MUZAFFARPUR

TRAINING REPORT

AT

GRID SUB STATION

MUZAFFARPUR

DURATION-

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Mr. Ranjit Kumar

Assistant Executive Engineer
Ms. Anisha Kumari
J.E.E

SUBMITTED BY

Name-
College-
Course-
Year-
Roll No-
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am highly indebted to the HOD of my & all the faculty members of my department
(Electrical) for providing me an opportunity to have practical exposure in such a public sector
giant.

I am very thankful to HR of my department who made this training possible for me

by all his efforts and his full support and all those who cooperated and provided me the
necessary guidance and also the required inputs in conducting this project.

My special thanks Mr. Praveen Kumar Asstt.Exe.Engg. & Ms. Anisha Kumari J.E.E and
all the members of the Grid Substation, for their valuable &innovative suggestions, continuous
guidance rendered to me in training in a fruitful manner.

1
 Contents
Page Chapter
3 to 4 what is Grid

5 Fig of Transformer

6 to 8 Step down Transformer

9 to 11 Step Up Transformer

11 Potential Transformer

12 to 13 How to calculate Transformer losses

14 How to calculate simple transmission loss

15 to 20 Circuit breaker

21 to 28 Surge arrestor (Lightning arrestor)

29 to 30 Types of Transmission Towers

31 to 34 Relay

35 to 45 Insulator

46 Power transformer

47 to 51 Current transformer

51 to 52 Capacitor voltage transformer

52 to 53 Trans. Switches

54 to 55 Training Report

56 Line diagram of GSS, Muz

2
What Is a Grid Station?
A grid station, also known as a substation, is a point in the chain of electricity distribution where power is stored and
directed onto the power lines and transformers before it reaches the consumer.

Power Creation
o When power is generated at a power plant it is not in a form that can be used by the consumer. The
voltage is too high and must be converted. Power plants also do not have to capacity to store power, so as
it is generated it is sent out along high voltage lines to the grid station for storage.

Transformation
o As power leaves the power plant, the voltage can be between 155,000 to 765,000 volts. For perspective,
the electricity used in homes is either 220-240 volts or 110-120 volts. As electricity leaves the grid station
is has been reduced to about 7,200 volts.
o

Power Use
o While the electric voltage is significantly less when electricity leaves the grid station, it still must be
reduced before it reaches the consumer. Special electrical poles called transformers reduce the voltage
further along the power lines before it goes into the electrical box at a home or business.

3
Do Step-Up Transformers Need More Power Than Step-Down Transformers?

Transformers change voltage and current to keep power constant.

Step-up and step-down transformers do not convert power; their functions are to convert voltage and current while
maintaining a steady power level. Step-up transformers turn low voltage to high voltage, while step-down transformers
convert high voltage to low voltage.

1. Step-Up Transformers
o Step-up transformers take a higher voltage and transform the current to output a lower voltage. The ratio
of a transformer's secondary to primary windings will equal the ratio of its secondary to primary voltage.
Secondary and primary are the output end and input end of a transformer, respectively, and no power is
gained or lost across a step-up transformer.

Step Down Transformers

o The opposite action is performed by step down transformers; they take a lower voltage and adjust the
current to output a higher voltage. Step-down transformers are often used when American consumers
want to plug in their appliances rated for 110V into a European outlet that produces a 220V power supply.
o

Power
o Power across a transformer is calculated using the equation P = IV, where I is the current measured in
amperes and V is the voltage. Because the ratio of outputted voltage to inputted voltage is equal to the
proportion of secondary windings to primary windings, the current will be adjusted as well to keep the
power output equal to the power input.

4
50 MVA Power Transformer
132/33KV

50 MVA Power Transformer

132/33KV

5
Step Down Transformers Home

What is a Step Down Transformer?

Devices that are used to step down electrical current at input power sources, which allow voltage to be
compatible with equipment.
Voltage Transformers
Transformers that are designed for specific applications that need specified electrical voltage.
Step Up Transformers
A transformer that has the secondary winding higher than the primary allowing the transformer to
increase input voltage.
Power Transformers
Devices that convert the incoming line voltage to a higher or lower electrical current to match voltage of
equipment.
Three Phase Transformers
Transformers that are used throughout industry to change values of three phase voltage and current.
Isolation Transformers
Transformers that transfer energy from the alternating current supply to an electrical load. They prevent
certain types of harmonics.
Buck Boost Transformers
Buck Boost devices are used to make small adjustments to incoming voltages such as lighting
applications.
Phase Converters
Devices that convert single phase power into three phase power.
Acme Transformers
Acme Transformers is an industrial leader offering superior service, quality products and technical
service.
Ace Phase Converters
Ace Phase Converter has been in business for 25 years and their professional and experienced
engineering staff can assist you with your phase converter application requirements.

6
 Step Down Transformers
This informative and easy to navigate site is designed to give you knowledgeable
information on step down transformers. There will be helpful articles on other types of transformers giving you
an understanding of the different functions and sizes of these devices. Also, you will read about some of the
leading manufacturers of step down transformers such as Acme and TEMCo, which will introduce you to
experienced and professional companies that can help you in your selection of a high-quality, reliable step
down transformer.

Step down transformers are simple, but very much needed devices. Their basic principal of transforming
voltage has not changed much over the last 100 years. However, the materials and designs of step down
transformers continue to change with updated state-of-the-art technology.

Transformers are electrical devices that transform voltage through magnetic couplings, and they have no
moving parts. There is a magnetic core with one winding of wire placed close to one or more windings, which
can couple two or more alternating-current circuits together by employing the induction between the windings.
The primary winding is connected to the power source and the other windings are known as secondary
windings. If the secondary voltage wire is less than the primary wire, the transformer is called a step down
transformer. If the secondary wiring is of higher voltage, the transformer is a step-up transformer, which
increases voltage input.

Step down transformers can step down incoming voltage, which enables you to have the correct voltage
input for your electrical needs. For example, if your equipment has been specified for input voltage of 110
volts, and the main power supply is 220 volts, you will need a step down transformer, which decreases the
incoming electrical voltage to be compatible with your 110 volt equipment.

Step down transformers come in sizes of a thumb nail to huge sized units for power transmissions or national
power grids. No matter what their size, they all operate with the same basic principles. They can transform
voltage for any application requirement, from running a hair dryer to running large power grids used across the
country.

In most situations, power that travels over power lines is at a higher voltage due to the fact that there are
power losses in route to their destinations. When the power reaches its destination, the power level can be
stepped down. Thus, if power voltage comes through power lines at a higher voltage current than needed,
step down transformers will decrease the voltage input allowing equipment to run with a power source that is
the same voltage.

Always remember, when purchasing a step down transformer, seek out a more reputable and experienced
manufacturer such as Acme Step Down Transformers .

A quality manufacturer will save you money in the long run and will provide you many years of quality service.

7
 Read about the Importance of Step Down Transformers

Step Down Transformers come in sizes as small as thumb nails to as large as big power grid units.

Step Down Transformers are used at large power plants to step down high voltage input.

8
How to Use a Step-Up Transformer to Bring Power to a Rural House

Power companies step up voltage for long distance transmission.

Power companies use step up transformers to increase voltage and decrease current for long distance transmission of
electricity. The resistance of the wire has less effect on lower current so the process results in less power loss along the
line. The higher you increase the voltage level, the lower the losses along the power line. The higher the voltage, the
higher the risks of arcing and electrical shock. Only power company engineers can design an actual system, and only
power companies can perform the actual work.

Instructions
o 1

Design and install a power line to the rural home. The power line should be appropriate for the
distance from the power source to the home, the terrain, the year-round environment and the
power requirements of the house.

o 2

Connect the input of a step up transformer to the power source. The connection should be
appropriate to step up the voltage to the designed voltage of the power line. Do not connect the
transformer to the power line yet.

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 o 3

Connect a step down transformer to the end of the power line near the house. The connection should be
appropriate for the voltage or the power line and the needs of the house.

o 4

Connect the step down transformer to the house. Leave all of the switches to the circuits in the house
open.

Connect the step up transformer at the source to the power line.

o 6

Check the power at the output of the step down transformer at the house. If it functions properly, apply
the power to the house.

Tips & Warnings

Power companies typically double voltage in increments for transmission along power lines. Most home inputs run around
220 volts, stepped down from 440, 880, etc. High voltage power lines that run across country can use hundreds of
thousands of volts.

 Many engineers use power line designing software programs that computes the parameters of the power lines and
transformers.
 Never, under any circumstance, attempt to make a connection to a commercial power line yourself unless you are
a qualified employee of a power company. If you are not specifically trained and qualified, call your power
company.

Wiring a Step Down Transformer

Transformers are electrical devices used to modify an AC signal. A transformer isolates DC electrical energy from one
side of an electrical circuit or changes the voltage from one side of the circuit to the other. When a transformer reduces
signal voltage, the transformer is called a "step-down" transformer. A step-down transformer contains more electrical
windings -- or coil-turns of electrical wire -- at the transformer input, than at the transformer output. The proportion of the
windings from the input to the output is called the "turns ratio."

Instructions

o 1

Cut four pieces of electrical wire. Strip 1/2 inch of insulating material off the ends of each wire.

o 2

Place one end of the first wire against one of the transformer input terminals. Melt a small drop
of solder to both the wire and the terminal. Smooth out the soldered joint with the soldering iron
tip until shiny and free of lumps.

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 o 3

Solder one end of the second wire to the remaining transformer input terminal, using the process
in the first step.

o 4

Solder one end of the third wire to one of the transformer output terminals. Solder one end of the
fourth wire to the remaining transformer output terminal.

o 5

Connect the loose end of the first wire to one of the electrical terminals on the power supply.
Connect the loose end of the second wire to the remaining electrical terminal on the power
supply.

o 6

Turn on the voltmeter and set the scale to "Volts AC." Place the red multimeter probe on the
loose end of the third wire. Place the black multimeter probe on the loose end of the fourth wire.
Read the multimeter display. The voltage reading across these electrical leads is approximately
six volts.

Tips & Warnings

 The input terminals on a transformer are called the "transformer primary," whereas the output terminals are called
the "transformer secondary."

How to Wire a Potential Transformer

Electric companies use potential transformers to measure line-voltage.

Potential transformers let metering devices measure high-voltage power sources that it otherwise could not handle. A
potential transformer performs like an accurate step-down transformer. The high-voltage side of the transformer wires
directly to a voltage source, and a metering device connects to the low-voltage side. This allows technicians to monitor
dangerous high-voltage circuits without exposing themselves to the circuit. A potential transformer's low-voltage side
does not have the ability to withstand high-current loads like a typical step-down transformer. A potential transformer's
low-current load is relatively small in size when compared to a standard step-down transformer.

Instructions

o 1

Inspect the potential transformer's wiring guide. Identify the color-coded high-voltage wires and the
maximum input-voltage rating. Identify the color-coded low-voltage wires and the output voltage. The
potential transformer's high voltage side must connect to a power source below its maximum rating. The
wiring guide also states the potential transformer's ratio.

11
 o 2

Turn the high-voltage power source off, if possible. Usually the power source will have a circuit breaker
labeled "Main."

