Chemical weapon

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This article is about the type of munition. For the concept in biology, see Chemical defense.

A chemical weapon (CW) is a specialized munition that uses chemicals formulated to inflict death or harm on humans.
According to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), "the term chemical weapon may also
be applied to any toxic chemical or its precursor that can cause death, injury, temporary incapacitation or sensory
irritation through its chemical action. Munitions or other delivery devices designed to deliver chemical weapons, whether
filled or unfilled, are also considered weapons themselves."[2]

Chemical weapons are classified as weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), though they are distinct from nuclear
weapons, biological weapons, and radiological weapons. All may be used in warfare and are known by the military
acronym NBC (for nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare). Weapons of mass destruction are distinct
from conventional weapons, which are primarily effective due to their explosive, kinetic, or incendiary potential. Chemical
weapons can be widely dispersed in gas, liquid and solid forms, and may easily afflict others than the intended
targets. Nerve gas, tear gas and pepper spray are three modern examples of chemical weapons.
Lethal unitary chemical agents and munitions are extremely volatile and they constitute a class of hazardous chemical
weapons that have been stockpiled by many nations. Unitary agents are effective on their own and do not require mixing
with other agents. The most dangerous of these are nerve agents (GA, GB, GD, and VX) and vesicant (blister) agents,
which include formulations of sulfur mustardsuch as H, HT, and HD. They all are liquids at normal room temperature, but
become gaseous when released. Widely used during the First World War, the effects of so-called mustard
gas, phosgene gas and others caused lung searing, blindness, death and maiming.
The Nazi Germans during WW-II committed genocide mainly against Jews but included other targeted populations in
the Holocaust, a commercial hydrogen cyanide blood agent trade named Zyklon B discharged in large gas
chambers was the preferred method to efficiently murder their victims in a continuing industrial fashion[3], this resulted in
the largest death toll to chemical weapons in history.[4]

Technology[edit]
Chemical warfare technology timeline
Year Agents Dissemination Protection Detection
Chlorine
Chloropicrin
1914 Wind dispersal Gas masks, urinated-on gauze Smell
Phosgene
Mustard gas
Gas mask
1918 Lewisite Chemical shells smell of geraniums
Rosin oil clothing
1920s Projectiles w/ central bursters CC-2 clothing
Blister agent detectors
1930s G-series nerve agents Aircraft bombs
Color change paper
Protective ointment (mustard)
Missile warheads
1940s Collective protection
Spray tanks
Gas mask w/ Whetlerite
1950s
1960s V-series nerve agents Aerodynamic Gas mask w/ water supply Nerve gas alarm
1970s
Improved gas masks
1980s Binary munitions Laser detection
(protection, fit, comfort)
1990s Novichok nerve agents
A Swedish Army soldier wearing a chemical agent protective suit (C-vätskeskydd) and protection mask(skyddsmask 90)
Although crude chemical warfare has been employed in many parts of the world for thousands of years,[129] "modern"
chemical warfare began during World War I - see Chemical weapons in World War I.
Initially, only well-known commercially available chemicals and their variants were used. These
included chlorine and phosgene gas. The methods used to disperse these agents during battle were relatively unrefined
and inefficient. Even so, casualties could be heavy, due to the mainly static troop positions which were characteristic
features of trench warfare.
Germany, the first side to employ chemical warfare on the battlefield,[130] simply opened canisters of chlorine upwind of
the opposing side and let the prevailing winds do the dissemination. Soon after, the French modified artillery munitions to
contain phosgene – a much more effective method that became the principal means of delivery.[131]
Since the development of modern chemical warfare in World War I, nations have pursued research and development on
chemical weapons that falls into four major categories: new and more deadly agents; more efficient methods of
delivering agents to the target (dissemination); more reliable means of defense against chemical weapons; and more
sensitive and accurate means of detecting chemical agents.

