19.
Molecules and Compounds
Elements, which are limited in number, combine to
form an almost limitless number of compounds.
Sometimes elements will combine in surprising ways.
For example, the element sodium (Na) is a metal.
Chlorine (Cl) is a deadly, greenish gas. But table salt
(NaCl) (a compound of these two elements) is not a
metal, not deadly, and not a gas. Clearly there is more
to the creation of sodium chloride than just mixing
atoms of sodium and chlorine together. Something else
has occurred. On the other hand, some elements can be
mixed together without any change taking place. In
these cases the properties of the mixture are the expect-
ed combination of the properties of the elements.
To begin to understand how compound substances
come to be, consider two hydrogen atoms. Each atom
has one electron in an s-orbital as depicted in Figure
19.1(a). The electrons are captured by the electrical
attraction of the nucleus. The electrons are in an ener-
gy well from which they cannot escape without ioniza-
tion energy being supplied.
(a)
(b)
Figure 19.1. (a) Two hydrogen atoms with electrons in
s-orbitals. (b) When the atoms collide a new molecular
orbital is formed which binds the two atoms together as
a hydrogen molecule.
Imagine our two hydrogen atoms bumping togeth-
er so that each electron feels the pull from both nuclei.
Now imagine, as a result, that new orbital patterns set
up in such a way as to surround both nuclei (Fig. 19.1b).
The new patterns will not be the atomic orbitals s, p, or
171
d, but will be new orbitals that will be referred to as
molecular orbitals. If the electrons in the new orbitals
have less energy than they had in the atomic orbitals
(the energy difference is radiated away as photons), the
electrons will be deeper in an energy well than before
and the new structure will be stable. It will remain as a
structure until the missing energy is restored by some
mechanism. In fact, in our example the new structure
does form and is called a hydrogen molecule—symbol-
ized as H2. The subscripted 2 refers to the two atoms
that combined to form the new molecule. The hydrogen
molecule is a new structure and it has its own charac-
teristic energy levels and its own characteristic discrete
emission spectrum.
The example of the hydrogen molecule illustrates
one of several ways atoms can combine to form mole-
cules or other compound structures. In each case the
new orbitals formed have less electron energy. Figure
17.7 diagrams the electron configurations of a number
of elements. The noble gases are elements where no
electrons are high in the energy well. On the other
hand, when an atom exists with one more electron than
needed to just fill a shell, the extra electron must go into
the next higher shell. Invariably, the electron has rela-
tively high energy. The valence electron in sodium,
next after neon in the Periodic Table, is such an exam-
ple. This electron is easy to remove; that is, sodium has
a small ionization energy.
In contrast, fluorine is an example of an element
that lacks just one electron to fill the first shell. The
electrons have low energies (are deep in the well), but
not so low as those of neon.
If sodium and fluorine are brought together they
“react.” In other words, the valence electrons form new
orbitals. In this instance the single valence electron of
sodium forms an orbital around fluorine, and the elec-
tron has essentially been transferred from sodium to flu-
orine. But in doing so the electron falls deeper into the
energy well and the new structure, NaF, is stable. The
sodium atom has become a sodium ion (Na+) and the
fluorine atom has become a fluorine ion (F–). The + and
– in the symbols refer to the net electrical charge of each
ion resulting from either the loss or gain of an electron.
Atoms have more disorder (entropy) when they are
free from one another than when they are bonded
together so that they must move collectively; their dis-
order decreases during bonding. However, total disor-
der never decreases, so something else must happen
during bonding to increase the disorder somewhere else.
As the electron jumps to a lower energy state, the atom
radiates to the surroundings energy that is equivalent to
the difference in orbital energies. Because of this
release of energy, the entropy increases in the surround-
ings more than it decreases in the system. The total
entropy increases, as it always does in a spontaneous
process. We sometimes say that bonds form because the
system has found a way to reduce the energy of its elec-
trons. We could also say that bonds form because ener-
gy is given off to raise the entropy of the universe.
Molecular Structure
When pure hydrogen is placed in the mass spec-
trometer (see Chapter 15), many of the particles reach-
ing the detector are so slow that they appear twice as
heavy as normal hydrogen. A small percentage of these
heavy particles is hydrogen atoms, each having an extra
neutron, but most of them appear to be two joined
hydrogen atoms with one electron missing. There is
much evidence for this interpretation. If the electron
energy in the ionization stage of the spectrometer is
increased, these so-called molecular ions nearly disap-
pear. Apparently, the energetic electrons separate the
Figure 19.2. Behavior of hydrogen in the mass spectrometer. (a) The ionizing electron beam removes an electron from
some molecules and splits other molecules in half. (b) Atomic ions are accelerated to higher speeds than molecular
ions. (c) Computer display of the times of arrival (masses) of ions.
172
atoms from one another. However, the ionizing elec-
trons in a spectrometer are never energetic enough to
disturb or break up the nucleus or even to remove the
most tightly bound electrons of atoms with high atomic
numbers.
More evidence for the structure of the hydrogen
molecule comes from Avogadro’s Hypothesis, which
says equal volumes of different gases contain equal
numbers of molecules if the temperatures and pressures
are the same. A certain volume of helium has a mass of
4 grams, and the same volume of hydrogen has a mass
of 2 grams, indicating hydrogen molecules are half as
massive as helium molecules. On the other hand, atom-
ic masses show that hydrogen atoms are only one-fourth
as massive as helium atoms. Therefore, hydrogen mol-
ecules must be made of two atoms of hydrogen.
What happens to hydrogen in the mass spectrome-
ter can be represented by the events shown in Figure
19.2. Careful measurements show this to be the only
acceptable explanation of the structure of hydrogen and
of its analysis in the mass spectrometer. Note that even
though hydrogen exists as molecules, it is still an ele-
ment just as surely as is helium which exists as individ-
ual atoms.
A number of other elements exist as molecules
composed of two atoms: nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine,
chlorine, and bromine. In contrast, some molecules are
composed of atoms of two or more types. For example,
an atom of nitrogen attached to an atom of oxygen
forms a molecule of nitric oxide. A sample of such mol-
ecules would be as invisible as air, but would smell hor-
rible. In fact, nitric oxide is one of the most obnoxious
components of smog. Its behavior in the mass spec-
trometer is indicated in Figure 19.3. Notice the differ-
ent pattern of peaks compared with that of hydrogen.
Each type of molecule forms its own distinctive
pattern in the mass spectrometer. This is very useful to
people in their efforts to identify molecules. For exam-
ple, Figure 19.4 shows the mass spectrum of a white
powder confiscated from a person accused of possess-
ing illegal drugs. The defendant claimed it was merely
a painkiller containing aspirin and phenacetin (a non-
prescription painkiller). The mass spectrum, however,
shows a molecular ion with a mass of 315 amu, much
larger than can be found in the materials claimed. This
mass and the pattern of the other fragments identify the
material as Percodan, a prescription narcotic painkiller
that the defendant possessed illegally. This particular