Inspect the power source's terminal block. Single-phase equipment uses two hot terminals--"L1" and
"L2"--and three-phase equipment uses three hot terminals--"L1" "L2" and "L3." The terminal block
provides a convenient place for a potential transformer to connect to the power source.

o 4

Connect the potential transformer's color-coded high-voltage wires to the power source's terminal block.
Connect the wire labeled "L1" to the "L1" terminal, the "L2" wire to the "L2" terminal and, if used, the
"L3" wire to the "L3" terminal. If the terminal block uses retaining screws to hold the wires in place, then
loosen the terminal block's retaining screws with a flat-head screwdriver, slip each of the potential
transformer's high-voltage wires into its respective terminal and tighten the retaining screws. If the
terminal block uses wire connectors, then slip each of the potential transformer's wires into its respective
connector.

o 5

Connect the metering device to the transformer's low-voltage terminal screws. Often the device screws
directly to the transformer's terminals. If the device requires wire between the transformer and the device,
then use the shortest wire possible and wrap the wire around the terminal screw before tightening the
screw.

How to Calculate Transformer Losses

Every transformer has loss. The loss in a transformer compares the input, or primary power, to the output, or secondary
power. Most transformer data show their input and output voltages and the current ratings of both sides. A step-up
transformer increases voltage, but decreases current. A step-down transformer decreases voltage but increases current.
Power in watts (P) equals voltage (E)

12
multiplied by current in amperes (I) or (P=IE). A transformer cannot increase power. To calculate the loss of a transformer
you need to know the actual voltage and current in both the primary and secondary.

Instructions

o 1

Multiply the voltage in volts by the current in amps of the primary of the transformer. Record the figure.

o 2

Multiply the voltage in volts by the current in amps of the secondary of the transformer. Record the
figure.

o 3

Subtract the secondary power from the primary power. The answer equals your power loss. Example: the
primary voltage of 440 volts with a current of 3 amps equals a power of 1320 watts. A secondary voltage
of 220 volts with current at 5.7 amps equals a power of 1210 watts. Subtracting 1254 from 1320 equals 66
watts, which indicates that your transformer loses 66 watts, mostly in the heat it dissipates.

Tips & Warnings

 To calculate the transformer efficiency, divide the output power by the input power. Example: with an output
power of 1254 watts for an input power of 1320 watts, divide 1254 by 1320, which equals .95, or an efficiency of
95 percent.

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How to Calculate a Simple Transmission Loss

Electricity is lost to heat as it is transmitted through power lines.

Because electricity flows over great distances in transmission lines, some voltage is bound to be lost in the form of heat.
Transformers are used to raise the voltage in the lines so that the amperage is low, as the amount of power lost is a
function of the square of the current. The longer the transmission line, the greater the volume of the wire, giving it a
greater resistance. The line loss formula is derived from Ohm's Law, which states that the power dissipated is equal to I^2
* R, where I is the current and R is the resistance.

Instructions

o 1

Determine the resistance of the wire that the electricity is flowing through. Find the cross section of the
wire and multiply by the length to get the volume. Next, multiply the volume by the resistivity of the
material to find its resistance. Copper, a popular conductor, has a resistivity of 0.000999 Ohms per foot.

o 2

Determine the voltage of the power source. Electricity is usually transmitted between 110 and 500
kilovolts. This voltage is determined by the step up transformer at the electric power plant.

o 3

Find the power being either generated or consumed. These values typically match in order to keep the
electric grid stable. The Nine Mile Point nuclear plant in Oswego, NY, for example, produces 1,758
Megawatts of power.

14
 o 4

Substitute these values into the equation P(loss) = I^2 * R. The current, I, is calculated by dividing the
voltage by the resistance. Square this and multiply it by the resistance you calculated in step 1. The loss
will be measured in watts.

Circuit Breaker

High-voltage circuit breakers

115 kV bulk oil circuit breaker

15
 400 kV SF6 live tank circuit breakers

Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers. The definition of
high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a
recent definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are nearly
always solenoid-operated, with current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. In
substations the protective relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and buses from various types of
overload or ground/earth fault.

High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc.

 Bulk oil
 Minimum oil
 Air blast
 Vacuum
 SF6

Some of the manufacturers are ABB, GE (General Electric), Tavrida Electric, Alstom, Mitsubishi Electric,
Pennsylvania Breaker, Siemens, Toshiba, Končar HVS, BHEL, CGL, Square D (Schneider Electric),
Becker/SMC (SMC Electrical Products).

Due to environmental and cost concerns over insulating oil spills, most new breakers use SF6 gas to quench the
arc.

Circuit breakers can be classified as live tank, where the enclosure that contains the breaking mechanism is at
line potential, or dead tank with the enclosure at earth potential. High-voltage AC circuit breakers are routinely
available with ratings up to 765 kV. 1200kV breakers were launched by Siemens in November 2011[8], followed
by ABB in April the following year.[9]

High-voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a single pole of a three-
phase line to trip, instead of tripping all three poles; for some classes of faults this improves the system stability
and availability.

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Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) high-voltage circuit-breakers

A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride gas to quench the arc.
They are most often used for transmission-level voltages and may be incorporated into compact gas-insulated
switchgear. In cold climates, supplemental heating or de-rating of the circuit breakers may be required due to
liquefaction of the SF6 gas.

Disconnecting circuit breaker (DCB)

The disconnecting circuit breaker (DCB) was introduced in 2000[10] and is a high-voltage circuit breaker
modeled after the SF6-breaker. It presents a technical solution where the disconnecting function is integrated in
the breaking chamber, eliminating the need for separate disconnectors. This increases the availability, since
open-air disconnecting switch main contacts need maintenance every 2-6 years, while modern circuit breakers
have maintenance intervals of 15 years. Implementing a DCB solution also reduces the space requirements
within the substation, as well as the reliability, due to the lack of separate disconnectors.[11][12]

Other breakers
The following types are described in separate articles.

 Breakers for protections against earth faults too small to trip an over-current device:
o Residual-current device (RCD, formerly known as a residual current circuit breaker) — detects
current imbalance, but does not provide over-current protection.
o Residual current breaker with over-current protection (RCBO) — combines the functions of an
RCD and an MCB in one package. In the United States and Canada, panel-mounted devices that
combine ground (earth) fault detection and over-current protection are called Ground Fault
Interrupter (GFI) breakers; a wall mounted outlet device or separately enclosed plug-in device
providing ground fault detection and interruption only (no overload protection) is called a
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI).
o Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)—This detects earth current directly rather than detecting
imbalance. They are no longer seen in new installations for various reasons.
 Autorecloser—A type of circuit breaker that closes automatically after a delay. These are used on
overhead power distribution systems, to prevent short duration faults from causing sustained outages.
 Polyswitch (polyfuse)—A small device commonly described as an automatically resetting fuse rather
than a circuit breaker.

There are three common types of circuit breakers. The basic parts of a circuit breaker are the switch and a moving,
conductive contact plate that moves the switch when electricity comes into contact with it. In the circuit box the contact
plate is connected to a stationary plate that allows electricity to flow; but if the circuit is overloaded the contact plate will
force the switch to flip and break the electrical flow.

A magnetic circuit breaker uses electromagnetism to break the circuit. The electromagnet on this circuit breaker gets
stronger with the flow of electricity. When the electrical load exceeds the prescribed currency the electromagnet will be
powerful enough to force the circuit breaker lever down and move the contact plate which flips the switch.

Another kind of circuit breaker is the thermal circuit breaker which uses heat to break the circuit. With a bimetallic strip
(two types of metal; one on each side) this circuit breaker responds to the extreme heat of the electrical current. Each type
of metal expands differently to bend the strip. When the electricity is too strong then the strip is bent at an angle which
will turn over the contact plate and break the circuit.

17
The third type of circuit breaker combines electromagnetism and heat. This device has an electromagnet that protects
against sudden surges in the electrical load and a bimetallic strip that protects against prolonged electrical overload and
overheating.

When purchasing circuit breakers for your home you will need to discuss your options with your electrician and select the
best type of circuit breaker for your needs.

Ground Fault Interrupter Circuit Breakers

Basic circuit breakers will detect a circuit overload and automatically “trip” or shut off in order to protect the electrical
system. Ground fault interrupter (GFI) circuit breakers go one step further to detect problems due to electricity being
"grounded" by something that's not part of the electrical system. They're used in places that are exposed to water; for
instance, they're what prevent you from getting electrocuted even if you get a hairdryer wet.

A typical circuit breaker has a 15 amp rating and is used to handle lighting, and other electrical outlets in the home. Some
rooms may require more than one 15 amp rating resulting in multiple breakers. A GFI circuit breaker is used in wet areas
such as bathrooms, kitchens, laundry rooms, garages, outside, etc. The GFI breaker is required unless GFI protection is
already installed at the outlet locations.

If you are not sure that you have the GFI protection in your home because you live in an older home that may not be “up-
to-code” then you can have an electrician inspect your circuit breaker panel and electrical wiring to make sure you have
this important protection.

High Voltage Circuit Breakers: Oil Circuit Breakers

Oil circuit breakers are high-voltage circuit breakers that have their contacts immersed in oil. The smaller oil circuit
breakers have their poles in one tank of oil; several breakers share one tank. The larger high-voltage industrial circuit
breakers require a tank of oil for each pole The oil tanks are sealed around the oil circuit breakers and electrical
connections are made through porcelain bushings. Oil circuit breakers work by using oil to quench an electrical arc; the
oil causes current interruption when needed. The oil cools the large arcs of electricity so that the circuits do not overheat.
The main disadvantages of oil circuit breakers is the fact that the oil can be flammable and it may be hard to keep the oil
fresh and in good condition (requires changing and purifying the oil). If you use oil circuit breakers, make sure that you
know how to maintain them correctly. Always do your research and select the type of circuit breaker that will best fits
your needs.

How Many Circuit Breakers?

The circuit breaker panel in your home contains separate circuits for various areas in your home. Each circuit can handle a
certain power load. If this load is exceeded because something is drawing too much power (a stripped wire, for instance,
or even just running too many appliances at once) the circuit breaker will interrupt that particular circuit. So if you only
lose power in one or two rooms of your house, you should check the breaker panel before you calls the power company.
Because of the growing popularity of electrical appliances and “toys” like home entertainments systems, big television
sets, and computers, many experts will agree that you should plan for your power use to grow, and install more circuit
breakers rather than fewer.

When building a new home you should make sure that you meet with your electrician to specify how many circuits to set
up throughout the house. There are codes and regulations that the electrician must follow, so you can't ask them to wire
your house in a way that would be unsafe. It is wise to request a minimum of a 200 amp circuit panel with 40 circuit
breakers. Now 40 may sound like too many and you may not use them all right away, but if you purchase new equipment
or decide to add on to the house, you will have your circuit breakers all ready wired and all you have to do is tie them into
the main system.

Installing enough the circuits during construction will save a lot of work later. Adding a circuit to an existing house
requires running more wire through the walls. If the circuit box is already wired for more breakers it is simple to connect
the additional circuit breakers in the home.

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How to Add a New Circuit Breaker

If your home does not have enough circuit breakers to handle the electrical load of the household then you may have to
add additional circuit breakers. An overloaded circuit can trip off often or may even become an overheated circuit breaker.
In order to relieve some of the pressure you can install an additional circuit breaker in the circuit panel.

