unpredictable, prevents the establishment of permanent institutionalised response with sufficient full time professional
staff to cover all eventualities. The difference between professional and volunteer is therefore one of permanent
occupation rather than of qualification.

In any case the needs caused by a disaster might well go far beyond the capacity of even the best-prepared,
institutional emergency services. People willing to leave their normal occupation and environment are needed to
complement the work of the professional responders. To be able to perform such voluntary work needs preparation
acquired by training.

Furthermore, a coordinated approach is a key element of success in emergency and disaster response. Contributing to
a relief effort means to become part of an often very complex mechanism. Knowing about the concepts of the partners
you will work with is a precondition for all voluntary work. Communication is the basis of cooperation and
coordination, and in the following modules of this course we shall therefore look at the role of telecommunications in
the work of all partners, the institutional, "full time" responders as well as the spontaneous, voluntary partners.
 MODULE 2 – Objectives

Objectives

Module 2 introduces some of the tools available for communication in emergency and disaster situations. It looks at
public networks, and at their characteristics, the operational implications of their use, as well as possible hindrances
to their application in different phases of emergencies and disasters.

2.1 Introduction: Using what is available

In module 1 we have established the principle of using what is available. To follow this principle, we shall review the
needs as well as the tools. There are various ways to categorize telecommunication equipment and networks: By range,
by technology, by application and even by affordability. All these aspects determine their usefulness during the
different phases and by the different actors in emergency preparedness and response. New developments in technology
have added new dimensions even to conventional means of communication, and have given them multiple roles. The
processing of the information transported by telecommunications has become increasingly complex. Consequently, we
shall first of all have a look at the characteristics of the existing telecommunication networks, and only then consider
their suitability for different tasks within emergency and disaster preparedness and response.

2.2 Public Networks

A public network is a service, provided to the public by a service provider. Operating a public network is a commercial
activity. In the past, public networks were in most cases operated by governments. More recently the government
monopoly has in most countries been replaced by a licensing requirement, transferring the responsibility for the
functioning of the networks to private enterprises while maintaining government supervision. The importance of public
networks for society and the necessity of inter-operability between networks on national as well as international levels
require an overall control by a central, usual national authority.

The infrastructure of public networks is vulnerable. In many cases, central elements of more than one
telecommunication network are co-located, so that simultaneous disruption of different networks may result from an
impact at one single location. [example 2.2.a]

Telephone networks, transmitting not only voice, but also various formats of data such as fax or text messages, and
providing public access to other networks, such as the Internet, are the most extensive public networks. They include
fixed as well as mobile services.

The conventional fixed telephone network comes to mind first, when a way to transmit an emergency message is
needed. It is the common tool to alert emergency service providers. Advanced technology has enhanced its role,
allowing the quick and efficient re-direction of emergency calls through one central emergency service (reachable by
dialling 911 in the US, 112 in most of Europe) to the appropriate responder. The capability of providing caller
identification facilitates the dispatch of assistance. The public telephone network can be expected to be available as
long as the possible physical impact of an event does not prevent access to a telephone or disrupts its infrastructure.

Beyond the use as a tool for emergency alert, the value of the public telephone network diminishes rapidly. With the
onset of a disaster, overload of the network will make it unavailable even in those cases where the actual physical
impact of the event has not damaged or destructed the cable network. It is the nature of the telephone network that
for each call a number of installations are involved to establish a link between two points. Failure or overload of any
one element along the way, will lead to widespread disruption of traffic. [illustration 2.1]

Two accessories or parts of many fixed-line telephone installations are likely to affect the use of the system in an
emergency or disaster situation:

Most of the "Cordless phones", providing mobility within a very short range, typically inside a building or in its
immediate vicinity, will not work in case of power failure: The handset operates on batteries, but the base station
(connected to the telephone line) usually depends on power from the power line.

A Private Branch Exchange or PBX is a common feature in many offices. When the power line is disrupted, the
extensions of such an internal network will no longer work, unless a source of back-up power, such as properly
maintained and continuously re-charged accumulators, are installed. At least one telephone set should permanently be
connected to the fixed telephone line without passing through a PBX, and everybody should know its location; in case
of a local power failure without disruption of the public telephone network, emergency access will be possible to the
public telephone network from at least one point.

Priority status for urgent calls could be a way to overcome the overload problems of telephone networks. Giving
such priority to subscribers expected to have key functions in case of emergency is technically possible, and has in fact
been introduced in some cases. The solution might appear as logical; it has, however, certain drawbacks:

– We have seen that institutional emergency services are not the only responders in an emergency, and the
restrictions any priority scheme imposes on non-priority subscribers may well be counterproductive. Remember: First
response is the task and duty of everyone who can help.

– A priority scheme has to be universal, ensuring end-to-end priority for a call. When more than one network is
involved, as this is the case in all international and even many national calls, the rules must be the same for all
operators concerned. A priority call must be recognizable as such for all networks concerned.

– In the attribution of priority status, all service providers must follow the same criteria. Given the tough
competition between the commercial network operators, priority-attribution can become a sales-argument. The
operator applying a more generous attribution policy is likely to get more clients than the one who has to tell his
potential clients that in case of emergency, they will be "thrown off" the network.

The mobile telephone network is based on the same concept of a point-to-point connection between two subscribers.
A mobile telephone is nothing more than a wireless extension of the fixed telephone networks. While additional
technological factors such as the use of digital rather than analogue modes enhance the functions of a mobile phone, it
is still part of the conventional telephone network. In the following we shall consider the most common form of public
mobile telephone network, the cellular system. [illustration 2.2]

In a cellular system, radio base stations ensure the link with the subscriber. The range of such a station, and therefore
the size of each "cell", depends on topographical conditions. In an open landscape a cell might have a radius of several
kilometres, in a dense urban environment one of less than 100 metres. Users can move from one cell to another; calls
are handed over automatically whenever a subscriber enters the range of a new cell. Each cell can handle a limited
number of simultaneous calls; depending on the expected user density this number is typically between 5 and 50. Each
cell needs not only a connection to its access point into the public fixed-line telephone network, but also a supply of
electric power. Depending on the location of a base station, the first connection might be provided by fixed line or by
a microwave link, and the power might be provided over a cable or by independent means such as batteries charged by
solar panels. Agreements among network operators allow the use of mobile phones registered in one network to also
function in those of other operators in the same or in another country. In emergency situations, this capability can be
of particular value; the cost of calls made or even those received under such "roaming" conditions can however be very
high.

Where available, and as long as it is not affected by the impact of an event, the mobile telephone service is an
extremely valuable addition to what is available in emergency communications. However: The high investment
involved in a wireless infrastructure limits mobile services to locations, in which demand can be expected to be high
enough to ensure economical operation. Their dependence on additional infrastructure furthermore adds to the
vulnerability of mobile telephones. The number of simultaneous calls in any one location, within the range of any one
cell, is in any case limited to the number of calls the operator of the system expects at "normal" times. [example
2.2.b]

The resistance of cellular telephone networks against the impact of a disaster can often be higher than that of fixed
line networks, provided that the relevant issues are taken into consideration when the network is being built. One
critical factor is the need for electrical power: Base stations should be equipped with batteries of a capacity sufficient
to guarantee longest possible functioning in case of failure of the electricity network. Individual users should keep
batteries and spare batteries for their handsets charged at all time, in order to maintain communication in case of
power failure.

A temporary extension of existing or a replacement of damaged networks is often possible by the rapid deployment of
so called "cells on wheels (cow)", mobile radio base stations. Depending on its size, such a "cow" can handle a certain
number of simultaneous calls. If connection to the public telephone network is not possible locally, a "cow" can even
be equipped with its own link or "backhaul", possibly via satellite, to a connection point into the public telephone
network. The operators of cellular networks should be involved in the development of emergency communication
plans; they have the necessary expertise and they will need to have the necessary equipment ready for rapid
deployment.

For more information on how cellular systems work, go to

<www.ee.washington.edu/class/498/sp98/final/marsha/final.html>,
where you will also find many further links.

Early Warning by Mobile Telephone is possible thanks to the unique capability of the cellular system to simultaneously
reach all subscribers located within the range of one or more cells. A "cellular alert" text message can be broadcast
simultaneously to all mobile phones logged in on a cell, independently of the network they are initially subscribed to.
Large numbers of such "roaming" users of mobile phones can be expected in places such as airports or tourist resorts.
Individuals receiving such an alert will not only be able to take appropriate action, but they will be able to alert others
in turn.

Cellular alerts are a built-in capability of most cellular networks, and all mobile phones have the capability of receiving
the messages. Once there is a decision to issue an alert, a computer identifies and the cells covering the area to be
alerted. Messages for various situations can be pre-programmed, and will be distributed instantaneously. Cellular alert
systems are overload proof, as they use separate data channels existing in all networks, which are not used for actual
communications.

More information on the possibilities Cellular Alerts offers for early warning and similar applications is available at
<www.ceasa-int.org>.

The mobile telephone network via satellite is only a further extension of the conventional telephone network. To
put it very simply: The "cells" of the mobile network are located on satellites, and their reach is much greater.
Consequently, mobile satellite phones can cover the entire globe. And while the number of simultaneous calls each
"cell" can handle is of course limited, satellite phones bypass the damaged or overloaded network infrastructure in the
vicinity of an event by relaying the calls from a subscriber to an exchange at a ground station far away from the
affected location. Different systems of satellite telephones have very different characteristics, and we shall have to
come back to the subject in a later module of this course. [illustration 2.3]

Fax and data transmission are additional capabilities offered by the public telephone networks. The equipment used
in those modes is by its nature digital. Converting the content of a message into digital signals, into pulses, can greatly
increase the amount of information carried over a telecommunication link. The conventional telephone network
however is based on the analogue transmission and reception of sound waves, and the advantages of the digital
technology are not fully available when additional conversions between digital and analogue signals have to be
performed at the transmitting as well as at the receiving end. The functioning of a fax communication depends on the
functioning of the public telephone network; the fax is therefore no alternative if in an emergency situation the
telephone network becomes unavailable. The same applies wherever local access to an actual data network, such as
the Internet, is provided through a telephone line. [example 2.2.c]

Public Telegraph networks in many countries no longer exist. With the increasing availability of personal access to
telecommunications networks, the need for this service has diminished to a point where the maintenance of this
separate and very labour-intensive network is often no longer economically feasible. With their disappearance,
however, an independent and relatively overload proof telecommunications tool has been lost. Where a telegraph
network still exists, its capability to handle emergency traffic should not be overlooked.

