CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Rapid urbanization and industrialization has resulted in degradation of environment quality

parameters. It is important to keep track of the air quality of aie quality we breethe in. this
project proposes a method to implement wireess sensor network based environmental air
pollution monitoring. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

1.1.1 BACKGROUND:

The electronic engine management takes over the responsibility for reducing fuel
consumption and emissions, while at the same time guaranteeing more dynamic response
in all driving condition. The European emission standards regarding passenger cars are
EURO5, EURO 6 for heavy duty vehicles and EURO Stage 3/4 for off-highway vehicles.
For Indian markets the emission standards set by the government is called Bharat stage
emission standards. Bharat stage IV is the present emission standard, effective nationwide
since 1st April, 2017.It becomes very important to implement and use strategies that reduce
the amount of engine-out “raw” emissions to meet the stringent emission legislations. It
becomes important to consider the durability, lifespan, performance and resistance to
failures during life cycle of the component so as to ensure its reliability.This project deals
with the reliability aspect of an EGR system component and its assemblies in diesel engines
of Off-Highway vehicles (e.g.: truck, tractors).

1.2 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE:

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In an ICE, combustion of the air and fuel mixture takes place within an engine cylinder.
The release of energy during combustion causes the engine piston to move towards a
position closest to the crankshaft, transforming chemical energy (combustion) into useful
mechanical energy (i.e., rotation of the crankshaft). The up and down movement of a piston
from the top dead center (TDC) to the bottom dead center (BDC) is referred to as stroke.
The TDC of a piston is a position close to the intake and exhaust valve whereas the BDC
of a piston is a position nearest to the crankshaft.

1.2.1 FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE:

An engine which requires four strokes of the piston to produce an output power is called
four-stroke engine. It requires two complete revolutions of the crankshaft (720°). Each
piston of an N-cylinder engine reports two strokes to each crankshaft revolution. The
engine cycle starts with the piston’s position at TDC. The engine produces power in the
following order:

1. Intake stroke: During this stroke, the inlet valve is open whereas the exhaust valve
is closed. This allows a huge quantity of air to enter the combustion chamber and
the piston is pushed in the downward direction towards BDC. The crankshaft
completes 360° revolution.
2. Compression stroke: Both inlet and exhaust valve are closed in this stroke. The
piston moves in the direction of TDC and compresses the air-fuel mixture inside
the combustion chamber.This work done on the intake air increases its pressure and
temperature.The ideal gas law gives an estimate to this behaviour. At the end of this
stroke, the crankshaft completes one revolution.
3. Powerstroke: The inlet and exhaust valves remain closed even in this stroke. The
piston is at TDC. An increase in temperature caused due to compression ignites the
air-fuel mixture. Theexpansion of the hot ignited gases force the piston towards
BDC. This force is transferred through the connecting rod to apply torque to the
crankshaft which causes the crankshaft revolution.
4. Exhaust stroke: The exhaust valve is open while the intake valve remains closed.
The piston moves upward towards TDC, expelling the combustion gases.

The entire sequence of the four strokesas mentioned above repeats in the next power cycle.

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1.3BASICS OF COMBUSTION PROCESS IN THE AUTOMOBILE
ENGINE

Air is a mixture of gases, mostly nitrogen and oxygen. When air is compressed inside the
cylinder of a diesel engine, temperature of the air is increased enough to ignite the diesel
fuel after it is injected into the cylinder. When this fuel ignites, temperature inside the
combustion chamber increases to more than 1500°F and the volume of air in the engine
cylinder increases. This expansion of air pushes the piston down and causes the crankshaft
to rotate.
Lambda (λ): It is the stoichiometric air mass required to effect complete combustion of 1
unit mass of hydrocarbon by a diesel engine and depends on the fuel quantity. It is also
referred to as stoichiometric ratio, which is the air to fuel ratio (14.7:1) and is given by:
𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝜆=
𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

If λ < 1, the air-fuel mixture has less concentration of air than fuel and is called rich mixture
and for rich mixtures, the fuel economy decreases, thermal efficiency decreases, incomplete
combustion takes place, hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and soot formation
increases and if λ > 1, the concentration of air is more than that of fuel, the air-fuel mixture
is called lean mixture and formation of toxic oxides of nitrogen increases.There is always
a trade-off in controlling NOx and particulate matter emissions. The behavior of NOx and
particulate matter as a function of air-mass is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig.1.1 Behavior of NOx and particulate emission as a function of air-mass(TNR,12)