Before adding a new circuit breaker you will need to make sure that you have enough amps to handle the extra load and
check building codes to see if you need to get a permit first. Once you have covered all the bases then you are ready to
add a new circuit breaker.

If you aren't a certified electrician, you should have one come and do the work for you. If you know the proper
procedures, you can proceed with the new circuit breaker installation process.

First, turn off the power to the main breaker and make sure there are no live wires in the circuit panel.

Now, remove the panel cover and the knockouts so that you have space for the new circuit breaker. Next, using insulated
tools install the proper cable connector allowing enough free cable to snake around the breaker box.

Using an insulated cable stripper proceed to strip the outer insulation of the cable wires and feed them into the correct
locations. Connect the ground wire by running it to the ground bus wire.

A single-pole breaker (120-volt circuit) will have the white wire connected to the neutral bus bar and the black wire
connected to the breaker. Once the wires are connected then you will install the circuit breaker and push it into place.

The last step is to test the circuit to make sure it works properly. If it does not work then you connected the wires wrong
or there is something wrong with the new circuit breaker.

How to Locate the Main Electrical Circuit Breaker

The “main circuit breaker” is usually located at the top of the circuit breaker panel, and it looks like two connected circuit
breaker switches. It's important to know where this power box is located in case of an emergency or natural disaster. In
many cases you will need to turn off the power to your home if you have an emergency such as a flood, hurricane or
earthquake. If the power lines to your house are damaged or exposed, they can be extremely dangerous.

The main circuit breaker, often called the “Double Pole Service Disconnect” supplies power to the home. It will turn on or
off all of the power to the entire house at once. The electrical power to a home comes directly from the electrical
company’s power line through the electric meter to your main circuit box.

Educate your family on the location of the main breaker box that powers your household. Make sure they know how to
disconnect power in an emergency. This information may help prevent disaster, injury or even save a life.

Is Recycled or Refurbished Acceptable?

The growing awareness of the importance of reusing and recycling material and equipment have opened up new doors for
all kinds of products. Some electrical equipment and devices can be safely recycled and/or refurbished for reuse.

If you live in an older home it may be impossible to find the right brand and model of circuit breaker to match the other
circuit breakers in the breaker box. This can making changing a circuit breaker next to impossible. If this is the case then a
refurbished circuit breaker may be your only choice. There are companies that sell refurbished, obsolete circuit breakers
and other electrical devices. These companies will certify the refurbished equipment by testing the functionality of the
parts and repairing any problems. Purchasing refurbished parts can be done safely by doing some research first. You
should always purchase recycled parts from a reputable company. Research the company by searching the Internet,
getting references from friends or consulting an electrician. Check the Better Business Bureau in order to make sure the
company’s record is clean.

19
Once you have found a reputable company then you should be able to safely purchase a workable part to use in your
home.

New Arc Fault Breakers

Traditional circuit breakers are designed to switch off when there is a circuit overload. This feature is supposed to help
prevent wires from overheating because the power is cut when the electrical circuit breaker trips, but electrical fires are
still a risk with traditional circuit breakers. In fact, while these breakers are designed to protect the wire behind the walls
and the outlets, they do not have fire protection or fire stopping features. Fire producing arcs of electricity can occur in the
wall before traditional breakers have time to react.

Because of electrical fire danger and the reality of electrical fires in homes it may be worth the investment to purchase
new arc fault breakers for your house. The added protection not only gives you “peace of mind”, but it may also save you
thousands of dollars in fire damage. Staying up-to-date on new circuit breaker information is extremely helpful for
homeowners.

The new arc fault circuit breaker functions similarly to a traditional circuit breaker but it has small filters and detection
devices that sense an intense arc just as it is about to spark. If that was only true with relationship troubles. When arcing
conditions are present then the breaker will flip instantly.

What are Circuit Breakers?

Circuit breakers are electrical devices used to automatically “break” an electrical circuit when it becomes overloaded. This
safety mechanism can save a home or building from having a major electrical disaster.

When electrical wires are forced to carry an electrical current that is over their set capacity, the circuit breaker flips off the
electricity. If you have an older electrical system, an electrical short may blow a fuse, which is a little different than a
circuit breaker.

A blown fuse has to be replaced, but a flipped circuit breaker can usually be reset. If the circuit breaker continues to kick
off the electricity when reset then the situation may be more serious than just an accidental short circuit from a power
surge or electrical overload. In this situation the wiring to the circuit should be inspected and tested by a professional
either an electrician or someone from an electrical equipment company. In some cases, however, you may just be trying to
use too much power at once. Having many appliances on at one time can overload a circuit.

What Do Electrical Arcs Have To Do With Circuit Breakers?

If you’ve ever seen a welder working on a building, you know a little bit about the power of an electric arc. Put simply,
it’s a stream of electrons passing through space from one material to another. This stream of electrons can be very strong,
strong enough to melt metal or, in the wrong circumstances, start fires.
So how does this apply to circuit breakers? Basically, circuit breakers are just switches. If everything’s working, the
switch is closed, and electricity flows across the breaker into your home. If something happens to overload the circuit,
however, a device in the breaker flips the switch open so that no more electricity can cross. That’s when arcs become
important. If enough electricity was going through the breaker when it opened, there’s a chance that even after the
contacts of the switch separate electrons could continue to pass between them, creating an arc that will continue to supply
too much electricity to the circuit and become a separate hazard to anyone who tries to use the circuit breaker panel to turn
off power. Because of this, most circuit breakers are equipped with special devices that are designed to “blow out” or
dispel an arc before it can cause problems. It’s important to learn about these devices and make sure you pick breakers
that suit your power needs.
Power line communication

Power line communication (PLC) is a system for carrying data on a conductor that is also used for electric power
transmission. It is also known as power line carrier, power line digital subscriber line (PDSL), mains
communication, power line telecom (PLT), power line networking (PLN), and broadband over power lines (BPL)

20
A wide range of power line communication technologies are needed for different applications, ranging from home
automation to Internet access. Electrical power is transmitted over long distances using high voltage transmission lines,
distributed over medium voltages, and used inside buildings at lower voltages. Most PLC technologies limit themselves to
one set of wires (such as premises wiring within a single building), but some can cross between two levels (for example,
both the distribution network and premises wiring). Typically transformers prevent propagating the signal, which requires
multiple technologies to form very large networks. Various data rates and frequencies are used in different situations.

A number of difficult technical problems are common between wireless and power line communication, notably those of
spread spectrum radio signals operating in a crowded environment. Potential interference, for example, has long been a
concern of amateur radio groups.

Basics

Power line communications systems operate by impressing a modulated carrier signal on the wiring system. Different
types of power line communications use different frequency bands, depending on the signal transmission characteristics of
the power wiring used. Since the power distribution system was originally intended for transmission of AC power at
typical frequencies of 50 or 60Hz, power wire circuits have only a limited ability to carry higher frequencies. The
propagation problem is a limiting factor for each type of power line communications.Data rates and distance limits vary
widely over many power line communication standards. Low-frequency (about 100–200 kHz) carriers impressed on high-
voltage transmission lines may carry one or two analog voice circuits, or telemetry and control circuits with an equivalent
data rate of a few hundred bits per second; however, these circuits may be many miles long. Higher data rates generally

imply shorter ranges; a local area network operating at millions of bits per second may only cover one floor of an office
building, but eliminates the need for installation of dedicated network cabling.

Why wave trap in switchyard either in one phase or in two phases why you not use wave trap in three phases?

Most of the time I see wavetraps on single phases. A wave trap is simply a low pass or band block filter. It is used to
block the transmission of carrier waves from propogating beyond where they are desired. Usually these carrier waves are
injected onto a single phase for each application, but there is nothing stopping someone from injecting on two or all three,
other than the additional cost of injection equipment (additional cost that does not provide much benefit, I might add).

The coupling in three phase lines will cause some of the signal injected on one phase to show up on the other two, but it is
usually not enough to justify wave traps on these other phases.

Lightning arrester

Powerline worker performs maintenance of a lightning arrestor on an electrical transmission tower .

A lightning arrester (surge arrester) is a device used on electrical power systems and
telecommunications systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging
effects of lightning. The typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal.
When a lightning surge (or switching surge, which is very similar) travels along the power line to the
arrester, the current from the surge is diverted through the arrestor, in most cases to earth.
In telegraphy and telephony, a lightning arrestor is placed where wires enter a structure, preventing
damage to electronic instruments within and ensuring the safety of individuals near them. Smaller
21
 versions of lightning arresters, also called surge protectors, are devices that are connected between each
electrical conductor in power and communications systems and the Earth. These prevent the flow of the
normal power or signal currents to ground, but provide a path over which high-voltage lightning current
flows, bypassing the connected equipment. Their purpose is to limit the rise in voltage when a
communications or power line is struck by lightning or is near to a lightning strike.
If protection fails or is absent, lightning that strikes the electrical system introduces thousands of
kilovolts that may damage the transmission lines, and can also cause severe damage to transformers and
other electrical or electronic devices. Lightning-produced extreme voltage spikes in incoming power
lines can damage electrical home appliances.

Components

Simple spark gap device diverts lightning strike to ground (earth).

A potential target for a lightning strike, such as a television antenna, is attached to the terminal labeled A
in the photograph. Terminal E is attached to a long rod buried in the ground. Ordinarily no current will
flow between the antenna and the ground because there is extremely high resistance between B and C,
and also between C and D. The voltage of a lightning strike, however, is many times higher than that
needed to move electrons through the two air gaps. The result is that electrons go through the lightning
arrester rather than traveling on to the television set and destroying it.
 A lightning arrester may be a spark gap or may have a block of a semiconducting material such as
silicon carbide or zinc oxide. Some spark gaps are open to the air, but most modern varieties are filled
with a precision gas mixture, and have a small amount of radioactive material to encourage the gas to
ionize when the voltage across the gap reaches a specified level. Other designs of lightning arresters use
a glow-discharge tube (essentially like a neon glow lamp) connected between the protected conductor
and ground, or voltage-activated solid-state switches called varistors or MOVs.
 Lightning arresters built for power substation use are impressive devices, consisting of a porcelain tube
several feet long and several inches in diameter, typically filled with disks of zinc oxide. A safety port
on the side of the device vents the occasional internal explosion without shattering the porcelain
cylinder.
 Lightning arresters are rated by the peak current they can withstand, the amount of energy they can
absorb, and the breakover voltage that they require to begin conduction. They are applied as part of a
lightning protection system, in combination with air terminals and bonding.
LIGHTNING ARRESTERS
The earthling screen and ground wires can well protect the electrical system against direct lightning
strokes but they fail to provide protection against travelling waves, which may reach the terminal
apparatus. The lightning arresters or surge diverters provide protection against such surges. A lightning
arrester or a surge diverter is a protective device, which conducts the high voltage surges on the power
system to the ground

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
 Fig 7(i) shows the basic form of a surge diverter. It consists of a spark gap in series with a non-linear
resistor. One end of the diverter is connected to the terminal of the equipment to be protected and the
other end is effectively grounded. The length of the gap is so set that normal voltage is not enough to
cause an arc but a dangerously high voltage will break down the air insulation and form an arc. The
property of the non-linear resistance is that its resistance increases as the voltage (or current) increases
and vice-versa. This is clear from the volt/amp characteristic of the resistor shown in Fig 7 (ii).
 The action of the lightning arrester or surge diverter is as under:
 (i) Under normal operation, the lightning arrester is off the line i.e. it conducts no current to earth or the
gap is non-conducting
 (ii) On the occurrence of over voltage, the air insulation across the gap breaks down and an arc is formed
providing a low resistance path for the surge to the ground. In this way, the excess charge on the line due
to the surge is harmlessly conducted through the arrester to the ground instead of being sent back over
the line.
 (iii) It is worthwhile to mention the function of non-linear resistor in the operation of arrester. As the gap
sparks over due to over voltage, the arc would be a short-circuit on the power system and may cause
power-follow current in the arrester. Since the characteristic of the resistor is to offer low resistance to
high voltage (or current), it gives the effect of short-circuit. After the surge is over, the resistor offers
high resistance to make the gap non-conducting.