The Public Telex network, once a mainstay of international public data communication, has in large parts of the
globe gone the same way. The limited speed and the equally limited format of messages transmitted by telex machines
restrict the use of this communication mode to special applications, mostly in non-public networks. Once more, a
possible alternative to the public telephone network has been lost, but in the same way as the telegraph service, a
possibly still available telex service should not be overlooked when it comes to use all means available in an emergency
situation.

The Internet has a structure, which is entirely different from that of telephone, telegraph or telex networks. Over the
Internet, information is not sent through a single "channel" established between the communicating terminals.
Reliability and resistance against disruptions were main purposes the developers had in mind when developing the
network we today know as the Internet. These characteristics were achieved by dividing each message into small
pieces, so called "packets", which are being forwarded through computers, called "servers" and "routers", which
automatically search for the best available route between the communicating terminals. Doing so continuously, the
system also overcomes congestion at least to a large extent: A telephone link is busy also when neither subscriber says
a word; the Internet transports only the packets with the actual information. [illustration 2.4] [illustration 2.5]

For more on the structure of the Internet, go to http://www.cybergeography.org/atlas/atlas.html>

The advantages of the Internet as a separate network, and thus as an alternative to other public networks, are of
course ensured only for users benefiting of a direct access to it. This is mostly the case for large administrations,
enterprises or other institutions. Most private citizens depend on their personal telephone line or on access through the
mobile telephone system. The vulnerabilities of these networks will therefore in many cases also affect the public
access to the Internet. In a "dial-up" connection, the terminal actually dials the number of the computer serving as the
gateway into the Internet. Some protection against overload or disruption of network elements other than the actual
subscriber line is provided by technologies using only the subscriber's telephone line as a carrier for the data, linking
the user's PC to the nearest access point to the Internet system. Such technologies include DSL and ADSL connections;
the actual telephone wire or cable carries the information only to a nearby access point and in a mode that does not
interfere with the normal analogue audio signals used in the telephone service. We will have to look at more details of
the technologies when we consider the technical aspects of various emergency telecommunication modes in a later
module.

The Internet also allows communication by voice ("Voice over IP" or VOIP). A VOIP link works like a telephone call, and
some service providers even provide the possibility of connections into the public telephone network. VOIP can be
useful in situations where the telephone network is disrupted or overloaded, provided the link from subscriber to
service provider still functions. Concerning the use of VOIP for emergency calls however, it is important to know, that
certain capabilities of the telephone network are not available via the Internet; this includes the caller identification
providing emergency responders with automatic information about the origin of an emergency call.

Pagers or "Beepers" are one-way communication tools. They can transmit an alert, but the amount of information
they can handle is very limited. These characteristics make them overload proof, but limit their application in
emergency telecommunications to the alert phase - pagers can transmit a "cry for help" or issue an alert, but they can
not provide the dialogue necessary in all later phases of an emergency operation. Some pager systems have public
access; others are operated for specific purposes of a closed group of people.

Broadcast is another example of a public one-way communication. The volume of information a broadcast system can
distribute is limited only by the speed in which information can be obtained and absorbed. In the alert phase,
broadcast is a most valuable tool. To the degree that receiving equipment and the power needed for the operation of
such equipment remain available, all forms of broadcast maintain this role even in the aftermath of the impact of a
disaster. The most common forms of broadcast are of course radio and television, but also other systems have
broadcasting capabilities, which can be used in emergency telecommunications. We shall come back to one such option
when we talk about communication modes in a later module of this course.

2.3 Some Common Aspects of Public Networks

We shall have to consider the regulatory environment of telecommunications in more detail in the fifth module of this
course. Looking at the use of public networks in emergency telecommunication, we nevertheless need to be aware of
some implications already at this time.

In all countries, the provision of a public telecommunication service is subject to government regulation. Public
networks are not under the direct control of the actual users. In an emergency situation, the usefulness of
telecommunication networks with direct access for the public is thus determined by the network operators and
ultimately by government authorities.

Telecommunication costs can easily become a very heavy burden for the providers of disaster relief. While cost might
be considered as a secondary issue during initial, life-saving operations, it can, even within a few days, go well beyond
the budget, in particular that of non-governmental, voluntary organizations. On top of the list are here of course
satellite links, where the fees even for short calls can be prohibitive in particular for calls between two satellite
phones. In most systems, such a call is being billed as two calls; for technical reasons it is routed from the caller to the
satellite, from there to the ground station, and then again up to the satellite and down to the other satellite phone.
There have been several attempts to obtain a general reduction in telecommunication fees during the acute phase of
disaster relief operations. An international treaty, the "Tampere Convention", about which we will learn more in a later
module, stipulates that fees should be reduced in such situations. So far, mostly the multitude of network operators
and the complexity of the international billing systems have been given as the reasons for the lack of implementation
of the respective article of this international treaty.

To an increasing degree, providers of public telecommunication services give consideration to the disaster-
resistance of their networks. However, it has also occurred that in a disaster situation public access was intentionally
restricted. In the past there have been two reasons for such non-technical restrictions: Pre-emptive priority schemes,
allowing only communication between pre-defined subscribers such as authorities and emergency services, and
intentional disconnection of communication links in case of crises with political or military implications [example 2.3].

The fact, that even the infrastructure of telecommunication within one country is not necessarily under the full control
of its national authorities, adds to the risk of "administrative disruptions" of services. This applies in particular to
satellite links, as even a call from one satellite hone or terminal to a counterpart under the same national jurisdiction
has to pass through a satellite and usually also involves a ground station in a foreign country. The operator of the
satellite network or the owner of the infrastructure may, at any time, discontinue access for certain regions or
individual subscribers.

Very few cases of intentional, administrative disruption of services have occurred so far. Restrictions, or even
prohibition of the use of satellite phones and terminals, however, have occurred in conflict situations. In comparison to
terrestrial telecommunication links, satellite services have in any case additional vulnerabilities and can therefore not
be relied on as a universal solution for emergency telecommunications.

Broadcasting is the most public form of telecommunication over a public network. It is a very powerful tool of public
information, and many countries therefore exercise strict control over it. Such control commonly involves not only the
telecommunication authorities, but also other government entities dealing with public information, the media, as well
as public safety and security.

Broadcasting information through any medium, radio, television, cellular phones or even loudspeakers can have a very
massive impact on the behaviour of the recipients. In an emergency situation it is therefore most important, that
information is reliable. Establishing clear rules for the authorization of emergency messages can ensure this. Guidelines
and rules for the processing of warnings or other advice to the public must be part of any disaster preparedness plan.
At the same time it can be vital, that warnings will not suffer delay by the need for authorization by an authority,
which might just in a time-critical situation not be immediately available.

2.4 Some Conclusions

Public networks are in most cases the first emergency telecommunication tools available. Their resistance to
infrastructure damage and in particular to overload is however very limited. They are not under the full control of the
users, and subject to a number of outside, possibly foreign, influences. Beyond the immediate, most acute and life-
saving phase of disaster response, their use, in particular for international communication, can be prohibitive.

Response to an emergency will therefore always require the use of additional, specialized means of communications.
These "private networks" shall be the topic of the next module of this course.
 Illustration 2.1

To establish a link between two telephone network subscribers, the system establishes a connection through several
exchanges, using for each connection one of the limited number of lines available.

For the duration of the call, these lines serve exclusively for the link between the two subscribers. The lines in use are
therefore occupied for the whole duration of a call, independently of the amount of information actually being
exchanged.

Long distance lines can also be satellite or terrestrial microwave links.

Illustration 2.2

The mobile telephone service uses the conventional telephone network.

Only the line to the mobile subscriber is replaced by a radio link, from the handheld subscriber unit to a radio base
station, and a radio or fixed line conection from there to the local exchange as the entry point into the conventional
network.
A mobile phone might have additional features, supported by additional installations connected to the base stations.
For actual communications it nevertheless remains dependent on the conventional telephone network(s).

Illustration 2.3

The hand-held satellite phones on the left side look and work just like terrestrial cellular phones. If they are used in a
location with GSM coverage, they can also connect to such systems. Their antennas need not be pointed to the
satellite, but all satellite phones need to « see » the satellite. Consequently they do not work indoors.

The two terminals on the right need to be positioned in a place where the antenna can be pointed into the direction of
the satellite. The lower picture shows, how the antenna, connected with the terminal through a cable, can be placed
in such a location, while the actual terminal can be located indoors or in another convenient location.

Illustration 2.4
Different from the telephone network, the Internet does not establish one exclusive link between subscribers, but
divides information into small « packets », which are « routed » through any number of intermediaries, automatically
choosing the fastest and least congested route.

Illustration 2.5

By using any one of many possible routes, the service provider sends the « packets » over the best possible alternative
route. Disrupted or overloaded links are automatically bypassed.
 MODULE 3 – Objectives

To familiarize students with the equipment and the types of networks available to for the specific needs of emergency
responders, from local links of institutional emergency response services to the international networks used by
providers of international humanitarian organizations. This third module also reviews these telecommunications tools
in respect to their appropriateness under the conditions in various countries and the limitations of each system. In
addition, the role of telecommunication satellites in private and public networks will be considered

3.1 What are private networks?

Today's public networks offer numerous services, but they are mostly commercial venues. In order to be sustainable on
longer term, even public networks built as part of development projects need to work on the basis of cost
recovery. This limits their deployment to areas with an adequate density of potential subscribers, and even areas with
a high vulnerability to hazards may therefore have only very limited coverage. The public access to a network implies
the inevitable risk of overload in case of any unusual event.

These two factors, together with the specific need of some emergency response services, create the need for networks
with limited capacity, excluding public access. The need for specialized capabilities of telecommunication links exists
not only among emergency services and disaster responders, but also among users such as private enterprises in
commerce and industry and, not to forget, the military.

In an emergency situation, private networks serving other than emergency purposes should not be overlooked as
potential resources when it comes to using what is available. We shall in the following consider the type of
telecommunications networks needed to cover the specific needs of emergency services and disaster relief providers.
We shall then also look at possibilities to apply the capabilities of some other, non-public networks in emergency
telecommunications.

3.2 Radio Services

The requirements of rapid deployment and of operation in unpredictable locations make wireless communications the
means of choice. They are best grouped in respect to their range. The communication modes are often those already
considered when reviewing public networks in module 2, and some special technical aspects will be covered in module
4.