Figure 19.3. (a) Fragments of nitric oxide molecules in the drift tube of a mass spectrometer showing low-mass ions
getting ahead of high-mass ions. (b) Computer display of the masses of various fragments.

Figure 19.4. Mass spectrum of Percodan.

173
mass spectrum was used as evidence in court and helped
lead to a conviction.
A mass spectrograph can sometimes give very
detailed information. For example, even though sugar
molecules are composed of the same types of atoms
regardless of the source, the relative heights of the
peaks similar to the 316-amu peak in Figure 19.4 allow
scientists to determine subtle difference which indicate
whether the sugar was made from sugarcane or sugar
beets. The peak heights also indicate approximately
how many miles from the seacoast the sugar-bearing
plant was grown.
The mass spectrometer clarifies the relationships
among the types of particles that are the building blocks
of pure materials. An element is composed of only one
type of atom. The atoms can exist as individuals or
bonded together as molecules. In contrast to an ele-
ment, a compound is composed of molecules, each of
which is made of at least two types of atoms. Examples
of each type are shown in Figure 19.5. In addition to
these configurations, the atoms of a pure metal are
joined to a number of neighboring metal atoms in solid
metallic elements. It is not entirely correct to speak of
a lump of metal as a single molecule, even though all of
the atoms are connected.
Figure 19.5. Drawings of elements and compounds.
Why can’t compounds be atoms?
174
Chemical Reactions
Just how are molecules made from atoms or from
other molecules? They are formed during chemical
reactions. Some reactions are vigorous and showy, like
the reaction of sodium and chlorine or the exploding of
fireworks. Other reactions are quiet and slow, such as
the chemical reactions that occur in green plants to pro-
duce the sugar described in the previous section.
Charcoal burning in air is a good example of a chem-
ical reaction. The black charcoal briquettes for barbecu-
ing are nearly pure carbon. Once they get hot enough,
they combine with oxygen from the air and apparently
disappear. (The small amount of ash that remains is an
impurity and does not appear when pure charcoal burns.)
Actually, the carbon does not vanish—it becomes carbon
dioxide, a transparent gas that goes up with the smoke.
To initiate the reaction that burns the carbon, we are
required to light a match and provide some extra ener-
gy. Often, the starting materials for a chemical reaction
are stable molecules or substances for which the elec-
trons are in orbitals that already minimize the electron
energy. The additional energy provided by the match
gives kinetic energy to the molecules of carbon and
oxygen so that they bump into one another and excite
the electrons, even to the point of breaking the mole-
cules into ions or atoms. These ions or atoms can now
rearrange into new combinations with new electron
orbitals that will again lower the electron energy. These
new combinations of atoms (CO2 in this case) will be
the new molecules that are the products of the chemical
reaction. The minimum amount of kinetic energy that
molecules must have to initiate the reaction is called the
activation energy. Once the reaction begins, it may
release enough energy of its own to maintain the activa-
tion energy to keep the reaction going.
This example shows some common characteristics
of chemical reactions:
1. One or more substances are changed to specif-
ic amounts of other substances that have dif-
ferent characteristics.
2. Some kinetic energy may be required to initi-
ate the reaction (activation energy).
3. Energy is released by the reaction. (In some
chemical reactions, energy is absorbed.)
Some similar examples of reactions with oxygen
are the burning of hydrogen, iron, and magnesium.
Hydrogen is a colorless gas, light enough to make bal-
loons rise, but it is unsafe because it burns. When it
burns in oxygen, it produces one of the hottest flames
known. The product of the reaction is water (a gas
when hot, but a liquid when cooled).