Chemical warfare agents[edit]

See also: List of chemical warfare agents
A chemical used in warfare is called a chemical warfare agent (CWA). About 70 different chemicals have been used or
stockpiled as chemical warfare agents during the 20th and 21st centuries. These agents may be in liquid, gas or solid
form. Liquid agents that evaporate quickly are said to be volatile or have a high vapor pressure. Many chemical agents
are made volatile so they can be dispersed over a large region quickly.[citation needed]
The earliest target of chemical warfare agent research was not toxicity, but development of agents that can affect a
target through the skin and clothing, rendering protective gas masks useless. In July 1917, the Germans
employed mustard gas. Mustard gas easily penetrates leather and fabric to inflict painful burns on the skin.
Chemical warfare agents are divided into lethal and incapacitating categories. A substance is classified as incapacitating
if less than 1/100 of the lethal dose causes incapacitation, e.g., through nausea or visual problems. The distinction
between lethal and incapacitating substances is not fixed, but relies on a statistical average called the LD50.
Persistency[edit]
Chemical warfare agents can be classified according to their persistency, a measure of the length of time that a chemical
agent remains effective after dissemination. Chemical agents are classified as persistent or nonpersistent.
Agents classified as nonpersistent lose effectiveness after only a few minutes or hours or even only a few seconds.
Purely gaseous agents such as chlorine are nonpersistent, as are highly volatile agents such as sarin. Tactically,
nonpersistent agents are very useful against targets that are to be taken over and controlled very quickly.
Apart from the agent used, the delivery mode is very important. To achieve a nonpersistent deployment, the agent is
dispersed into very small droplets comparable with the mist produced by an aerosol can. In this form not only the
gaseous part of the agent (around 50%) but also the fine aerosol can be inhaled or absorbed through pores in the skin.
Modern doctrine requires very high concentrations almost instantly in order to be effective (one breath should contain a
lethal dose of the agent). To achieve this, the primary weapons used would be rocket artillery or bombs and large
ballistic missiles with cluster warheads. The contamination in the target area is only low or not existent and after four
hours sarin or similar agents are not detectable anymore.
By contrast, persistent agents tend to remain in the environment for as long as several weeks, complicating
decontamination. Defense against persistent agents requires shielding for extended periods of time. Non-volatile liquid
agents, such as blister agents and the oily VX nerve agent, do not easily evaporate into a gas, and therefore present
primarily a contact hazard.
The droplet size used for persistent delivery goes up to 1 mm increasing the falling speed and therefore about 80% of
the deployed agent reaches the ground, resulting in heavy contamination. Deployment of persistent agents is intended to
constrain enemy operations by denying access to contaminated areas.
Possible targets include enemy flank positions (averting possible counterattacks), artillery regiments, commando posts
or supply lines. Because it is not necessary to deliver large quantities of the agent in a short period of time, a wide
variety of weapons systems can be used.
A special form of persistent agents is thickened agents. These comprise a common agent mixed with thickeners to
provide gelatinous, sticky agents. Primary targets for this kind of use include airfields, due to the increased persistency
and difficulty of decontaminating affected areas.

Classes [edit]
Chemical weapons are inert agents that come in four categories: choking, blister, blood and nerve.[132] The agents are
organized into several categories according to the manner in which they affect the human body. The names and number
of categories varies slightly from source to source, but in general, types of chemical warfare agents are as follows:

Delivery [edit]
The most important factor in the effectiveness of chemical weapons is the efficiency of its delivery, or dissemination, to a
target. The most common techniques include munitions (such as bombs, projectiles, warheads) that allow dissemination
at a distance and spray tanks which disseminate from low-flying aircraft. Developments in the techniques of filling and
storage of munitions have also been important.
Although there have been many advances in chemical weapon delivery since World War I, it is still difficult to achieve
effective dispersion. The dissemination is highly dependent on atmospheric conditions because many chemical agents
act in gaseous form. Thus, weather observations and forecasting are essential to optimize weapon delivery and reduce
the risk of injuring friendly forces. [Citation needed]

Dispersion [edit]

Dispersion of chlorine in World War I

Dispersion is placing the chemical agent upon or adjacent to a target immediately before dissemination, so that the
material is most efficiently used. Dispersion is the simplest technique of delivering an agent to its target. The most
common techniques are munitions, bombs, projectiles, spray tanks and warheads.