3.3 Short Range Radio Networks

Short-range radio networks are mostly operating in the VHF ("Very High Frequency") and UHF ("Ultra High Frequency")
part of the radio frequency spectrum. The range achievable on this part of the frequency spectrum is similar to what
we are familiar with from FM broadcast and TV stations, typically line-of-sight, and depending on the topography of the
terrain. Mobility of equipment is most important in networks covering the site of an event and its immediate
surroundings; transmitters and receivers should therefore be small and light. Users of such equipment are mostly
individual relief workers, people who need reliable and user-friendly tools requiring only a minimum of training and not
hindering them in the performance of their tasks.

The most common type of equipment is the so-called "transceiver", a combination of a transmitter and a receiver in
one package. The hand-held "walky-talky" in the size of a mobile phone is most often seen in the hands of those
working on the site of an emergency. Similar equipment in the size of a car radio is usually installed in vehicles
operating within an affected area. Portable, hand-held transceivers are powered from own small batteries, mobile
transceivers from the battery of the car they are installed in. The antenna of a portable unit is commonly attached
directly to it, while that of a mobile unit is usually mounted on the outside, preferably the roof, of the
vehicle. [illustration 3.1] [illustration 3.2]

VHF and UHF equipment and networks most commonly use what is called the "simplex" mode of operation. At any time,
a station can only receive or transmit. [illustration 3.3] The operational consequences of the use of simplex links
rather than "duplex" connections [illustration 3.4], such as common on the public telephone network, will be
considered in module 4 of this course.
The limited power available from the small batteries of a portable transceiver and the very limited efficiency of its
often very short antenna limit the range to the dimension of a few kilometres in most terrain or environment. Line-of-
sight links, such as between the top of hills or high buildings, increase their range, which can under good conditions
reach tens or even hundreds of kilometres. Mobile stations have more power available, and, together with their usually
more efficient antennas, this allows them to cover a somewhat larger range.

The same type of equipment used in vehicles can also serve as a base station in a fixed location, such as an on-site
operation center. Such installations can use highly efficient antennas, mounted as high as possible on masts or
buildings, and might even have access to more power than a mobile station would usually have at its disposal. Such a
fixed station can therefore serve as the base- or control-station of an emergency network.

Substantive improvements to the range covered by a VHF or UHF network can be achieved through the use of repeater
stations. A Repeater station consists of a receiver, receiving the signal from a portable, mobile or base station, and
and a transmitter, re-transmitting this signal. To make this possible, the repeater station has to listen on one
frequency or channel, and has to transmit on a second, different, frequency or channel. The station using the repeater
has to do the same, but in reverse order. A repeater station, receiving and transmitting at the same time, also needs
either separate antennas for receiving and transmitting, or one antenna with a very effective filter, a so-called
duplexer. In addition to receiver and transmitter, it needs a control unit, which switches the transmitter on whenever
a signal is received, and which might have additional features such as an automatic identification, telling the users
what repeater station they are operating on. [illustration 3.5] [illustration 3.6]

Depending on the number of users, a VHF or UHF network can be rather complex and busy. Strict discipline is therefore
mandatory. Guidelines for operation in such a voice network will be given in an annex to module 4 of this course.

The VHF and UHF networks described above are mostly used for voice communications, but with the necessary
additional equipment they can also carry data. A combination of both communication modes is possible, and allows
additional features such as selective calls to individual stations, or the transmission of automatic position reports.

3.4 Medium Range Radio Networks

Medium range communication, typically beyond the range of a VHF network with or without repeater stations, are
possible on frequencies in the HF spectrum, also known as the shortwave bands. As shortwave broadcast listeners
know, the propagation of radio waves in this part of the spectrum follows different rules, and the conditions change,
depending on the time of the day and on several other factors. The waves travel in two different ways: direct,
following the surface of the earth, and via reflections in the upper layers of the atmosphere. The dimension of an
effective antenna depends on the frequencies or wavelengths in use. The wavelength of VHF and UHF used for the
networks described above is between 30 cm and 3 meters, that of the HF or shortwave bands between 10 and 100
metres. HF antennas are consequently much larger than VHF or UHF antennas. Their installation as well as the set-up
of the radio station itself needs the expertise of a technician, and the efficient use of HF links requires some basic
training. Shortwave links are more affected by interference from a multitude of sources, and voice might be somewhat
more difficult to understand than on VHF and UHF links. Fixed stations therefore often use trained operators, which
can ensure the best use of the equipment.

HF stations are mostly transceivers, like those described above, but their volume and weight is normally higher. Their
use is therefore restricted to fixed or mobile stations. They are however capable to cover wide areas without the use
of repeater stations. The modes of communication on medium range HF networks are voice and data, again with the
option to combine both modes just like on VHF and UHF. [illustration 3.7]

3.5 Long Range Radio Networks

Long-range communications are another capability of the HF or shortwave bands. Over the long distances covered by
international or intercontinental links, the propagation conditions become even more important and efficient antennas
are indispensable. Data modes are the predominant type of operation; they allow error free connections even under
critical conditions. The skill of the operators is a key factor in long-range networks.

Such shortwave links will always remain a mainstay of emergency telecommunications over long distances. A great
advantage of shortwave networks is, that they do not depend on any infrastructure other than the equipment under
direct control of the users. The initial investment to set up a private network is usually much higher than that
necessary for access to a public network, but the cost for its use is normally much lower. A service provider operating a
public network needs to recover the initial infrastructure investment as well as the cost for network maintenance and
operation, and will do so by charging recurrent fees depending on the duration of calls or the quantity of data carried.

Own, private networks are in many cases not only the most appropriate solution when emergency responders and
providers of disaster relief have special telecommunication needs, but they can on the long range also be the most
economic solution. User groups other than those involved in emergency operations use non-public networks, and in
many cases these telecommunication facilities can also assist in covering emergency telecommunication needs.

3.6 The Maritime Radio Service

Radio communication is the only form of telecommunication available to ships at sea. The maritime radio service has
its own structures and rules. Beyond its task as the means of contact between ships and dedicated coast stations, the
latter usually provide links into public telecommunication networks, thus providing ships with the possibility of
communicating with subscribers of the public telephone and data networks.

The communication modes in the maritime service are voice and data. Telex used to be very common, but e-mail is
increasingly replacing this form of written messages. The maritime service uses internationally defined fixed channels
within the bands allocated to this service in both the VHF and the shortwave range. These bands are separate from
those allocated to the fixed and mobile land services; communication between stations of different services is not
normally permitted and often not technically possible.

If communication with stations of the maritime service becomes necessary in an emergency situation, such operation is
permitted under the general rule permitting the use of all available telecommunications links for emergency traffic. In
such a situation, a land-based station will try to contact a shore station of the maritime service; such stations keep a
permanent radio-watch on specified, published frequencies and can assist in forwarding an emergency message through
their own or a public network.

Logistics operations might require communication with vessels transporting relief goods. The modalities for direct
contact with such a ship should, if at all possible, be arranged with the ship's owner in advance. If such traffic is
intended and needs to take place on channels allocated to the maritime service, and only an operator familiar with
maritime telecommunication procedures should try establish such a contact.

More details on the maritime service are available in the ITU Handbook on Emergency Communications, part 2,
Chapter 4.2.

3.7 The Aeronautical Radio Service

Most of what has been said above in respect to the maritime radio service applies to the aeronautical service as well.
This service too uses internationally defined frequencies or channels within the VHF, UHF and HF bands allocated to it.

If logistics operations, such as in case of an airdrop of relief goods in a remote location, require direct communications
with an aircraft, such communication must be arranged in advance. The VHF equipment used on aircraft is not
compatible with that used in land based networks. Consequently, it is necessary to equip either a land-based station
with a transceiver for the aeronautical service (a so called air-band radio) or to equip the aircraft with a radio of the
land mobile service. The latter solution is more difficult to implement, as the plane would also have to be equipped
with an additional antenna. To operate within the aeronautical service requires knowledge that only an appropriately
trained operator has. Due to the high importance of this service for the safety of air traffic, any such operation has to
be planned with utmost care.

More details on the aeronautical service are available in the ITU Handbook on Emergency Communications, part 2,
Chapter 4.3.

3.8 The Amateur Radio Service

A particularly valuable tool for emergency telecommunications is the Amateur Radio Service. It offers a global network
of radio stations, working without any infrastructure beyond the equipment used by the individual operators. Many
stations are particularly disaster-resistant thanks to independent power sources. Most important is, however, that the
skilled volunteers operating these stations know best how to establish communication links even under the most
adverse conditions and with very limited means.

In the same way as the maritime and aeronautical services, the amateur radio service is a recognized
telecommunication service. To obtain an amateur radio license, the operator has to pass an exam, administered or
recognized by the respective government authorities. Beyond the technical and operational qualifications required for
the exam, amateur radio operators or "hams", as they are often called, continuously upgrade their knowledge and are
offered specialized courses in emergency telecommunications. In many countries, the national amateur radio
associations have established permanent co-operation with emergency service providers and disaster relief
organizations and hams regularly participate in training courses and emergency response exercises. The international
Amateur Radio Union, the organization of all national amateur radio societies, has a co-operation agreement with the
United Nations and participates in the work of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) on emergency
telecommunications.

International regulations do not generally allow the handling of third-party messages by stations of the amateur radio
service. Some administrations allow the handling of messages with strictly non-commercial content, and given the
strictly non-profit character of the service, all such activity must be free of charge in any case. Recognizing the
importance of the amateur radio service in emergency telecommunications, the ITU World Radiocommunication
Conference (Geneva, 2003) has just recently modified the respective regulations. The national authorities regulating
the amateur radio service in each country are now encouraged, to allow third party traffic in emergency and disaster
situations as well as during related training activities

Emergency telecommunications have a long tradition and are an important part of the activities of the amateur radio
service [example 3.8]. Today, like throughout the past 100 years of history of radio communication, hams are often at
the forefront of technological developments and, most of all, they are "radiomen" and -women in the true sense of the
word. The use of radio communication equipment is part of our daily lives, but when the user-friendly facilities like
mobile phones are not available, the skills of the radio amateurs an invaluable asset.

It is for this reason that many hams are not only involved in volunteer services providing emergency and disaster
response, but are found in senior positions as emergency telecommunication managers in numerous organizations.
Local clubs and national associations of the amateur operators should be contacted whenever emergency
telecommunication preparedness plans are being developed.

More information on the amateur radio service can be found in the ITU Handbook on Emergency Telecommunications,
Part 2, Chapter 5, and at <www.iaru.org>

3.9 Other Private Radio Communication Services

Such services include networks operated by institutional providers of emergency services such as police, fire brigades,
and ambulance services. They use mostly VHF and UHF networks, often with repeater stations, and always with a range
corresponding to their usual operating area. In wider areas with very low population density, they might also use HF
systems for their needs. HF networks might in such areas also serve for educational and other purposes and may well
be the only available communication links in emergency situations.