 Iron, in the form of steel wool, burns well in air; of gas contain equal numbers of molecules at the same
however, it appears as glowing coals rather than an open temperature and pressure. This provides a basis for stat-
flame. The product of complete burning is similar to ing that there are twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxy-
rust. At normal temperatures, this reaction proceeds so gen atoms in each water molecule.
slowly that it is almost unnoticeable. Water speeds the
rusting reaction enough so that changes can be seen
from day to day, as you can discover by leaving steel
tools exposed to moisture.
Magnesium is a gray metal that is prized for its low
density. It helped the original “mag wheels” be light-
weight and therefore easy to accelerate. Pure magne-
sium (not modern mag wheels) burns vigorously in air
and produces not only heat but also large amounts of
white light. Roadside emergency flares use this reac-
tion, usually with an additive to make the color red as
well as bright. The white ash remaining when the reac- Figure 19.6. Simple electrolysis cell with electrodes
tion is completed is magnesium oxide. wired to a battery.
Let us summarize these chemical reactions by writ-
ing an equation in words for each: Another example of electrolysis is that of common
table salt. The reaction proceeds at a reasonable rate
carbon 1 oxygen → carbon dioxide only if the salt is melted. The required temperature, 801
hydrogen 1 oxygen → water °C, is easily attained in the laboratory but is far too hot
iron 1 oxygen → iron oxide (rust) for kitchen ovens. As the electrolysis proceeds, a pale
green gas bubbles from one electrode, and a molten sil-
magnesium 1 oxygen → magnesium oxide ver metal collects at the other. The gas is chlorine, one
of the first poisonous gases used for warfare.
The arrow is read yields. The starting materials, termed Nowadays, many tons of chlorine are produced and
reactants, appear to the left of the arrows. The result- used in the manufacture of several familiar products,
ing materials, or products, are on the right.
Although it may appear to deserve no comment,
these burning processes never use all of the oxygen in
the atmosphere. There seems to be a quota of oxygen
for each reaction, and the quota is never exceeded.
When one reactant is used up, the unused portion of the
other reactant is left over at the end of the reaction.
These four reactions comprise a good beginning for our
collection of chemical reactions.
Two more reactions of a different type tear one sub-
stance apart and form two new materials with entirely
different characteristics. Such reactions are called elec-
trolyses. They occur when a source of direct electrical
current (e.g., an automobile battery) is connected to two
Figure 19.7. Water being electrolyzed in a slightly more
bars of metal (e.g., platinum). The bars—or electrodes,
elaborate electrolysis cell.
as they are called—are then dipped in the liquid that is
to be electrolyzed. The reaction proceeds at a rate deter-
mined by the amount of electrical current. such as bleaching and cleaning chemicals.
Figure 19.6 shows a simple electrolysis cell. The metal produced in the electrolysis of table salt
Figure 19.7 shows a more complex cell that traps any is sodium, which is just as reactive as chlorine but in
gas that might bubble up from the electrodes, as hap- different ways. A small lump of sodium dropped into
pens when water is electrolyzed. As the water is con- water will react violently, releasing hydrogen from the
sumed, oxygen comes from one electrode and twice its water at such a rate that the lump turns itself into a
volume of hydrogen comes from the other. This is an miniature jet-propelled boat. The heat released often is
example of the Law of Definite Composition and often to ignite or explode the hydrogen which has mixed
reflects the fact that each water molecule contains twice with the oxygen of the air. This is why students in
as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms. Remember chemistry laboratories should not throw scrap sodium
that according to Avogadro’s Hypothesis equal volumes down the drains.