Thermal dissemination[edit]

An American-made MC-1 gas bomb

Thermal dissemination is the use of explosives or pyrotechnics to deliver chemical agents. This technique, developed in
the 1920s, was a major improvement over earlier dispersal techniques, in that it allowed significant quantities of an agent
to be disseminated over a considerable distance. Thermal dissemination remains the principal method of disseminating
chemical agents today.
Most thermal dissemination devices consist of a bomb or projectile shell that contains a chemical agent and a central
"burster" charge; when the burster detonates, the agent is expelled laterally.
Thermal dissemination devices, though common, are not particularly efficient. First, a percentage of the agent is lost by
incineration in the initial blast and by being forced onto the ground. Second, the sizes of the particles vary greatly
because explosive dissemination produces a mixture of liquid droplets of variable and difficult to control sizes.
The efficacy of thermal detonation is greatly limited by the flammability of some agents. For flammable aerosols, the
cloud is sometimes totally or partially ignited by the disseminating explosion in a phenomenon called flashing.
Explosively disseminated VX will ignite roughly one third of the time. Despite a great deal of study, flashing is still not
fully understood, and a solution to the problem would be a major technological advance.

Soviet chemical weapons canisters from a stockpile in Albania

Aerodynamic dissemination[edit]
Aerodynamic dissemination is the non-explosive delivery of a chemical agent from an aircraft, allowing aerodynamic
stress to disseminate the agent. This technique is the most recent major development in chemical agent dissemination,
originating in the mid-1960s.
This technique eliminates many of the limitations of thermal dissemination by eliminating the flashing effect and
theoretically allowing precise control of particle size. In actuality, the altitude of dissemination, wind direction and
velocity, and the direction and velocity of the aircraft greatly influence particle size. There are other drawbacks as well;
ideal deployment requires precise knowledge of aerodynamics and fluid dynamics, and because the agent must usually
be dispersed within the boundary layer (less than 200–300 ft above the ground), it puts pilots at risk.
Significant research is still being applied toward this technique. For example, by modifying the properties of the liquid, its
breakup when subjected to aerodynamic stress can be controlled and an idealized particle distribution achieved, even
at supersonic speed. Additionally, advances in fluid dynamics, computer modeling, and weather forecasting allow an
ideal direction, speed, and altitude to be calculated, such that warfare agent of a predetermined particle size can
predictably and reliably hit a target.
Decontamination[edit]
Decontamination varies with the particular chemical agent used. Some nonpersistent agents, including most pulmonary
agents (chlorine, phosgene, and so on), blood gases, and nonpersistent nerve gases (e.g., GB), will dissipate from open
areas, although powerful exhaust fans may be needed to clear out buildings where they have accumulated.
In some cases, it might be necessary to neutralize them chemically, as with ammonia as a neutralizer for hydrogen
cyanide or chlorine. Riot control agents such as CS will dissipate in an open area, but things contaminated with CS
powder need to be aired out, washed by people wearing protective gear, or safely discarded.
Mass decontamination is a less common requirement for people than equipment, since people may be immediately
affected and treatment is the action required. It is a requirement when people have been contaminated with persistent
agents. Treatment and decontamination may need to be simultaneous, with the medical personnel protecting themselves
so they can function.[137]
There may need to be immediate intervention to prevent death, such as injection of atropine for nerve agents.
Decontamination is especially important for people contaminated with persistent agents; many of the fatalities after
the explosion of a WWII US ammunition ship carrying mustard gas, in the harbor of Bari, Italy, after a German bombing
on December 2, 1943, came when rescue workers, not knowing of the contamination, bundled cold, wet seamen in tight-
fitting blankets.
For decontaminating equipment and buildings exposed to persistent agents, such as blister agents, VX or other agents
made persistent by mixing with a thickener, special equipment and materials might be needed. Some type of neutralizing
agent will be needed; e.g. in the form of a spraying device with neutralizing agents such as Chlorine, Fichlor, strong
alkaline solutions or enzymes. In other cases, a specific chemical decontaminant will be required.[136]

Use[edit]
Main article: Chemical warfare
Chemical warfare (CW) involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons. This type of warfare is
distinct from nuclear warfare and biological warfare, which together make up NBC, the military initialism for Nuclear,
Biological, and Chemical (warfare or weapons). None of these fall under the term conventional weapons, which are
primarily effective because of their destructive potential. Chemical warfare does not depend upon explosive force to
achieve an objective. It depends upon the unique properties of the chemical agent weaponized.