The use of radio communications for personal or professional purposes is authorized in various forms by the authorities
in different countries. Licenses are issued in some cases only to persons or enterprises having a specific need for such
use (construction companies, courier services, pizza delivery services and so on) and in others to anyone upon a simple
request (citizens band, personal mobile radios). Equipment used must in all cases be type-approved and power is
strictly limited in order to protect other users from interference.

To know, what non-public, land based communications networks exist in a given area, must be part of any emergency
telecommunication preparedness plan.

3.10 Other Radio Applications

Radio services for other than communication purposes include navigation services. The user of the service is in most
cases only receiving signals and does not need to transmit. One well-known radio navigation aid is the Global
Positioning System (GPS). A hand-held or mobile GPS receiver allows the user, to determine his or her accurate
location. Such information can then be forwarded through a telecommunication network, thereby allowing a base
station to quickly determine the position of mobile or portable stations of its network. This forwarding can even be
automatic, a capability which is available on different systems.

A relatively new development is the "wireless" network with very short range, usually less than 100 meters, typically
used to provide links among personal computers and laptops as well as for connections between these and wider
networks, including the Internet. Such networks are operating on frequency bands specifically allocated to this type of
data communication and the user does not normally need to obtain a radio license.

Their use in emergency telecommunications is mostly limited to connections inside an on-site operation center,
providing access to the actual telecommunication links between such a temporary establishment and the "outside
world". A Wireless Local Area Network or "wireless LAN" can greatly facilitate cooperation between the partners in
relief operations and allows the sharing of telecommunication links by giving a number of users access to a single
outside connection.

3.11 Satellite Services

Links via satellites are part of many of the networks of public and private telecommunication services. A link to a
satellite is normally a "line-of-sight" link, and frequencies in the UHF range and even higher are therefore perfectly
suitable even for intercontinental communication. The condition is, of course, that the satellite can "see" both
terrestrial stations involved, in emergency telecommunications typically one at the disaster site and one in another
country or even another continent.

For public services, satellite links are nothing else than very efficient replacements for connection to mobile phones or
data terminals, or for long-distance cables of national and international networks. In private networks, two or more
stations are connected with each other via a satellite.

The area on the earth's surface that the antennas of a satellite can cover, determines the range of a satellite. This
area is called the satellite's "footprint" and can extend over the whole surface "visible" from the satellite or regions of
particular importance for the network the satellite serves. Two fundamentally different types of satellite are most
often used for telecommunications:

Geo-stationary satellites are positioned in an orbit above the equator and rotate at a speed corresponding to the
rotation of the earth. This position can be maintained only at a specific distance from the earth. All satellites of this
type are lined up around the globe like pearls on a string. They appear to be stationary, allowing the use of highly
directive and therefore very efficient antennas, without the need to continuously adjust the antenna position. The use
of high performance antennas is necessary, as the long distance to geostationary satellites can be bridged only by
strong signals. [illustration 3.8]

The "satellite dish" or parabolic antenna used for TV reception is typical for the fixed, high performance antennas used
with geostationary satellites. Bigger parabolic antennas are used to not only receive, but also transmit and receive
higher volumes of data to and from telecommunication satellites. The closer the ground station or user is located to
the equator, the steeper is the vertical angle or elevation of the antenna. On the equator, the antenna will almost "lay
on its back". A geostationary satellite cannot cover the polar areas. [illustration 3.9]

Non-geostationary satellites can be positioned in a multitude of orbits. Lower orbits require higher speeds, and such
satellite will consequently circle the globe many times per day. The much lower orbits do however allow the use of less
efficient antennas and very low power, making it possible to use even hand-held phones without high performance
antennas. Non-geostationary satellite orbits are usually designed in a way, that the whole globe is covered, including
the Polar Regions. [illustration 3.10] [illustration 3.11]

The owner or operator of a telecommunication satellite is usually a commercial enterprise. The operator often leases
capacity or bandwidth on the satellite to one or more service providers, who in turn sell their services to the user. In
public networks, these users are mostly the providers of public network services; for private network, the actual users
rent bandwidth for their specific needs.
Keeping these basic facts in mind, we shall now look at some of the typical satellite networks used in emergency
telecommunications. More details on the systems mentioned in the following are available at their respective web sites

www.inmarsat.com, www.thuraya.com, www.iridium.com/, www.globalstar.com/

Inmarsat was the first provider of mobile satellite telecommunication services. Initially focusing on the needs of the
maritime service, they quickly also became very popular with other users requiring communication with remote and
isolated locations.

Different types or "standards" of Inmarsat equipment allow the transmission of voice and data. Inmarsat ground stations
provide connection into all types of public networks. Inmarsat uses geo-stationary satellites, positioned over the
Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Ocean, thus covering the whole globe - with exception of the Polar Regions.

In emergency operations, Inmarsat terminals are most suitable for temporary fixed installations, because their
directive antennas must be pointed towards the satellite. For mobile applications on vessels or vehicles while in
motion, complex systems are needed to continuously correct the antenna position. Using only 4 satellites, each of
them covering roughly a quarter of the world and the capability to provide a large number of simultaneous links, the
Inmarsat network is somewhat less overload-prone than terrestrial public networks.

Thuraya is a geo-stationary system with coverage of only part of the globe. Its satellites use high power and very
large, high performance antennas, allowing communication with low-power hand-held phones not much bigger than
normal mobile phones. To a limited extent, Thuraya phones also allow data communication when connected to a
laptop computer or other peripheral equipment. The antennas on the phones are bigger than on a terrestrial mobile
phone, but need not be aimed accurately. For the user, the Thuraya phone is simply a mobile phone with global
coverage. Whenever it is used within the range of a terrestrial cellular GSM network, it will connect to this network
rather than establishing contact with the satellite. This is particularly useful, when the user is indoors; different from
mobile phones, satellite phones cannot normally operate inside buildings.

Iridium and Globalstar are typical non-geostationary systems. In both cases, numerous satellites circle the earth, each
spot on its surface being within the range of at least one satellite at any given time. The coverage of Iridium is truly
global, as calls are forwarded from the satellite in contact with the subscriber via other satellites until one is reached
that has contact with the ground station. In the Globalstar system, a satellite needs to have contact with the
subscriber and with a ground station at the same time, and that the limited number of ground-stations limits the
coverage of the system. Like the Thuraya phones, Iridium and Globalstar equipment automatically connects through a
terrestrial mobile telephone network, wherever such a service is available.

Non-geostationary systems are somewhat more overload-prone than geostationary systems, because each satellite
covers only a relatively small area and can handle less simultaneous communications than the large-area geostationary
satellites. A sudden increase of demand in the area covered by one satellite can therefore saturate its capacity more
easily. In emergency telecommunications, all above systems have their applications. Additional systems are in use in
some parts of the world, and satellite telecommunication technology is developing very rapidly.

In Private Networks, satellite links can replace terrestrial long distance radio communication. After the type of
antennas used, they are called VSAT, "Very Small Aperture Terminal" systems. The user leases channels on a satellite,
operated by a commercial telecommunication satellite operator. The network is therefore no longer fully under the
control of the user, but it remains a private network, as it does not provide a public service. The terminals and all
related equipment on both ends of a VSAT link are provided by the user.

VSAT links are useful when larger bandwidth than that of shortwave radio links is required. A VSAT network provides
voice and data channels; the cost for such a link is much higher than that for a shortwave radio link. A VSAT link can
however, if its terminals are linked to the appropriate peripheral equipment, carry broadband services such as needed
for full Internet access. In emergency telecommunications, VSAT systems are not commonly used during the initial
phase of rapid response, but they are very valuable tools in operations of longer duration. Typical users are
international organizations but VSAT systems also have many commercial applications in trade and industry.

Installing a VSAT network needs in any case the expertise of a specialist.

 For details about VSAT see www.gvf.org/index.cfm

3.12 Inter-Operability, Interfaces, and Coordination

Co-operation is the key to success in emergency response. Like all social interaction, co-operation in an emergency
situation depends on the goodwill of the partners. In order to make a wanted co-operation work, partners need to
communicate; telecommunications help them to do so, they cannot, however, replace the initial will to work together
and to accept co-ordination.

For emergency telecommunication, the ideal solution would be full inter-operability. Technical reasons do not always
allow this. Interfaces offer the next best solution; connection points between different networks can forward
information that needs to be exchanged between the users of separate, technically or operationally incompatible
networks.

Co-ordination mechanisms need to be in place for both of the above solutions. Like all co-operation, co-ordination
requires the will to work together, the will to share information and resources. Emergency telecommunication
preparedness plans need to include the modalities and mechanisms of interfacing or, wherever possible, and at least
try to achieve inter-operability.

Among VHF, UHF and HF radio networks, inter-operability depends mostly on two factors, communication modes and
communication frequencies. Stations equipped for voice communication on VHF or UHF use frequency modulation, a
mode which ensures good sound quality, high resistance against interference, and user friendly operation of the
equipment. They all operate within the frequency ranges or bands internationally allocated to the land mobile service,
and inter-operability it therefore primarily a matter of common frequencies or channels. Even a repeater station can
be shared among different groups of users, if they all agree on the operational procedures. The practical limits are set
by the size of such a network; as only one station can transmit at the same time, the network may easily become
congested.

In a local network, the solution to this operational problem is the establishment of network plans attributing channels
to separate networks for the communication among individual groups of users, in addition to a common network,
allowing information exchange between such user groups This allows the use of the same equipment but the efficiency
of such a combined network requires discipline and the strict compliance of all users with established procedures.

In medium- or long-range networks, the solution can be similar. Technical aspects however are making its
implementation more complex, and specialist advice will be required to ensure technical as well as operational inter-
operability. International networks include stations subject to different national regulations, which may restrict their
ability to conform to a concept of shared frequencies. We shall have to consider this issue in more detail when looking
at regulatory matters in module 5 of this course.

Interfaces are indispensable when communication among users of different communication modes is to be established.
A VHF station can in no case communicate with an HF station, and the same applies to the exchange of information
between a station operating in voice mode and one using a data mode. A telephone cannot "talk" to a fax machine, and
an FM broadcast receiver can not hear shortwave broadcast programs.

Most interfaces need be operated manually. They require the intervention of an operator, who receives the
information from one network and re-transmits it in another format and mode on another network. In some cases,
automatic interfaces are possible; one example for this is the "phone patch", by which a fixed station is able to
establish a connection between a mobile station and a subscriber of the public telephone network. In some cases, even
networks using different modes can communicate automatically, examples are phone calls made from a computer with
Internet connection to subscribers of the public telephone network (the mode is known as "voice over IP", IP standing
for "Internet Protocol") or the transmission of fax messages from and to Internet connected terminals.