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 TYPES OF LIGHTNING ARRESTERS
There are several types of lightning arresters in general use. They differ only in constructional details
but operate on the same principle viz, providing low resistance path for the surges to the round.
Following are the different types of lightning relays:
1. Rod arrester
2.Horn gap arrester
3. Multigap arrester
4. Expulsion type lightning arrester
5. Valve type lightning arrested

How does a lightning arrestor work?

ANSWER I: Lightning, is a form of visible discharge of electricity between rain clouds or between a rain
cloud and the earth. The electric discharge is seen in the form of a brilliant arc, sometimes several
kilometres long, stretching between the discharge points. How thunderclouds become charged is not fully
understood, but most thunderclouds are negatively charged at the base and positively charged at the top.
However formed, the negative charge at the base of the cloud induces a positive charge on the earth
beneath it, which acts as the second plate of a huge capacitor.

When the electrical potential between two clouds or between a cloud and the earth reaches a sufficiently
high value (about 10,000 V per cm or about 25,000 V per in), the air becomes ionized along a narrow path
and a lightning flash results.

Many meteorologists believe that this is how a negative charge is carried to the ground and the total
negative charge of the surface of the Earth is maintained.

The possibility of discharge is high on tall trees and buildings rather than to ground. Buildings are protected
from lightning by metallic lightning rods extending to the ground from a point above the highest part of the
roof. The conductor has a pointed edge on one side and the other side is connected to a long thick copper
strip which runs down the building. The lower end of the strip is properly earthed. When lightning strikes it
hits the rod and current flows down through the copper strip. These rods form a low-resistance path for the
lightning discharge and prevent it from travelling through the structure itself

Surge Arresters

Elpro International Ltd. is India's largest and among the leading companies in South Asia in the design, manufacture and
supply of distribution, intermediate and station class Metal Oxide Surge Arresters with technology from GE, USA. In tune
with changing times and technology, Elpro's products were first upgraded from 2H type Intermediate Arresters to Active-
Gap technology and, a few years later, again upgraded to Metal Oxide Arresters, alternatively known as Gapless. Besides
technical advantages, Gapless Arresters provide significant cost savings in insulation compared to similar traditional Gap-
type Arresters.

Arresters of special design are also built to meet specific application requirements. The Mogard Surge Arrester consists of
a stack of Zinc Oxide discs mounted in a sealed porcelain housing. Each disc is wedged by means of a silicon rubber
wedge, which offers better heat transfer capability and protection against physical damage during transport. The pressure
relief device is an integral part of the Mogard Arrester and prevents violent shattering of the Arrester if wrongly operated.

24
What is a surge arrestor?

Surge arrestor or protector is a protecting unit which prevents damage of sensitive electronic equipments due to line
surges. Line surges are sudden and random changes in line voltage. It simply blocks such random signals to protect
appliances.

A ground system with radials and a perimeter ground that is well-made, and cables that are routed in a way that minimizes
tower take-off voltages and coupling, can direct about 90% of the lightning's energy directly to ground. That percentage is
somewhat of an upper limit; it is better even than most professional jobs will achieve. In fact, a common assumption in the
pro-lightning-arrestor world is that 50% of the surge will go directly to ground. No matter how well the ground system is,
it still leaves plenty of energy going down your power cables and into the electronics. Something will have to deal with
this so it does no damage, and that is where lightning and surge arrestors come in.

Surge arrestors work by shorting excess voltage from a signal or power carrying conductor to ground. This diverts the
surge energy to ground, instead of going through sensitive electronics. If the device is meant to handle the large voltages
and currents of a direct lightning strike it goes by the name 'lightning arrestor'. The name 'surge suppressor' is also used,
normally in the context of devices that can handle small surges, such as power bars and the like (Advertising will have us
believe that all these devices are lightning arrestors, but that is wishful thinking on the advertiser's part). Surge arrestors
need a good ground to work properly. In the absence of a good ground a surge arrestor may be able to keep the voltage
differentials between the device's conductors within limits, but the device and ground potential as a whole may get raised
by several million Volt with respect to ground potential some distance away. This will likely result in a spark to the
nearest ground, usually taking an unintended and unexpected route. Bad Things Will Happen™, and very, very likely the
magic smoke will be let out of the electronic devices...

There are roughly three types of surge arrestors: The first type employs some type of spark gap. These days the spark gap
is usually enclosed by a capsule and some type of gas is employed so it has predictable properties. These devices are often
called gas discharge tubes, or GDTs. The good thing about a GTD is that can handle very large currents, in fact the better
ones can handle a direct lightning strike. The bad news is that they are relatively slow to respond, allowing a relatively
large voltage surge to pass through before kicking in and shorting out the surge. That voltage is generally larger than
electronics can handle. The second type of arrestor uses a metal oxide that becomes conductive in the presence of a strong
electrical field. These metal oxide varistors (MOVs) act as a resistor that conducts better and better as the current though it
increases. The let-through voltage of an MOV is much lower than that of a GTD, but their current handling capacity is
smaller and the let-through voltage can still get quite large for large currents. Another bad property of MOVs is that they
tend to fail after a number of high-current conduction cycles, and when they fail they do so as a short-circuit. That means
they should be fused in some way to avoid overheating or overloading of the circuit that they are

protecting. The third type of surge arrestor are semi-conductors such as zener diodes. They have the lowest let-through
voltage and the best controlled clamping behaviour of the various arrestor types. Their weak point is that their current
handling capabilities are the smallest of all. Surge arrestors are rated through various parameters. The important ones are
their rated voltage (the normal operating voltage of the device, where it does not affect normal operation), their nominal
discharge current (the normal current they can handle repeatedly when clamping a surge), their let-through voltage (the
maximum voltage left over by the device when it is clamping, usually at their nominal discharge current), and their
response time (how long it takes for the arrestor to respond to a surge). The let-through voltage is sometimes described as
'clamp voltage' or 'residual voltage'. 25
What is still missing from this is the type of surge the device is tested with and rated for. A slow surge of 40 kA causes the
device to absorb a great deal more energy than a fast surge with the same current. In North America surge arrestors are
almost always rated using an "8/20" waveform. This means the current ramps up to the device's nominal discharge current
in 8 μs, and then goes down to 50% in 20 μs. This waveform is a good approximation of an
indirect of secondary strike; where the lines are not struck directly. For example, a nearby
ground strike, an overhead cloud-to-cloud strike, or a strike half a mile down the road on the
power lines would cause this type of waveform. There is a second waveform that is used mostly
in Europe and describes a direct lightning strike, a "10/350" waveform. You can figure out for
yourself what those numbers mean (and if it is not clear, take look at the figure below).

The curve labeled "1" is typical of a lightning arrestor's capability, while the curve labeled "2" is typical for a surge
arrestor. The green (and red) shaded area is a measure of the energy the device needs to absorb; the graph illustrates how
different the two devices are. How much current handling is needed? It depends. Say you have a good ground system,
wired things up with lightning in mind, and 80% of lightning current goes directly to ground. We know that 95% of
lightning strikes have currents of 100 kA or less. Our lightning arrestor will therefore have to deal with a current of up to
20 kA to cover 95% of strikes.

Very much in general, an arrest or that is placed in a location that is expected to see direct lightning strikes should be able
to handle at least 12.5 kA per phase tested with a 10/350 waveform, an arrest or that is placed where induced (indirect)
surges are expected should be able to handle at least 10 kA many times and at least 25 kA peak current handling, tested
with an 8/20 waveform. For grid voltage systems, the residual voltage should be kept below approximately 1 kV. For
other lines, it is generally desirable to keep the residual voltage at or below about 4x the normal line voltage. Most
electronic devices can handle this without damage. Most arrestors on the North American market are rated with an 8/20
waveform. Very few are available that are rated and tested with a 10/350 waveform, one brand that makes them is Dehn
from Germany. In most cases a 10/350 device needs to be combined with the properly coordinated 8/20 follow-up device
to make the residual voltage low enough. Devices rated for 10/350 surges are generally some type of spark gap device,
usually employing gas discharge tubes. As mentioned, these devices excel at eating the very high currents from a direct
lightning strike, making them good devices for this purpose. Their downside is that they leave a high let-through voltage
behind, generally too high for electronics to survive. That means a 10/350 arrestor has to be teamed up with another surge
arrestor, an 8/20 rated type, that then treats the left-over so electronics can handle what remains of the surge. The tricky
part is that it is not a good idea to put multiple surge arrestors on the same line.

What usually happens is that one of the devices (the one that is fastest to respond, or that has the lowest response voltage)
ends up handling the entire surge. Usually that is the weaker of the devices, killing it in the process and leaving the
electronics vulnerable again. There are several ways around this; the first method is to have enough wire between the
10/350 device and the 8/20 rated arrestor that the two are electrically decoupled. When there is at least 50 feet of wire it
will have a high enough impedance for surges that the 8/20 device will work independently of the 10/350 arrestor. If there
is not enough distance available to do this, the second method is to employ a surge arrestor that has the needed impedance
to decouple the arrestors build into it, in the form of a few coils. These are combination devices that have a 10/350
arrestor and an 8/20 arrestor in one package. Then there are families of 10/350 and 8/20 devices that are designed to work
together without any additional decoupling. They work well, though the good ones are not cheap. 26
It should be clear from the above that there is no single ideal surge arrestor device. That means a combination of devices
needs to be employed to provide effective lighting arresting. A divide and conquer strategy. By dividing responsibilities
we can also put a little redundancy into the system; when one device fails it does not immediately leave the entire system
vulnerable. For a typical wind turbine install this means there should be a lightning arrestor close to the wind turbine
alternator, to protect the alternator and slip-rings, and to take as much energy as possible off the turbine wires before they
go to the inverter or charge controller (or batteries). Since the turbine is very much exposed to the elements and can get hit
by a direct strike this requires a 10/350 rated device. Hopefully the turbine wiring goes underground for some distance
from there (50 feet or more), adding enough inductance to the system to decouple from the direct lightning current and
turn the left-over surge into something that resembles more of an 8/20 waveform. Therefore, directly before the
electronics (rectifier, inverter, charge controller, or batteries) an 8/20 rated surge arrestor is a good choice. The other side
of the electronics, the grid side, needs protecting too. If this is not exposed to direct strikes an 8/20 device is all it takes
here. For locations with overhead grid lines prone to direct strikes it takes another 10/350 device, and a subsequent 8/20
arrestor down the line (or a combination device) to properly protect this. In case there are any additional wires coming or
going to the electronics, such as Internet, phone, or DC from photovoltaics, they will need surge protection too. It only
takes a single unprotected line to bring in a surge that will do thousands of dollars in damage.

