Circulatory system

Blood is pumped through blood vessels and around the body by the heart.
Blood first passes along the arteries to the organs, and veins return blood
back to the heart. Joining the two are networks of microscopic sized blood
vessels called capillaries. This ensures that oxygen and glucose are delivered
to all cells of the body by the circulation, and carbon dioxide and waste
materials are removed from cells for elimination from the the body.

The circulatory system is also an important part of homeostasis (keeping the

body temperature accurately controlled). It takes heat from the core of the
body to the skin when your internal temperature is too hot and, when your
core temperature drops, blood flow is diverted from the surface capillaries to
reduce further heat loss.

Humans have a double circulatory system. There is one circuit for the lungs
and a second circuit for the rest of the body; blood must go through both
circuits before it arrives back at its starting point. This ensures that the
oxygenated blood from the lungs is re-pressurised before being sent round
the rest of the body. To achieve this, the heart has two sides, one that sends
blood to the lungs and the other for the rest of the body.

It is important to keep the circulatory system in a good condition for a healthy

life. Exercise increases blood flow and strengthens the heart, but overdoing it
can cause problems. It is possible to stretch the heart muscles if you excercise
too hard. In most cases, they will gradually return to normal but in bad cases,
they remain stretched, meaning the heart no longer works efficiently. Diet
plays a large part in maintaining a healthy circulatory system. Making sure
that you don't over eat, or eat too many foods with high levels of saturated
fats is of great benefit. Saturated fats produce more of the type of cholesterol
that clogs up your arteries. Smoking affects the circulatory system too, it can
lead to heart disease. With a heart that doesn't work properly, daily life gets
more difficult. Doctors use stents to treat narrowed or weakened arteries. A
stent is usually in the form of a small tube.

Blood
Blood is the delivery and waste collection system of your body. It also
protects you against invading pathogens. It is pumped round the body by
the heart at high pressure through the arteries and returns at lower pressure
via the veins. Between the two, blood flows through capillaries which allow it
to reach every single cell in your body.

Blood consists of a fluid called plasma in which red blood cells, white blood
cells and platelets are suspended. Blood plasma also transports dissolved
chemicals; carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungs, hormones, soluble
products of digestion from the small intestine and urea from the liver to the
kidneys.

Red blood cells are extremely small so that they can pass through the
capillaries. The contain an amazing protein called haemoglobin. This can
pick up oxygen where the concentration is high (in the lungs) and release it
where the concentration is low (as it passes cells). Oxygen is important for
aerobic respiration. Red blood cells are the only cells in your body not to
have a nucleus.

The platelets are there to help your blood to clot when you cut yourself. They
combine with substances in the plasma called clotting factors to make the
blood much thicker and stickier. There are some people (heamophiliacs) who
don't have these clotting factors and it is possible that they could bleed to
deat

h from even a minor cut.

The white blood cells are your body's first line of defence. There are hundreds
of different types, each with a specific job to do. Some engulf the invading
cells and slowly digest them, dying in the process and forming pus at the site
of the infection. Others produce antibodies that either destroy or render the
pathogen inactive and some produce antitoxins. They are triggered by
specific antigens which are protein molecules on the surface of the
pathogens. When an antigen is detected, the matching type of white blood
cell rapidly multiplies to deal with the pathogen. Your immune system
contains specialised cells that learn and remember how to deal with the
different antigens, which is the reason why vaccination works.

Diet and exercise

A healthy diet contains the right balance of the different foods you need
and the right amount of energy. Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are used
by the body to release energy and to build cells. Mineral ions and vitamins
are needed in small amounts for healthy functioning of the body. A person is
malnourished if their diet is not balanced. This may lead to a person being
overweight or underweight. An unbalanced diet may also lead to deficiency
diseases or conditions such as Type 2 diabetes.

Knowledge and understanding of the specific functions of nutrients and the

effects of any deficiency in the diet isnot required.
b) A person loses mass when the energy content of the food taken in is less
than the amount of energy expended by the body. Exercise increases the
amount of energy expended by the body.

c) The rate at which all the chemical reactions in the cells of the body are
carried out (the metabolic rate) varies with the amount of activity you do
and the proportion of muscle to fat in your body. Metabolic rate may be
affected by inherited factors.

d) Inherited factors also affect our health; for example cholesterol level.

e) People who exercise regularly are usually healthier than people who take
little exercise.

The effect of exercise on breathing and heart rate is notrequired.