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INDUCED FRACTURES: caused by mechanical and/or hydraulical phenomena due, for example, to bad hole cleaning and
excessive gathering of cuttings in open hole. Hole shrinkage causes an increase in friction losses and consequent pressure on
wellbore which can induce fractures on formation with mud loss.
When G PORE ~ = G FRACT, pressure margin is so small that we can register mud losses only by circulating mud. The severity
of losses is proportional to the difference between the ECD (Equivalent Circulating Density) and the fracture gradient.
DEPLETED RESERVOIRS: while drilling depleted reservoirs, in which pore pressure and fracture gradient decrease as a
result of oil/gas production, if circulating pressure is very high we can have fluid loss.
NATURAL FRACTURES: loss circulation can be registered while drilling fractured or vacuolar carbonates, dolomites, gypsum,
karstic or tectonic areas.
LOSS CIRCULATION
Loss circulation are very dangerous because mud is lost into the formation, with consequent loss of hydrostatic load, which
might cause kicks or even blowouts.
Clear evidence of drilling a thief zone is mud loss into the well with consequent level drop in the mud tanks.
According to the severity degree of absorptions, losses and thief zones can be classified as described in the following table:
SEEPAGE losses can be registered in any type of formations when pore Ø is > than ~ 3 times the Ø of solid particles in the
mud.
PARTIAL losses are more frequent in high-permeability gravel, in small natural horizontal fractures, or in induced vertical
fractures.
On the other hand, TOTAL losses can be registered in long, induced vertical fractures or in cavernous formations (limestone).
This data is fundamental to know the pore pressures and consequently the zones where the loss might take place. It can be
determined both with a DIRECT or INDIRECT method.
DIRECT METHOD: in static condition extract the drill string, and check the drill string area that is mud wet and at higher
temperature than the clean drill string; or, with drill string at bottomhole, run wireline cable with mass down to mud level. Once
acquired the mud level, gradient can be found using the following formula:
Pmud*hb (h * Dmud )* hb
Ppore = =
h h
where Ppore = pore pressure
Pmud = mud pressure at hb
hb =mud level in well
INDIRECT METHOD: through the measures of SPPs before and after the loss occurs (with constant circulation Q and H).
SPP1 − SPP2
hb =
Pmud
where SPP1 = initial Stand Pipe Pressure
SPP2 = Stand Pipe Pressure after the loss
LOSS CIRCULATION
• Loss circulation are very dangerous because mud is lost into the formation, with consequent
loss of hydrostatic load, which might cause kicks or in worst cases a blowout.
• Loss circulation depend on the formation characteristics and the fracture gradients.
• Clear evidence of drilling a thief zone is mud loss into the well with consequent level drop in
the mud tanks.
• According to the severity degree of absorptions, losses and thief zones can be classified in
different types.
LOSS CIRCULATION IN FUNCTION OF FORMATION
TYPE
LOSS CIRCULATION
TOTAL
BLAND
STRONG
LOSS CIRCULATION
LESS THAN 50% OR PARTIAL
FORMATIONS
GRAVEL AND SANDS LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE
UNCONSOLIDATED
FORMATIONS
1° INTERVENTION
HIGH VISCOSITY MUD HIGH VISCOSITY
AND GELS MUD
ON ACCOUNT OF
FRACTURES
FORMATIONS
- GRAVEL AND UNCONSOLIDATED
FORMATIONS
- LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE
HIGH FILTRATION
MIXTURE
2° INTERVENTION
GEL-CEMENT
DOBC
3° INTERVENTION
AIR-CUT MUDS
STIFF-FOAM
LOSS CIRCULATION
TOTAL
FORMATIONS
ON ACCOUNT OF ON ACCOUNT OF
FRACTURES CAVERNS
HIGH GEL-CEMENT
FILTRATION SLURRIES
1° INTERVENTION MIXTURE
2° INTERVENTION
DOBC DOBC
3° INTERVENTION
AIR-CUT MUDS
STIFF-FOAM
LOSS CIRCULATION
Vugular zones are normally detected through geological maps that show the nature of the formations.
While drilling, vugular zones are detected by checking absorptions severity, and they can be classified in:
Unconsolidated formations:
Usually sands, gravel and similar formations. In these type of formations, mud loss can become total if drilling
operations continue. Stop drilling to check the severity degree of absorptions in order to face situation with the
most adequate method.