175
 Figure 19.8. Formulas and drawings of molecules.

Figure 19.9. Drawings of groups of molecules and their representations with chemical formulas.

The Law of Definite Composition is obeyed in the Chemical Formulas

sodium chloride electrolysis reaction, but comparison is
complicated by the fact that one product is a solid rather
than a gas. Nevertheless, for every 35.5 grams of chlo-
rine produced at one electrode, 23 grams of sodium is
produced at the other. The proportions of the amounts
of the products of a reaction are small whole numbers
only when measured in gas volumes or atoms. The
numbers are more complex when measured in masses,
because the mass of one type of atom is not simply
related to the masses of other types of atoms.
Atomic symbols such as H and He are used to
denote elements or atoms. Similarly, symbols called
chemical formulas can represent compounds or mole-
cules that are composed of these atoms. Numerical sub-
scripts show how many of each type of atom are
involved. For example, two atoms of nitrogen combin-
ing to form a molecule is represented by N2. Water is
constructed of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxy-
gen, so its formula is H2O.
It is possible to write the formulas so that they indi-
cate something about the way the atoms are linked.
Water’s formula could correctly be written HOH to

176
 Figure 19.10. Reaction of hydrogen with the proper amount of oxygen.
Figure 19.11. Reaction of hydrogen with excess oxygen.
show that both hydrogens are connected to the central
oxygen. Some examples of molecules and their formu-
las are drawn in Figure 19.8. You are not expected to
know which atom is central or precisely how they are
linked, only that chemical formulas written in certain
ways can indicate the relative positions of the atoms in
a molecule.
Suppose we wished to write the symbol for three
hydrogen molecules. To avoid confusion we must write
3H2. The symbol 3H would indicate three individual
hydrogen atoms, but there are a total of six atoms in
three hydrogen molecules. The symbol H6 would indi-
cate that all six were strung together in a single mole-
cule, which is incorrect. By convention, the first num-
ber indicates the number of molecules, and the remain-
der of the formula shows the composition of each mol-
ecule. Some examples are diagramed in Figure 19.9.
With a knowledge of molecular formulas, it is pos-
sible to write equations for the reactions in formulas
rather than words:
C 1 O2 → CO2
2H2 1 O2 → 2H2O
4Fe 1 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
2Mg 1 O2 → 2MgO
2H2O → 2H2 1 O2
2NaCl → 2Na 1 Cl2
These equations obey the Law of Conservation of Mass.
That is, there are as many atoms of each element among
the reactants as among the products, indicating that a
177
chemical reaction does not create or destroy atoms; it
simply rearranges them into new molecules. This is
diagramed for the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen in
Figure 19.10, in which the right amount of oxygen was
present to complete the reaction. In Figure 19.11, too
much oxygen is shown, and some oxygen molecules are
left over. Virtually all reactions occurring in nature stop
with some reactant left over.
Chemical equations do not show excess reactants
any more than a recipe shows the number of eggs
remaining after one has cooked an omelet. The chemi-
cal equation shows the minimum amount of each mate-
rial needed without arbitrarily splitting molecules. As
an example of improper splitting, consider the equation
H2 1 O → H2O .
This equation implies that oxygen exists as single atoms
when it is really composed of molecules, O2. To reflect
this fact, we must write
2H2 1 O2 → 2H2O .
This equation shows the proper number of atoms and
molecules on each side of the equation. The equation is
said to be balanced when, for each kind of atom, there
are the same number of atoms on the left of the arrow as
on the right. Once again, this represents the Law of
Conservation of Mass. It also shows that an atom of
one type cannot be transformed to another type of atom
by a chemical reaction.
Unfortunately, there is no simple, foolproof recipe
for finding the numbers to put in front of each molecu-