[Bosch Internal Docupedia]

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The resultant of combustion process is shown below:
If (Perfect combustion)
{
Fuel + Oxygen ==> Carbon dioxide + Water vapor + Heat
}

else
{
Fuel + Oxygen ==>
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Unburnt Hydro Carbons (HC)
Particulate Matter (PM-Soot)
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
}

1.3.1FORMATION OF NOx:
Fuel in diesel engines is burnt with extra air and at an increased temperature. When the
peak temperature is high enough for long intervals of time, nitrogen and oxygen present in
air combines to form oxides of nitrogen. These are collectively referred to as “NOx”.In any
case, use of exhaust gas re-circulation increases hydrocarbon, particulate matterand
COemissions, if too high.It is observed in Fig. 1.2 that the formation of NOx increases
when the peak flame temperature is beyond 1800 °C for a recirculated exhaust gas mass
beyond 20%.

Fig.1.2 Rate of NOx formation w.r.t EGR flow rate and peak temperature
[Bosch Internal Docupedia]

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1.3.2 THE NEED TO REDUCE NOx:
Oxides of nitrogen like nitrous oxide (N2O), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitric oxide (NO)
emitted from these engines are toxic and pollute the surroundings. N2O is a harmful
greenhouse gases and more harmful than carbon dioxide. NO2is a major component of
smog, which dissolves in water to form acid rain. NO damages the respiratory tracts and
leads to breathing ailments like asthma and bronchitis. Furthermore, NOx reacts with
hydrocarbons in sunlight to form ozone and smog. This damages the health and ecosystem
thus violating the emission norms. So, there is a need to reduce the emission of NOx. The
engine should run at a lower temperature than the normal temperature so as to reduce NOx.
The cylinder temperatures can be lowered in the following ways:
1. Enriching the air fuel (A/F) mixture: This reduces the combustion temperatures but
also increases HC and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions.
2. Retarded ignition timings: This makes the combustion process start at a less-than-
optimum point. But these methods lead to reduced performance and fuel economy.
Hence not a feasible method to reduce the cylinder temperature.
3. Reducingthe amount of oxygen in the cylinder: The percentage of oxygen in the total
intake air reduces drastically when some amount of exhaust gas is re-routed into the
intake manifold. This reduction in oxygen avoids temperature distribution within the
cylinder.

1.4 EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION:

The process of re-routing exhaust gases in to the intake manifold is referred to as “Exhaust
Gas Recirculation”. Recirculation is usually achieved by piping a route from the exhaust
manifold to the intake manifold. Inert gases present in the exhaust replace the oxygen
content in fresh (intake) air.This will reduce the oxygen content in the intake charge (intake
air + recirculated exhaust gas). Lesser oxygen content during combustion reduces the peak
cylinder temperature and burn rate. Thus, reducing the rate of NOx formation.
Water vapor and CO2present in the exhaust gas have high specific heat capacity and hence
more heat is required to raise its temperature by 1 °C as compared to atmospheric air. EGR
absorbs the combustion heatand acts as a heat sink. This is how EGR helps in reducing
peak temperature.
EGR is the first step in reducing NOx proven to be an effective strategy to control NOx
emissions from the engine exhaust.Due to the emission legislations, EGR is more

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‘mandated’ than being ‘preferred’. EGR is necessary to meet the stringent emission
standards norms and become environmental friendly.

1.5EGR VALVE:
EGR valveis a control valve that regulates the exhaust gas flow back into the intake
manifold. It is used for a controlled exhaust gas recirculation to the intake area of an internal
combustion engine. It is driven by an electric DC motor in a range between 5% and full
valve lift of 100%.EGR cooler cools the exhaust gases, reducing the exhaust gas
temperature. Cooled EGR further adds advantage of more mass (dense) of exhaust getting
into the intake. The figure below shows an EGR system in a single cylinder engine.

Fig.1.3 Engine System with EGR Valve

[https://fjb.kaskus.co.id/product/512f6e881a7608365500000b/]

1.5.1 TYPES OF EGR VALVES:

There are two types of EGR valves, mainly:
i.Pneumatic EGR Valve
ii.Electric EGR Valve
1.5.1.1 Pneumatic EGR Valve:This type of valve is activated by means of vacuum
through electromagnetic valves which usually have an open and closefeature only. The
vacuum is generated from the inlet manifold or via a vacuum pump, relying on automobile
kind, and might include an EGR function sensor. It is a vacuum operated diaphragm valve.
When vacuum is applied to the EGR valve, the suction force pulls the diaphragm and opens
the valve. This permits intake vacuum to suck exhaust into the engine. To prevent the EGR
valve from opening whilst the engine is cold, the vacuum line to the EGR valve can be
related to a parted vacuum switch or an ECU controlled solenoid. The figure below shows
a pneumatic EGR valve.