A British gas bomb that was used during World War I.

A lethal agent is designed to injure, incapacitate, or kill an opposing force, or deny unhindered use of a particular area of
terrain. Defoliants are used to quickly kill vegetation and deny its use for cover and concealment. CW can also be used
against agriculture and livestock to promote hunger and starvation. Chemical payloads can be delivered by remote
controlled container release, aircraft, or rocket. Protection against chemical weapons includes proper equipment,
training, and decontamination measures.

An Iranian soldier wearing a gas mask during the Iran–Iraq War. Iraq massively used chemical weapons during Iran–Iraq War.

Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces wearing gas masks and rubber gloves during a chemical attack near Chapei in the Battle of
Shanghai.[22]
A Syrian soldier aims an AK-47assault rifle wearing a Soviet-made, model ShMS nuclear–biological–chemical warfare mask.

Manner and form[edit]

Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System prior to demolition.

There are three basic configurations in which these agents are stored. The first are self-contained munitions like
projectiles, cartridges, mines, and rockets; these can contain propellant and/or explosive components. The next form are
aircraft-delivered munitions. This form never has an explosive component.[56] Together they comprise the two forms that
have been weaponized and are ready for their intended use. The U.S. stockpile consisted of 39% of these weapon ready
munitions. The final of the three forms are raw agent housed in one-ton containers. The remaining 61%[56] of the stockpile
was in this form.[57] Whereas these chemicals exist in liquid form at normal room temperature,[56][58] the sulfur mustards H,
and HD freeze in temperatures below 55 °F (12.8 °C). Mixing lewisite with distilled mustard lowers the freezing point to
−13 °F (−25.0 °C).[47]
Higher temperatures are a bigger concern because the possibility of an explosion increases as the temperatures rise. A
fire at one of these facilities would endanger the surrounding community as well as the personnel at the
installations.[59] Perhaps more so for the community having much less access to protective equipment and specialized
training.[60] The Oak Ridge National Laboratory conducted a study to assess capabilities and costs for protecting civilian
populations during related emergencies,[61] and the effectiveness of expedient, in-place shelters.[62]

Disposal[edit]
The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United States and do
not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the
issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (December 2012) (Learn how and
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Main article: Destruction of chemical weapons

Stockpile/disposal site locations for the United States' chemical weapons and the sites operating status as of August 28, 2008.

The stockpiles, which have been maintained for more than 50 years,[8] are now considered obsolete.[63] Public Law 99-
145, contains section 1412, which directs the Department of Defense (DOD) to dispose of the stockpiles. This directive
fell upon the DOD with joint cooperation from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).[56] The
Congressional directive has resulted in the present Chemical Stockpile Disposal Program.
Historically, chemical munitions have been disposed of by land burial, open burning, and ocean dumping (referred to
as Operation CHASE).[64] However, in 1969, the National Research Council (NRC) recommended that ocean dumping be
discontinued. The Army then began a study of disposal technologies, including the assessment of incineration as well as
chemical neutralization methods. In 1982, that study culminated in the selection of incineration technology, which is now
incorporated into what is known as the baseline system. Construction of the Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal
System (JACADS) began in 1985.
This was to be a full-scale prototype facility using the baseline system. The prototype was a success but there were still
many concerns about CONUS operations. To address growing public concern over incineration, Congress, in 1992,
directed the Army to evaluate alternative disposal approaches that might be "significantly safer", more cost effective, and
which could be completed within the established time frame. The Army was directed to report to Congress on potential
alternative technologies by the end of 1993, and to include in that report: "any recommendations that the National
Academy of Sciences makes ..."[57] In June 2007, the disposal program achieved the milestone of reaching 45%
destruction of the chemical weapon stockpile.[65] The Chemical Materials Agency (CMA) releases regular updates to the
public regarding the status of the disposal program.[66] By October 2010, the program had reached 80% destruction
status.[67]