lar symbol to balance a chemical reaction equation.
One simply proceeds by trial and error. With a little
practice, one observes that certain patterns begin to
repeat themselves.
Some chemical formulas can give you a false
impression if you are not forewarned. The formula H2O
is a symbol for a molecule containing two hydrogen
atoms and a single oxygen atom. Likewise, H2 and O2
are molecular formulas, i.e., they represent individual
molecules. The equation
2H2 1 O2 → 2H2O
says that two hydrogen molecules react with one oxy-
gen molecule to form two molecules of water..
Examples of molecular formulas are N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2,
CO2, and SF6 . The noble gases contain monatomic
molecules (single atoms) and have molecular formulas
He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn.
The symbol for table salt, NaCl, is not a molecular
formula in the above sense because table salt is a crys-
talline solid substance. The smallest piece of salt that is
still recognizable as salt contains trillions of sodium
ions and trillions of chloride ions stacked together in a
three-dimensional checkerboard pattern. The smallest
subunit of this pattern contains one sodium ion and one
chloride ion. This subunit is not, strictly speaking, a
molecule. Molecules have strong chemical bonds
among the atoms within each molecule, but only weak
(at best) bonds between different molecules, so each
molecule is recognized as a separate unit. Yet in solid
table salt, each subunit NaCl has a strong chemical bond
to its adjacent subunits. Hence, we say that NaCl is a
simplest formula rather than a molecular formula. To
indicate two of these subunits, we would write 2NaCl.
The symbol Na (sodium) as it applies to a piece of
metal is also a simplest formula. It symbolizes the sim-
plest subunit of a piece of sodium metal, the sodium
atom, even though the sodium atoms are bonded togeth-
er to form the piece of metal. Examples of the simplest
formulas are Mg, Fe, and MgCl2.
The chemical reaction
2Na 1 Cl2 → 2NaCl
means that if metallic sodium is burned in chlorine gas,
two atoms of sodium metal combine with a molecule of
chlorine to form two subunits of the structure we know
as table salt.
There are three rules of thumb to use in deciding
whether a formula is a molecular formula or a simplest
formula:
178
1. If the formula represents a gas it is a molecular
formula. Examples are H2 and O2. (We some-
times convey physical state information by
adding (g) for gas, (l) for liquid, and (s) for solid.
Examples are H2 (g), H2O (l), and NaCl (s).)
2. If the formula contains only nonmetal ele-
ments, it probably is a molecular formula.
Examples are CO2 and SF6.
3. If the formula contains a metal element, it is
probably a simplest formula, unless it is a gas.
Examples are Na and NaCl.
Summary
In a chemical reaction, atoms rearrange to form
new structures. If the new structures are stable, the
valence electrons form new orbitals in which they have
less energy than they had in their respective structures
before the reaction. The new orbitals bind the new
structures together: new chemical bonds are said to
have formed.
The Law of Definite Proportions is obeyed in
chemical reactions: The amounts of products and reac-
tants in a particular chemical reaction always occur in
the same definite proportions by volume of gases or by
numbers of molecules.
In a chemical reaction chemical bonds are made or
broken. The structures of molecules formed in chemi-
cal reactions can be analyzed by the mass spectrometer.
Spontaneous chemical reactions may form more
ordered structures, but the energy released will increase
the disorder of the surroundings in such a way that the
total disorder of the universe is increased.
Chemical equations show the arrangement of atoms
and molecules at the beginning and the end of chemical
reactions. Balanced chemical equations emphasize that
atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical
reactions. Thus, the Law of Conversation of Mass is
obeyed.
STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 19: Molecules and Compounds
A. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