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 Fig. 1.4 Pneumatic EGR Valve[http://www.justanswer.com/chevy/4f5wg-chevrolet-
blazer-full-size-1989-chevrolet-v-10.html]

1.5.1.2 EM-EGR Valve:The Electromotive Exhaust Gas Recirculation Valve (EM-EGR

valve or EGR valve for short) is generally built up of an actuator and valve housing. The
actuator consists of a DC motor and a gear box. Valve position is controlled by an electric
DC motor. The position of the valve disk can be changed between its fully open to fully
closed range. An eccentric drive translates the gearbox output from a rotating to a linear
motion. An angle sensor onthe output shaft of the gear box detects the position of the valve
disk and is characterized as position sensor. The figures below show electric EGR valve.

Fig.1.5 Basic draft function of EGR Valve[1]

Fig.1.6 Electric EGR Valve [1]

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The EM–EGR valve used in this project consists of the following function groups:

 Valve assembly: permits exhaust gas to flow and the adjustment of the opening
cross section.
 Valve unit: for infinitely variable valve lift adjustment; secured by a mechanical
return system (spring) against unintended opening by pressure or acceleration
effects.
 Mechanical return system: To guarantee the emergency/limp home mode
(actuator without power supply) a return spring is integrated in the kinematic to
close the valve.
 Electric drive system / actuator including gear drive: moves the valve lift.
 Angle sensor: detects the actual value of the valve position (at the gearbox output
shaft). It is a triaxial Hall sensor which is programmed in a way that 6mm valve lift
equates a voltage change of 3V at a power supply of 5V.
1.6 EGR VALVE MALFUNCTIONS:
The most common cause for malfunctions in the EGR system is stuck or carbonized EGR
valves. EGR valves are inclined to be jammed either at the valve open or close positions.
The deposition of burnt soot particles especially in diesel engines could cause the valve to
be jammed. At stuck open, the engine slows down, misfires or causes engine inactivity and
at stuck close position, NOx formation boosts abnormal engine timing and knocking
(knocks are generally described as rapid increase in the cylinder pressure during
combustion). A jammed EGR valve may result in jerking, excess fuel consumption,
insufficient engine power and may even cause total engine breakdown. These are the major
issues with a jammed EGR valve. Another accepted disadvantage as soon as the valve is at
stuck open position is unwanted misfiring of the engine. A jammed EGR valve must be
repaired or replaced quickly once the problem is detected.
Other problems that occur when the valve is shut-off include overheating of the valve and
clogging. The excessive temperature can negatively affect the overall performance of the
reciprocal movement of the valve stem within the valve guide consisting of, for example,
the valve sticking or seizing inside the valve guide. The corrosive substances located inside
the valve leads to clogged flow of exhaust gases and negatively affect the life of the
component. This reduces the engine cooling effect causes the engine to overheat. Therefore,
it becomes important to check the EGR valve whenever the vehicle idles as it might violate
the emission norms.

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Even though EGR valves are designed for the high temperatures in the exhaust system, heat
damage to the valve may occasionally occur. Certain analysis of tested EGR valves has
indicated that valves would stick intermittently at some operating temperatures, whilst at
room temperatures the valves would function normally.
1.7. EGR VALVE CONTROL:
The position of the valve disk in an electric EGR valve is controlled by an Engine Control
Unit (ECU). The valve disk position control takes place in a closed loop system. Jammed
valves can be accurately detected due to feedback mechanism provided in this type of
system. The basic block diagram of an EGR valve control through an ECU in closed loop
is shown below in Fig.1.8.

Fig.1.7 Basic block diagram of EGR valve control

The ECU calculates the desired valve lift required for the exhaust gas flow based on the
amount of exhaust gases that has to be re-circulated. The EGR rateis obtained as a ratio of
the mass flow of exhaust gas (mEGR) to the total intake charge mass flow (mintake), given by
the following equation:
𝑚𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡
𝐸𝐺𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒
; where,𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 =𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑚𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡
The closed loop control mechanism of the EGR valve is discussed in detail in the next
chapter.

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