Lethality[edit]
Chemical weapons are said to "make deliberate use of the toxic properties of chemical substances to inflict death".[68] At
the start of World War II it was widely reported in newspapers that "entire regions of Europe" would be turned into
"lifeless wastelands".[69] However, chemical weapons were not used to the extent reported by a scaremongering press.
An unintended chemical weapon release occurred at the port of Bari. A German attack on the evening of December 2,
1943, damaged U.S. vessels in the harbour and the resultant release from their hulls of mustard gas inflicted a total of
628 casualties.[70][71][72]

An Australian observer who has moved into a gas-affected target area to record results, examines an un-exploded shell.

The U.S. Government was highly criticized for exposing American service members to chemical agents while testing the
effects of exposure. These tests were often performed without the consent or prior knowledge of the soldiers
affected.[73] Australian service personnel were also exposed as a result of the "Brook Island trials"[74] carried out by the
British Government to determine the likely consequences of chemical warfare in tropical conditions; little was known of
such possibilities at that time.
Some chemical agents are designed to produce mind-altering changes; rendering the victim unable to perform their
assigned mission. These are classified as incapacitating agents, and lethality is not a factor of their effectiveness.[75]

Nerve agent
Nerve agents, sometimes also called nerve gases, are a class of organic chemicals that disrupt the mechanisms by
which nerves transfer messages to organs. The disruption is caused by the blocking of acetylcholinesterase,
an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter.
Poisoning by a nerve agent leads to constriction of pupils, profuse salivation, convulsions, and
involuntary urination and defecation, with the first symptoms appearing in seconds after exposure. Death
by asphyxiation or cardiac arrest may follow in minutes due to the loss of the body's control over respiratory and other
muscles. Some nerve agents are readily vaporized or aerosolized, and the primary portal of entry into the body is
the respiratory system. Nerve agents can also be absorbed through the skin, requiring that those likely to be subjected to
such agents wear a full body suit in addition to a respirator.
Nerve agents are generally colorless to amber-colored, tasteless liquids that may evaporate to a gas.
Agents sarin and VX are odorless; tabun has a slightly fruity odor and soman has a slight camphor odor.[1]