A good surge arrestor is one that is fast enough to react to a surge, so the surge gets shorted to ground before it
rises to the point of doing damage. The pass-through voltage should also be low enough for the application, so
the equipment behind it survives what is left over. The surge arrestor should be rated for a sufficiently high
current, and waveform, to do the job that it is intended for. Very important, the surge arrestor should be able to
handle that current not just once, but many times. The bad news is that many manufacturers of arrestors, even a
few respected ones, publish the one-time surge rating for their device, making it seem as if it can handle a great
deal of current. While this has its place, we want to make sure the device is rated for multiple surges of the
current that it needs to shunt to ground. It does not much good to have a surge arrestor that we believe was rated
for the job, but that after a single strike is no longer working. Standards differ, but look for the surge current
capacity of the device that it can handle at least several thousand times, and look for the waveform that goes
with this current. For example, a much respected manufacturer advertises what is essentially a 10 kA 8/20
device as a 90 kA device, just because it can handle a single 90 kA surge. Do not fall for this trap! A good surge
arrestor should make it easy to see when the device is no longer protecting the lines, for example because its
surge rating has been exceeded one too many times. This can mean there is a flag on the device, or an indicator
light, that shows the device needs to be replaced. Finally, for devices that fail in a state that shorts out the line to
ground, it should have a fuse or other disconnect mechanism incorporated in it. To protect the system from
overload and possibly overheating.

As described in the wiring section, we want to hook up surge arrestors so there is a 'protected side' and an
'unprotected side'. The unprotected wires carry the large surge currents, including the ground wire. By keeping
the protected wires away from the unprotected wires the induced surge voltages and currents are kept to a
minimum.

27
By placing all the renewable energy related electronics in close proximity it is possible to create an 'island of
protection': All incoming and outgoing wires are protected by surge arrestors, and all the devices can be
grounded by short, direct ground straps to the same ground bar. This will keep any voltage difference between
devices due to surges to a minimum, and that will hopefully keep the magic smoke inside. While this can
protect the electronics in one spot, it will do little to help protect the rest of the house. It is certainly no luxury to
add surge protectors to the various (other) lines that come into house. The service entrance (breaker panel) is a
prime candidate, even if you already have a surge arrestor on the grid side of the inverter. Other candidates are
the phone, Internet, cable-TV, and the well-pump wires. Especially the latter are often overlooked when it
comes to the surge damage potential from a nearby strike. Hopefully the information on these web pages will
give you an idea of how lightning does its dirty work, and help you decide for yourself what protection makes
sense, and where to place it.

Even with good surge arrestors at key points, there is still a need for (smaller) surge suppressors locally near
sensitive equipment. This is because a nearby lightning strike can generate large voltage surges due to inductive
coupling into the house wiring. So do not discount that power bar with build-in arrestor just yet. It too has its
place.

Once again, to be effective surge arrestors need to be connected with short and straight wires. In case of
multiple wires, tie them together (so they run closely in parallel), but keep the ground wires away from the
power or signal wires. Every foot of wire from a surge arrestor (or its ground lead) adds roughly 300 Volt to the
let-through voltage due to its inductance, for an 8/20 surge. That underlines the importance of keeping the
arrestor wires short.

28
Types of Transmission Towers

Tension type Suspension type

Transmission towers relay electric current, and come in several major types.

Transmission towers are used to pass signal wires and electrical current from place to place. They are usually made of
steel and can run at times for long distances. Transmission towers are most often used when there is a large amount of
electrical current to be distributed, usually between 115,000 and 765,000 volts. Several different designs of transmission
towers are in wide use in the world today.

1. Lattice Steel Towers

o Lattice steel towers are made up of many different steel structural components connected together with
bolts or welded. Many different types of lattice steel towers exist. These towers are also called self-
supporting transmission towers or free-standing towers, due to their ability to support themselves. These
towers are not always made of steel; they can also be made of aluminum or galvanized steel.

Tubular Steel Poles

o Tubular steel poles are another of the major types of transmission towers. They are made up of hollow
steel poles. Tubular steel poles can be manufactured as one large piece, or as several small pieces which
fit together.

Single and Double Circuit Towers

o Both tubular and lattice steel towers can be designed so as to support either one or two circuits of
electrical current. Double-circuit towers hold the different conductors stacked atop one another, while in
single-circuit towers the conductors are lined up horizontally.

Guyed Towers

o Guyed towers take up a lot of space, and are therefore only used in parts of the world where land use
policy allows them. They consist of two masts supported by four guys, or support cables.

29
Suspension Straight Towers

o Suspension straight towers are a type of self-supporting tower that stands along straight sections of a
transmission route. These towers are also sometimes called tangent towers. The only function of these
types of towers is to suspend the wires. They do not have to create or regulate tension in any way.

Suspension Angle Towers

o Suspension angle towers are built when it is necessary for the route of the electrical current to turn. These
angle towers are usually designed so that the axis of the cross-arm bisects the angle of the conductors.
This is the most efficient way to use the tower.

Anchor and Angle Tension Towers

o Anchor and angle tension towers are used to sectionalize the routes. They terminate the conductors and
they provide containment of possible cascade failures.

Terminal Transmission Towers

o Terminal transmission towers are at the end of any route. They provide termination of the maximum
conductor tensions.

30
Relay

A relay is a protective device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the circuit breakers to isolate the defective
element from the rest of the system.

The relay detects the abnormal condition in the electrical circuit by constantly measuring the electrical quantities which are
different under normal and fault condition.

Relay

The electrical quantities which may change under fault conditions are voltage, current, frequency and phase change.
Though the change in one or more of these quantities, the faults signal their presence, type and location to the protective
relays. Having detected fault the relay operates to close the trip circuit of the breaker. This results in to opening of the
breaker and disconnection of the faulty circuit.

Basic construction of relay circuit

A relay circuit connection can be divided into three parts

 First part is the primary windings if a current transformer (C.T) which is connected in series with the line to be
protected.

 Second part is the primary winding of C.T and the relay opening coil

 Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either a.c or d.c. It consists of a source of supply, the trip coil of the
circuit breaker and the relay stationary contacts.

31
 Parts of relay circuit (3 phase system)

When a short circuit occurs at a point F on the transmission line, the current flowing in the line increases to and enormous
value. This results in a heavy current flow through the relay coil, causing the relay to operate by closing its contacts. This
in turn closes the trio circuit of the breaker, making the circuit breaker open and isolating the faulty section from the rest of
the system. In this way the relay ensure the safety of the circuit equipments from damage and normal working of the
healthy portion of the system.

Fundamental Requirement of a protective relay

The principle function of protective relaying is to ensure the prompt removal form service of any element of the power
system when it starts to operate in an abnormal manner or interfere with the effective operation of the rest of the system.
In order to protective relay system may perform this function satisfactorily, it should be have the following qualities

Selectivity

 Speed

 Sensitivity

 Reliability

 Simplicity

 Economy

Relay operation

32
All relays operat using the same basic principlw. Relays have two circuit and a load circuit. The control circuit has a small
control coil whilw the load circuit has a switch. The coil controls the operation of the switch

Relay Energized(on)

Current flowing through the circuit coil(pin 1 and pin 3) creates a small magnetic field which causes the switch to close,
pins 2and 4. The switch, which is part of the load circuit, is used to control an electrical current that may connect to it.
Current now flows through pins 2 and 4, when the relay in energized.

Relay on

Relay De Energized(off)

When current stop flowing through the control circuit, pins 1 and 3, the relay becomes de-energized. Wighout the
magnetic field, the switch opens and current is prevented from flowing through pins 2 and 4. The relay is now off.

33
 Relay off

Operation

When no voltage is applied to pin 1, there is no current flow through the coil. No current means no magnetic fuel is developed, and
the switch is open. When voltage is supplied to pin 1, current flow through the coil creates the magnetic field needed to close the
switch allowing continuity between pins 2 and 4.

34
Power transmission insulators

Suspended wires for electric power transmission are bare, except where they enter buildings, and are insulated by the
surrounding air. Insulating supports called insulators are required at the points at which they are supported by utility
poles or transmission towers. Insulators are also required where the wire enters buildings or electrical devices, such
as transformers or circuit breakers, to insulate the wire from the case. These hollow insulators with a conductor inside
them are called bushings. The dangers posed by cranes touching bare electric power transmission wires has created the
need for an insulating link to be used on cranes working near such wires.

10 kV ceramic insulator, showing sheds

Material

Insulators used for high-voltage power transmission are made from glass, porcelain or composite polymer materials.
Porcelain insulators are made from clay, quartz or alumina and feldspar, and are covered with a smooth glaze to shed
water. Insulators made from porcelain rich in alumina are used where high mechanical strength is a criterion. Porcelain
has a dielectric strength of about 4–10 kV/mm.[1] Glass has a higher dielectric strength, but it attracts condensation and
the thick irregular shapes needed for insulators are difficult to cast without internal strains. [2] Some insulator manufacturers
stopped making glass insulators in the late 1960s, switching to ceramic materials.

Recently, some electric utilities have begun converting to polymer composite materials for some types of insulators.
These are typically composed of a central rod made of fibre reinforced plastic and an outer weathershed made of silicone
rubber or ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM). Composite insulators are less costly, lighter in weight, and
have excellent hydrophobic capability. This combination makes them ideal for service in polluted areas. However, these
materials do not yet have the long-term proven service life of glass and porcelain.

35
Design

The electrical breakdown of an insulator due to excessive voltage can occur in one of two ways:

 Puncture voltage is the voltage across the insulator (when installed in its normal manner) which causes a breakdown
and conduction of the material of the insulator, causing a puncture arc through the interior of the insulator. The heat
resulting from the puncture arc usually damages the insulator irreparably.
 Flashover voltage is the voltage which causes the air around or along the surface of the insulator to break down and
conduct, causing aflashover arc along the outside of the insulator. They are usually designed to withstand this without
damage.
Most high voltage insulators are designed with a lower flashover voltage than puncture voltage, so they will flash over
before they puncture, to avoid damage.

Dirt, pollution, salt, and particularly water on the surface of a high voltage insulator can create a conductive path across it,
causing leakage currents and flashovers. The flashover voltage can be more than 50% lower when the insulator is wet.
High voltage insulators for outdoor use are shaped to maximize the length of the leakage path along the surface from one
end to the other, called the creepage length, to minimize these leakage currents. [3] To accomplish this the surface is
moulded into a series of corrugations or concentric disc shapes. These usually include one or more sheds; downward
facing cup-shaped surfaces that act as umbrellas to ensure that the part of the surface leakage path under the 'cup' stays
dry in wet weather. Minimum creepage distances are 20–25 mm/kV, but must be increased in high pollution or airborne
sea-salt area

36
In electrical engineering, a disconnector or isolator switch is used to make sure that an electrical circuit can be
completely de-energised for service or maintenance. Such switches are often found in electrical
distribution and industrial applications where machinery must have its source of driving power removed for adjustment or
repair. High-voltage isolation switches are used in electrical substations to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit
breakers and transformers, and transmission lines, for maintenance. Often the isolation switch is not intended for normal
control of the circuit and is used only for isolation; in such a case, it functions as a second, usually physically distant
master switch (wired in series with the primary one) that can independently disable the circuit even if the master switch
used in everyday operation is turned on.