INTERVENTION TYPES
BARITE PLUGS
CEMENT PLUGS
LOSS CIRCULATION – Intervention Procedures
SEEPAGE ALMOST TOTAL HYDRAULICALLY
LOSS TOTAL more INDUCED FRACTURES
Less than 10% than 50%
SURFACE HIGHLY FRACTURES FRACTURES FRACTURES CAVERNS LOW DENSITY HIGH DENSITY
AREAS PERMEABLE FLUIDS FLUIDS
HIGH HIGH
VISCOSITY VISCOSITY SPOT PILLS HIGH GEL- STOP TO THIN
FLUID AND FLUID WITH LCM FILTRATION CEMENT CIRCULATION FLUID OR
HIGH GELS MIXTURE SLURRIES OR TO LOW TO LOW
FLOW RATE
MUD
DENSITY
ADDITION OF COLLOIDS
PLUGGING MATERIALS
IN CIRCULATION
PLUGGING SPOT PILLS
SPOT PILLS WITH
PLUGGING MATERIAL
HIGH FILTRATION SPOT PILLS
High Filtration Mixture 200 – 400 cc (API)
Very High Filtration Mixture > 600 cc (API)
DIASEAL M > 1000 cc (API) DIASEAL M > 1000 cc (API)
GEL- CEMENT
Gilsonite Cement
PLASTIC PLUG WITH
ORGANOPHILIC CLAY
DOB SQUEEZE
DOBC (Diesel Oil Bentonite Cement)
LOSS CIRCULATION
WATER-BASE MUDS
PROCEDURE
Add contaminants to mud (lime, salt, etc.) in order to increase viscosity and filtrate
NOTES
apparent viscosity = + o – 100 sec
LOSS CIRCULATION
WATER-BASE MUDS
PROCEDURE
NOTES
Screen mesh: max. 10 - 15 mesh
LOSS CIRCULATION
WATER-BASE MUDS
PROCEDURE
Prepare 15 m³ (min.) to 80 m³ (max.) of high filtration mud, then add 6 - 8 % plugging material
adequate to loss type.
NOTES
Displace the spot pill(s) in the loss area. If the well clogs, squeeze with low pressures ( ~ 50 psi).
Preferably displace with a nozzleless bit.
LOSS CIRCULATION
WATER-BASE MUDS
PROCEDURE
Attapulgite 3 - 6 %
Bentonite 1.5 - 6 %
Lime 0.15 %
Diatomite 15 %
(mica 1 - 1.5 %)
(granular LCM 1.5-2.5 %)
(fibrous LCM 0.3-1 %)
() Chosen in function
of losses
NOTES
Get on top of loss area. Squeeze with low pressures ~ 50 psi – 150 l/1’. Do not exceed
fracture gradient. Maintain residual pressure for 6 - 8 hours.
LOSS CIRCULATION
WATER-BASE MUDS
PROCEDURE
Diatomite 30 %
Lime 15 %
Attapulgite 0 - 4 %
(granular LCM 1 - 2.5 %)
(fibrous LCM 1 %)
(lamellar LCM 1 %)
( ) Chosen in function
of losses
NOTES
Same procedure as for high filtration mixtures.
With T >60°C mechanical resistance develops.
LOSS CIRCULATION
WATER-BASE MUDS
PROCEDURE
1.08 6 0 0.9
1.45 5 0.2 0.8
1.80 4 1 0.7
2.15 3 1.5 0.6
NOTES
Same application procedure as for high filtration mixtures.
LOSS CIRCULATION
WATER-BASE MUDS
GEL-CEMENT
PROCEDURE
Slurry composition
(Class G Cement)
0 44 75.7 1.90
2 84 116.5 1.60
3 104 136.9 1.51
4 112 157.25 1.45
NOTES
It is important to obtain a high viscosity slurry. Using these percentages slurry develops a sufficient
mechanical resistance.
It is possible to prepare slurries with higher percentages of bentonite. Plugging properties
improves if mechanical resistances decrease.
LOSS CIRCULATION
WATER-BASE MUDS
GILSONITE CEMENT
PROCEDURE
Slurry composition
(Class G Cement)
0 44 75.7 1.90
50 61 139.5 1.51
100 78 203.2 1.37
200 112 330.7 1.25
NOTES
Good mechanical resistance is due to Gilsonite’s plugging action. As for cement plugs, it is
suggested to cross the whole vugular zone before carrying out the operation. WOC: minimum 8
hours.
LOSS CIRCULATION
WATER-BASE MUDS
DOB SQUEEZE (diesel oil bentonite)
PROCEDURE
Formula for 1 m³ (ultimately)
ADDITION OF COLLOIDS
PROCEDURE
Reduce the HPHT filtrate with LT products. Add CaCO3 with particle size of ~ 5 - 15 µm
NOTES
The low colloid content of oil-base mud is the main cause of seepage losses.