Biological effects[edit]
Nerve agents attack the nervous system. All such agents function the same way resulting in cholinergic crisis:
they inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which is responsible for the breakdown of acetylcholine (ACh) in
the synapses between nerves that control muscle contraction. If the agent cannot be broken down, muscles are
prevented from relaxing and they are effectively paralyzed.[2]:131–139 This includes the heart and the muscles used for
breathing. Because of this, the first symptoms usually appear within seconds of exposure and death can occur
via asphyxiation or cardiac arrest in a few minutes.[1]
Initial symptoms following exposure to nerve agents (like sarin) are a runny nose, tightness in the chest, and constriction
of the pupils. Soon after, the victim will have difficulty breathing and will experience nausea and salivation. As the victim
continues to lose control of bodily functions, involuntary salivation, lacrimation, urination, defecation,gastrointestinal pain
and vomiting will be experienced. Blisters and burning of the eyes and/or lungs may also occur.[3][4] This phase is followed
by initially myoclonic jerks (muscle jerks) followed by status epilepticus -type epileptic seizure. Death then comes via
complete respiratory depression, most likely via the excessive peripheral activity at the neuromuscular junction of
the diaphragm.[2]:147–149
The effects of nerve agents are long lasting and increase with continued exposure. Survivors of nerve agent poisoning
almost invariably suffer chronic neurological damage and related psychiatric effects.[5] Possible effects that can last at
least up to 2–3 years after exposure include blurred vision, tiredness, declined memory, hoarse
voice, palpitations, sleeplessness, shoulder stiffness and eye strain. In people exposed to nerve
agents, serum and erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase in the long-term are noticeably lower than normal and tend to be
lower the worse the persisting symptoms are.[6][7]
Mechanism of action[edit]
When a normally functioning motor nerve is stimulated, it releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which
transmits the impulse to a muscle or organ. Once the impulse is sent, the enzyme acetylcholinesterase immediately
breaks down the acetylcholine in order to allow the muscle or organ to relax.
Nerve agents disrupt the nervous system by inhibiting the function of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase by forming
a covalent bond with its active site, where acetylcholine would normally be broken down (undergo hydrolysis).
Acetylcholine thus builds up and continues to act so that any nerve impulses are continually transmitted and muscle
contractions do not stop. This same action also occurs at the gland and organ levels, resulting in uncontrolled drooling,
tearing of the eyes (lacrimation) and excess production of mucus from the nose (rhinorrhea).
The reaction product of the most important nerve agents, including soman, sarin, tabun and VX,
with acetylcholinesterase were solved by the U.S. Army using X-ray crystallographyin the 1990s.[8][9] The reaction
products have been confirmed subsequently using different sources of acetylcholinesterase and the closely related
target enzyme, butyrylcholinesterase. The X-ray structures clarify important aspects of the reaction mechanism (e.g.,
stereochemical inversion) at atomic resolution and provide a key tool for antidote development.
Antidotes[edit]
Atropine and related anticholinergic drugs act as antidotes to nerve agent poisoning because they block acetylcholine
receptors, but they are poisonous in their own right.[10] Some synthetic anticholinergics, such as biperiden,[11] may
counteract the central symptoms of nerve agent poisoning better than atropine, since they pass the blood–brain
barrier better than atropine.[12] While these drugs will save the life of a person affected by nerve agents, that person may
be incapacitated briefly or for an extended period, depending on the extent of exposure. The endpoint of atropine
administration is the clearing of bronchial secretions. Atropine for field use by military personnel is often loaded in
an autoinjector (e.g. ATNAA), for ease of use in stressful conditions.[10]
Pralidoxime chloride, also known as 2-PAM chloride, is also used as an antidote.[10] Rather than counteracting the initial
effects of the nerve agent on the nervous system as does atropine, pralidoxime chloride reactivates the poisoned
enzyme (acetylcholinesterase) by scavenging the phosphoryl group attached on the functional hydroxyl group of the
enzyme.[13] Though safer to use than atropine, it takes longer to act.
Revival of acetylcholinesterase with pralidoxime chloride works more effectively on nicotinic receptors while blocking
acetylcholine receptors with atropine is more effective on muscarinic receptors. Often, severe cases of poisoning are
treated with both drugs.[10]
Countermeasures in development[edit]
Butyrylcholinesterase is under development by the U.S. Department of Defense as
a prophylactic countermeasure against organophosphate nerve agents. It binds nerve agent in the bloodstream before
the poison can exert effects in the nervous system.[14]
Both purified acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase have demonstrated success in animal studies as "biological
scavengers" (and universal targets) to provide stoichiometricprotection against the entire spectrum of organophosphate
nerve agents.[15][16] Butyrylcholinesterase currently is the preferred enzyme for development as a pharmaceutical drug
primarily because it is a naturally circulating human plasma protein (superior pharmacokinetics) and its larger active site
compared with acetylcholinesterase may permit greater flexibility for future design and improvement of
butyrylcholinesterase to act as a nerve agent scavenger.[17]

Classes[edit]
There are two main classes of nerve agents. The members of the two classes share similar properties and are given
both a common name (such as sarin) and a two-character NATOidentifier (such as GB).
G-series[edit]

Chemical form of the nerve agent tabun, the first ever synthesized.

The G series of nerve agents.[18]

The G-series is thus named because German scientists first synthesized them. G series agents are known as non-
persistent, while the V series are persistent. All of the compounds in this class were discovered and synthesized during
or prior to World War II, led by Gerhard Schrader (later under the employment of IG Farben).
This series is the first and oldest family of nerve agents. The first nerve agent ever synthesised was GA (tabun) in 1936.
GB (sarin) was discovered next in 1939, followed by GD (soman) in 1944, and finally the more obscure GF (cyclosarin)
in 1949. GB was the only G agent that was fielded by the US as a munition, in rockets, aerial bombs, and artillery
shells.[19]
V-series[edit]

Chemical form of the nerve agent VX.