1. The Law of Definite Proportions is obeyed in
chemical reactions: the amounts of products and
reactants in a particular chemical reaction always
occur in the same definite proportions. The pro-
portions of the amounts of the reaction products are
small whole numbers when measured in gas vol-
umes or numbers of molecules.
2. The Law of Conservation of Mass: See Chapter
18.
B. MODELS, IDEAS, QUESTIONS, OR APPLICA-
TIONS
1. What are chemical bonds?
2. What happens to the energy of a system when
atoms bond together?
3. What happens to the disorder of a system when
atoms bond together?
4. What is a chemical reaction?
5. How are chemical formulas written and balanced?
C. GLOSSARY
1. Activation Energy: The minimum energy that
reactants must have to form products. In some
chemical reactions, additional evergy must be
added from an external source (such as a lighted
match) to reach the activation energy.
2. Avogadro’s Hypothesis: See Chapter 18.
3. Chemical Bond: The attachment that results from
a binding together of molecules or atoms in definite
proportions into new structures with an accompa-
nying release (or, rarely, absorption) of energy.
4. Chemical Reaction: The energy releasing or
absorbing process which makes or breaks a chemi-
cal bond.
5. Compound: A substance consisting of molecules
formed from atoms of at least two different kinds.
Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen.
6. Electrolysis: A chemical reaction in which the
necessary driving energy is provided in the form of
an electrical current passing through the reactants.
Water may be separated into hydrogen and oxygen
by electrolysis.
7. Element: See Chapter 18.
8. Mixture: A physical combination without chemi-
cal bonding of compounds and/or elements in
indefinite proportions. A mixture of oxygen and
hydrogen might have a large number of oxygen
molecules and a small number of hydrogen mole-
cules or vice versa.
9. Molecular Formula: Chemical formulas (sym-
bols) representing individual molecules.
10. Molecular Orbital: An electron orbital, different
in shape and energy from the atomic electron
orbitals (s, p, d, etc.) of atoms, that forms between
atoms to form the “glue” that bonds atoms together
to form molecules.
11. Molecule: The simplest independent structural unit
of a particular element or compound. A molecule
of helium is the helium atom. A molecule of water
is the structure H2O.
12. Products: The name given to the substances that
result from a chemical reaction.
13. Reactants: The name given to the substances
before they are combined or separated by a chemi-
cal reaction.
14. Simplest Formula: In repeating structures such as
179
a crystal or a piece of metal, the simplest formula is
the chemical formula of the basic subunit of the
structure. In a crystal of salt, the simplest formula
is NaCl even though NaCl does not exist as sepa-
rate molecules.
D. FOCUS QUESTIONS
1. In a demonstration, hydrogen is burned in oxygen
to form water. For this chemical reaction:
a. Write and balance the chemical equation rep-
resenting the reaction.
b. Explain why a match is needed to start the
reaction.
c. Describe what happens to the energy within
the system as the products are formed. What
changes in the forms of energy occur?
d. Describe what happens to the disorder of the
universe as the products are formed.
2. In a demonstration, magnesium is burned in oxy-
gen forming magnesium oxide. For this chemical
reaction:
a. Write and balance the chemical equation rep-
resenting the reaction.
b. Explain why a match is needed to start the
reaction.
c. Describe what happens to the energy within
the system as the products are formed. What
changes in the forms of energy occur?
d. Describe what happens to the disorder of the
universe as the products are formed.
E. EXERCISES
19.1. Notice the peak at 1 amu in Figure 19.2c.
What ion caused this peak? What ion caused the peak
at 2 amu in Figure 19.2c?
19.2. In Figure 19.3b which peak corresponds to
the O1+ ion? (Use Table 17.1 to find the mass of an oxy-
gen atom.) What ions caused the other peaks?
19.3. What molecule was put in the mass spec-
Figure 19.12. Masses of fragments of an unknown mol-
ecule.
 F2 Ar
CO2 BeO
Cu CH4