LOSS CIRCULATION
OIL-BASE MUDS
PROCEDURE
5 - 10 m³ volume, added with plugging materials adequate to the loss and compatible
with oil-base muds, in percentages that vary between 5 and 10%.
NOTES
Spot pill(s) in the loss area. If the well clogs, squeeze with low pressures ( ~ 50 psi).
Preferably displace with a nozzleless bit.
LOSS CIRCULATION
OIL-BASE MUDS
DIASEAL M > 1000 cc (API)
PROCEDURE
NOTES
The pill volume must be twice the borehole volume (min. 1,5 m³). To avoid contamination, use 3 - 4 m³
of spacer. Final squeeze pressure should be at least equal to the highest
scheduled density. If the pill is too viscous, add wetting agents. You can also add plugging materials.
LOSS CIRCULATION
OIL-BASE MUDS
PROCEDURE
NOTES
The operational procedure is the same as for the D.O.B. Gunk Squeeze. Try to obtain a residual
pressure between 300 and 900 psi (300 for light muds e 900 for very heavy muds). It is advisable to wait
at least 2 hours before restart drilling.
PLUGGING MATERIALS
MICA
NUT PLUG
CaCO3
STEELSEAL
MAGMA FIBER
PLUGGING MATERIALS
MICA
MICA is a silica-base lamellar material. It’s used to prepare pills with oil-base, synthetic-base and water-base muds.
- ADVANTAGES
It’s readily available and can easily be added to LCM pills, or in circulation as a preventer.
- GRANULOMETRY
Granulometry varies from Fine – Coarse, with particle sizes from 2 - 3 mm for Fine up to 4 - 6 mm for Coarse.
- APPLICATIONS
NUT PLUG
NUT PLUG is a granular material with vegetable base (nutshells). It’s used to prepare pills with oil-base, synthetic-base and
water-base muds.
- ADVANTAGES
It’s readily available and can be easily added to LCM spot pills.
- GRANULOMETRY
Classified into 3 categories: Fine - Medium – Coarse with particle sizes from 0.15 to 0.5 mm for the Fine type; from 0.5 to 1.6
mm for Medium; from 1.5 to 6 mm for Coarse.
- APPLICATIONS
CaCO3
CaCO3 is one of the most valid and adaptable lost circulation materials. It’s a granular, naturally occurring, ground rock. It’s
acidizable and is therefore ideal in reservoirs. It is used to prepare pills with oil-base, synthetic-base and water-base muds.
- ADVANTAGES
It’s readily available and can easily be added to LCM spot pills also in high concentrations. It can be added in circulation as
prevention.
- GRANULOMETRY
Granulometry is divided in Fine - Medium - Coarse categories, with particle sizes of 0.05 mm for the Fine type, 0.1 mm for
Medium and 3 mm for Coarse. Higher granulometry exists for considerable fractures: Super Coarse > 3 mm.
- APPLICATIONS
- The Fine and Medium types are used to control seepage and partial losses. The Medium, Coarse and Super Coarse types
are used for partial and total losses.
- In fractured formations and/or in macrofractures (carbonates).
- Can be used in combination with other plugging materials.
PLUGGING MATERIALS
STEELSEAL
Steelseal is a resilient, angular, dual-composition carbon-based material that can expand or compress itself without being
removed from pores or collapsed due to changes in differential pressure. It can be used as an additive in oil-base, synthetic-
base and water-base muds.
It can also be used as a lubricant for torque and drag reduction.
- ADVANTAGES
In concentrations > 300 Kg/m³, it can be used to control high losses without affecting rheological properties.
- GRANULOMETRY
Particle Size – 100% <40 mesh and 95% >200 mesh. Has a specific gravity of 2.1.
- APPLICATIONS
MAGMA FIBER
Magma Fiber is a material acidizable with hydrogen chloride and could be in reservoirs. It’s fibrous and very adaptable. It can
be used as an additive for oil-base, synthetic-base and water-base muds, for completion fluids and in work-over operations.
- ADVANTAGES
It’s a non-damaging inert material which forms a good filter cake panel.
- CONCENTRATIONS
In concentration of 30 lb/bbl, it’s used to control total-losses; it also can be used to spot pills or as mud additive for prevention.
In concentrations between 5 and 15 lb/bbl it’s used for seepage and partial losses.
- APPLICATIONS
It’s used to plug highly permeable unconsolidated formations and all kinds of fractures including karsts.
As it is highly acidizable it ca be used in reservoirs.