Isolator switches have provisions for a padlock so that inadvertent operation is not possible (see: Lockout-Tagout). In high
voltage or complex systems, these padlocks may be part of a trapped-key interlock system to ensure proper sequence of
operation. In some designs the isolator switch has the additional ability to earth the isolated circuit thereby providing
additional safety. Such an arrangement would apply to circuits which inter-connect power distribution systems where both
end of the circuit need to be isolated.

The major difference between an isolator and a circuit breaker is that an isolator is an off-load device intended to be
opened only after current has been interrupted by some other control device. Safety regulations of the utility must prevent
any attempt to open the disconnector while it supplies a circuit.

Standards in some countries for safety may require either local motor isolators or lockable overloads (which can be
padlocked)

Insulator (electricity)

Ceramic insulator used on railway

Conducting copper wire insulated by an outer layer of polyethylene

37
Whether a material is an insulator depends on its band gap, the energy needed by an electron to make it a
conduction electron so it can move freely. Materials with a wide band gap have very few conduction electrons,
making them insulators.

3-core copper wire power cable, each core with individual colour coded insulating sheaths all contained within
an outer protective sheath

PVC-sheathed Mineral insulated copper cable with 2 conducting cores

This article refers to electrical insulation. For insulation of heat, see Thermal insulation

An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely, and which therefore
does not conduct an electric current, under the influence of an electric field. A perfect insulator does not exist,
but some materials such as glass, paper and Teflon, which have high resistivity, are very good electrical
insulators. A much larger class of materials, even though they may have lower bulk resistivity, are still good
enough to insulate electrical wiring and cables. Examples include rubber-like polymers and most plastics. Such
materials can serve as practical and safe insulators for low to moderate voltages (hundreds, or even thousands,
of volts).

Insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate electrical conductors without allowing
current through themselves. An insulating material used in bulk to wrap electrical cables or other equipment is
called insulation. The term insulator is also used more specifically to refer to insulating supports used to attach
electric power distribution or transmission lines to utility poles and transmission towers.

38
Physics of conduction in solids
Electrical insulation is the absence of electrical conduction. Electronic band theory (a branch of physics) says
that a charge will flow if states are available into which electrons can be excited. This allows electrons to gain
energy and thereby move through a conductor such as a metal. If no such states are available, the material is an
insulator.

Most (though not all, see Mott insulator) insulators have a large band gap. This occurs because the "valence"
band containing the highest energy electrons is full, and a large energy gap separates this band from the next
band above it. There is always some voltage (called the breakdown voltage) that will give the electrons enough
energy to be excited into this band. Once this voltage is inldafk the material ceases being an insulator, and
charge will begin to pass through it. However, it is usually accompanied by physical or chemical changes that
permanently degrade the material's insulating properties.

Materials that lack electron tr conduction are insulators if they lack other mobile charges as well. For example,
if a liquid or gas contains ions, then the ions can be made to flow as an electric current, and the material is a
conductor. Electrolytes and plasmas contain ions and will act as conductors whether or not electron flow is
involved.

Breakdown-When subjected to a high enough voltage, insulators suffer from the phenomenon of electrical
breakdown. When the electric field applied across an insulating substance exceeds in any location the threshold
breakdown field for that substance, the insulator suddenly becomes a conductor, causing a large increase in
current, an electric arc through the substance. Electrical breakdown occurs when the electric field in the material
is strong enough to accelerate free charge carriers (electrons and ions, which are always present at low
concentrations) to a high enough velocity to knock electrons from atoms when they strike them, ionizing the
atoms. These freed electrons and ions are in turn accelerated and strike other atoms, creating more charge
carriers, in a chain reaction. Rapidly the insulator becomes filled with mobile charge carriers, and its resistance
drops to a low level. In a solid, the breakdown voltage is proportional to the band gap energy. The air in a
region around a high-voltage conductor can break down and ionize without a catastrophic increase in current;
this is called "corona discharge". However if the region of air breakdown extends to another conductor at a
different voltage it will create a conductive path between them, and a large current will flow through the air,
creating an "electric arc". Even a vacuum can suffer a sort of breakdown, but in this case the breakdown or
vacuum arc involves charges ejected from the surface of metal electrodes rather than produced by the vacuum
itself.

Uses-Insulators are commonly used as a flexible coating on electric wire and cable. Since air is an insulator,
in principle no other substance is needed to keep power where it should be. High-voltage power lines commonly
use just air, since a solid (e.g., plastic) coating is impractical. However, wires which touch each other will
produce cross connections, short circuits, and fire hazards. In coaxial cable the center conductor must be
supported exactly in the middle of the hollow shield in order to prevent EM wave reflections. Finally, wires
which expose voltages higher than 60V can cause human shock and electrocution hazards. Insulating coatings
help to prevent all of these problems.

Some wires have a mechanical covering which has no voltage rating;[citation needed] e.g.: service-drop, welding,
doorbell, thermostat. An insulated wire or cable has a voltage rating and a maximum conductor temperature
rating. It may not have an ampacity (current-carrying capacity) rating, since this is dependent upon the
surrounding environment (e.g. ambient temperature).

39
In electronic systems, printed circuit boards are made from epoxy plastic and fibreglass. The nonconductive
boards support layers of copper foil conductors. In electronic devices, the tiny and delicate active components
are embedded within nonconductive epoxy or phenolic plastics, or within baked glass or ceramic coatings.

In microelectronic components such as transistors and ICs, the silicon material is normally a conductor because
of doping, but it can easily be selectively transformed into a good insulator by the application of heat and
oxygen. Oxidized silicon is quartz, i.e. silicon dioxide, the primary component of glass.

In high voltage systems containing transformers and capacitors, liquid insulator oil is the typical method used
for preventing arcs. The oil replaces the air in any spaces which must support significant voltage without
electrical breakdown. Other methods of insulating high voltage systems are ceramic or glass wire holders, gas,
vacuum, and simply placing the wires with a large separation, using the air as insulation.

Telegraph and power transmission insulators

Power lines with ceramic insulators in California, USA

Suspended wires for electric power transmission are bare, except where they enter buildings, and are insulated
by the surrounding air. Insulating supports called insulators are required at the points at which they are
supported by utility poles or transmission towers. Insulators are also required where the wire enters buildings or
electrical devices, such as transformers or circuit breakers, to insulate the wire from the case. These hollow
insulators with a conductor inside them are called bushings.

High voltage ceramic bushing during manufacture, before glazing.

40
The electrical breakdown of an insulator due to excessive voltage can occur in one of two ways:

 Puncture voltage is the voltage across the insulator (when installed in its normal manner) which causes a
breakdown and conduction of the material of the insulator, causing a puncture arc through the interior of
the insulator. The heat resulting from the puncture arc usually damages the insulator irreparably.
 Flashover voltage is the voltage which causes the air around or along the surface of the insulator to
break down and conduct, causing a flashover arc along the outside of the insulator. They are usually
designed to withstand this without damage.

Most high voltage insulators are designed with a lower flashover voltage than puncture voltage, so they will
flash over before they puncture, to avoid damage.

Dirt, pollution, salt, and particularly water on the surface of a high voltage insulator can create a conductive
path across it, causing leakage currents and flashovers. The flashover voltage can be more than 50% lower
when the insulator is wet. High voltage insulators for outdoor use are shaped to maximize the length of the
leakage path along the surface from one end to the other, called the creepage length, to minimize these leakage
currents.[3] To accomplish this the surface is moulded into a series of corrugations or concentric disc shapes.
These usually include one or more sheds; downward facing cup-shaped surfaces that act as umbrellas to ensure
that the part of the surface leakage path under the 'cup' stays dry in wet weather. Minimum creepage distances
are 20–25 mm/kV, but must be increased in high pollution or airborne sea-salt areas.

Cap and pin insulator string (the vertical string of discs) on a 275 kV suspension pylon.

Suspended glass disc insulator unit used in cap and pin insulator strings for high voltage transmission lines

41
 Ceramic Insulators on a power line

Cap and pin insulators

Higher voltage transmission lines usually use modular cap and pin insulator designs (see picture above). The
wires are suspended from a 'string' of identical disc-shaped insulators which attach to each other with metal
clevis pin or ball and socket links. The advantage of this design is that insulator strings with different
breakdown voltages, for use with different line voltages, can be constructed by using different numbers of the
basic units. Also, if one of the insulator units in the string breaks, it can be replaced without discarding the
entire string.

Each unit is constructed of a ceramic or glass disc with a metal cap and pin cemented to opposite sides. In order
to make defective units obvious, glass units are designed with Class B[clarification needed] construction, so that an
overvoltage causes a puncture arc through the glass instead of a flashover. The glass is heat-treated so it will
shatter, making the damaged unit visible. However the mechanical strength of the unit is unchanged, so the
insulator string will stay together.

Standard disc insulator units are 25 centimetres (9.8 in) in diameter and 15 cm (6 in) long, can support a load of
80-120 kN (18-27 klbf), have a dry flashover voltage of about 72 kV, and are rated at an operating voltage of
10-12 kV.[4] However, the flashover voltage of a string is less than the sum of its component discs, because the
electric field is not distributed evenly across the string but is strongest at the disc nearest to the conductor,
which will flash over first. Metal grading rings are sometimes added around the lowest disc, to reduce the
electric field across that disc and improve flashover voltage.

In very high voltage lines the insulator may be surrounded by corona rings

These typically consist of toruses of aluminum (most commonly) or copper tubing attached to the line. They are
designed to reduce the electric field at the point where the insulator is attached to the line, to prevent corona
discharge, which results in power losses.

42
 Typical number of disc insulator units for standard line voltage[6]

Line Voltage(KV) Disc(Suspension) Tension

11 1 1
33 2 3
66 5 6
132 9 10
220 14 15
400 21 22

A recent photo of an open wire telegraph pole route with porcelain insulators.

History

The first electrical systems to make use of insulators were telegraph lines; direct attachment of wires to wooden
poles was found to give very poor results, especially during damp weather.

The first glass insulators used in large quantities had an unthreaded pinhole. These pieces of glass were
positioned on a tapered wooden pin, vertically extending upwards from the pole's crossarm (commonly only
two insulators to a pole and maybe one on top of the pole itself). Natural contraction and expansion of the wires
tied to these "threadless insulators" resulted in insulators unseating from their pins, requiring manual reseating.

Amongst the first to produce ceramic insulators were companies in the United Kingdom, with Stiff and Doulton
using stoneware from the mid 1840s, Joseph Bourne (later renamed Denby) producing them from around 1860
and Bullers from 1868. Utility patent number 48,906 was granted to Louis A. Cauvet on July 25, 1865 for a
process to produce insulators with a threaded pinhole. To this day, pin-type insulators still have threaded
pinholes.

The invention of suspension-type insulators made high-voltage power transmission possible. Pin-type insulators
were unsatisfactory over about 60,000 volts

A large variety of telephone, telegraph and power insulators have been made; some people collect them, both
for their historic interest and for the aesthetic quality of many insulator designs and finishes.