The V series of nerve agents.

The V-series is the second family of nerve agents and contains five well known members: VE, VG, VM, VR, and VX,
along with several more obscure analogues.[20]
The most studied agent in this family, VX, was invented in the 1950s at Porton Down in the United Kingdom. Ranajit
Ghosh, a chemist at the Plant Protection Laboratories of Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) was investigating a class of
organophosphate compounds (organophosphate esters of substituted aminoethanethiols). Like Schrader, Ghosh found
that they were quite effective pesticides. In 1954, ICI put one of them on the market under the trade name Amiton. It was
subsequently withdrawn, as it was too toxic for safe use. The toxicity did not go unnoticed and some of the more toxic
materials had been sent to the British Armed Forces research facility at Porton Down for evaluation. After the evaluation
was complete, several members of this class of compounds became a new group of nerve agents, the V agents
(depending on the source, the V stands for Victory, Venomous, or Viscous). The best known of these is probably VX,
with VR ("Russian V-gas") coming a close second (Amiton is largely forgotten as VG). All of the V-agents are persistent
agents, meaning that these agents do not degrade or wash away easily and can therefore remain on clothes and other
surfaces for long periods. In use, this allows the V-agents to be used to blanket terrain to guide or curtail the movement
of enemy ground forces. The consistency of these agents is similar to oil; as a result, the contact hazard for V-agents is
primarily – but not exclusively – dermal. VX was the only V-series agent that was fielded by the US as a munition, in
rockets, artillery shells, airplane spray tanks, and landmines.[19][21]
Novichok agents[edit]
Main article: Novichok agent
The Novichok (Russian: Новичо́к, "newcomer") agents, a series of organophosphate compounds, were developed in
the Soviet Union and in Russia from the mid-1960s to the 1990s. The Novichok program aimed to develop and
manufacture highly deadly chemical weapons that were unknown to the West. The new agents were designed to be
undetectable by standard NATO chemical-detection equipment and to defeat chemical-protective gear.
In addition to the newly-developed "third generation" weapons, binary versions of several Soviet agents were developed
and were designated as "Novichok" agents.
Carbamates[edit]
Contrary to what is sometimes claimed,[22][23] not all nerve agents are organophosphates. A large group of them
are carbamates like EA-3990 and EA-4056, both of which have been claimed to be about 3 times more toxic than VX.
Both the USA[20] and the Soviet Union[24] developed carbamate nerve agents during the Cold War. They are sometimes
grouped as "fourth generation" agents along with the Novichok agents due to their falling outside the definitions of
controlled substances under the CWC.
Insecticides[edit]
Some insecticides, including carbamates and organophosphates such as dichlorvos, malathion and parathion, are nerve
agents. The metabolism of insects is sufficiently different from mammals that these compounds have little effect on
humans and other mammals at proper doses, but there is considerable concern about the effects of long-term exposure
to these chemicals by farm workers and animals alike. At high enough doses, acutetoxicity and death can occur through
the same mechanism as other nerve agents. Some insecticides such as demeton, dimefox and paraoxon are sufficiently
toxic to humans that they have been withdrawn from agricultural use, and were at one stage investigated for potential
military applications. Paraoxon was allegedly used as an assassination weapon by the apartheid South African
government as part of Project Coast. Organophosphate pesticide poisoning is a major cause of disability in many
developing countries and is often the preferred method of suicide.[25]

Methods of spreading[edit]
Many methods exist for spreading nerve agents such as:[26]

 uncontrolled aerosol munitions

 smoke generation
 explosive dissemination
 atomizers, humidifiers and foggers
The method chosen will depend on the physical properties of the nerve agent(s) used, the nature of the target, and the
achievable level of sophistication.[26]