MODULE 3 – Illustrations
 Illustration 3.1

The « walky-talky » is a personal telecommunication tool for the individual user. With accessories, such as a separate
microphone or an antenna with higher performance, the hand-held transceiver can be adapted to special
requirements.

Indispensable accessories are battery chargers for use either on the power line or with connection to the battery of a
vehicle. Institutional emergency services, such as police or fire fighters, prefer chargers capable to charge several
batteries at their base; if the user needs the radio permanently, it is usually more convenient to issue individual
chargers. The chargers should in any case be able to also charge batteries alone, without the radio. This way, charged
spare batteries will be available for quick exchange.

The transceivers in the picture are all equipped with very short antennas. These are most convenient for short distance
communication. A wider range can only be achieved if a longer antenna is used.

Illustration 3.2

VHF transceivers for mobile or fixed use are about the size of a car radio. They have higher power than hand-held
transceivers and their antennas, usually mounted on the roof of a vehicle, are of higher performance.
The lower picture shows a mobile transceiver with a separate « control head ». This configuration allows the
installation of the controls in a location convenient for the user, while the actual radio can be placed wherever space
is available. It also includes a microphone with a keyboard, allowing the control of some of the transceiver's functions
without the need to access the radio or control panel itself.

Mobile equipment is normally powered from the car battery. In fixed installations, a battery and a charger are the
better solution than a power supply providing 12 Volt DC from the power line: In case of loss of line power, a charged
battery will allow the radio to operate without interruption. A so called « intelligent charger » can remain connected
permanently to power line and battery without the risk of overcharging, as it reduces the charging current
automatically, once the battery is fully charged.

Illustration 3.3

VHF and UHF networks usually operate in simplex mode. At any given time, each station can either receive or transmit.
Stations indicate the end of their transmission, usually with the word « OVER » (meaning «over to you»), thus inviting
the other station to transmit.

This simplex mode is also most common on HF (shortwave) links.

 Illustration 3.4

Duplex mode is the mode we are all used to from the telephone. Transmitting and receiving simultaneously, both sides
hear each other continuously and can interrupt each other at any time.

VHF, UHF and HF networks do in most cases not have this capability, but operate in the simplex mode described in the
previous illustration.

Illustration 3.5

A hill prevents direct VHF or UHF connection between stations A and B. A repeater station, located on the top of the
hill, can communicate with both stations simultaneously.

Station A and B both transmit on channel 1 and receive on channel 2. The repeater station receives on channel 1 and
transmits on channel 2.

In the same way as a direct communication between two stations, the link operates in simplex mode. Only the repeater
station can receive and transmit simultaneously, stations A and B can only transmit or receive at any given time.
Consequently, the two stations can not transmit simultaneously.
If stations A and B are mobile or portable stations and should move to other positions, so that they could communicate
directly, they would both need to switch to one common channel. While receiving on one channel and transmitting on
another channel can not hear each other directly without use of a repeater station.

Illustration 3.6

The map shows an example of the coverage area of a VHF repeater station.

An inner area with a radius of about 50 km radius is fully covered, at a greater distance, communication will still be
possible from some locations such as hilltops.

At hilltop locations most suitable for VHF or UHF repeaters, line power is often not available. Batteries can supply the
necessary power, but need to be re-charged periodically. Depending on the local meteorological conditions, the use of
solar panels or wind generators is often a solution.

Illustration 3.7
HF (shortwave) transceivers look similar to the VHF and UHF equipment we have seen earlier. Base stations using
higher power or having additional capabilities such as data (e-mail) communication are often bigger.

Shortwave antennas are always bigger than VHF or UHF antennas. Antennas used on vehicles are therefore a
compromise between practicality and efficiency. Consequently, the range of a mobile shortwave station is usually
rather limited. Fixed antennas allow to make full use of the global communication capabilities of shortwave
equipment.

Illustration 3.8

All geo-stationary satellites are positioned above the equator, approximately 35'000 km above the surface of the earth.
At this distance, they rotate around the globe once per day. A geostationary satellite therefore always remains in the
in the same position in respect to the surface of the earth.

If several satellites are used in a network, their coverage or "footprints" might overlap or there might be gaps,
depending on their position on the geostationary orbit.

If only one geo-stationary satellite is used in a network, it can provide connectivity only within the area it covers.
 Illustration 3.9

Positioned above the equator, geo-stationary satellites do not "see" the North- and South-Poles !

Illustration 3.10

Non geo-stationary orbits are in principle possible at any distance from the surface of the earth. Communication is the
easier, the shorter the distance to the satellite. "Low Earth Orbiting Satellites, "LEOs" are therefore very useful for
communication with small, hand-held terminals or phones.

The lower its orbit, the more often a satellite needs to circle the globe in any given period of time, and the less energy
is required for communication. It will continuously change its position in respect to any point on the surface of the
globe, but even low-power, hand-held satellite phones, without high-efficiency directive antennas, will be able to
communicate with it.

Non geo-stationary telecommunication satellites typically circulate around the earth at a distance of 500 - 1500 km,
many times less than their geo-stationary colleagues, and complete an orbit every 90 to 120 minutes.
 Illustration 3.11

The time a user can access one satellite is limited to the short time the satellite passes overhead his or her position.

In order to maintain contact over a period of more than a few minutes, an automatic "handover" from one satellite is
necessary. Complex software on board the satellites enables this procedure. The situation is similar to that occurring
when a user of a mobile phone system moves from the coverage area of one terrestrial cellular base station to that of
another one - only that now the cell rather the user changes position.

Another use for non-geostationary satellites are storage-and-forwarding systems: A ground station transmits
information to the satellite, where it is stored, until the satellite reaches a position from where it can reach the
ground station to which the message is addressed, and re-transmits the information only at that time. Such systems can
provide effective telecommunications at very low cost, in particular for remote rural areas; their use in emergency
communications is, however, very limited by the lack of real-time communications capability.
 MODULE 4 – Objectives

Module 4 provides information on some of the technical aspects of telecommunications and the resulting operational
implications. Students will acquire a basic knowledge of technical facts needed for the selection of the most
appropriate tools when preparedness plans are developed; such information will also help them to make the best use
of the equipment and the networks possibly available in an emergency situation. Students with some background in
elementary physics will probably complete work on this module very quickly, and might be interested mostly in the
links to information on more advanced aspects of telecommunication technology. Some basic guidelines for the
operation of private radio communication networks are given in an annex to this module.

4.1 What are Analogue and Digital Telecommunication Modes?

On the fixed line telephone network, a voice signal is transported as an electric current changing in the rhythm of the
audio waves. This form of transmission is called analogue transmission, as the information content maintains its
original form (sound waves in air) even while being carried by another medium (electric current on wires).

Information can also be transformed into digital form. One example of this mode is actually older than the fixed line
telephone service: Morse code, used already on the earliest telegraph systems, converts letters into signals consisting
of a sequence of pulses, and a telegraph link distinguishes only between "current or no current". Expressed in
mathematical terms: The numbers one and zero represent all information.

Digital modes have the advantage of being more suitable for electronic handling of the information, but they require
the transformation or conversion of the content at the transmitting and the receiving end.

The transmission of text is carried out almost exclusively in digital mode. In many cases, such as on cellular phones,
even voice is converted into digital signals. The additional complication of the equipment is more than compensated
by the increased efficiency of a digital network, and by the additional features it makes possible.

4.2 How about Radio?

When Albert Einstein was asked to explain how wireless communication worked, he answered: "You see, wire telegraph
is a kind of a very, very long cat. You pull his tail in New York and his head is meowing in Los Angeles. Do you
understand this? And radio operates exactly the same way: you send signals here, they receive them there. The only
difference is that there is no cat."

In reality, things are somewhat more complicated, but in order to understand what radio equipment can, and cannot
do in emergency telecommunications we need to understand some basic principles.

Sound waves are carried as movements of the molecules of the air. Electric currents travel through conducting
materials, such as metal wires. Sound waves cannot leave the atmosphere or travel through a vacuum, but electric
waves can, under certain circumstances, leave the wires carrying an electric current. They do so only if the direction
of the current changes very rapidly; such a current is called an alternating current. The speed of the current's direction
change is called the frequency of a radio wave. The equipment producing such a very rapidly changing current is
called the transmitter; and the transmitting antenna is the wire, from which the radio waves depart. On the other
side of a radio link, the waves transmitted produce a very weak electric current in a similar wire, the receiving
antenna. Another piece of equipment, the receiver, amplifies this current and converts it into a signal, which can then
be processed.

So far, so good. The only information available at the receiving end will be, whether or not the transmitter is switched
on. In order to use the radio waves as carriers of information, we need to modulate them: we have to influence their
characteristics in such a way that the information "written" on them at the transmitting side can be "read" at the
receiving end. In telecommunication, radio waves are like the paper a letter is written on, and the information can be
in different languages or codes. The easiest way to impose the message on the radio wave: By switching the
transmitter on and off, we transmit pulses, a code, the meaning of which is known on both sides of the link. What we
have now, is what used to be called "wireless telegraphy", and the Morse code is a "language". [illustration 4.1]

We can however go beyond this method, by varying the characteristics of a radio wave for example in the rhythm of
audio waves. We now have what used to be called "wireless telephony". Varying the strength or amplitude of a radio
signal results in "Amplitude Modulation" or AM, the mode which is so typical for HF radio broadcast that the term "AM"
is commonly used as a name for the short- medium-and longwave bands used by it.

Changing the frequency of a radio wave in the rhythm of the modulation results in what is called "Frequency
Modulation" or FM. We all use this term for VHF broadcast, simply because Frequency Modulation is the most common
type of modulation used for high fidelity or "Hi-Fi" broadcasting. Most of the communication equipment used on VHF
and UHF networks also uses FM, and the sound quality is therefore often better than that of the shortwave networks
using AM or derivates thereof. "Single Side Band (SSB)" is one such mode and used in most voice communication links on
shortwave.

Digital modes are a very efficient also when carried on radio waves. Rapid changes between the two states of a link,
the presence or absence of radio waves, or changes between two characteristics such as between a high and a low
amplitude or frequency, are what digital radio links use.