LCM – Lost Circulation Materials
Materials Type Granulometry Seepage Partial Total Can Be Can Be
(mm) Loss Loss Loss Acidified Used In
OBM
CaCO3 Granular 50% @ +/- 0.05 X X X X
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
FRACTURE WIDTH (mm)
0 % acid soluble
low
large (vugular/cavernous)
medium
medium
high fine
Form-A-Set Fracture/pore
Strength openings size
CROSS-LINKING POLYMER SQUEEZES – Form-A-Set AK™
medium
medium
high fine
Fracture/pore
Strength openings size
Form-A-Set AK
CROSS-LINKING POLYMER SQUEEZES – Form-A-Set AK
high fine
Fracture/pore
Strength openings size
Form-A-Set AKX
CROSS-LINKING POLYMER SQUEEZES – Form-A-Plug II™
• Form-A-Plug II is 98 % acid
soluble in 15% HCl.
0 % acid soluble
low
large (vugular/cavernous)
medium
medium
high fine
Form-A-Plug II
Fracture/pore
Strength openings size
InstanSeal
It’s a system comprised of a semi-stable emulsion of water in oil 80/20
(diesel, L.T. , foreign oils). In the oil phase emulsifiers and gelifying agents
are dissolved. As they mix with other components, they don’t come into
direct contact with the water phase. The fluid thus prepared is stable and
can be pumped through the drill string, with the bit at bottomhole. When the
emulsion breaks, (fluid flows out of the nozzles) viscous agents come into
contact with water, creating a highly gelified mass (it can even set, if further
cement is added to the fluid) in a very short time, from 1 - 10 minutes to an
hour.
InstanSeal
InstanSeal
InstanSeal
InstanSeal
InstanSeal
CEMENT PLUGS
Vdisp. = Vint. BHA to the plug top – Vsteel immersed in cmt – V2nd spacer
CEMENT PLUGS
Properties of loss circulation slurries:
• Low density, to reduce slurry losses into the formation.
• High rheologies and gel development, to reduce flowing
into the formation or the fractures.
• Low mechanical resistance.
API standards, for oilfield cementing operations, require
slurries that develop a minimum mechanical resistance
of 500 psi.
• Slurry must be batch mixed, in order to better control
its density.
• When operations are carried out with coiled tubing,
slurry rheology must be low to avoid high pressures
while pumping.
CEMENT PLUGS
Operational procedures:
There are several advantages in using barite plugs instead of cement plugs:
COMPOSITION
Fresh/salt water
(laboratory test showed better results with fresh water)
Barite
Fluidifier
Caustic soda (pH 7.5 – 9.5)
Antifoam (~ 5 – 10 l)
LOSS CIRCULATION - Barite Plugs
Treatment Formulas Operational Procedures
Fresh Water Barite Plug Formula for preparing 1m3 1.Determine the height of the plug, commonly 130-150 m is sufficient.
Density 2.16 2.4 2.64(kg/l) 2.Choose the desired density, the lower the density, the faster the
Water 0.64 0.57 0.5 (m3) setting time.
SAPP 2 2 2 (kg) 3.Calculate the plug volume plus 10 barrels.
NaOH 0.7 0.7 0.7 (kg) 4.Calculate the amount of materials required.
*(FCL) (6) (6) (6) 5.Evaluate displacement
*(NaOH)(1.4)(1.4) (1.4) 6.Mix with cement unit.
Barite 1530 1850 2155 7.Use bit with nozzles.
* as alternative to SAPP and Soda. 8.Underdisplace by two barrels.
9.Pull out above plug and circulate as long as you can, in order to allow
plug to settle.
Water-Base Fluid With Galena Formula for preparing 1m3 To prepare a pumpable fluid, follow the indications herein given.
Oil-Base Mud With Galena Density 2.88 3.36 3.84 kg/l It is not possible to weigh drilling fluid.
Water 0.58 0.51 0.51 (m3)
Bent. 23 8 5 (kg)
Na2CO3 4 5 5.7 (kg)
SAPP 2 2 5.7 (kg)
Galena 1325 1995 3320 (kg)
Barite 955 838 ....... (kg)
Formula for preparing 1m3 Base Fluid (Invermul)
Oil 0.85 (m3)
Water 0.15 (m3)
Driltreat 35 (kg)
Suspentone52 (kg)
Gelitone II 10 (kg)
Duratone HT35 (kg)
Formula for preparing 1m3
Density 3.36 3.6 4.32 kg/l
Base 0.59 0.55 0.43 (m3)
Fluid
Galena 2821 3078 3930
Driltreat -- -- 14 (kg)
BARITE PLUGS
PROCEDURE
+ + +
+ =
TABLE