19.7. Label the groups of molecules in Figure 19.13

the way they are labeled in Figure 19.9.

19.8. How many atoms of hydrogen are there in

each molecule of propane that has the formula
H3CCH2CH3? Use this formula to draw a diagram of
the molecule of propane similar to the diagrams in
Figure 19.8.

19.9. How many atoms of nitrogen are there in

three molecules of laughing gas, N2O? (Notice that we
could have written 3N2O to represent the three mole-
cules.) How many atoms of oxygen are there in
5Al2O3?

19.10. Which of the following equations are bal-

anced?
(a) 2C + O2 → 2CO
Figure 19.13. Groups of molecules to be labeled in (b) H2 + F2 → HF
Exercise 19.7. (c) Mg + F2 → MgF2
(d) 2H2O2 → H2O + O2
trometer to cause the peaks shown in Figure 19.12?
19.11. Suppose someone asked you to finance a
19.4. What fragments would the mass spectrome- promising silver extraction process based on the equa-
ter make from water molecules that are composed of tion
two hydrogen atoms attached to an oxygen atom? 2Ag2O → 8Ag + O2

19.5. Listed below are some chemical reactions Would you consider him a competent person or a
with which we hope you are familiar. Classify each as crackpot?
explosive, fast, slow, or nonoccurring (under natural
conditions). Where you can, describe the characteristics 19.12. What are the important differences between
of the products. Remember burning yields carbon diox- a chemical reaction, such as the electrolysis of molten
ide from materials that contain carbon and water from salt, and a physical process, such as the crushing of salt
things that contain hydrogen. crystals?
(a) Rusting of cans along the highway .
(b) Burning of gasoline vapor in air when ignited 19.13. Classify each of the following as pure ele-
(gasoline is made of carbon and hydrogen). ment, pure compound, or mixture as best you can from
(c) Burning of diamonds in air when ignited (dia- your experience and the information in this unit:
mond is pure carbon and behaves similarly to char- 7-Up orange juice
coal in chemical reactions). nickel air
(d) Burning of diamonds without ignition (will CCl4, carbon tetrachloride tin
diamonds “rust”?). vitamin A diamond
(e) Burning large amounts of gunpowder. tungsten metal chlorine
(f) Tarnishing of silver.
(g) Fading of clothes dyes in sunlight. 19.14. What compound would (in analogy to Fig.
(h) Decay of the insecticide DDT in the environ- 19.3) give mass spectrometer peaks at 1, 12, 14, 26, and
ment. 27 amu?

19.6. Label each of the following formulas as rep- 19.15. How many atoms of fluorine are in 3SF6?
resenting an element or a compound:
19.16. Which of the following equations are bal-

180
anced?
(a) Ca + O2 → CaO
(b) NaOH + HCl → H2O + NaCl
(c) 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
(d) NO2 + H2O → HNO3

19.17. Which of the following is not a compound?

(a) sulfur dioxide
(b) nitrous oxide
(c) water molecule
(d) oxygen molecule
(e) rust

19.18. Which equation is balanced correctly?

(a) H2 + O2 → 2H2O
(b) H2 + O2 → H2O
(c) Ca + Cl2 → CaCl2
(d) S + O2 → SO4
(e) N2 + O2 → NO

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