The frequency of a radio wave can also be expressed by its wavelength. Radio waves travel with the speed of light, and
their wavelength is the distance they travel per unit of time, divided by the number of changes over the same
period. Frequencies are measured in changes or cycles per second; one change per second is named "one Hertz", after
the German scientist Heinrich Hertz who first described the characteristics of electric waves. More practical units are
being used when talking about radio waves, where very large numbers of cycles occur per second: Like for other units
of the metric system, the prefix "kilo" is used to denominate 1000, the prefix "mega" one million. The terms Kilohertz
(kHz) and Megahertz (MHz) are the most commonly used units. [illustration 4.2]

The way radio waves travel depends on their frequency or wavelength. The higher the frequency, the more
their propagation characteristics approach those of visible light. VHF, and even more so UHF waves travel in a straight
line and are reflected only by objects with specific physical characteristics. Obstacles such as hills or buildings cast a
"shadow", a region within which they cannot be received.

Waves in the shortwave range of the radio spectrum are to some extent following the contours of the terrain. In
addition, higher layers of the earth's atmosphere are reflecting them. The degree of reflection depends on the angle in
which they reach the reflecting layers, but also on the physical characteristics of the latter. These in turn change with
the time of day, the seasons and solar activity (such as sunspots). Efficient use of the shortwave spectrum for long
distance communications requires basic knowledge of the factors influencing the propagation of radio waves and the
experience of skilled operators. Under favourable conditions, global shortwave communications are possible with no
more power than that of a flashlight. [illustration 4.3]

Even longer waves, such as used by the AM or "medium wave" and "long wave" broadcast services, are not reflected in
the atmosphere. The distance the "ground wave" travels until its energy is absorbed therefore limits its range. This
absorption again depends on certain conditions in the atmosphere, during the night the range of the longer radio waves
typically increases.

Using a different frequency for each radio link allows the receiver to distinguish between the signals arriving from
different transmitters. Not only the sensitivity, but also the selectivity of a receiver is a main criterion determining its
performance. Of equal importance is the quality of the antenna, the importance of which we shall consider in the
following chapter.

4.3 Some practical consequences

In module 3 we have considered different systems and their application. With the technical explanations in the above
chapter we will now better understand the reasons for the use of those different systems for different purposes.

Appropriate antennas are indispensable for all radio communication. As we have seen earlier, VHF equipment is
usually smaller and lighter than shortwave equipment. In particular this applies to the antennas. An antenna must have
specific dimensions in order to effectively transmit or receive waves of a specific wavelength, an antenna must have
specific dimensions. An optimal size for a vertical antenna is a length of one quarter of a wavelength. For VHF
transceiver, the fulfilment of this requirement results in a physical length in the dimension of 50 cm and even less for
UHF. For a portable or mobile shortwave station, such a quarter wavelength vertical antenna can become unpractical,
as its physical dimensions would be between 2.5 and 25 meters.
There are ways to reduce the physical dimensions of an antenna, but they inevitably reduce its efficiency. The short,
rubber-coated antennas commonly used hand-held VHF transceivers are an example of such compromise: The actual
antenna wire still has the length of a quarter wavelength, but it is would in a spiral around a length of rubber rod or
pipe. Mobile phones use similar techniques to shorten the antenna even to the extent that it fits inside the actual
phone, but due to the high density of cellular base stations the resulting loss in antenna efficiency is usually
acceptable. On a hand-held VHF transceiver, a straight, full length antenna may be less convenient, but will in any
case result in a much improved communication range.

On the other hand, using antennas concentrating the radio waves into one direction provides an actual gain just like
the one that could be achieved by increasing transmitter power. For the wavelengths used in VHF communications,
such directional antennas are not practical for portable or mobile use, but can be installed at a base stations for traffic
in a specific direction or with a rotator to change the direction in which they point.. Directional antennas are equally
useful for transmission and reception, and their best-known form is that of the common television antenna. Antenna
gain can also be achieved by concentrating the radiation of the antenna in vertical direction; such antennas radiate
less energy up into the sky but focus it on a horizontal angle while still maintaining their omnidirectional character.
They are most commonly found at VHF base and repeater stations. On very high frequencies, even a parabolic reflector
might be used; such a "dish" concentrates the radio waves just like the optical reflector or mirror concentrates the
light in a flashlight.

On shortwave, the same principles apply. An antenna, which is physically shorter than at least a quarter of a
wavelength, will always have a lower efficiency than one of full size, and directional antennas can extend the range of
a station considerably. Among the most efficient shortwave antennas are the so-called beam antennas, which look like
giant TV antennas: Their elements are typically between 5 and 20 meters long. A special variety of such antennas is
what is called a logarithmic-periodic antenna, working with high efficiency on a very wide range of frequencies.
Shortwave antennas can also be made from wires suspended between masts, trees or buildings.

Two basic rules apply for all antennas:

To be efficient an antenna must be resonant, i.e. have the proper dimension for the operating frequency, and it should
be installed as high above ground as possible.

As for all rules there are exceptions, there are broadband antennas and in some situations a lower position of a
shortwave antenna might improve communication over a specific distance. Broadband antennas however are always a
compromise between operational convenience and optimal performance, and deviations from "the higher the better"
need to be analysed by a trained technician. Exceptions to the second rule are antennas used for communication via
satellites: Height above ground is not a relevant factor, as long as the path to the satellite is not obstructed by
obstacles such as buildings or terrain formations.

Power sources for telecommunication equipment need particular considerations when the use of equipment during
emergency situations is intended. The infrastructure of the AC power network is vulnerable to the physical impact a
disaster might have on elements such as masts, wires and cables. Automatic safety systems monitor all functions and
will, under certain conditions, also shut down sectors not directly affected by an event. A sudden dramatic reduction in
consumption caused by disruptions or a disconnection of parts of the network may in turn result in an automatic shut-
down of generators, thus affecting also parts of a network not directly affected by the impact of the event.

In all these cases, telecommunication systems will be affected unless they have access to other power
sources. Batteries are the most obvious alternative, but their capacity and thus the time for which they can supply
current is limited. The capacity of a battery is calculated in "Ampere-hours", the product of the available current and
the time during which it can be maintained. "Ah" is the measure for the electric size of a battery.

Two fundamentally different types of batteries have each their advantages and disadvantages for use in emergency
situations. The type commonly known as "flashlight batteries" is non-rechargeable. A chemical reaction in such
batteries creates electrical current only until the substances between which the reaction takes place have been used
up. In the rechargeable batteries, best known as car batteries but also powering most mobile phones and more
correctly called "accumulators", the chemical process is reversible: Using or discharging an accumulator reverses the
chemical process of charging without affecting the reacting substances permanently. Only after a large number of
charge and discharge cycles, an accumulator will gradually use its ability to store energy.

For very occasional use or as spares, non-rechargeable batteries are most suitable. They have a shelf life of usually
several years, and can therefore be put to use immediately. For more frequent use, such as typical for starter batteries
of cars, accumulators are far preferable. Over their whole life span they can be re-used thousands of times, provided
they are re-charged regularly. During longer storage, an accumulator will however slowly lose its capacity unless re-
charged regularly. For use in case of emergency only, accumulators therefore need regular maintenance.

The size and capacity of non-rechargeable batteries are limited. They are suitable for small telecommunication
equipment only, typically for portable, hand-held VHF or UHF transceivers, in case such equipment is to be used
exclusively in case of emergency. For use of the equipment over a time of more than a few hours, sufficient spare
batteries need to be kept available. [example 4.3]

In most cases, also equipment with low power requirements uses accumulators. For emergency use, regular
maintenance is required, and, with re-charging, they can cover power needs over extended periods. Without re-
charging, they are of no more use than one-way, non-rechargeable batteries. For this reason, but also due to the
limited capacity even of very big and heavy accumulators, other emergency power sources need to be considered.

Generators, powered by petrol engines, can cover higher demand over longer periods. They exist in all sizes, from
small, portable generators delivering just enough energy to run some lights and other small appliances, to stationary
equipment covering all power requirements of a large building or the needs encountered at the site of an emergency.
When choosing the type of engine, the availability of fuel must be considered; transport and handling of Diesel fuel are
safer than those of gasoline, and for other than very small generators, Diesel engines should be the preferred.

Alternative sources of electric energy have potential applications in emergency telecommunications only on longer
term. The installation of solar panels or wind generators requires expertise and manpower not usually available in an
emergency situation. These sources of free and renewable energy are however excellent choices for equipment
operating in remote locations over a longer period. Typical examples are VHF and UHF repeater stations. Their
accumulators will be re-charged periodically, whenever the meteorological conditions allow this. Other alternatives
such as small generators, driven by hand or by bicycle-like pedals, have very limited power. Hand-driven generators
have found recent applications only in the "wind up radio", a small transistor broadcast receiver receiving its power
from a generator driven by a kind of manually wound clockwork, and in small emergency flashlights. A small hand-
generator to re-charge the accumulator of a mobile phone is also available.

New technologies for power generation include fuel cells, producing electric energy from hydrogen and oxygen and
even generators using nuclear processes. Such solutions can be expected to become available for use in emergency
telecommunications within the next few years. For the time being, they are still far too complex to be suitable for
rapid deployment in an emergency situation.

4.4 Using Emergency Telecommunication Equipment

The technical basics explained above should mainly help in the selection of appropriate equipment. For the user of
such equipment, they may be of limited interest. Reliable communication is all he or she wants.

Emergency Telecommunication Equipment needs to be User-Friendly. Personal, mobile communication equipment

makes everyone a potential user. Training is therefore indispensable. This concerns less the technical aspects that
operational procedures: The driver of a car does not need to know much about the technical details of his vehicle, but
needs to be familiar with its operation and with traffic rules. Only specialized machinery requires professionally
trained operators, and maintaining the functionality of a vehicle is the task of a professional mechanic. The user of
emergency telecommunications equipment must be trained in its operation and in the rules governing the traffic on the
network. Only special equipment, such as data or satellite networks, need the know-how of a skilled operator, and to
maintain the equipment and the network infrastructure is the task of the telecommunications specialist.

The most important rules for voice communication networks are included in the annex to this module. [annex 4.4]

Traffic rules are useful only, if everyone applies them in the same way. Practical exercises allow the users to acquire
the routine, which will make communications a tool rather than a burden, when he or she is called upon to fulfil a task
in emergency or disaster response.

User-friendliness can also be achieved by making an emergency telecommunication system work in the same way as
equipment we use every day. A VHF, UHF and HF (shortwave) data network, based on standard Internet hardware and
software allows the user to apply the same procedures as those he or she is familiar with from accessing the Internet
from any PC at home or at the office. [illustration 4.4] [illustration 4.5]

In the following module, number 5, we shall look at the laws and regulations governing all telecommunications, and at
the consequences these have for their application in different situations. We shall also review the subjects covered in
earlier modules, and try to develop some guidelines for the practical application of what we have learned.