43
Insulation of antennas

Egg shaped strain insulator

Often a broadcasting radio antenna is built as a mast radiator, which means that the entire mast structure is
energized with high voltage and must be insulated from the ground. Steatite mountings are used. They have to
withstand not only the voltage of the mast radiator to ground, which can reach values up to 400 kV at some
antennas, but also the weight of the mast construction and dynamic forces. Arcing horns and lightning arresters
are necessary because lightning strikes to the mast are common.Guy wires supporting antenna masts usually
have strain insulators inserted in the cable run, to keep the high voltages on the antenna from short circuiting to
ground or creating a shock hazard. Often guy cables have several insulators, placed to break up the cable into
lengths that are not submultiples of the transmitting wavelength to avoid unwanted electrical resonances in the
guy. These insulators are usually ceramic and cylindrical or egg-shaped (see picture). This construction has the
advantage that the ceramic is under compression rather than tension, so it can withstand greater load, and that if
the insulator breaks the cable ends will still be linked.These insulators also have to be equipped with
overvoltage protection equipment. For the dimensions of the guy insulation, static charges on guys have to be
considered. At high masts these can be much higher than the voltage caused by the transmitter, requiring guys
divided by insulators in multiple sections on the highest masts. In this case, guys which are grounded at the
anchor basements via a coil - or if possible, directly - are the better choice.Feedlines attaching antennas to radio
equipment, particularly twin lead type, often must be kept at a distance from metal structures. The insulated
supports used for this purpose are called standoff insulators.

Insulation in electrical apparatus-The most important insulation material is air. A variety of

solid, liquid, and gaseous insulators are also used in electrical apparatus. In smaller transformers, generators,
and electric motors, insulation on the wire coils consists of up to four thin layers of polymer varnish film. Film
insulated magnet wire permits a manufacturer to obtain the maximum number of turns within the available
space. Windings that use thicker conductors are often wrapped with supplemental fiberglass insulating tape.
Windings may also be impregnated with insulating varnishes to prevent electrical corona and reduce
magnetically induced wire vibration. Large power transformer windings are still mostly insulated with paper,
wood, varnish, and mineral oil; although these materials have been used for more than 100 years, they still
provide a good balance of economy and adequate performance. Busbars and circuit breakers in switchgear may
be insulated with glass-reinforced plastic insulation, treated to have low flame spread and to prevent tracking of
current across the material.

In older apparatus made up to the early 1970s, boards made of compressed asbestos may be found; while this is
an adequate insulator at power frequencies, handling or repairs to asbestos material will release dangerous fibers
into the air and must be carried out with caution. Wire insulated with felted asbestos was used in high-
temperature and rugged applications from the 1920s. Wire of this type was sold by General Electric under the
trade name "Deltabeston." 44
Live-front switchboards up to the early part of the 20th century were made of slate or marble. Some high
voltage equipment is designed to operate within a high pressure insulating gas such as sulfur hexafluoride.
Insulation materials that perform well at power and low frequencies may be unsatisfactory at radio frequency,
due to heating from excessive dielectric dissipation.

Electrical wires may be insulated with polyethylene, crosslinked polyethylene (either through electron beam
processing or chemical crosslinking), PVC, Kapton, rubber-like polymers, oil impregnated paper, Teflon,
silicone, or modified ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE). Larger power cables may use compressed inorganic
powder, depending on the application.

Flexible insulating materials such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride) are used to insulate the circuit and prevent
human contact with a 'live' wire – one having voltage of 600 volts or less. Alternative materials are likely to
become increasingly used due to EU safety and environmental legislation making PVC less economic.

Class 1 and Class 2 insulation

Main article: Appliance classes

All portable or hand-held electrical devices are insulated to protect their user from harmful shock.

Class 1 insulation requires that the metal body and other exposed metal parts of the device is connected to earth
via a "grounding" wire which is earthed at the main service panel; but only basic insulation of the conductors is
needed. This equipment needs an extra pin on the power plug for the grounding connection.

Class 2 insulation means that the device is double insulated. This is used on some appliances such as electric
shavers, hair dryers and portable power tools. Double insulation requires that the devices have both basic and
supplementary insulation, each of which is sufficient to prevent electric shock. All internal electrically
energized components are totally enclosed within an insulated body that prevents any contact with "live" parts.
In the EU, double insulated appliances all are marked with a symbol of two squares, one inside the other

45
 Power Transformer
Power transformers convert power-level voltages from one level or phase configuration to another. They
can include features for electrical isolation, power distribution, and control and instrumentation
applications. Transformers typically rely on the principle of magnetic induction between coils to convert
voltage and/or current levels.
Power transformers can be configured as either a single-phase primary configuration or a three-phase
configuration. The size and cost of a transformer increases when you move down the listing of primary
windings. Single-phase primary configurations include single, dual, quad (2+2), 5-lead, and ladder. A 5-
Lead primary requires more copper than a Quad (2+2) primary. A Ladder is the least economical primary
configuration. Three-phase transformers are connected in delta or wye configurations. A wye-delta
transformer has its primary winding connected in a wye and its secondary winding connected in a delta. A
delta-wye transformer has its primary winding connected in delta and its secondary winding connected in
a wye. Three phase configuration choices include delta - delta, delta - wye (Y), wye (Y) wye (Y), wye (Y)
delta, wye (Y) single-phase, delta single phase, and international. Primary frequencies of incoming
voltage signal to primaries available for power transformers include 50 Hz, 60 Hz, and 400 Hz. 50 Hz is
common for European power. 60 Hz is common in North American power. 400 Hz is most widely used in
aerospace applications. The maximum primary voltage rating is another important parameter to
consider. A transformer should be provided with more than one primary winding if it is to be used for
several nominal voltages.
Other important specifications to consider when searching for power transformers include maximum
secondary voltage rating, maximum secondary current rating, maximum power rating, and output type. A
transformer may provide more than one secondary voltage value. The Rated Power of the transformer is
the sum of the VA (Volts x Amps) for all of the secondary windings. Output choices include AC or DC. For
Alternating Current waveform output, voltage the values are typically given in RMS values. Consult
manufacturer for waveform options. For direct current secondary voltage output, consult manufacturer
for type of rectification.
Power transformers can be constructed as either a toroidal or laminated transformer. Toroidal
transformers typically have copper wire wrapped around a cylindrical core so the magnetic flux, which
occurs within the coil, doesn't leak out, the coil efficiency is good, and the magnetic flux has little influence
on other components. Laminated transformers contain laminated-steel cores; they are also called E-I
transformers. These steel laminations are insulated with a nonconducting material, such as varnish, and
then formed into a core that reduce electrical losses. Power transformers can be one of many types.
These include autotransformer, control transformer, current transformer, distribution transformer,
general-purpose transformer, instrument transformer, isolation transformer, potential (voltage)
transformer, power transformer, step-up transformer, and step-down transformer. Mountings available
for power transformers include chassis mount, dish or disk mount, enclosure or free standing, h frame,
and PCB mount.

46
 Current Transformers
Current transformers measure power flow and provide electrical inputs to power transformers and
instruments. Current transformers produce either an alternating current or alternating voltage that is
proportional to the measured current. There are two basic types of current transformers: wound and
toroidal. Wound current transformers consist of an integral primary winding that is inserted in series with
the conductor that carries the measured current. Toroidal or donut-shaped current transformers do not
contain a primary winding. Instead, the wire that carries the current is threaded through a window in the
toroidal transformer.

Current transformers have many performance specifications, including primary current, secondary current,
insulation voltage, accuracy, and burden. Primary current, the load of the current transformer, is the
measured current. Secondary current is the range of current outputs. Insulation voltage represents the
maximum insulation that current transformers provide when connected to a power source. Accuracy is the
degree of certainty with which the measured current agrees with the ideal value. Burden is the maximum
load that devices can support while operating within their accuracy ratings. Typically, burden is expressed
in volt-ampheres (VA), the product of the voltage applied to a circuit and the current.

There are a variety of applications for current transformers. Some devices are used to measure current in
electronics equipment or motors. Others are used in street lighting. Current transformers with small
footprints mount on printed circuit boards (PCBs) and are used to sense current overloads, detect ground
faults, and isolate current feedback signals. Larger devices are used in many three-phase systems to
measure current or voltage. Commercial class current transformers that monitor low-power currents are
also available. Some current transformers are weatherproof or are rated for outdoor use. Others meet
MIL-SPEC, ANSI C-12, or IEC 1036 standards. Generally, ANSI class devices are intended for power
monitoring applications where high accuracy and minimum phase angle are required.

| HOME |

In electrical engineering, a current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric currents. Current
transformers, together with voltage transformers (VT) (potential transformers (PT)), are known as
instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a
current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit, which can
be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the
measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are
commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry.

47


Design

SF6 110 kV current transformer

Current transformers used in metering equipment for three-phase 400 ampere electricity supply

Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding, a magnetic core, and a secondary
winding. The alternating current flowing in the primary produces a magnetic field in the core, which then

37

induces a current in the secondary winding circuit. A primary objective of current transformer design is to
ensure that the primary and secondary circuits are efficiently coupled, so that the secondary current bears an
accurate relationship to the primary current.

The most common design of CT consists of a length of wire wrapped many times around a silicon steel ring
passed over the circuit being measured. The CT's primary circuit therefore consists of a single 'turn' of
conductor, with a secondary of many tens or hundreds of turns. The primary winding may be a permanent part
of the current transformer, with a heavy copper bar to carry current through the magnetic core. Window-type
current transformers (aka zero sequence current transformers, or ZSCT) are also common, which can have
circuit cables run through the middle of an opening in the core to provide a single-turn primary winding. When
conductors passing through a CT are not centered in the circular (or oval) opening, slight inaccuracies may
occur.

Shapes and sizes can vary depending on the end user or switchgear manufacturer. Typical examples of low
voltage single ratio metering current transformers are either ring type or plastic moulded case. High-voltage
current transformers are mounted on porcelain bushings to insulate them from ground. Some CT configurations
slip around the bushing of a high-voltage transformer or circuit breaker, which automatically centers the
conductor inside the CT window.

48
The primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT. The rated secondary current is commonly
standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an output current of 5 amperes when
the primary was passing 4000 amperes. The secondary winding can be single ratio or multi ratio, with five taps
being common for multi ratio CTs. The load, or burden, of the CT should be of low resistance. If the voltage
time integral area is higher than the core's design rating, the core goes into saturation towards the end of each
cycle, distorting the waveform and affecting accuracy.

Usage

Many digital clamp meters utilize a current transformer for measuring ac current

Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the operation of the power grid.
Along with voltage leads, revenue-grade CTs drive the electrical utility's watt-hour meter on virtually every
building with three-phase service and single-phase services greater than 200 amps.

The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. Often, multiple CTs are installed
as a "stack" for various uses. For example, protection devices and revenue metering may use separate CTs to
provide isolation between metering and protection circuits, and allows current transformers with different
characteristics (accuracy, overload performance) to be used for the devices.

Safety precautions
Care must be taken that the secondary of a current transformer is not disconnected from its load while current is
flowing in the primary, as the transformer secondary will attempt to continue driving current across the
effectively infinite impedance. This will produce a high voltage across the open secondary (into the range of
several kilovolts in some cases), which may cause arc. The high voltage produced will compromise operator
and equipment safety and permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer.