History[edit]
Discovery[edit]
This first class of nerve agents, the G-series, was accidentally discovered in Germany on December 23, 1936, by a
research team headed by Gerhard Schrader working for IG Farben. Since 1934, Schrader had been working in a
laboratory in Leverkusen to develop new types of insecticides for IG Farben. While working toward his goal of improved
insecticide, Schrader experimented with numerous compounds, eventually leading to the preparation of tabun.
In experiments, tabun was extremely potent against insects: as little as 5 ppm of tabun killed all the leaf lice he used in
his initial experiment. In January 1937, Schrader observed the effects of nerve agents on human beings first-hand when
a drop of tabun spilled onto a lab bench. Within minutes he and his laboratory assistant began to
experience miosis(constriction of the pupils of the eyes), dizziness and severe shortness of breath. It took them three
weeks to recover fully.
In 1935 the Nazi government had passed a decree that required all inventions of possible military significance to be
reported to the Ministry of War, so in May 1937 Schrader sent a sample of tabun to the chemical warfare (CW) section of
the Army Weapons Office in Berlin-Spandau. Schrader was summoned to the Wehrmacht chemical lab in Berlin to give
a demonstration, after which Schrader's patent application and all related research was classified as secret. Colonel
Rüdiger, head of the CW section, ordered the construction of new laboratories for the further investigation of tabun and
other organophosphate compounds and Schrader soon moved to a new laboratory at Wuppertal-Elberfeld in the Ruhr
valley to continue his research in secret throughout World War II. The compound was initially codenamed Le-100 and
later Trilon-83.
Sarin was discovered by Schrader and his team in 1938 and named in honor of its discoverers: Schrader, Ambros,
Gerhard Ritter, and von der Linde.[27] It was codenamed T-144 or Trilon-46. It was found to be more than ten times as
potent as tabun.
Soman was discovered by Richard Kuhn in 1944 as he worked with the existing compounds; the name is derived from
either the Greek 'to sleep' or the Latin 'to bludgeon'. It was codenamed T-300.
Cyclosarin was also discovered during WWII but the details were lost and it was 'discovered' again in 1949.
The G-series naming system was created by the United States when it uncovered the German activities, labeling tabun
as GA (German Agent A), sarin as GB and soman as GD. Ethyl sarin was tagged GE and cyclosarin as GF.
Detection[edit]
Detection of gaseous nerve agents[edit]
The methods of detecting gaseous nerve agents include but are not limited to the following.
Laser photoacoustic spectroscopy[edit]
Laser photoacoustic spectroscopy (LPAS) is a method that has been used to detect nerve agents in the air. In this
method, laser light is absorbed by gaseous matter. This causes a heating/cooling cycle and changes in pressure.
Sensitive microphones convey sound waves that result from the pressure changes. Scientists at the U.S. Army
Research Laboratoryengineered an LPAS system that can detect multiple trace amounts of toxic gases in one air
sample.[44]
This technology contained three lasers modulated to different frequency, each producing a different sound wave tone.
The different wavelengths of light were directed into a sensor referred to as the photoacoustic cell. Within the cell were
the vapors of different nerve agents. The traces of each nerve agent had a signature effect on the “loudness” of the
lasers’ sound wave tones.[45] Some overlap of nerve agents’ effects did occur in the acoustic results. However, it was
predicted that specificity would increase as additional lasers with unique wavelengths were added.[44] Yet, too many
lasers set to different wavelengths could result in overlap of absorption spectra. Citation LPAS technology can identify
gases in parts per billion (ppb) concentrations.[46][45][47]
The following nerve agents have been identified with this multiwavelength LPAS:[44]

 dimethyl methyl phosphonate (DMMP)

 diethyl methyl phosphonate (DEMP)
 diisopropyl methyl phosphonate (DIMP)
 dimethylpolysiloxane (DIME), triethyl phosphate (TEP)
 tributyl phosphate (TBP)
 two volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
 acetone (ACE)
 isopropanol (ISO)
Other gases and air contaminants identified with LPAS include:[46][48]

 CO2
 Benzene
 Formaldehyde
 Acetaldehyde
 Ammonia
 NOx
 SO2
 Ethylene Glycol
 TATP
 TNT
Non-dispersive infrared[edit]
Non-dispersive infrared techniques have been reported to be used for gaseous nerve agent detection.[49][46]
IR absorption[edit]
Traditional IR absorption has been reported to detect gaseous nerve agents.[46]
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy[edit]
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy has been reported to detect gaseous nerve agents.[46]