MODULE 4 – Annex 4.4

Voice Communication Rules

Voice is the first choice of telecommunication mode when real-time information exchange is required. The inter-action
between man and machine, between the user and the equipment, is straightforward and equipment other than the
actual "radio" is not needed. Nevertheless, some basic rules need to be followed: initial emergency information
transmitted in a voice message must be clear and concise. An initial emergency call should always contain information
on

Who is requesting the assistance?

Where is the assistance needed?

What has happened?

Supplementary information on specific needs, the best way to reach the location where assistance is needed, or on
hazards potentially endangering the providers of assistance can be added to this basic information.

Depending on the quality of a voice link, it might be necessary to spell names of persons or places. Using a common
spelling alphabet greatly facilitates this. The most commonly used alphabet is, even in languages other than English,
the one used in the aeronautical, maritime and many military services, listed below.

ALPHA OSCAR
BRAVO PAPA
CHARLY QUEBEC
DELTA ROMEO
FOXTROTT SIERRA
GOLF TANGO
HOTEL UNIFORM
INDIA VICTOR
JULIET WHISKY
KILO X-RAY
LIMA YANKEE
MIKE ZULU
NOVEMBER

In whatever language being used on a network, numbers should always be spelled out digit-by digit.

Example: In English

"18014" is "one – eight – zero – one – four", and not "eighteenthousendfourteen".

A typical communication on a voice network might sound as follows:

"BASE, this is MOBILE ONE, OVER"

Station "BASE" is calling station "MOBILE ONE" and asking this station to reply.
To identify each station, call signs are being used. Blocks of official call signs are allocated to each country by the ITU.
The national administrations then attribute a specific call sign to each licensed station. However, local networks, such
as typically used in emergency situations, often use "tactical call signs", which allow immediate identification of the
station or the speaker. In any case, an overall concept or at least list of call signs used has to be established in order to
know "who is who".

Examples of tactical call signs: BASE (for an operations centre), MOBILE ONE, MOBILE TWO and so on for vehicles,
names of for locations such as villages or towns for fixed stations, and names or nicknames for individuals, code-words
for institutions, or combinations of all the above.

A station calling another station will always say the call sign of the station called first, and the own call sign
afterwards: "BASE this is MOBILE 1". The operator will then say "OVER", inviting the other station, in this case BASE 1"
to reply.

In "simplex" mode each station can at any given time only speak or listen, receive or transmit. The operator of MOBILE
ONE therefore has to invite station BASE to reply. This is done with the word OVER.

The other station replies:

"MOBILE ONE, this is BASE. ROGER, OVER"

The word ROGER means, "I understood", "I hear you". It is derived from a no longer used spelling alphabet: the letter
"R" is the abbreviation for "understood" or "ok" in the morse code used on telegraphy links.

Station MOBILE will now transmit its message:

"BASE, this is MOBILE ONE. I am arriving in Porttown - I SPELL: PAPA OSCAR ROMEO TANGO TANGO OSCAR WHIKSKY
NOVEMBER at one four three zero hours. OVER"

The message contains a place name, which the operator spells out, as there might be several places with similar
sounding names. The time of arrival, 14:30 hrs, is spelled out in single numbers. The final OVER again invites the
other side to reply.

"MOBILE ONE from (or "this is") BASE, ROGER and OUT"

Station BASE has confirmed that the message was received and that the connection is terminated. "and OUT" tells
other stations of the network, that the frequency is now free, and that they can make their calls.

In the above example, we have learned some of the most common abbreviations or code words used in all voice
networks. Some other such words are

AFFIRMATIVE, simply meaning "yes", but better to understand. Its opposite is NEGATIVE, "no".

When repeating a word, it is important to say so. A particularly important word of a message might be emphasized
("underlined") this way:

"MOBILE ONE, this is BASE. Do not, I REPEAT: not, proceed without further instructions".

If a message is not understood, a station would reply, saying

"BASE from MOBILE ONE, NEGATIVE COPY, please REPEAT. OVER"

The larger a network is, the more important is communications discipline. Keeping messages as short as possible and
respecting the traffic rules are the keys to efficient communication. Larger networks usually have a "net control
station". This station has the same role as the chairperson has in a meeting: Participants wishing to speak, ask the
chairperson for permission, and the latter will, if necessary, determine the order in which speakers will be invited to
address the meeting. If two stations on a busy network need to hold a longer conversation between them, the net
control station might instruct them to contact each other on a separate frequency or channel, and to report back once
their communication is terminated.

In an emergency network, discipline and short, concise messages are of particular importance. In international
operations, the language spoken should always be the one that is best understood by everyone. Only the actual content
of a message from one station to another station might better be transmitted in a language these two partners
understand, but the procedures must be understandable for all partners.

More detailed voice communication rules are available at www.reliefweb.int/telecoms/training/unhcrradio.html

MODULE 4 – Illustrations

Illustration 4.1

To transport information on a radio wave, we can switch the transmitter on and off.

The resulting pulses carry the information. One example for such a digital modulation is morse code: The sequence «
short-long-long-short » shown above represents the letter « P ».

To transmit voice, we can change the strength of the radio wave in the rhythm of the audio wave. The result is
Amplitude Modulation (AM).

We could also change other characteristics, such as the frequency of the wave. This would result in Frequency
modulation (FM).
 Illustration 4.2

The characteristics of the radio waves carrying information depends on their frequency or wavelength. The wavelength
also determines the necessary size of antennas for the different frequencies. Typical sizes are ¼ or ½ of a wavelength.

Abbreviations:

VHF = Very High Frequency

UHF = Ultra High Frequency

MHz = 1 million cycles per second

The shorter their wavelength (and therefore their higher the frequency), the more the radio waves behave like light
waves, travelling only in a straight line.

Illustration 4.3
Radio waves of the shortwave range travel mostly in two ways: along the surface of the earth, and towards the upper
layers of the atmosphere, where they are reflected back to the surface.

If and at which angle they are reflected, depends not only on their frequency or wavelength, but also on the electric
charge, the degree of ionisation in various layers of the upper atmosphere. Time of the day as well as solar activity
(sunspots) influence the degree of reflection.

The ground wave typically has a range of a few kilometers or tens of kilometers. Waves reaching the reflecting layers
in a very steep angle, will not be reflected effectively. Between points A, the limit of groundwave proagation, and
point B, the first point where the reflected waves reach the surface, lays a « dead zone », in which communication is
not possible. Beyond point B, multiple reflections in the atmosphere may, under favorable conditions, reach any point
around the globe.

Antennas for long distance communications focus the energy at the most suitable angle for reflection.

A somewhat larger area than that of the ground wave can be reached by using antennas focusing the radiation upwards
in a steep angle. This method, called « Near Vertical Incident System » (NVIS) is useful for regional medium-range
communication.

As we see from the above, careful planning is required, when shortwave links are to be established. The expertise of a
telecommunication technician is indispensable.

Illustration 4.4

« WaveNet » is an example of an emergency network on which the user can work just like « at home »: A PC or laptop
computer is connected to a « server », a computer serving as the gateway to the internet. The connection between the
PC or laptop and the gateway can be established over a VHF, UHF, HF or satellite link. All these connections can be
fully automatic, and the user will need only very little training in the use of the software (not much different from any
other e-mail application).

The PC or laptop is connected to the transceiver through a modem, which converts the data into the mode appropriate
for the kind of radio link used and back into the format needed by the computer (modem = Modulator
and Demodulator).
 Illustration 4.5

Each station on the network has an e-mail address; stations can send messages to any internet e-mail address. To each
other they can send messages via the network gateway of the base station, without being connected directly.

Objectives

The fifth and final module of the course will familiarize students with the international and national reglementary
environment of telecommunications. The roles of the respective authorities and the international regulatory
instruments applicable to telecommunications in support of emergency assistance and disaster relief will be presented.
A closing chapter will summarize the content of all five modules.

5.1 Telecommunications are Power

To control telecommunications means to have influence on a society. An absolute telecommunications monopoly has
been the rule in practically all countries for a long time. In countries where control over some sectors of
telecommunications has been delegated to private enterprises, government licenses remain a requirement. [example
5.1.a] [example 5.1.b]

Furthermore the provision of telecommunication services is a revenue generating activity. A monopoly provides not
only a steady source of income for the government, but it also gives authorities the means to ensure access to and
affordability of services for the whole population. Even where telecommunication services are de-regulated or
privatised, governments therefore need to retain a control over their economic aspects.

Specific problems can occur, when national emergency or disaster response teams of one country provide international
assistance in another country.

5.2 Radio Waves Know no National Boundaries

Regulation of telecommunications is also a need resulting from physical facts. The frequency spectrum is a limited
resource shared by all mankind. Already when the first telegraph wires crossed borders, international agreements on
services and standards became necessary. In 1865, 20 founding member states created the International Telegraph
Union, ITU. With the invention of wireless communication, the union's activities had to be extended to the regulation
of the use of the frequency spectrum - a limited resource shared by all mankind.

In 1932 the telegraph union changed its name into International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Today, a general
secretariat and three sectors Radiocommunication, Standardization, and Development work with and for 189 Member
States and a large number of "sector members", organizations and private enterprises with an interest in
telecommunications.

The ITU is an international, not a supranational organization. Regulations therefore have the character of international
treaties; in order to become mandatory for the member states, they need to be adopted by competent conferences.
The ITU periodically convenes such conferences for each of its sectors, and its highest organ, the Plenipotentiary
Conference, meets every four years. The ITU has the status of a specialized agency of the United Nations. In a later
chapter, we shall look at some of the treaties adopted and at other international regulatory instruments.

5.3 The National Government Regulates Telecommunications

In each country, a regulatory authority, usually either a Ministry of Telecommunications, or a National Office for
Telecommunications established by this ministry, regulates all telecommunication matters. This is commonly done
through a national telecommunications law, and a number of decrees or ordinances derived from such a law. Other
national institutions may be involved in the process, this often include the Ministries of Finance (regulating
telecommunication fees), Economics (regulating the commercial elements of service providers' licenses) or Interior (for
aspects of national security).