Accuracy
The accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors including:

 Burden
 Burden class/saturation class
 Rating factor
 Load
 External electromagnetic fields
 Temperature and
 Physical configuration.
 The selected tap, for multi-ratio CTs 49
For the IEC standard, accuracy classes for various types of measurement are set out in IEC 60044-1, Classes
0.1, 0.2s, 0.2, 0.5, 0.5s, 1, and 3. The class designation is an approximate measure of the CT's accuracy. The
ratio (primary to secondary current) error of a Class 1 CT is 1% at rated current; the ratio error of a Class 0.5
CT is 0.5% or less. Errors in phase are also important especially in power measuring circuits, and each class has
an allowable maximum phase error for a specified load impedance. Current transformers used for protective
relaying also have accuracy requirements at overload currents in excess of the normal rating to ensure accurate
performance of relays during system faults.

Burden

The secondary load of a current transformer is usually called the "burden" to distinguish it from the load of the
circuit whose current is being measured.

The burden, in a CT metering circuit is the (largely resistive) impedance presented to its secondary winding.
Typical burden ratings for IEC CTs are 1.5 VA, 3 VA, 5 VA, 10 VA, 15 VA, 20 VA, 30 VA, 45 VA & 60 VA.
As for ANSI/IEEE burden ratings are B-0.1, B-0.2, B-0.5, B-1.0, B-2.0 and B-4.0. This means a CT with a
burden rating of B-0.2 can tolerate up to 0.2 Ω of impedance in the metering circuit before its output current is
no longer a fixed ratio to the primary current. Items that contribute to the burden of a current measurement
circuit are switch-blocks, meters and intermediate conductors. The most common source of excess burden is the
conductor between the meter and the CT. When substation meters are located far from the meter cabinets, the
excessive length of wire creates a large resistance. This problem can be reduced by using CTs with 1 ampere
secondaries, which will produce less voltage drop between a CT and its metering devices.

Knee-point voltage-The knee-point voltage of a current transformer is the magnitude of the secondary
voltage after which the output current ceases to follow linearly the input current. This means that the one-to-one
or proportional relationship between the input and output is no longer within declared accuracy. In testing, if a
voltage is applied across the secondary terminals the magnetizing current will increase in proportion to the
applied voltage, up until the knee point. The knee point is defined as the voltage at which a 10% increase in
applied voltage increases the magnetizing current by 50%. From the knee point upwards, the magnetizing
current increases abruptly even with small increments in voltage across the secondary terminals. The knee-point
voltage is less applicable for metering current transformers as their accuracy is generally much tighter but
constrained within a very small bandwidth of the current transformer rating, typically 1.2 to 1.5 times rated
current. However, the concept of knee point voltage is very pertinent to protection current transformers, since
they are necessarily exposed to currents of 20 or 30 times rated current during faults.[1]

Rating factor

Rating factor is a factor by which the nominal full load current of a CT can be multiplied to determine its
absolute maximum measurable primary current. Conversely, the minimum primary current a CT can accurately
measure is "light load," or 10% of the nominal current (there are, however, special CTs designed to measure
accurately currents as small as 2% of the nominal current). The rating factor of a CT is largely dependent upon
ambient temperature. Most CTs have rating factors for 35 degrees Celsius and 55 degrees Celsius. It is
important to be mindful of ambient temperatures and resultant rating factors when CTs are installed inside
padmount transformers or poorly ventilated mechanical rooms. Recently, manufacturers have been moving
towards lower nominal primary currents with greater rating factors. This is made possible by the development
of more efficient ferrites and their corresponding hysteresis curves.

Special designs-Specially constructed wideband current transformers are also used (usually with an
oscilloscope) to measure waveforms of high frequency or pulsed currents within pulsed power systems. One
type of specially constructed wideband transformer provides a voltage output that is proportional to the
measured current. Another type (called a Rogowski coil) requires an external integrator in order to provide a
voltage output that is proportional to the measured current. Unlike CTs used for power circuitry, wideband CTs
are rated in output volts per ampere of primary current. CT RATIO 50
Standards
Depending on the ultimate clients requirement, there are two main standards to which current transformers are
designed. IEC 60044-1 (BSEN 60044-1) & IEEE C57.13 (ANSI), although the Canadian & Australian
standards are also recognised.

High voltage types

Current transformers are used for protection, measurement and control in high voltage electrical substations and
the electrical grid. Current transformers may be installed inside switchgear or in apparatus bushings, but very
often free-standing outdoor current transformers are used. In a switchyard, live tank current transformers have a
substantial part of their enclosure energized at the line voltage and must be mounted on insulators. Dead tank
current transformers isolate the measured circuit from the enclosure. Live tank CTs are useful because the
primary conductor is short, which gives better stability and a higher short-circuit current withstand rating. The
primary of the winding can be evenly distributed around the magnetic core, which gives better performance for
overloads and transients. Since the major insulation of a live-tank current transformer is not exposed to the heat
of the primary conductors, insulation life and thermal stability is improved.

A high-voltage current transformer may contain several cores with multiple secondary windings for different
purposes (such as metering circuits, control, or protection). [2]

Capacitor voltage transformer

A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT), or capacitance coupled voltage transformer (CCVT) is a

transformer used in power systems to step down extra high voltage signals and provide a low voltage signal, for
measurement or to operate a protective relay. In its most basic form the device consists of three parts: two
capacitors across which the transmission line signal is split, an inductive element to tune the device to the line
frequency, and a transformer to isolate and further step down the voltage for the instrumentation or protective
relay. The tuning of the divider to the line frequency makes the overall division ratio less sensitive to changes in
the burden of the connected metering or protection devices. [1] The device has at least four terminals: a terminal
for connection to the high voltage signal, a ground terminal, and two secondary terminals which connect to the
instrumentation or protective relay. CVTs are typically single-phase devices used for measuring voltages in
excess of one hundred kilovolts where the use of wound primary voltage transformers would be uneconomical.
In practice, capacitor C1 is often constructed as a stack of smaller capacitors connected in series. This provides a
large voltage drop across C1 and a relatively small voltage drop across C2. 51
The CVT is also useful in communication systems. CVTs in combination with wave traps are used for filtering
high frequency communication signals from power frequency. [2] This forms a carrier communication network
throughout the transmission network.

Transfer Switches
Copyright ©2011 Transfer Switches
All Rig

Transfer switches transfer electrical power back and forth between two power systems or buses such as a
utility power line and a back-up motor-generator power supply.

Pushbutton Switches
Pushbutton switches are mechanical switches defined by the method used to activate the switch. The
activation method is typically in the form of a plunger that is pushed down to open or close the switch.
Pole and throw configurations for pushbutton switches can be single pole single throw (SPST), single pole
double throw (SPDT), double pole single throw (DPST), double pole double throw (DPDT), or solid-state.
SPST is a switch that makes or breaks the connection of a single conductor in a single branch circuit. This
switch typically has two terminals. It is commonly referred to as a "Single-Pole" Switch. SPDT is a switch
that makes or breaks the connection of a single conductor with either of two other single conductors. This
switch typically has 3 terminals, and is commonly used in pairs and called a "Three-Way" switch. DPST is
a switch that makes or breaks the connection of two circuit conductors in a single branch circuit. This
switch typically has four terminals. DPDT is a switch that makes or breaks the connection of two
conductors to two separate circuits. This switch typically has six terminals and is available in both
momentary and maintained contact versions. A solid state switching mechanism includes transistors and
piezoelectric materials. A normally open (NO) switch has contacts that are open or disconnected in their
unactuated (normal) position. A normally closed (NC) switch has contacts that are closed or connected in
their unactuated (normal) position.

The actuator in pushbutton switches can be recessed, flush, or raised. A recessed pushbutton actuator is
within base, this is useful to protect against accidental actuation. A flush pushbutton is flush with the
base; typical example would be a doorbell. A raised pushbutton resembles a plunger; typical example
would be a pedestrian cross walk button. The switch function can be maintained contact, alternating
contact, or momentary contact. In a maintained contact switch an actuator stays in thrown position. This
includes on-off, but it also includes Three-Position - (Center-off) and Three Position - (No Center-off)
switches where the switch remains in its actuated position. Alternating action such as push on, push off

52
Characterizes an alternating contact. In a momentary contact switch the switch must be held in position;
it reverts to normal position when actuating force is removed.

Important switch specifications to consider when searching for pushbutton switches include maximum
current, maximum AC voltage, maximum DC voltage, and maximum power. Choices for terminal types
for pushbutton switches include feed-through style, quick connect or blade, right angle PC pins, screw
terminals, side PC pins, solder terminals, straight PC pins, surface mount technology, and wire leads.
Construction materials for the base or housing and the pushbutton include thermoplastics or metals.
Features common to pushbutton switches include CE certification, CSA certification, UL listing, dustproof,
high inrush current compatible, illuminated switch, imprinted markings, locking switch, pilot light, tape
and reel packaging, time delay, vandal proof, wiping contacts, and weather resistant or waterproof.

53
 I have completed my inplant training from Grid Sub Station, Bhikhanpura, Muzaffarpur
under the guidance of Mr. Praveen kumar (A.E.E) & Mr. Ashish kumar (J.E.E). First off all
hearful thanks to them who gave their valuable time & experience.

This substation is a unit of Bihar state electricity board, Patna. There are two incoming
source first MTPS-MUZ CKT-1 & second MTPS-MUZ CKT-2 both of 132KVs for which ACSR
Zebra conductor has been used. There are two bus bars-Main bus bar & transfer bus bar. The
power is taken to these bus bars through an isolator, a circuit breaker, a current transformer &
again an isolator.

In case when some fault accurse in this route, there an arrangement of bus coupler to
accomplish this job

There are two power transformers each of 50MVA capacity connected to the main
bus of 132kv. One of the transformers installed east side has been manufactured by TELK LTD
while other of CGL. Both the transformers are step down 132/33kv. There are two lightening
arrestors installed properly both sides of each transformer. The 33kv bus bars are fed to the
33kv yard. In this yard, there is also the arrangement of transfer bus a main bus like 132kv
yard. Power is fed to these bus bars via isolator, circuit breaker & again isolator. The 33kv bus
bar coming from Tr. No-1 called Incomer No-1 & from Tr. No-2. Called Incomer No-2.From this
33kv yard, eleven feeders power sub stations have been powered. They are Bhikhanpura, Rly
Nayatola, Kurhani, Khabra, Kanti, Marwan, Dholi, IDPL, Maripur etc.

54
 There are two substation transformers installed in the yard to meet the power requirement of
the substation like light, battery charging, water pump motor & fans etc. Both the SSTs are
connected through a change over switch which facilities one transformer in use & other in

standby mode.

There is a battery room where 112 batteries each 2V are connected in series to provide 224V
supply for opening CB, relays & other controlling equipments. These batteries are mainly used
at the time of any fault like E/F, O/C, O/V etc.

Control Panel

For the controlling of all the control equipment & measuring instruments like CB, CT, PT etc,
there is a Control room in which control panel has been installed for remote control of
measuring instruments & control equipments. However circuit breakers can be operated
manually

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