All operators of radio telecommunication equipment (or any other kind of public telecommunication services, such as
telephone networks) need a license from one or more of the above authorities. Only certain types of equipment are
exempt from this requirement. In many countries this applies for installations using very low power, operating on
frequencies allocated for specific purposes. Examples are remote controls for model airplanes or garage door openers,
but also wireless local area networks between PCs and laptops. In public networks, the individual user of a radio device
does not usually need a license; the operation of a mobile phone is covered by the license the service provider
obtained from the authorities. [example 5.3.a]

When in a major emergency or disaster response operation the foreign providers of international assistance need to use
radio communications equipment, they are in any case subject to the national regulations of the host country.
Neighbouring countries often have concluded bilateral or multilateral agreements, to facilitate mutual emergency
assistance: An industrial area, close to a large town and directly on the border with two adjacent countries, is a
potential hazard. To allow immediate response and avoid any hindrances in the use of emergency telecommunications,
these countries need to mutually accept their respective national radio licenses. When international assistance is
provided by responders from a country, with which no bilateral or regional agreement exists, an international treaty,
the "Tampere Convention" is applicable. We shall look at this treaty when considering the international legal
framework in the next chapter. [example 5.3.b]

5.4 The international Regulatory Framework

Most emergency telecommunications use radio equipment. Most relevant for our work are therefore the
international Radio Regulations (RR), a binding international treaty adopted and amended many times by the World
Radiocommunication Conferences (WRC) convened by the ITU every 4 years. The Radio Regulations define the various
radio services and allocate parts of the radio frequency spectrum, so called bands, to each service. Given the some
times different requirements in various regions, the world has been divided into three "ITU Regions": Region 1 covering
Europe and Africa as well as the northern parts of Asia, Region 2 the Americas, and Region 3 the southern parts of Asia
as well as Australia and Oceania. If a frequency band is shared between two or more services, priorities are
established. In some cases the same frequency band is attributed to a different user in each region, and footnotes in
the RR list the exceptions that individual countries might have requested, and which a WRC has approved. [annex
5.4.a] [annex 5.4.b]

Within the international framework established by the ITU, regional institutions ensure the cooperation among
governments on matters of common interest in a region. Standardization in emergency telecommunications is a typical
subject of regional cooperation. [example 5.4]

5.5 The Tampere Convention

In 1991, the UN convened an international conference on emergency telecommunications in Geneva. The conference
concluded, that many modern tools were available, but that regulatory restrictions often hindered their use in
international assistance. In 1992, another conference was convened in Finland, to consider this specific problem. It
adopted a declaration, named after the place where the conference was held, the "Tampere Declaration". As a
declaration of experts, this document had no binding character, but it initiated the work towards an international
treaty. In 1998 an intergovernmental conference, jointly convened by the UN and the ITU, adopted the "Tampere
Convention on the Provision of Telecommunication Resources for Disaster Mitigation and Relief Operations", known as
the Tampere Convention. After its ratification by the necessary number of States, this international treaty entered
into force early in 2005.

Under the Tampere Convention, national regulatory authorities are requested to facilitate the use of
telecommunication equipment and the establishment of non-public networks for disaster prevention, preparedness and
response. States party to the Convention agree to allow the temporary importation of emergency communication
equipment, to waive licensing requirements and related fees, and to grant certain privileges to the operators of such
equipment. For the first time, an international treaty specifically extends privileges not only to the staff of
international organizations such as the UN and its specialized agencies, but also to that of non-state entities such as
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and of private sector enterprises participating in respective activities.

For States, to be party to the Tampere Convention has two advantages: A State affected by a disaster will receive
efficient assistance fast, and States providing assistance can do so without administrative delays.

Like all international treaties, the Tampere Convention is not really enforceable. On the other hand, its application is
not limited to the States having ratified or otherwise acceded to the treaty: It is common practice, to simply refer to
the stipulations of the Tampere Convention in the respective articles or paragraphs of bi- and multi-lateral agreements
on international humanitarian assistance. Any State can apply the convention in this way. Nevertheless it is important,
that the largest possible number of countries joins the Convention, and it remains the task of all partners in
humanitarian assistance to encourage governments to do so.

The full text of the Convention is available in all 6 official languages of the United Nations
at < www.reliefweb.int/telecoms/tampere/index.html>. This site, as well as others listed in chapter 5.8, also
provides additional information together with guidelines for the promotion and application of the treaty. [annex 5.5]

5.6 Other Documents

In addition to the ITU Radio Regulations and the Tampere Convention, Study Groups of the ITU and conferences of all
its sectors have adopted resolutions and recommendations in respect to emergency telecommunications. Some of these
documents directly support the aims of the Convention; others call for a favourable application of the regulations
defined in the RR and other legal documents in case of emergency and disaster response.

Recommendation 12[1] (ITU World Telecommunication Development Conference, Istanbul 20002), requests
consideration for disaster telecommunication needs in all telecommunication development activities. The
recommendation calls upon government administrations to ensure, that the capabilities of networks to serve in
emergency situations be given proper consideration, whenever public networks are developed. It also requests
administrations to ensure that emergency telecommunication needs are considered in all national regulations.

ITU Recommendation 12 can therefore help all those involved in emergency and disaster response, to make sure that
their needs are properly considered during all stages of a telecommunication development process.

Resolution 36 (revised by the ITU Plenipotentiary Conference in Marrakech 2002), urges all ITU Member States who
have not yet done so, to accede to the Tampere Convention and to take all practical steps for its full implementation
and application.

The application of an international treaty by national authorities is possible only, if the laws and decrees governing
their actions include respective stipulations; national customs officers or telecommunication officials will not be able
to facilitate the import and the use of emergency telecommunication equipment, unless applicable national laws
instruct and authorize them to do so.

Recommendation E.106, (ITU Standardization Sector Study Group 2, 2003), defines standards for the establishment of
preference schemes for traffic on public networks related to disaster relief operations. This very technical
recommendation is of importance for all operators of national and international networks, as only an end-to-end
priority can actually facilitate the use of public networks in emergency situation. A message needs to "carry a flag"
indicating its privileged status.
Recommendation M.1637 (ITU Radiocommunication Sector, Study Group 8, 2003) recommends measures for the
facilitation of the global cross-border circulation of radiocommunication equipment in emergency and disaster relief
situations.

These and other relevant Documents are available on the web sites of ITU-D,
ITU-R and ITU-T:

www.itu.int/ITU-D/emergencytelecoms/index.html

www.itu.int/ITU-R/information/emergency/index.asp

www.itu.int/ITU-T/

5.7 What we have Learned - and What we can Do with it

Everyone can at any time be confronted with an emergency situation. The better we are prepared, the better we shall
be able to help others and ourselves. Any knowledge we acquire carries with it the obligation, to apply it for the good
of society.

New technologies can make an enormous difference to the way hazards can be identified and vulnerability can be
reduced. Only those who know what exists can put it to use where it is needed.

The first opportunities to apply telecommunications to emergency and disaster related activities occur in many cases
when an emergency response plan is developed. Keeping in mind the multiplication factor of an alert message
reaching any one member of a local society, existing communication systems and their capabilities need to be
considered. The value of such, mostly public, networks through full use of a system's existing features or through an
extension of its capabilities, can make the difference between life and dead for many.

When developing an emergency alert concept, it is essential to consider the role of all members of the society. Who is
likely to be within reach of a network, and what means are likely to be available for quick dissemination of a
warning? Women and children come to mind - in many cases they will be the first to receive an alert. To make sure
that everyone is aware of the meaning of an alert and aware of the means at her or his disposal for alerting others is a
task for schools and community leaders.

Early warning is in any case useful only, if the actions to be taken upon receipt of an alert are clearly defined. Alerting
the public to a hazard is of no use unless the community is prepared to take the appropriate preventive
action. [example 5.7.a]

Response preparedness involves primarily those who are active in emergency response, be it as professional
responders or as volunteers. Knowing what technology can be expected to do, and where the limits of different
systems are, is essential when dedicated emergency telecommunication networks are being designed. Their
sustainability, not only for the time while they are on "standby", but also throughout the later phases of an emergency,
will decide about their usefulness. Sustainability means not only technical appropriateness for the task, but also
awareness of their existence and continuous training in their use. [example 5.7.b]

During the actual response to an emergency or a disaster, telecommunications are tools in support of the work of
those who strive to save lives. In no case, however, the use of telecommunications equipment should distract the
rescue worker from his main task, and only continuous training in the use of what will provide communication can
ensure this.

The selection of appropriate means for emergency telecommunication can be particularly difficult if such equipment
needs to be obtained from abroad. An assessment of the actual needs by a telecommunications specialist should be
undertaken at the earliest possible time of a relief operation. [example 5.7.c]

For the final phase, the transition from relief and rehabilitation into development, a new aspect becomes important:
the long-term usefulness and sustainability of whatever might have been introduced. Telecommunication networks
established in support of a relief operation should, remain available not only for use in a possible future emergency
situation, but should make a lasting contribution to telecommunication development.

Applying on any occasion what has been presented in this course, will help all of us to contribute to the most noble of
tasks, the prevention and, where such is not possible, the alleviation of the human suffering caused by disasters.

5.8 Suggested Reading and additional Links

Publications

Handbook on Emergency Telecommunications for Developing Countries, ITU-D, second Edition 2005, available from ITU
publications: www.itu.int/publications/folderdetails.aspx?lang=e&folder=D-HDB-HET-2004&menu=categories

Where There is No Telephone, by John G. Corbett, revised edition, 1997 available for free download
at www.reliefweb.int/library/wtint/toc.html

Disaster Communications, by Mark Wood, Disaster Relief Communications Foundation. First Edition, June 1996,
available for free download at www.reliefweb.int/library/dc1/dcc1.html

Emergency Communications Handbook, American Radio Relay League (ARRL), 2005, available from ARRL
publications: www.arrl.org/catalog/?category=Public+Service&words=

Radio Resource International, a quarterly publication, free subscriptions available from www.radioresources.com

More links to detailed information:

General information, including an annotated bibliography and numerous

links www.reliefweb.int/telecoms/training/index.html

On the role of Early Warning in Emergency Preparedness, an example of a national preparedness plan is available
at www.undp.org.in/UNDMT/Early%20Warning%20Systeme%20&%20Community%20Preparedness.pdf

Training Courses on Emergency Telecommunications in the Amateur Radio Service and on technical and general topics
are available from the American Radio Relay League (ARRL) Certification and Continuing Education Program; for details
see www.arrl.org/cce/courses.html#ec001.

[1]
The content of Recommendation 12 (Istanbul 2002) has been integrated into Resolution 34 (rev. Doha 2006).
Recommendation 12 has been abolished.

MODULE 5 – Annex 5.4.a

ITU Region 1 includes Europe, Africa, the northern part of Asia, and the Middle East. Region 2 covers the Americas,
and Region 3 the southern part of Asia as well as Australia and most of the Pacific Ocean.

MODULE 5 – Annex 5.4.b

A typical page from the Radio Regulations

kHz
5450-7100